Archaeologists and the dead: mortuary archaeology in contemporary society
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ARCHAEOLOGISTSANDTHEDEAD Archaeologists andtheDead MortuaryArchaeologyinContemporarySociety Editedby HOWARDWILLIAMSANDMELANIEGILES
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Foreword MikeParkerPearson
Inthepastdecade,archaeologistsworkingintheUKhavehadtoreviewtheir relationshipswiththedead andtheliving mainlyasaresultofthelegislative ‘crisis’ inburialarchaeology(seePittsandSayer2010).Theyhavebeen workingwiththelegacyofVictorianburiallegislationneverintendedfor archaeologicalcases,andasystemoflicensingexcavationsofhumanremains thatgrewoutofthediscipline’sprofessionalizationandbureaucratizationin the1990s.TheMinistryofJustice’sannouncementofarequirementtorebury allsuchremainswithintwoyearsofexcavation regardlessoftheircondition, origin,ordate sparkedavigorousandsuccessfulnationalcampaignreassertingtheimportanceofthelong-termcurationofancienthumanremains (ParkerPearsonetal.2013).
LiaisonbetweentheprofessionandtheMinistryofJusticeseemstohave resolvedthelicensingcrisisfornow,buttherearecontinuingproblemsinboth policyandpractice.Inmyownwork,IhavehadtoaccepttheMinistryof Justice’srequirementthattheexcavationof5000-year-oldNeolithiccremation depositsatStonehengebescreenedfromtheviewofthousandsofbemused visitors(inaccordancewiththeconditionsofthearchaeologicallicence)whilst simultaneouslybeing filmedfortelevisiondocumentariesthatreachedaglobal audience.Thiscontradictorysituationisallthemoreridiculousgiventhat publicaudiencesareexposedonanunprecedentedleveltobothrealand fictionalcorpsesthroughtelevision, film,andothermedia.
Thissituationregardingthearchaeologicaldeadmustbesetagainsta backgroundinwhichmostindividualsintheUKandWesternEuropehave neverbeenmoredistancedfromtheactualprocessofdealingwiththeirown dead.Atpresent,however,thereislittlepoliticalappetiteforwiderreformof legislationorguidanceformortuaryarchaeology,whichwouldbeneededto addressholisticallythesecontradictionsinpolicyandpractice(Ministryof Justice2011).
Otherissuesthathaverecentlyfacedthediscipline,andoccasionallycaught thepubliceye,includecallsforreburialandrepatriation,questionsofownershipandresponsibility,conflictsinmuseumethicsandheritagepractice,and discussionsoverwhenandhowwedisplaythedeadtothepublic.Itistimely andgoodtoseemanyofthesetopicstouchedonbypapersinthisvolume. Britisharchaeologistshavealsoprofitablyreachedouttocolleaguesinother
countriestoexplorehowtheirlegislativeframeworks,culturalbeliefs,and disciplinaryattitudesshapearchaeologists’ relationswiththelivingaswellas thedead,andotherpapersinthiseditedbookmakeanimportantcontribution tosuchconversations.
Whatemergesfromtheresearchanddebatesinthisbookistheneedfor archaeologiststodefendrobustlythevalueandsignificanceofhumanremains andmortuaryarchaeology:theirscientificimportanceforlong-termstudiesof diseaseandthehealthofthepopulation(e.g.RobertsandManchester2005), questionsofancestryandmobility(analysedthroughDNAandisotope studies),aswellastransformationsinculturalbeliefsandmortuarypractices overthemillennia.Someoftheseareasofresearchwillinevitablyprovetobe somethingofaPandora’sbox(especiallythosetouchingonquestionsof identityandorigin)buttheseareissuesofglobalimportancethatcannotbe ignored.Weneedtomakeacriticalcontributiontosuchdebates,andnot leaveittojournalistsorotherswithonlylimitedperspectivesorunderstanding ofthedata,andappropriatemethodsandinterpretativeframeworks,tospeak onourbehalf.Anotherpriorityforusisthecontinualdevelopmentandtesting oftechniques,alongwithevidence-baseddiscussionofourresultsinwaysthat capturethepublic’sattentionandimagination.
However,wealsofaceanadditionalproblem:recentyearshaveseena growingcompartmentalizationofexpertise,withamassivegrowthinpublic archaeologyandheritagepromotionthatcansometimesappearquitedisconnectedfromscientificanalysis.Inpromotingthestudyofthepast,wemust notlosesightofthecontentandcomplexityofresearchresults,andwemust educateanewgenerationofarchaeologistsinthebestwaysofpresenting thoughtfulanalysisandempiricallysoundinterpretationstothemedia.When donewell,scientificresultscancaptivateanaudienceandinspiredebate the AmesburyArcherisagoodexamplehere(Fitzpatrick2013).
Weshouldalsohavethecourageofourconvictions.Somerecentexhibitionsthatshieldthegeneralvisitorfromviewinghumanremainshavedone sooutofaconcernnottocauseoffencetoasmallminority.Yetcuratorsmust considercarefullywhethersuchgroups atenthorlessofthepopulation,on thebasisofsurveys actuallyformevenaminorproportionoftheirvisitors. ResultsofthesesurveysundertakenaspartoftheAveburyconsultation (ThackrayandPayne2010)suggestthatmuseum-goersarealreadyaselfselectedpublic,mostofwhomarefascinatedbyhumanremainsandexpectto seethemondisplay.Hidingthemfromtheviewofthecuriouswhowishtobe informedcreatesaproblemthatwouldnototherwiseexist.Thepublicexpects us,asexpertprofessionals,toleadthewayonthesedebates.Theapparent crisisincuratorialconfidencethatJenkinsseesassymptomaticofalossof nervemorewidelyinthehumanities(Jenkins2011)thereforealsoneeds addressing.TheexplicitshowmanshipandshockfactorofGunthervon Hagens’‘BodyWorlds’,forinstance,remindsusthat(despitethecontroversy
surroundingtheexhibition)acertainproportionofthegeneralpublicare readytobeconfrontedinnewwaysbythevisceralrealityofthehumanbody. Weneedtobeconfidentaboutourroleandboldinourremit.Afterall,human remainsandmortuarycontextsgiveusunparalleledinsightsintowhoweare, andwherewecomefrom.Theyalsoinformusofhowpastliveshavediffered radicallyfromownaswellasconnectingustothosepastlivesotherwiselong forgotten.Theygiveusauniqueperspectiveonthehumanconditionandon whatitmeanstobehuman.ItisinthisspiritthatIlookforwardtonewareas ofdiscussionofourrelationshipswiththedead,exploredbythisvolume.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Fitzpatrick,A.P.2013. TheAmesburyArcherandtheBoscombeBowmen:EarlyBell BeakersatBoscombeDown,Amesbury,Wiltshire,GreatBritain.Volume1, Salisbury: WessexArchaeology.
Jenkins,T.2011. ContestingHumanRemainsinMuseumCollections,London: Routledge.
MinistryofJustice.2011.Statementontheexhumationofhumanremainsfor archaeologicalpurposes.Availablefrom:http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov. uk/20130128112038/http://www.justice.gov.uk/downloads/guidance/burials-and-co roners/statement-exhumation-human-remains-archaeological.pdf(Accessed14 July2014).
ParkerPearson,M.,Pitts,M.,andSayer,D.2013.Changesinpolicyforexcavating humanremainsinEnglandandWales,inM.Giesen(ed.) CuratingHuman Remains:CaringfortheDeadintheUnitedKingdom, 147–58,Woodbridge:Boydell. Pitts,M.andSayer,D.2010.Thehumanremainscrisis, BritishArchaeology,115,34–5. Roberts,C.A.andManchester,K.2005. TheArchaeologyofDisease,Stroud:Sutton Publishing.
Preface Thisbookdevelopedfromtwoconferencesessionsco-organizedbyMelanie GilesandHowardWilliamsin2010.The firsttookplaceatEaster2010aspart oftheSouthportIfA(InstituteforArchaeologists,nowtheCharteredInstitute forArchaeologists)annualconference,thesecondinDecember2010atthe BristolTAG(TheoreticalArchaeologyGroup)conference.Attractingadiverserangeofheritageprofessionalsandarchaeologistsasspeakersand audience,thesessionsprovidedtheinspirationandfoundationforthisbook. Chapterswerecommissionedfromthepresentersandfurthercontributions werecommissionedbetween2010and2012.Together,thisbookpresentsan Introduction,eighteencasestudiesevaluatingcurrentdebates,practices,and challengesregardingthearchaeologicalexcavation,study,display,andinterpretationofmortuaryremains,andaconcludingcommentary.
Therangeandcharacterofthisbookcollectionsetitapartfromprevious worksandmakeitavaluablecontributiontothestudyofmortuaryarchaeology’smanyinteractionswithcontemporarysociety.Thegeographicalrange ofthepapersspanstheUK,Northern,Western,andCentralEurope,and NorthAmerica,thuscontrastingwithpreviousstudiesthatareeitherBritishfocusedordedicatedtothetreatmentofhumanremainsinpost-colonial contextssuchasNorthAmericaandAustralasia.Still,giventhevenuesof theconferencesessionsandtheexpertiseandnetworksoftheeditors,there remainsaUKfocustomanydimensionsofthebook,includingtheIntroduction.Whilenotdenyingthevariabilityinpublicperceptionsandengagements withthearchaeologicaldeadworldwide,thedistinctivestrengthsofthevolumeremainevidentbydrawingtheemphasisawayfrommuseumsinisolation andawayfrompost-colonialcontextswheremostliteraturehastendedto focus.Hence,therangeofenvironmentsandpracticescoveredbythebook alsomakeitdistinctive;thisisabookaboutmortuaryarchaeologyinthe field, inthelab,inthemedia,andinacademicpublicationsasmuchasitisabout museumsandrepatriation.
Thebookalsopresentsnewperspectivesandmethodologiesininterrogatingwell-troddendebates;fromthediscussionofart,variabilityinthetreatmentofhumanremainsbetweenlocalitiesandregions,anddiscussionof humanremainsinthemedia.Thechaptersdealwithhowandwhypeoplein contemporarysocietythinkandfeelabout,andengagewith,mortuaryarchaeology,butequallyitsituatesthearchaeologistwithincontemporarysociety andpartofcontemporarymechanismsforidentity-creation,memoryreproduction,andontologicalconsolidation.Inthesedifferentregards,thebook
capturescurrentdebatesbutalsoservesasaplatformtopresentanewvision fortherangeofinteractionsandengagementsbetweenmortuaryarchaeology andcontemporarysocietythatwarrantfurtherinvestigationinthefuture: publicmortuaryarchaeology.
Wearegratefultoalltheauthorsfortheirhardwork,patience,andsupport, andparticularlytoLynneGoldsteinforherconcludingreviewandMike ParkerPearsonforhisforeword.Manythanksarealsoduetothemany anonymousrefereeswhohaveprovidedexpertappraisalsandconstructive suggestionsregardingthechapters.FurtherthanksgotoOUP’ sanonymous readersandtheteamatOUPtohelpedguidethisbooktopublication,andto PennyGrayJonesforherworkinpreparingtheindex.Thanks finallytoour familiesandfriendswithoutwhosesupportthisbookprojectwouldnever havebeen finished.
February2016
HowardWilliamsandMelanieGiles
Contents ListofFigures xiii
ListofTables xvii
ListofContributors xix
1.Introduction:MortuaryArchaeologyinContemporarySociety1 MelanieGilesandHowardWilliams
Part1InvestigatingtheDead 2.QuestionsRaisedinExcavatingtheRecentDead21 SianAnthony
3.PersonhoodandRe-EmbodimentinOsteologicalPractice39 JohnMcClellandandJessicaI.Cerezo-Román
4.SeparatingtheEmotions:ArchaeologicalMentalitiesin CentralItalianFuneraryArchaeology68 UllaRajala
5.Slave-TradeArchaeologyandthePublic:TheExcavationof a ‘LiberatedAfrican’ GraveyardonStHelena97 AndrewPearsonandBenJeffs
6.HabeasCorpus:ContestedOwnershipofCasualtiesof theGreatWar113 MartinBrown
7.BonesWithoutBarriers:TheSocialImpactofDiggingtheDead139 FayeSayerandDuncanSayer
Part2DisplayingtheDead 8.MuseumPracticeandtheDisplayofHumanRemains169 HedleySwain
9.DisplayingtheDead:TheEnglishHeritageExperience184 SarahTatham
10.TheImmortals:PrehistoricIndividualsasIdeological andTherapeuticToolsinourTime204 NinaNordström
11.CoveringtheMummiesattheManchesterMuseum: ADiscussionofAuthority,Authorship,andAgendasinthe HumanRemainsDebate233 KarenExell
12.MakinganExhibitionofOurselves:UsingtheDeadtoFightthe BattlesoftheLiving251 TiffanyJenkins
13.ToGazeUpontheDead:TheExhibitionofHumanRemains asCulturalPracticeandPoliticalProcessinScandinavia andtheUSA268 LivNilssonStutz
14.FiringtheImagination:CremationintheMuseum293 HowardWilliams
Part3PublicMortuaryArchaeology 15.ContemporaryPagansandtheStudyoftheAncestors333 WilliamRathouse
16. ‘TombtoGiveAway’:TheSignificanceofGravesandDead BodiesinPresent-DayAustria345 EstellaWeiss-Krejci
17.DiggingtheDeadinaDigitalMediaAge367 DuncanSayerandTonyWalter
18.WritingAboutDeath,Mourning,andEmotion: Archaeology,Imagination,andCreativity396 TrevorKirk
19.ReconstructingDeath:TheChariotBurialsofIronAge EastYorkshire409 MelanieGiles
20.ReflectionsonIntersectionsofMortuaryArchaeologyand ContemporarySociety433 LynneGoldstein
Index 453
ListofFigures 2.1Excavationin2010atAssistenscemetery26
3.1The ‘NationalCemetery’,Tucson,187048
3.2SouthernArizonaVeteransMemorialCemetery56
3.3AllFaithsMemorialPark58
3.4AllFaithsMemorialParkplaque59
3.5AllFaithsMemorialParkceramictilemural60
4.1Occupationsoftheinterviewees74
4.2Interviewees’ attitudetowardsthedead77
4.3Problemsfacingfuneraryarchaeologists80
4.4Ultimateoutcomeoffuneraryresearch81
4.5Self-definitionsoftheinterviewees82
5.1Rupert’sValley99
5.2ExcavationwithStHelenianvolunteers103
5.3Siteopenday,August2008104
5.4TheexcavationsiteinMay2008105
5.5Group2019105
7.1VisitorstoBarringtonarefascinatedbyskeletonsin1990/1141
7.2VisitorslookonasOakingtoncemeteryisinvestigatedin1993141
7.3Visitorsventureontositein2011topeerattheskeletonsintheirgraves153
9.1Theearlyseventeenth-centurymemorialofHenryandMaryGrey187
9.2Eighteenth-centuryDeGreytombs188
9.3 ‘George’ ondisplay191
9.4ARoman-perioddogburial192
9.5Partofthe BuriedLives exhibition196
9.6Displayofacompleteskeletonandisolatedbones198
10.1ThereconstructionoftheMesolithicgravefromBäckaskog211
10.2ThefacialreconstructionofBäckaskogWoman212
10.3TollundMan215
10.4GrauballeMan216
10.5GrauballeManondisplay217
10.6GrauballeMan ‘reburied’ 217
10.7Thedisplayofbonesin1948221
10.8Re-excavationin2007223
10.9Thepublicspectacleofre-excavation223
10.10Asymbolicgesturetotheemptycoffin224
10.11Openingtheleadsarcophagus,2007225
10.12Thebonesondisplay226
11.1ThebodyofLindowMan239
11.2ThebodyoftheembalmedbodyofAsruinApril2008242
13.1 Metropolis exhibitionatKultureninLund,humancrania277
13.2 Metropolis exhibitionatKultureninLund,humancraniafrom executedindividuals278
13.3ThedisplayofArchbishopJakobErlandsen’stomb279
13.4ThecastofthecraniumofArchbishopJakobErlandsen280
13.5EntrancetotheosteologyareaattheNationalMuseumofNatural HistoryinWashingtonDC(Smithsonian)283
13.6MummiesondisplayattheNationalMuseumofNaturalHistory, WashingtonDC(Smithsonian)284
13.7The WritteninBones exhibitionattheNationalMuseumofNatural History,WashingtonDC(Smithsonian)285
13.8The WritteninBones exhibitionforensiccase files286
14.1Crematedhumanbone302
14.2Crematedhumanremainsplaceduponanoutlineofahumanskeleton302
14.3ArrangementofIronAgecineraryurns303
14.4TheColchesterVase306
14.5Mock-upofRomano-Britishcremationburial306
14.6Crematedhumanboneintest-tubes307
14.7Thestrikingjuxtapositionofthecineraryurnandtombstoneof centurionMarcusFavoniusFacilis308
14.8Denmark’soldestgrave313
14.9AplanofanIronAgeurnfield314
14.10Mock-gravesandillustrationofanIronAgecremation314
14.11BronzeAgecremationswithsilhouettesoftheiroccupants319
14.12IronAgecremationfromnorthernSweden321
14.13Displayoffemalejewelleryandcremains322
16.1On30June2011thirtyhumanremainsinpossessionoftheAustrian AcademyofSciencesandoneskullownedbytheFederalPathology AnatomyMuseumwerehandedovertoadelegationof five AustralianTraditionalOwners346
16.2ThefederalstatesofAustriaandlocationsmentionedinthetext349
16.3HolyheadsandaholybodyattheparishchurchStNikolas, HallinTirol351
16.4CharnelhousesandossuariesinAustria.Topleft:Eggenburg, LowerAustria;bottomleft:Hallstatt,UpperAustria;right: Kirchdorf,theTyrol352
16.5DifferenttypesofgravesatGrazCentralCemetery353
16.6ExpiredgravesattheCentralCemeteryinGraz354
16.7GrazCentralCemetery356
16.8Examplesofcontemporarytombsindifferentstagesofuse-history357
16.9ConstructionofagarageintheareaoftheoldWähringGeneral Cemeteryin2003358
16.10Ritesofpassageinthecityofthedead(GrazCentralCemetery)359
19.1PeterConnolly’sreconstructionofanIronAgechariotburial410
19.2ReconstructionofWorsleyMan411
19.3TheIronAgefamily,FestivalofBritaindiorama414
19.4ThedeathofLindowMan420
19.5WetwangSlackchariotburial2423
19.6TheWetwangSlackfemalechariotburialno.2424
19.7TheNorthGrimstonanthropoidhilt425
20.1Advertisementfromthelate1950s TucsonCitizen newspaperforthe HunzickerConstructionCompany443
ListofContributors SianAnthony,DoctoralCandidate,DepartmentofArchaeologyandAncient History,UniversityofLund,Sweden
MartinBrown,WYGEnvironmentPlanningTransportLtd,Leeds,UK
JessicaI.Cerezo-Román,CollegeFellow,DepartmentofAnthropology, HarvardUniversity,USA
KarenExell,UCLQatar(Doha),UniversityCollegeLondon
MelanieGiles,SeniorLecturer,Archaeology,SchoolofArts,Languagesand Cultures,UniversityofManchester,UK
LynneGoldstein,DepartmentofAnthropology,MichiganStateUniversity, Michigan,USA
BenJeffs,CEO,BlackfreighterArchaeologyandConservation,UKandUSA
TiffanyJenkins,Independentsociologist,writer,andbroadcaster,Edinburgh,UK
TrevorKirk,VisitingResearchFellow,UniversityofChester,Chester,UK
JohnMcClelland,AssistantProfessor,SchoolofAnthropology,ArizonaState Museum,UniversityofArizona,USA
LivNilssonStutz,SeniorLecturer,DepartmentofAnthropology,Emory University,Atlanta,Georgia,USA
NinaNordström,SeniorResearcher,InstituteofPrehistory,EarlyHistoryand MedievalArchaeology,EberhardKarlsUniversity,Tübingen,Germany.
AndrewPearson,PearsonArchaeologyLtdandResearchAssociate,DepartmentofArchaeologyandAnthropology,BristolUniversity,UK
UllaRajala,PostdoctoralResearcher,McDonaldInstituteforArchaeological Research,UniversityofCambridge
WilliamRathouse,DoctoralCandidate,UniversityofWalesTrinitySt Davids,Lampeter,Wales,UK
DuncanSayer,SeniorLecturerinArchaeology,SchoolofForensicandInvestigativeScience,UniversityofCentralLancashire,Preston,UK
FayeSayer,SeniorLecturerinArchaeology,DepartmentofHistory,Politics andPhilosophy,ManchesterMetropolitanUniversity,UK
HedleySwain,AreaDirectorSouthEast,ArtsCouncilEngland
SarahTatham,InterpretationOfficer,EnglishHeritage,UK
TonyWalter,ProfessorofDeathStudies,CentreforDeathandSociety, UniversityofBath,UK
EstellaWeiss-Krejci,UniversityDozent,DepartmentofSocialandCultural Anthropology,UniversityofVienna,Vienna,Austria
HowardWilliams,ProfessorofArchaeology,DepartmentofHistoryand Archaeology,UniversityofChester,Chester,UK
1 Introduction MortuaryArchaeologyinContemporarySociety MelanieGilesandHowardWilliams
MORTUARYARCHAEOLOGYINTHEUK Reburialandrepatriation The1980sand1990ssawdramaticseachangesinthearchaeologicalengagementwiththedeadinAustralasiaandNorthAmerica,typifiedbytheNative AmericanGravesProtectionandRepatriationAct(NAGPRA)of1990.However,ithasonlybeenfarmorerecentlythatdifferent,distinctive,butstill fundamentalchallengestothearchaeologicalstudy,display,andcurationof mortuaryremainshaveaffectedtheUK,Europe,andScandinavia.Whileclassic examplesofdisputesoverthearchaeologicalexcavationofhumanremainshave deeprootsinthelatetwentiethcentury,thelastdecadehasseensignificant shiftsandchallengesformortuaryarchaeology(seeSayer2010a).
Inthisregard,theUKsituationisinstructive,ifnotnecessarilytypical.At theturnofthemillennium,theWorkingGrouponHumanRemains(whose finalreportwaspublishedin2007)createdastrongpoliticalclimatewhich encouragedunconditionalreturnsofancestralremainsacquiredfromelsewhereintheworldandheldinBritishmuseums.Thiswasrejectedbymany institutionswhichhadtobalancesuchedictsagainsttheiracquisitionpolicy (DCMS2003),butitsimpactwastoencourageamoreopenatmosphereof discussion.Slightlylater,theimpactofthe2005DCMS ‘GuidancefortheCare ofHumanRemainsinMuseums’ providedastrong(ifnotbinding)steerin termsofaspectsofcuratorialacquisition,researchprotocols,andcollections managementadvice,designedtosystematizebestpractice.Importantly,it enshrinedathree-foldconceptualprinciplethathumanremainsareof ‘unique status,areoftenofhighresearchvalue,andshouldbetreatedwithdignityand respect’ (DCMS2005:16).Thisdocumentprovidedanimportantmandatefor
archaeologicalexcavation,research,andcuration,atatimewhencallsfor repatriationandreburialwereontherise.However,itwasan ‘aspirantcodeof ethics’ whichasRedfernandClegg(2013:2)argue,wasnotenforceable: relyingontheprofessionalismofbothindividualsandinstitutionsforits implementation.(Inaddition,the2004HumanTissueActalsoimpactedon thoseinstitutionsholdinghumanremainsorfragmentsofthem,lessthan100 yearsold,thougharchaeologicalexamplesofthisarerare.)
SomeUKmuseumsbeganrepatriatingpartsoftheirethnographiccollectionsmuchearlierthanthis:Besterman(2004:3)reportedthatManchester Museumhaddecidedtoreturnhumanremainsacquiredasrecentlyas1992. Theserequestscontinuedinthenewmillennium:recentcasesfromtheBritish MuseumincludeonefromNewZealand(TePapaTongarema)in2006,and fromTorresStraitIslandersin2012(theformerleadingtorepatriationof bonefragments;thelatterrefusedonthegroundsthatitwas not demonstrable thatmortuaryriteshadbeeninterruptedordisturbedduringthisacquisition). ArecentclaimfromTorresStraitIslanderstotheNaturalHistoryMuseumin 2011hasprecipitatedthelargestsinglereturnofancestralremainsfromsuch aninstitution.Repatriationclaimsdidnotjustincludehumanremainsthemselvesbut(astheDCMScriterianoted,RedfernandClegg2013:1)objects decoratedwithhumansubstancessuchasnailsorhair,animalsassociated withburials,ormaterialculturetakenfrommortuarycontexts,oftenremoved directlyfrombodies.Anothersuchexampleisthe ‘Ghostdanceshirt’ repatriatedfromtheGlasgow’sKelvingroveMuseumtotheLakotapeopleofSouth Dakotain1999(Allen2013).
Whilstmanyofthesereburialrequestshavebeendifficultandtimeconsumingtohandle,theyhaveresultedinsomerichlyrewardingconversationsandengagements,andanenhancedawarenessofthecoloniallegacyof manycollections.Yettherehavealsobeenclaimsfromclosertohomewithin theUK,suchastheneo-Paganrequest(fromasplinterelement,separatedfrom butpurportingtorepresentCoBDO,theCouncilofBritishDruidOrders)for thereburialofancientBritishremainsfromtheAlexanderKeillerMuseum, Avebury(ThackrayandPayne2010).Meanwhile,segmentsoftheacademic communityhaverespondedinvigorousdefenceoftheretentionandcontinuingcurationofscientificallyvaluablehumanremains(BABAO2010,for example).Othershavebeenmoreopen-mindedaboutreburial,andconnectionswithclaimantgroups(seeRathousethisvolume).Somecuratorshave controversiallyeventurnedtoreburialasasolutionforover-crowdedmuseum stores,wherethequalityofarchivalinformationassociatedwithhumanremainsrendersthemoflittleresearchpotential(seeLevittandHadland2006).
Theoutcomesoftheseclaimshavebeenfar-reaching,withadvocates promotingtheimportanceofrespectingthedeadaccordingtotheWorld ArchaeologicalCongress’sVermillionAccord(seeSayer2010a:132–3).Furthermore,inhisrecentreview,DuncanSayerproposedthatarchaeologists
thinkbeyondtheprofessionandscholarshipandadoptbroadandadaptable butclearethicalprinciplesindealingwiththearchaeologicaldead,including objectivity,accountability,openness,andhonesty(Sayer2010a:138).However,criticalandacademicengagementsexploringtheapplicationofthese principleshavebeensparseandslow.Anexceptionhasbeentherecent volumeeditedbyGiesen(2013),whichprovidesahandbooktotheseprocesses,directingexcavatorsandcuratorstosalientchangesinlegislationand museumpractice(e.g.White2013onEnglandandSharpandHall2013on Scotland),withsomerichinstitutionalcasestudies,e.g.MuseumofLondon (RedfernandBekvalac2013);Perth(SharpandHall2013);andHancock (Scott2013),orBarton-upon-Humber(Mays2013).Italsopointstocuratorial issues,suchasthedecreasingvolumeofarchivespace(McKinley2013).These studiestogetherrevealhowmanymuseumshaverecentlyupdatedtheir cataloguesofhumanremains,enhancingtheirresearchpotential.Yetasthe papersoncuratorialstorageandaccesspoliciesinthatvolumeargue (Woodhead2013;Mays2013),thevalueofnewanalysesonsuchremains (ofwhateverdateororigin)cannotberegardedasagiven:studiesmustbe justifiedintermsofspecificresearchobjectivesanddemonstrableacademic andpublicbenefits.
Arguably,thelastdecadehasbeenaprofitableperiodofself-reflectionin manydifferentareasofarchaeologicalpractice:fromhowhumanremainsare excavated,analysed,stored,howaccessismanaged,andhowthedeadare displayedandtowhatends(seeLohmanandGoodnow2006foraseminal suiteofstudies,andchaptersinthisvolumebySwain,Tatham,Nordström, Exell,andNilssonStutz).Anincreasingnumberofinstitutionshaveundertakensurveyswhichrevealthat,althoughmostofthegeneralpublicexpectto seehumanremainsinmuseumsandarepositiveabouttheirexperience,there aresubtledifferencesinopinionastohowthisisbestaccomplished.Itisnot justavocalpaganminoritywhoobjectedtosuddenorabruptencounters withthedead:manysuchsurveysrecordsmallnumbersofcomplaintsfrom peoplesensitivetothevisceraldisplayofhumanmortality,orindividuals whowantedgreaterchoiceoverviewingsuchremains(seeKilmister2003; Carroll2005;CambridgeshireArchaeology2006;Albertietal.2009;BDRC 2009;theManchesterMuseum2011).Curatorsacknowledgetheimportance ofmuseumspacewhichisnotoneofsimplepassive ‘viewing’ ofthedead:as RedfernandClegg(2013:1)note,itisaspaceofcontextualization,interpretation,andengagement.Indeed,recentyearshavealsoseenanewwaveof critical academic reviewsofexhibitions,focusingonhowthedeadaredisplayed(seethemodelsprovidedbyWilliams,NilssonStutz,andNordström, thisvolume).Clearly,amajorityverdictamongarchaeologistsandheritage specialistsisinfavouroftheexcavationofmortuarycontextsandthedisplay andstudyoftheartefacts,structures,andhumanremainsuncovered.However,thisdoesnotequatewithacosyacceptableofthestatusquo:thedisplay
andcurationofthearchaeologicaldeadisbeingcriticallyandcarefully appraisedinrelationtospecificinstancesandcircumstances.Moreover, whatisincreasinglyevidentisthatmortuaryarchaeologyisnotaformof eitherpurescientificorhumanisticenquirytowhichpublicengagementcan betackedonsubsequently.Instead,allmortuaryarchaeologyisaformof publicmortuaryarchaeology,createdwithinvariedandspecifichistorical contextsandsocio-politicalframeworkswithitsresearchquestionsand methodsreflectinganddirectingbroadersocialvaluesandaspirationsto exploremorbidityandmortalityinthehumanpast.
The ‘crisis’ inburialarchaeology Againstthesedevelopmentswassetaworryingchangeintheinterpretationof buriallegislationaffectingtheexcavationandstudyofmortuaryremains.The tried-and-testedmethodoflicensingtheexcavationofhumanremainswas revokedbytheMinistryofJustice(Sayer2010a).Fromtheperiodof2008–10, theMinistryofJusticealsodemandedthatallhumanremains(regardlessof date,religiousbelief,orburialcontext)werereburiedwithintwomonthsof excavation(ParkerPearsonetal.2013:151).Tomany,thisseemedtoplay tothecallsoftheaforementionedminoritypagangroupswithintheUK. Aperiodofprofessionaluncertaintyandconsternationfollowed:voiced througharticlesbyPittsandSayerin BritishArchaeology (2010b),lettersto theMinistryofJustice,questionsinParliamentfromProfessorColinRenfrew, andanopenlettertoKennethClarkefrom40professorsofarchaeologyand relatedsciences(publishedin BritishArchaeology 2011,aswellasthe Guardian:Cunliffeetal.2011).Theissueswiftlygainedinternationalpressand mediaattention(seeParkerPearsonetal.2013:153),providinganopportunityforopendebate(althoughthisdidnotmeetwithuniversalapprovalwithin thediscipline see PapersfromtheInstituteofArchaeology 2011).Inpractice, however,thiscampaignprovedverysuccessful:theMinistryofJusticebegan re-issuinglicencesforexcavationinlate2011,whichincludedpermissionfor theretentionofhumanremainsinmuseumsorothersuitablecuratorial repositories.Whilstitisunlikelythatthelawwillbereformedinthenear futuretoclarifytheofficialpositionofthegovernment,fornow,theapplicationofthecurrentsystemhasrestoredthesystemoflicensingexcavationand permittingretentionforanalysisandlong-termcuration.Thethornierproblemofhowcommercialandresearcharchaeologyisfunded,andwhetherthis dealswiththeprocessingofthedeaduptothepointofaccessioningand curation,orwhetherprojectsprovidefullfundingtowardspublicationand exhibition,isyetanotherunresolvedissue.
However,this ‘burialcrisis’ intheUK,asSayer(2009)describesit,has forcedprofessionalarchaeologiststore-evaluatetheirownrelationswiththe
deadwithinandbeyondthemuseumcontext(seeSayerandSayerthis volume).Moreover,whilesomeofthesedevelopmentsarespecifictothe UK,theychimewithvariousotherdevelopmentselsewhereinEuropeand beyond,inwhicharchaeologistshaverecognizedthatthepublicdimensions, andengagementswiththeexcavation,treatment,display,andcurationofthe dead,aswellastheinterpretationandteachingofmortuaryarchaeology, extendfarbeyondthesensitivitiesofpost-colonialcontextandabstractethical musings.Priortothis,studiesofmortuaryarchaeologyhadmainlyfocusedon howthegeneralpublicfeltontheseissues.Suchstudieswerecaughtupina processwhichJenkins(2011)describesas ‘acrisisofconfidence’ inthe profession:symptomaticofawiderlossofprofessionalconfidenceinacademicexpertiseacrossthehumanities(seeherchapterinthisvolumefora developmentofthatargument).Yetmanyofthecuratorsundertakingsuch consultationactivitiesusedthemtocanvasopinionsamongsttheirmajor user-groups,andgainawiderpictureofdiverseandsometimesdivergent opinions(seeSwainthisvolume).Formany,itreassuredthemofmajority supportfortheirpractices,butitalsooftenpromptedreflectionsonhow futureexhibitionsmightbemoresensitivelydesignedtotakeaccountofother views(forexample,anunpublished,internalvisitorsurveyundertakenby J.E.BroughtonfortheBritishMuseumin2007,reflectedincuratorialarticles withinthevolumeeditedbyFletcheretal.(2014)aswellasTathamthis volume).Yetsomeofthesechangeshavebeencontroversial,revealingfaultlinesofculturalpolitics,politicaltensions,anddimensionsofpersonalor institutionalpower(seeExellthisvolume).
Namingthedead Onedimensionworthyofdiscussioninthisintroduction,athemethatcrosscutsmanyofthechapters,ishowweengagewithpasthumanitythrough individuality.Thearchaeologicaldeadhaverepeatedlycaughtthepublic’ s imaginationduringthislastdecadeinnovelways,inpartduetosomehighprofilemediacases(SayerandWalterthisvolume).Buildingonalong traditionofdiscoveringcelebrityskeletonsandmummiescirculatinginBritish andEuropeancollections,including,forexample,TutankhamunandÖtzias wellasastrikingrangeofIronAgebogbodies(seeGiles2009),thepastdecade hasseenfurtherhigh-profileindividualdiscoveriesofprehistoric,protohistorical,andhistoricalpersonages.ExamplesincludetheAmesburyArcher, theSpitalfieldswoman,thePrittlewellPrince,and,perhapsmostfamousofall, theexcavationofthebodyofKingRichardIIIofEngland.Asarchaeologists wemightbecriticalofthisfetishizationofasingleburialorbodyoverawider understandingofthecontemporarypopulationandchangesinthetreatment ofthedeadovertimeandspace,particularlywhereitfocusesontheroyal
personaorhistoricalpersonagewhoisthefocusofapersonalitycult(see MeyersandWilliams2014).Yetthisobsessionwiththedeadindividualisnot simplyamediacreationoratranslationfromtheneedtoidentifyindividuals intheinvestigationofmodernclandestineandaccidentaldeaths,orindeedin theinvestigationofwargraves(seeBrownthisvolume).Oftentheexcavators themselveshavecoinedthesetitles:aneedto ‘namethedead’ seemswidespread,includingnumerousinstanceswheretheexactidentityofhuman remainswillneverbeknown.Inthisway,asinglecharismaticindividual, material-rich,orcuriousburialisoftenchosentoactasaneffective ‘public ambassador’ forawidersuiteofburialsorsetofarchaeologicalfeatures. Whilstthismightbestimulatedbytheneedtotalkwiththemedia,this ‘humanizing’ traitiscommononmanyarchaeologicalsiteswithintheUK, andindeed,itisoftentransferredintomuseumsettings(e.g.Williams2009). Therightsandwrongsofnamingiconicbodiesondisplaysuchas ‘Ginger’ (aPredynasticmummifiedcorpsefromGebelein,Egypt,nowrenamedofficially ‘GebeleinMan’)or ‘PeteMarsh’ (thelocalnamefor ‘LindowMan’:alate IronAge/earlyRomanbogbodyfoundinCheshire),bothcuratedbythe BritishMuseum,isacaseinpoint.Thejuvenileremainsattheheartofthe Aveburyreburialconsultationarealsocontroversiallyknownas ‘Charlie’ .
Likethegeneralpublic,archaeologistsandcuratorsseektohumanizethe deadandconnectwiththemthroughthecreationofapersona,though whetherthesepersonalnamesareindicationsofrespectornot,isnowa matterofdebate.AsWilliams(thisvolume)explores,suchmediastoriesare almostexclusivelyconfinedtomummiesandinhumations:corpseswhich conformtotheexpectationsofseeingtheskeletonizedormummifiedremains ofaoncefully fleshedsinglehumanbody.Thisisdespitetherealitythatthe vastmajorityofhumanremainsinWesternmuseumsarefragmented(crematedorexcarnated)orimpliedbutabsent(aswithbodiesrevealedindirectly throughsoil-stains,coffins,andmortuaryartefactsandtheircontextsof discovery).Suchremainsofferdifferent,lessimmediate,less ‘abject’ identities andrelationalitiesforprofessionalsandthepublic,asyetlargelyunexplored.
Inmostofthesecases,theresultofpainstaking,interdisciplinaryresearchis adetailedbiography alifehistory aswellasanaccountoftheirdeathand burial,whichweusetoanimatethehumanremainsbehindtheglass,onthe page,oronthecomputerscreen.Inthepastdecade,therehavebeenmore avenuestoenhancetheengagementwithpastpeople.Theimpactofisotope analysisusedtoexploredietandorigin,refinedacceleratormassspectrometry carbondatingandotherscientificmethodshaveprovidednewwaysof exploringhumanremains.Meanwhile,alongsidetwo-andthree-dimensional reconstructionsandvirtualdatabases,digitalmediahaveenhancedourstrategiesforrecordingandcommunicatingstoriesusingtheremainsofthedead. Suchnarrativesarealsopartofhow we asarchaeologists negotiateourown identityinrelationtothedead,reflectingonaspectsofage,gender,disease,or
injury,whichmightpromptustoreflectonourownlifehistories,beliefs,and feelingsaboutmortality.Whilstwemightarguethisisaprimaryfunctionof displayingthedeadtothegeneralpublic,wetooarebeneficiariesofsucha cross-culturalengagementthroughtime.Arguably,thisiswhymanyofusgo intotheprofessioninthe firstplace.Yetwhilstrecentvolumesonhuman remainsarerichinstudiesofthepublic’sperceptionofthedead,itisrareto findprofessionalsreflectingonthisprocess,ordebatingcontestedorconflicted attitudeswithinourdiscipline.
Whatmightwegainfromexploringtheprocess?Theseareissueswhich manyofthechaptersinthisvolumetouchupon(particularlyRajala,and PearsonandJeffs).Inaddition,Kirk’schapterreflectsontheroleofthe archaeologicalimagination,thelanguageweusetotalkaboutthedead,and theinspirationthedeadprovidetotheliving.Meanwhile,thechapterbyGiles examineshowwerepresentthedeadvisually,andhowwecanusereconstructionsofburialstochallengeideasaboutpastsocietiesandtheirengagement withthedeadwhilstalsoacknowledgingthesevisualizationsareofourown time,andofourmaking.
Pluralidentities:fragmentsandabsences Whatisalsoincreasinglyevidentandbeingexploredinmortuaryarchaeology ’sengagementwithcontemporarysocietyishowthearchaeologicaldead takeonmanydifferentidentitiesbeyondtheprehistoricorhistoricalindividual.Thescaleandbreadthofmortuaryarchaeologyhasamassedrichand detailedstoriesaboutindividualgraves,butalsoentirecemeterypopulations fromparticularperiodsofthehumanpast.Furthermore,archaeologicalinvestigationsofmulti-phasedmonumentsandcemeteriesrevealstorieswhich spancenturiesandmillennia.Bothgradualandradicalshiftsovertimeand spaceinthetreatmentanddisposalofthedeadinthehumanpastarepowerful narrativesintheirownright.Hence,throughtheprocessesoftheirexcavation, display,andpublicdissemination,throughmuseumsbutalsoincreasingly throughthemediaandarangeofpublicationoutlets,thearchaeologicaldead arebecomingincreasinglyvariegatedintheirpresencesinpopularculture. Whileindividualbodiesmightprovideadirectandevidential ‘human’ story forpopulardisseminationandconsumption,surfacetracesandarchaeological excavationscanequallytellrichanddiversestoriesoflifeanddeathinthe humanpastthroughlarge-scalepopulationstudies.Often,theinterplaybetweenindividualbiographiesandbroadernarrativesoflifeanddeathinthe humanpastprovidethemostpowerfulnarrativesofall.Whetherweare discussingthediseasesanddisposalmethodsaffectingpost-medievalbodies likethoseuncoveredfromtheeighteenth-centurycryptatSpitalfields (Mollesonetal.1993;ReeveandAdams1993),thecrematedremainsfrom
anIronAgecemetery(Williamsthisvolume)orindeeddisplaysofthe disarticulatedskeletonsofbodiesinterredinNeolithicmegalithicmonuments, archaeologistsconveydifferentnarrativesaboutthepastandthedeadthrough awidespectrumofmortuarymaterialcultures,architectures,andspacesas wellasbones.
Itisalsocrucialthatmortuaryarchaeologyrecognizesthatthearchaeologicaldead findmanycitationalaswellastangiblepresencesinpopular culture.Especiallywiththecommemorationofmassdeathsinwarsand disasters,theriseofcremation,andthewidespreaduseofshort-leaseburial plotsduringthetwentiethcentury,modernWesternsocietieshavedeveloped sophisticatedcenotaphictraditionsofdealingwiththedead(Tathamthis volume;Weiss-Krejcithisvolume).Fieldandmuseumarchaeologistshave becomeadeptathandlingnarrativesthatderiveasmuchfromtheabsenceof, aswellasthefragmentednatureof,thearchaeologicaldeadasthrough skeletonsandmummifiedcadavers(e.g.Tongetal.2015).Oneonlyhasto looktothestrikingassemblagesofGreekandRomansarcophagiandtombstonesondisplayinmuseumsacrossEurope,mostoftenexcavatedfrom disturbedcontextsandseparatedfromhumanremains,toappreciatethe vividstoriesabouttheRomandeadthattheycantellevenwithoutthedead ondisplay.
Aclassicexampletoillustratethispointisthemisleadinglytermed ‘Sutton HooTreasure’ providingthecentrepieceintherefurbishedroom41atthe BritishMuseum: ‘SuttonHooandEurope AD 300–1100’.Elsewhereinthe BritishMuseumthereareskeletons,mummies,andthecremateddeadaswell asportraitsandstatuescreatedformortuaryandcommemorativecontexts. YettheSuttonHooMound1assemblageholdsadifferentanddistinctive relationshipwiththedead,oneofmanywhichhavebeenhithertounexplored indiscussionsofmortuaryarchaeologyandpopularculture:itpresencesa powerful,kingly,andunquestionablyabsenthumanbody.
Whenexcavatedin1939,Mound1atSuttonHoorevealedashipcontainingachamberfestoonedwithlavishgrave-goods,butnodemonstrablyhuman bonessurvived.Thisdidnotpreventtherapidattributionofthegravetothe apostatekingoftheEastAngles:Raedwald.Hadthiskingoranotherperson (orpersons)beeninterred,theirremainshadlongvanishedduetotaphonomicprocesses(Carver2005:191–2;McCombe2011:209–16).
Intheabsenceofatangiblebodyfordisplay,thereconstructedhelmetwith moustachioedface-maskpersistsinaroleitmayhaveheldwhendisplayedin thesixthandearlyseventhcenturies:itprovidedaconfrontingocularpresence forthoseengagingwithit.InthemuseumcontextoftheBritishMuseum’ s gallery,thisrolehasbeenadaptedthroughitsoriginalreconstruction,its re-reconstruction(McCombe2011)andmostrecentlythroughitsredisplay asagreetingpresencefortheentireassemblageofRoom41,centrallyplacedat averageadulteye-level.Throughthismuseologicalbiography,thehelmethas
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FIVE GREEK CROSSES By W Z
Four interesting, independent masses with a solid central interlock. This is the kind that leads you merrily on from one section to another.
An executive Assaults
Pertaining to tones
24 sheets of paper
Behold
Clothes
Undressed kid
Parent
Give egress
Constellation
Babylonian war-god
Matter in aeriform state
Guile
Oscillators
Bundle
Finished
Perspire
Adhesive compound
Staggered
Beast of burden
Upright
Small fur-bearing
animal
English school Commiseration
Partakes of food
Wild animal
Card game
Fruits of genus malaceae
Rower
Tyrolean song
Certain tones in Greek music
Auctions
Appellations
Fool
Floor coverings
Change position
Some
Cut and dried grass
Amer. Protective Assn. (abbr.)
Japanese coin
Nickname of Baseball player
Keynote
Bird
Latin conjunction
Name of English nobleman
To come into
Surround
Constituent substance
VERTICAL Veins
Joints of the arms
Eject
Suppliants
Opera
Chinese
Blooms
Woven vessels
Believe
Agreements
Church officer
Organs of vision
Aeriform mixtures
Elongated
Apart
Comfort
Utensil
Determines
Vessel used in constructing bridges
Adores
FOUR LEAF CLOVER By M
This lucky design offers two unusual features: an excellent conventionalized figure and freedom from excess of black spaces. The solution offers difficulties; how much more the construction! The three-by-five interlocks at the sides in especial deserve worshipful consideration.
HORIZONTAL To take vengeance for
Characterizing the beginning of a period
A language of ancient Italy In case A color To strip of rigging A
Not any Exist
Deeply malignant
An ejaculation of pain
A Greek leader in the
Trojan war
Female sheep
Highest in power
True
Trades (colloquial)
Metal dish
A kind of sweet potato
Decay
Models; standards
Facing toward the direction from which a glacier impinges
More mature
Yes
Fathers To expiate
Preposition
The language of the Frisians
Struck
To surpass in riding
Not even The foot of a clawed animal
A quick bow Quick to learn
One of the seven daughters of Atlas Slovenly women
A thread of metal Statues
A measure of capacity
VERTICAL
low form of wit
the nose
One, or any
Fear of impending evil
Above and in contact with
Consigns to a special category
Bone
The great god of the sun
Perish
Get up
The Goddess of Dawn
A measure of area
To be
Slapped
Heliograph (colloquial)
Aquatic, fur-bearing animal
Sacred poem
To debate
A stage of life
Forbidden by the 18th
Amendment
To soak
Rainy
To hang down; droop
Intention; design
Mental images
To stamp something in or on
Adds as an accessory
A patient beast
Customary Beside
Cleopatra’s final remedy Employ You and I
A length of unshaped timber
To move swiftly
A fold of cloth
Have permission Undermine Coloring Brightly Emotion
Cattle of a certain breed
A mare famed in story
Existing in name only
Said to be a wise bird
Color imparted to the skin by the sun
Less bitter
A faithful friend
Piece of property
A king of Judah
Laborious Sky and war god of Teutons Steeple
That from which anything primarily proceeds
To excite to activity
Relieved of In flames
Title bestowed on aviators after certain accomplishments
One end of a shoe
An African
A maiden changed into a heifer by Hera
The wife of Zeus
Work; undertaking Exists
To lick up with the tongue
A little pile of sand
A tool
The thing
An exclamation
Sloth
AT THE CROSSROADS By H V. C
Small, but plenty of unusual words to tax the lobes of your brain and the pages of your dictionary. Do you like difficult words? However, we have one or two still harder than this one.
HORIZONTAL Herbivorous fish-like mammal of the Atlantic shores
Quick succession of notes from a horn
Minor prophet (8th century B.C.)
To conceal or store as in the earth; hide
A light-yellowish brown
A piece of metal that holds another in place, or adjusts a bearing
Regret
Scot.—“to go”
Close to; near by; in; within
Little island, especially in inland waters
Have a purpose; endeavor earnestly
Copper (Chem.)
Roam idly abroad; ramble; stray
Changeling
Priest’s white linen vestment
Close; obstruct; hinder
Shield or defensive armor, as the mantle of Minerva
Mountain range in N. E. Utah
Part of the verb “to be”
Notify or summon
Showiness of achievement; brilliancy
Bind to secrecy
Make, grow, or seem to grow old
Exclamation of repugnance or disgust
Steep, or soak, as flax
Be slow; tardy; late
Preposition
Suffix used to form present participles
Pet or strike softly
Abbreviation for “company”
Brief poem characterized by exalted feeling
Carryall
Power of comprehending and judging
Slang for “no”
Court
God (Latin)
Betrayal; treachery; or breach of allegiance
Now going on; current
Constituting a large number; numerous
Heavy textile fabric, made in one piece, to cover a portion of a floor
Parasite
VERTICAL Carry out by action, effort, or skill of any kind
Part of the verb “to be”
Square or rectangular block of wood
Largest continent
Prefix, from, out of; used before many words beginning with a consonant
Auditory organ
Belonging to a particular genus or class; definite article
Scot: one
Flock; brood
Bad luck; loss; the worst; also the best
Abbreviation for “railroad”
Art or practice of foretelling by signs or
Woo Nothing Tangled
Secure a patent for Gone by; past Biol: An ovum or germ cell
Spread loosely for drying, as newly mown grass
Resinous substance exuded from an EastIndian scale-insect and used in making varnishes
One who advocates or practises egoism
French: Fem. gen. “one”; an; Beat; torture; vex; also to harden or prepare
Any product of mental apprehension or
omens
Drinking vessel
From Greek “life”: a combining form
Protecting crane-arm; jib
Something attached
Letter in the Greek alphabet
Biol: A wing, or a wing-like part
Be able
Funeral hymn or tune
Small seed-eating bird, as a bunting, sparrow
The fragrant essential oil extract from rose petals
Bark-tanned sheepskin for bookbinding
activity
Conjunction
Offers
Poetic: to open
Bar
Drink slowly
Golf term
Conjunction
River in Italy
Conjunction
Prefix (negative) [69]
[Contents]
CROSSWORD VALENTINE By J. W. S
This contributor has dedicated himself to romance. We wish we knew the lady to whom he devoted this valentine.
HORIZONTAL To the inside of
Otherwise Globe A flattish mass of anything soft or moist
Note of scale Cheaters
Plans
Exclamation of triumph
Behold
As Stupefied by medicine
Consumed
A unit of electricity
Egyptian sun god
Mama (abbr.)
None
Transgress
Neuter pronoun
Degrees of speed
Cunning (colloq.)
Remuneration for
Chum
Personal pronoun
From Greek prefixcombining form
Paternal parent
Fruit
Begun again
Stood by Papa
Man’s name
Small
Obtain redress by law
Female
Yale
Note
Diphthong
Revel,
Pronoun, first person singular Vessel
Grievest
After the birth of Christ
Note in scale
Grin
Affiliation
Procured
Northern animal
Part of wheat plant
Curtain
Sheds
Female name
Sewing
Girl’s name
Ancient Grecian coin
Was indebted to
Male name
[Contents] 
