DigitalResources forLearning
DanielChurchill
DivisionofInformationandTechnology
Studies,FacultyofEducation
TheUniversityofHongKong
HongKong
HongKong
ISSN2366-7672ISSN2366-7980(electronic)
SpringerTextsinEducation
ISBN978-981-10-3775-7ISBN978-981-10-3776-4(eBook) DOI10.1007/978-981-10-3776-4
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2017930941
© SpringerNatureSingaporePteLtd.2017
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Foreword
Thisvolumeaddressesthemanyissuesinvolvedinplanning,designing,configuring, andmakingeffectiveuseofdigitalresourcestosupportlearningandinstruction. Theseissueshaveariseninpartduetonewandpowerfuldigitaldevicesand technologies(Spector2015;Spectoretal.2014).Bothonlinelearningandmobile learninghaveincreaseddramaticallyinthelasttenyearsduetothepossibilitiesthat newdigitaltechnologieshavemadepossible.Anaturalquestionhasbeenrepeatedly raisedwithregardtohowtomakethebestuseofthesenewtechnologies(Bereiterand Scarmadalia2003;SpectorandAnderson2000).Answershaverangedfrom changinginstructionalapproachestodevelopingspecifi capplicationsforspeci fic needs(i.e.,stillmoretechnology;Moore2013).Integratinginformallearning experienceswithformalexperienceshasalsobeenraisedasawaytomakegooduse ofsomeofthesetechnologies(Sampsonetal.2014).Stillothersuggestionsinclude eliminatingclassesstructuredaroundtraditionaldisciplinaryboundaries(e.g.,biology,history,literature,andphysics)andcreatinglearningcentersaroundvarious topicalareasorproblemsthatcutacrossmultipledisciplines,suchasenvironmental problemsolving,stabilizingeconomicandsocialsituations,designingbuildingsand bridges,integratingtechnologyintolearning,andsomanymorereal-worldproblems (Rosenetal.2015).
Intermsofthedigitaltechnologiesavailabletosupportlearningandinstruction, itisthebestoftimes,andevenmorepowerfultechnologieswillsurelyfollow(e.g., affordablewearabledevices,dynamicfeedbacktosupportcomplexproblemsolving,andrecommendationenginestosupportindividualizedandpersonalized learning).Oneonlyneedstoreadthevarious HorizonReports publishedbythe NewMediaConsortium(see www.nmc.org)tounderstandhowquicklydigital technologiesareemergingandthemanyaffordancestheynowmakepossible.Itis thebestoftimesforinstructionaldesignersandeducatorsintermsofavailable digitaltechnologies.
Intermsofplanningfortheeffectiveuseofnewtechnologies,itistheworstof times,especiallygiventherapidpaceoftechnologyemergenceintomainstream living,learning,andworking.Assoonasteachersaretrainedintheeffectiveuseof onedeviceorplatform,alongcomesamorepowerfuldeviceorplatform.Moreover,giventhewidevarietyofdigitaltechnologiesnowavailable,itisdifficultto choosewhichonebestsuitsaparticularneedorrequirement.Thereareevermore
openrepositoriesofdigitalresourcesandlearningobjectsfromwhichtochoose from.Morechallengingismatchingaresourcetoaneed fi ndinganappropriate resourcetoachieveeffectivelearningoutcomes.Needsrangefromaccesstorelevantcontent,information,anddatatoascertainhowinformation,data,andcontent canorshouldbepresentedandrepresentedtosupportspeci ficlearninggoalsand objectives.Inaddition,thereisanevenmorechallengingneedtointegratedigital resourcesinmeaningfulwaysintolearningactivitiesthatincludepracticeexercises, collaborativeproblemsolving,andtheexplorationofrelatedissuesandproblems. Pre-serviceteachersneedtobetrained,andin-serviceteachersrequireongoing professionaldevelopmentifsuccessinmakingtheeffectiveuseofnewtechnologiesistobeachievedonalargescale.Moreover,unlikethepreviousgenerationof computer-assistedlearningandinstruction,mobiledevicesandsocialnetworking needtobeconsideredintermsofhowtheycanbestbeusedtosupportlearningand instruction.Itistheworstoftimesintermsofeducationaltechnologyplanningand implementation.
Thisvolumeshouldproveusefulinguidingeducatorsandinstructional designersthroughthesechallengingtimes.Hopefully,thelessonslearnedwill pertaintothelearningmuchmorethantothetechnologiesmentionedanddescribed invariouscasesandstudies.ThemantraIhaveadoptedtoguidemethroughthese challengingtimesisasfollows:technologieschange;technologieschangewhat peopledo;technologieschangewhatpeoplecando,shoulddo,andwilleventually do;andtechnologiescanchangewhatpeoplewanttoavoiddoing.
Whatthisbookisaboutischanginglearningandinstructiontomakethebestuse ofdigitaltechnologies.Aframeworkforthinkingaboutdifferentkindsoftechnologiesispresentedalongwithavarietyofissuesanddiscussionforeachofthose categories.Inthatsense,thisbookisaboutthelearningthatcanbeattainedby effectiveuseoftechnologies,withtheunderstandingthatthetechnologieswill surelychangeandtheframeworkpresentedinthisvolumeislikelytoevolvewith changingtechnologiesandpedagogies.
J.MichaelSpector Professor DepartmentofLearningTechnologies CollegeofInformation UniversityofNorthTexas Denton,USA
References
Bereiter,C.,&Scardamalia,M.(2003).Learningtoworkcreativelywithknowledge.InE.De Corte,L.Verschaffel,N.Entwistle,&J.vanMerriënboer(Eds.), Powerfullearning environments:Unravellingbasiccomponentsanddimensions (pp.55–68).Bingley,UK: EmeraldPublishing.Retrievedfrom http://ikit.org/fulltext/inresslearning.pdf
Moore,M.G.(Ed.).(2013). Handbookofdistanceeducation (3rded.).NewYork,NY: Routledge.
Rosen,Y.,Ferrara,S.,&Mosharraf,M.(Eds.).(2015). Handbookofresearchontechnologytools forreal-worldskilldevelopment.Hershey,PA;IGIGlobal.
Sampson,D.G.,Ifenthaler,D.,Spector,J.M.,&Isaías,P.(Eds.).(2014). Digitalsystemsforopen accesstoformalandinformallearning.NewYork,NY:Springer. Spector,J.M.(Ed.).(2015). TheSAGEEncyclopediaofeducationaltechnology.ThousandOaks, CA:SagePublications.
Spector,J.M.,&Anderson,T.M.(Eds.).(2000). Integratedandholisticperspectivesonlearning, instructionandtechnology:Understandingcomplexity. Dordrecht:KluwerAcademicPress. Spector,J.M.,Merrill,M.D.,Elen,J.,&Bishop,M.J.(Eds.)(2014). Handbookofresearchon educationalcommunicationsandtechnology (4thed.).NewYork,NY:Springer.
Preface
Thecentralquestionsthisbookisaddressingare,whataretheeffectivedigital resourcesforcontemporaryteachingandlearning?andHowsuchresourcescanbe designed,developed,classi fied,used,andreused?
Countriesaroundtheworldhavebeentransformingandmodernizingdueto cultural,political,social,scienti fic,economical,andotherconditionscreatedby emergingtechnologies.Technologicaldevelopmenthasbeenrapid;however,this, toalargeextent,alsohasbeentoofastforeducationalinstitutionstofully understandandcreatetimelyresponses.Governmentsaroundtheworldare investingineducationandsupportofeducationalmodernization,andinitiatives oftheireducationauthoritiesemergetofocusonthetransformationofpedagogical practicesawayfromtraditionalteacher-centeredtomodernlearning-centered approachesempoweredbythecontemporarytechnologicaldevelopmentsand practices.Fortraditional,teaching-centerededucationalpractices,thegoalsof teachingaretotransfercurriculumcontenttolearners,preparelearnerstoscore highlyonexaminations,anddevelopknowledgeinaspecifi cdisciplinethatthey woulduseandpracticethroughouttheirlife.Thesearenolongerholdingthe ground,andsocietiesfortodayandthefutureneedpeoplewhohavedeepconceptualfoundationsofdisciplinaryknowledgerequiredforthemtomakesenseof developmentsandsolveproblemsand,atthesametime,bepreparedforlifelong learningandchallengesthatemergeinfrontofallofusnowandinthefuture. However,oneofthekeyproblemsfordrivestomodernizeeducationinlinewith thetechnologicaldevelopmentissomehowlimitedabilityofmanyeducatorsand educationpolicy-makerstotransformtheirowntraditionalexpectations,understanding,andmind-setsofwhatisteachingandlearning,andhowtechnologyplays importantrolesinthatprocess.Itisstronglyemerging,asrecognizedbythe authoritiesandresearchers,thatchangesareessentialin(a)whatweteach,thatis, inthecurriculumdesign;(b)howweteach,thatis,inthepedagogy;and(c)howwe evaluatelearning,thatis,inassessment,asessentialconditionsforeffectivetechnologyintegrations.These,inturn,imposeaneedforchangesintheresourceswe designanduseinteachingandlearning,includingthosedigitalresourcesfor learning.Weneedtothinkdifferentlyaboutthedesignanduseofdigitalresources forlearningthanithasbeendonesofarinthecontextoftraditionalteachingand learning.Speedandformoflearningachievedinthetraditionaleducational
practicessimplyarenolongersufficienttoenableindividualsandsocietiestobein linewithdevelopmentsanddemands.Inthissense,anorganizingideaofthisbook isthatthereisanunavoidabletransformationofteachingandlearning,influenced bybroaderchangesandneedsofcontemporarysocieties,andthisimposesa demandforrethinkingwhatareeffectivedigital(andnon-digital)resourcesfor learning.Inanutshell,thisbookisnotonlyaboutdigitalresourcesforlearning (whichareseenasoneofthetoolsforchanges),butalsoanattempttopromotethe modernizationofteachingandlearning.
Important
Oneofthekeyproblemsfordrivestomodernizeeducationissomehowa limitedabilityofmanyeducatorsandeducationpolicy-makerstotransform traditionalexpectations,understanding,andmind-setofwhatisteachingand learning,andhowtechnologyplaysimportantrolesinthatprocess.
Therehasbeenwidespreadabsenceofunderstandingsofwhatareeffective digitalresourcesforcontemporarylearning,theirconnectiontoacurriculum,and theirdesignandlearninguses.Often,technologiesanddigitalresourcesaretaken simplyasinstructionalmediumforthetransferofexplicitinformationtopassive learners,orasspeci ficmediatypes,suchasdigitalvideos,animations,simulations, andslidepresentations.Beforearticulatingeffectivedesignandstrategyuseof resourcesforcontemporaryandmodernteachingandlearningpractice,weneedto haveacurriculumapproachthatwillenablethese.Oncemore,thegoalofeducation shouldbethatlearnersaccumulatelifelonglastingknowledgefoundation (conceptualknowledgeprimarily)andskillsneededtoutilizetheseindealingwith challengessuccessfully(e.g.,incontinuouslearning,problemsolving,design,and innovation).Thereisaneedforthecurriculumtoembraceanewapproach,notthe traditionalonefocusingoninformationandasingledimensionofwhatwilllearners know,butamultidimensionalapproachthatintegratesallaspectsofknowledge content,knowledgeuse,andemergingliteraciesandskills.Traditionalcurriculum modelssuchasBloom’sTaxonomy(seeBloometal.1956)andevenvariationsand revisionssuchasthoseproposedbyAndersonetal.(2001)andKrathwohl(2002) mightnotsufficientlyaddresstheneedsofsuchaneed.Withoutanappropriate curriculuminplacethatemphasizesimportantcomponents,therewillnotbeany changeintraditionalteachingandlearningfortwenty-firstcenturyeducation.The proposedcurriculummodelformoderneducationinthisbookemphasizesthree componentsordirections:
• Knowledgecontentdimension where,inadditiontodeclarativeandprocedural knowledge,moreattentionisgiventothedevelopmentofconceptualknowledgeshapingdisciplinaryspeci ficthinkinganddecisionmaking(theoretical thinking);
• Knowledgeusedimension dispositiontomakeintellectualusesofknowledge contenttosolveproblem(s),continuouslylearn,andcreateinnovation;and
• Newliteraciesandskillsdimension whichcreatesconditionsforeffective participationinintellectualactivitiesandengagements,anduseofmoderntools inthecontemporaryworld.
Hence,thethreecomponentsareemphasized,andthisproposedapproachtothe curriculumdesigniscalledthe ‘3Dcurriculum.’ Thetraditionalclassroompractices areinsuffi cienttoachievecurriculumoutcomesintegratingthesethreedimensions. Thetraditionalpracticesfocusprimarilyonthecontentknowledgedimension, whileknowledgeuseisgivenattentiontoalimitedextent.However,eveninthis contextofthelearningofcurriculumknowledgecontent,thetraditionalpractices arelimited,astheyareeffectivemostlywiththelearningofdeclarativeandproceduralaspectsofcontentknowledge,whilethedevelopmentofconceptual knowledgeislefttohappenspontaneously.Traditionalteachersnaivelyequate knowledgewithinformationtobetransferred,andmostlyareunaware,orlack understandingoftheimportanceandmeaningofconceptualknowledge.Informationtransfercanhardlyachieveconceptualknowledge,andintellectuallychallengingactivitiesareessentialfordeepthinking,generalizing,abstracting,and conceptualchangestooccur.Traditionalpracticesneedtobereplacedby ‘learning-centered’ practicesthatfocusonactivitiesengaginglearnersinknowledge contentdevelopment,knowledgeuse,andthedevelopmentofnewliteraciesand skills.Activitiesmustbecentraltolearning,andteachers’ primaryrolesshouldbe thedesignandfacilitationofsuchexperiencesforlearners.
Howdodigitalresourcesforlearning fitinwiththisproposition?Digital resourcesforlearningarerepresentationsofthecurriculumknowledgecontent (declarative,procedural,orconceptual)that,atbest,aredesignedtobeeffectively usefulwithinlearningactivities.Thiscentralpropositionwillbeunpackedinthis bookinthechaptersthatfollow.Currently,thereisabsenceofliteraturethatprovidesanyusefulclassifi cationofdigitalresourcesforlearning.Thisbookis changingsuchasituationbyprovidinganin-depthdiscussionofdifferentformsof digitalresourcesforlearning,expandingthetraditionalconceptionofdigital resourcesasinformationcontainers,andincludescategoriessupportingthe3D curriculum,enablingknowledgeuse,aswellasthedevelopmentofnewliteracies andskills.Digitalresourcesforlearningarediscussedandclassifi edintoadistinctivetaxonomyinthisbook,including fivedefinitetypescorrespondingto differentformsofcurriculumcontentknowledge(declarative,procedural,and conceptual),asfollows:presentationresources,informationdisplays,conceptual representations,practiceresources,anddatadisplays.Eachofthesetypesofdigital resourcesisdiscussedseparatelyinvariouschaptersofthisbook.Itisemphasized thattheirdesignshouldenableeffectivelearningwithinlearningactivitieswhere,in additiontothelearningofknowledgecontentenabledbytheseresources,knowledgeuseandthedevelopmentofnewliteraciesandskillsareachieved.Particular emphasisinthisbookisgiventoconceptualrepresentationasaspecialformof digitalresourcedesignedtosupportconceptualknowledgedevelopment.
Important
Thereisaneedforthecurriculumtoembraceanewapproach,notthe traditionalonefocusingoninformationandasingledimensionofwhatwill learnersknow,butamultidimensionalapproachthatintegratesallaspectsof knowledgecontent,knowledgeuse,andemergingliteraciesandskills.
Traditionally,digitalresourcesforlearninghavebeendesignedasareplacement toateacherinacontextofinformationtransfer,thusmostlysupportingtraditional educationalpractices.Themainideathereisthattherearerepresentationsinthe worldwhichcorrespondtorepresentationinourminds,andlearninginvolves copyingexternalintointernalrepresentations.Atleast,thathasbeenthecasewith mostofthelearningobjects,computer-basedcourseware,computer-basedtutorials, computer-managedinstruction,andevenmanyofthemostcontemporaryproduced MOOCs.Atbest,suchresourcescansupportthelearningofdeclarativeandproceduralknowledge;however,theireffectivenessforthedevelopmentofconceptual knowledgeislimited,andifconceptlearningoccurs,itisaccidentalratherthan intentional.Intheideaspresentedinthisbook,onlypresentationresourcesare suitableforsuchtraditionalpurposes.Adesignapproachunderliningthedevelopmentofsuchtraditionalresourcesisknownasthe ‘instructionaldesign,’ andan instructionaldesigner ’staskistoarticulatethebestpossibleapproachtoinformationtransferthroughtheapplicationofaffordancesofrepresentationalmediaand determinehowcontentistobepresentedtolearnersthroughaspeci ficmedium (technologyinourcontext).Norman(1988)definesaffordancesas ‘theperceived andactualpropertiesofthething,primarilythosefundamentalpropertiesthat determinejusthowthethingcouldpossiblybeused’ (p.9).ForBarnes(2000), ateacher ’suseofnewtechnologyinteachingandlearningiscarriedoutwitha beliefthatthistechnologywillaffordlearninginsomeway.Similarly,designersof digitalresourcesforlearningwilldesigntheseresourcesbyleveragingaffordances ofrepresentationaltechnologywiththebeliefthatthesewillsupportlearning.Key affordanceofrepresentationaldesignforlearningareaffordancesofvisualization andinteractivity.Variousaspectsoftheseaffordancesareunpackedinthisbook.
Inthepast,therehavebeenseveralwidelyusedinstructionaldesignmodels,and themostpopularamongthemremainsADDIE(Analyze,Design,Develop, Implement,Evaluate),thesystematicdesignofinstructionmodeldevelopedby DickandCarey(1978,1985,1990,1996).Itisunderstoodthattheinstructional designemergedasearlyasinthe1940sfromamilitaryorganization’spracticesof designingsystematicinstruction.Underliningitistheinstructivisttraditionofwhat constituteslearning.Instructivismisbasedonbehavioristlearningtheory,andit referstoateacher-directed,carefullydeveloped,instructionalplanning,sequencing, anddelivery,withthepurposeoftransferofcurriculumcontentinformationto passivelearners.Foralearner,thereislittlespaceforactiveself-discovery, knowledgeconstruction,andreflection.Thus,thecentralfocusofinstructivismis ontransferofthecurriculumcontents(withtheaidofmediaasitisthecasewith
digitalresources),ratherthanonlearningactivities,asitshouldbeinthecontextof pedagogicalpracticessupportingmoderneducation.Sincetheseinitialdays,the instructionaldesignhaschangedverylittle,eventhoughthat,inparticularoverthe last20years,wehavegonethroughsignifi cantdevelopmentintechnologyandthe transformationofteachingandlearning.Thesameoldthinkingaboutteachingasa transmissionofcurriculuminformationfromateacher,orasource,toapassive learnercontinuestobedominantwhendecisionsabouthowlearningtechnologies aretobedesignedandusedaredeterminedbymanydesigners,publishers,and educators.
Important
Designofdigitalresourcesforlearningmustfocusonhowpeoplelearnwith theutilityofsuchmaterialsintheirlearningactivities.Theseactivitiesengage learnerstoworkontasksandexperienceprocessesofknowledgeconstruction anduse,whiledevelopingnewliteraciesatthesametime.
Eventhough,morerecently,thevisualandinteractivecapabilitiesandaffordancesofeducationtechnologyhaveprogressedsigni ficantlywiththedevelopment ofpowerfulprocessingandvideodisplayarchitecture,mobiletechnologies,and softwaretools,verylittleadvancementhasbeendoneoverallinthewayhowdigital resourcesforlearningareconceptualized,designed,andused.
Thereisanurgentneedtodefinepossibilitiesandarticulatestrategiesthatcanbe usefultoteachers,designers,publishers,andresearchersintheirdrivetomodernize educationinlinewiththecontemporarydevelopments.Weneedtothinkofa suitabledesignandstructureofdigitalresourcesthatwouldsupportdeclarative, procedural,andconceptualknowledgedevelopments,aswellasactivitieswhere knowledgeisused,andwherenewliteraciesandskillsfortodayandthefutureare developed.Insteadofrelyingoninstructionaldesignasanunderliningideaforthe designofdigitalresourcesforlearning,weneedtostartadoptingandusingwhatin thisbookiscalled ‘learningdesign.’
Learningdesignplacescentralemphasisuponalearningactivitythatcreates experienceandopportunityforlearnerstoconstructanduseknowledgeand,atthe sametime,developliteraciesandotherskillsfortwenty- firstcenturyparticipation. Digitalresourcesforlearning,intheirmosteffectiveformat,aretoolsusedinthese learningactivities;theyarenotareplacementtoateacher,andtheydonotexplicitly teachandtransfercurriculumcontent.Rather,theseenable,facilitate,andmediate learningactivitiesandempowerlearners.Thisthinkingbringsaboutthefactthatthe centralroleofateacherisnolongerplanningofinstructionalsequences;rather,itis thedesignoflearningactivities,thatis,thelearningdesign.Recently,learning designhasbeenexploredinthecontextofcontemporarypedagogiessuchas constructivistlearningenvironments(e.g.,Cetin-Dindar2016;KwanandWong 2015),problem-basedlearningandproblemsolving(e.g.,Jonassen2011;Savery 2015),engagedlearning(e.g.,Pipere2016),activelearning(e.g.,Chiu2016;
Chiu&Cheng2016;Leeetal.2016),andconceptualchangeapproaches(e.g., Azevedo2015;Decketal.2016;McNeil2015).Underliningtheseisasetof foundationallearningtheoriesandmodels,suchasthefollowing:
• Constructivistlearningenvironment (Jonassen1999).Inthisview,learning shouldbearrangedaroundactivitiesandoccurinanenvironmentthatsupports knowledgeconstruction,asopposedtoknowledgetransmission.Knowledge constructionisaprocesswherestudentsindividuallyconstructtheirunderstandingofthecontentofthecurriculumbasedonexploration,socialengagement,testingofunderstandings,andconsiderationofmultipleperspectives.
• Problemsolving (Jonassen2000).ForJonassen,learningismosteffectivewhen itoccursinthecontextofactivitythatengagesstudentstosolveill-structured, authentic,complex,anddynamicproblems.Thesetypesofproblemsdiffer signifi cantlyfromlogical,well-structuredproblemswithasinglesolution. Thesetypesofproblemsincludedilemmas,casestudies,strategicdecision making,anddesign,allofwhichrequirelearnerstoengageindeepthinking, examinationofmultiplepossibilities,deploymentofmultipletheoreticalperspectives,usesoftools,creationofartefacts,andexplorationofpossiblesolutions.Studentslearnbysolvingcomplexproblemsratherthanbyabsorbing ready-maderules,information,andprocedures.
• Engagedlearning (Dwyeretal.1985–1998).Dwyer,Ringstaff,andSandholtz conductedalongitudinalstudytoinvestigatethemosteffectiveadoptionof Appletechnologyinastudent-centeredlearningenvironment(i.e.,TheApple ClassroomofTomorrow).Thesescholarsarguethattechnologymustserveasa toolforlearning,whichsupportsengagementinactivities,collaboration,and deeplearning.Centraltotheirworkistheconceptof ‘engagedlearning,’ which iscriticalinmakingstudentsmoreactiveintheirlearningandusesof technology.
• Problem-basedlearning (PBL)(SaveryandDuffy1995).SaveryandDuffy proposePBLasanoptimaldesignmodelforstudent-centeredlearning.Similar tothoseabove,PBLbuildsuponconstructivistphilosophyandcontendsthat learningisaprocessofknowledgeconstructionandsocialco-construction.One ofthefeaturesofPBListhatstudentsactivelyworkonactivitieswhichare authentictotheenvironmentinwhichtheywouldbenaturallyused.Thatis, studentsconstructknowledgeincontextswhichreassemblethoseinwhichthey wouldusethatknowledge.Creativity,criticalthinking,metacognition,social negotiation,andcollaborationareallperceivedasacriticalcomponentofaPBL process.OneofthekeycharacteristicsofPBListhatteachersshouldnot primarilybeconcernedwiththeknowledgestudentsconstruct,butshouldfocus, moreattentiontometacognitiveprocesses(awarenessofone’sownthinkingand learning).
• Richenvironmentsforactivelearning (GrabingerandDunlap1997).Similarto SaveryandDuffy,GrabingerandDunlapproposePBLasahighlyeffective educationalintervention.However,intheirapproach,furtherattentionisgiven tothecontextoftheenvironmentinwhichPBLoccurs,consideringthefurther
aspectsofcomponentsandcomplexitiesthatsuchanactivityrequires.Inparticular,emphasisisplaceduponmakingstudentsmoreresponsible,willingto provideinitiatives,reflective,andcollaborativeinthecontextofdynamic, authentic,andgenerativelearning.Thisapproachalsoemphasizestheimportanceofthedevelopmentoflifelonglearningskills(oneoftheimportantskills fortwenty-firstcenturylearning).
• Technology-basedlearningenvironmentsandconceptualchange (Vosniadou etal.1995).Inthisview,thecentralroleoftechnologyistosupportstudents’ conceptualchangesandconceptlearningratherthansimple knowledge/informationtransfer.Studentsconstructmentalmodelsandother internalrepresentationsviaattemptstoexplaintheexternalworld.Students oftenbringpriormisconceptionstolearningsituations.Therefore,learning activitiesoughttobedesignedtocorrectsuchmisconceptions.Technologywill scaffoldnotonlythepresentationofeffectiveexternalrepresentationsofconceptualknowledge,butalsotheexternalizationofinternalrepresentationsso thatteacherscangaininsightintostudents’ knowledgeandunderstanding. Takingamoreconstructivistperspective,technologyresourceswillservethe roleofmediatorinlearningactivities.
• Interactivelearningenvironments (HarperandHedberg1997;Oliver1999).In ordertoservethecomplexityrequiredforlearning,Oliverproposesthata learningmodulemustcontainresources,tasks,andsupport.Forfulllearningto takeplace,ataskmustengagestudentstomakepurpose-specificuseof resources.Theteacher ’sroleistosupportlearning.Theseintegratedcomponentswillleadtointeractivityessentialforlearningtooccur.Harperand Hedbergstronglyemphasizeaconstructivistphilosophyandarguethattechnologyitselfshouldprovideanenvironmentwherelearnerscaninteractwith toolsandeachother.SimilartoJonassen(2000),Hedbergsupports problem-basedapproachesasthemosteffectiveeducationalintervention.
Important
Thisbookisprovidinganin-depthdiscussionofdifferentformsofdigital resourcesforlearning,expandingthetraditionalconceptionofdigital resourcesasinformationcontainers,andincludescategoriessupportingthe 3Dcurriculum,enablingknowledgeuse,aswellasthedevelopmentofnew literaciesandskills.
• Collaborativeknowledgebuilding (BereiterandScardamalia,inpress). KnowledgebuildingisatheoreticalconstructdevelopedbyBereiterandScardamaliatoprovideinterpretationofwhatisrequiredinthecontextofcollaborativelearningactivity.Personalknowledgeisseenasaninternal, unobservablephenomenonandtheonlywaytosupportlearningandunderstand whatistakingplace,andtodealwiththeso-calledpublicknowledge(which representwhatacommunityoflearnersknow).Thispublicknowledgeis
availabletostudentstoworkon,expand,andmodifythroughdiscourse, negotiation,andcollectivesynthesisofideas.Digitalresourceforlearning shouldserveastherepresentationofthepublicknowledge.
• Situatedlearning (Brownetal.1989).Brownandcolleaguesbuilduponthe activitytheoryperspectivetoemphasizethecentralroleofanactivityin learning.Anactivityiswhereconceptualknowledgeisdevelopedandused.Itis arguedthatthissituationproduceslearningandcognition.Thus,activity, resources,andlearningshouldnotbeconsideredasseparatefromalearning design.Learningisaprocessofenculturationwherestudentsbecomefamiliarizedwiththeusesofcognitivetoolsinthecontextofworkingonanauthentic activity.Bothactivityandhowthesetoolsareusedarespecifictoacultureof practice.Conceptsarenotonlysituatedinanactivity,butalsoareprogressively developedthroughit,shapedbyemergingmeaning,culture,andsocial engagement.InVygotsky’sterms,conceptshavehistory,bothpersonaland cultural.Aconceptcanonlybeunderstoodandlearntatapersonallevelthrough theiruseswithinanactivity.Activetoolusesandaninteractionbetweenthese resourcesandactivityleadtoanincreasedandever-changingunderstandingof both,theactivityandthecontextoftooluse,andthetoolitself.Toolusemight differbetweendifferentcommunitiesofpractice,solearninghowtouseatool speci fictoaparticularcommunityisaprocessofenculturation.Howatoolis usedreflectshowthespeci ficcommunityseestheworld.Conceptsalsohave theirownhistoryandareaproductofsocioculturaldevelopmentsandexperienceofmembersofacommunityofpractice.Thus,Brownandcolleagues stronglysuggestthatactivity,concept,andcultureareinterdependent,inthat ‘thecultureandtheuseofatooldeterminethewaypractitionersseetheworld, andthewaytheworldappearstothemdeterminestheculture’sunderstanding oftheworldandofthetools… Tolearntousetoolsaspractitionersusethem,a student,likeanapprentice,mustenterthatcommunityanditsculture’ (p.33). Hence,learningisaprocessofenculturation,wherestudentslearntousea domain’sconceptualtoolsinanauthenticactivity,anddigitalresourcesfor learningshouldserveassuchtools.
• Inquiry-basedlearningsupportedbytechnology. Workunderthisgeneralidea includespracticallyorientedframeworksanddesignguidelinesforbuilding technology-basedlearningmodules,suchastheQuestAtlantis(Barabetal. 2005),MicroLessons(DivaharanandWong2003),ActiveLessons(Churchill 2006),andWebQuest(Dodge1995).Similartothepreviouslydiscussedtheoreticalwork,thisapproachelevatestheimportanceoflearningactivityas criticalforaneffectiveeducationalintervention.Learningbeginswithaninquiry oraproblem(supportedwithamultimediapresentation)beingpresentedto studentsinaninterestingway.Thelearnersarethenassignedtoatask(s), providedwithatemplatetoassisttheminthecompletionofthetask(s),directed toWeb-basedandotherresourcestoassistthem,andcollaborativetoolssuchas discussionplatforms.Mostoften,studentsusedigitalresourcesincompleting
theirtasksandaredirectedtosubmitoutcomesviaelectronicmeans.Asa designmodel,theseapproachesmakeasignificantstepindirectingteachersto moveawayfromthetraditional,content-driven,teacher-centereduseof technology.
Important
Alearningactivityanddevelopmentandusesofconceptualknowledge shouldemergeascentraltoteachingandlearning.Digitalresourcesaloneare notsufficientforfullachievementoflearningoutcomes;rather,alearning activityisthemandatorycondition.
Whatcanbeobservedfromalltheseideasisthatalearningactivityand developmentandusesofconceptualknowledgeshouldemergeascentralto teachingandlearning.Lateron,inthisbook,anentirechapterwillbededicatedto thediscussionofanactivity-basedlearning,withmorespecificemphasisonthe activity-theoreticalperspective(e.g.,Engeström1987).Overall,theproposed approachtodigitalresourcesforlearninginthisbookstronglyalignswithcontemporarytheoriesandresearchandisastrategyfortransformingtraditional teacher-centeredteachingtoalearning-centeredparadigm.Articulatingalearning designuponthesetheoreticalideasleadsustoanimportantconclusionthatdigital resourcesalonearenotsufficientfortheachievementoflearningoutcomes;rather,a learningactivityisthemandatoryconditioninthiscontext.Inthisbook,aspeci fic learningdesignmodelisintroduced.Thatmodeliscalledthe ‘RASE’;onthebasis thatitincludesfourkeycomponents:resources(R),activity(A),support(S),and evaluation(E).Designofalearningexperienceshouldfocusonanactivity(e.g., problemsolving,projects,andinquiries)thatengageslearninginknowledgeconstructionthroughintellectualusesofresourcesservingasmediatingtools(inducing digitalresourcedforlearning).Ateacher ’sroleduringtheimplementationofa learningdesignisthatofafacilitatorsupportinglearners,althoughthisshould graduallyfadeouttoallowlearnerstotakemoreresponsibilitiesanddevelopskills forsupportingtheirown(lifelong)learning.Outcomesofanactivityproducedby learnersmustbeformativelyevaluated,andrecommendationsforimprovements integratedintheir finallearningoutcomes.Althoughthemovecalled ‘learning analytics’ isattemptingtoautomateevaluation,fornow,andlikelyinthefuture, thiswillnotbeeffectivethroughtechnologyalone,andtheinvolvementofteachers andcommunitiesoflearnersisessentialforeffectiveevaluation.
Inthisbook,particularattentionisgiventotwoaffordancesofcontemporary representationaltechnologies:affordancesfor(a)visualizationofinformation,data, andideasthroughthedesignandarrangementsofcolors,lines,shapes,images, symbols,etc.;and(b)interactivityasameansforprovidinglearningwithtoolsfor manipulationandexplorationofinformation,data,orideasthroughtheuseof sliders,buttons,clickableareas,textinputs,etc.Itisarguedthattheseaffordances empowerthedesignofdigitalresourcesforlearning,maximizingrepresentation
throughmultimodalities,and,inparticular,makingpossibleforcomplexconcepts toberepresentedinaformatthatcanbeeffectivelyusefulinthecontextoflearning activities.Furthermore,thisbookexaminesthedesignanddeliveryofdigital resourcesforlearningviamobiletechnologies.Inthe finalchapter,emerging representationalandinteractivetechnologiesareexplored,andsomeproposalson howthesemightinfluencedigitalresourcesforlearningareprovided.Thechapters includeactivitiescarefullyselectedanddesignedtofacilitatetheunderstandingand learningofideaspresentedinthisbook.Throughoutthebook,numerousexamples ofdigitalresourcesforlearning,mostlydesignedbytheauthor,areprovidedand discussed.Theauthorhopesthatthesewillbeusefulandinspirationaltoteachers, publishers,anddesignersofeducationalresourcesandthattheideaspresentedwill leadtopositivechangesinteachingandlearningpractice,aswellastoopen possibilitiesforeffectiveresearchquestionstobeexplored.
HongKongDanielChurchill
References
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Bereiter,C.,&Scardamalia,M.(inpress).Learningtoworkcreativelywithknowledge.InE.De Corte,L.Verschaffel,N.Entwistle,&J.vanMerriënboer(Eds.). Unravellingbasic componentsanddimensionsofpowerfullearningenvironments. EARLIAdvancesinLearning andInstructionSeries.Retrievedfrom http://ikit.org/fulltext/inresslearning.pdf
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Deck,S.M.,Platt,P.A.,&McCord,L.(2016).Engagedteaching-learning:Outcomeevaluation forsocialworkstudentsinagraduate-levelservicelearningresearchcourse. Advancesin SocialWork, 16(2),233–248. Dick,W.,&Carey,L.M.(1978,1985,1990,1996). Thesystematicdesignofinstruction. Glenview,IL:HarperCollinsPublishers. Divaharan,S.,&Wong,P.(2003).Student-centeredlearning:Microlessons.InS.C.Tan(Ed.). Teachingandlearningwithtechnology:anAsia-pacificperspective (pp.182–198).Singapore: PrenticeHall. Dodge,B.(1995). SomethoughtsaboutWebQuests. Retrievedfrom http://webquest.sdsu.edu/ about_webquests.html
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Harper,B.,&Hedberg,J.(1997). Creatingmotivatinginteractivelearningenvironments: Aconstructivistview.Retrievedfrom http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/perth97/papers/ Harper/Harper.html
Jonassen,D.(1999).Designingconstructivistlearningenvironments.InC.M.Reigeluth(Ed.). Instructionaldesigntheoriesandmodels:AnewparadigmofInstructionalTheory (Vol.2, pp.215–239).Hillsdale,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates. Jonassen,D.(2000).Towardsdesigntheoryofproblemsolving. ETR&D,48(4),63–85. Jonassen,D.(2011). Learningtosolveproblems:Ahandbookfordesigningproblem-solving learningenvironments.NewYork:NY:Routledge. Krathwohl,D.R.(2002).ArevisionofBloom’sTaxonomy:Anoverview. TheoryintoPractice, 41(4),212–218.
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3.4.2SpecifyConcept
3.4.3DesignaStoryboardSpecifyingHowaConcept
3.5.1MaximizingContentPresentableinaMinimalScreen
3.5.2ConceptRepresentationResourcesinNon-conceptual
8.1RepositoryofDigitalResourcesforLearning
8.2Web2.0ParadigmandtheSocialWeb
8.3AnExampleofaSystemBasedonWeb2.0Ideasthat CanServeasaModelforaRepositoryofDigitalResources forLearning
8.4WhatIsUsefulfromRISALinRelationtoaRepository ofDigitalResourcesforLearningPresentedinThisBook?
9.5iPadsandotherTablesinEducation
9.6ACaseofDesignofanAppResource:FromaSmall-Screen MobileDevicetoaTabletVersion
9.6.1DevelopmentofaResourceforMobileLearning
EducationalReforms, Learning-CentredEducation andDigitalResourcesforLearning
LearningOutcomes:
• Describewhatisadigitalresourceforlearning;
• Discusskeyideasthatunderlinedigitalresourcesforlearningaspresented inthisbook;
• Describethemainroleofdigitalresourcesinlearning-centredactivities; and
• Classifydigitalresourcesforlearningintodifferentformsaccordingtoa classi ficationbasedondeclarative-procedural-conceptualcurriculum contentknowledgeforms.
1.1IntroductiontoDigitalResourcesforLearning
Thecentralquestionthisbookisattemptingtoaddressiswhatareeffectivedigital resourcesfortoday’steachingandlearning,andhowsuchresourcescanbe designed,developed,used,reusedandmanaged.Inthebook,wewillexploreforms ofdigitalmediaforteachingandlearning.Morespeci fically,thepurposesofthe bookareasfollows:
• Thebookisausefulguideforthedevelopmentofdigitalresourcesforlearning.
• Thebookpresentsasetofpracticalrecommendationsfortheusesofthese resourcesineducationalactivities.Thus,thebookisausefulreferencematerial forteachersinidentifying,usingandreusingdigitalresourcesforlearningin theirteaching.
© SpringerNatureSingaporePteLtd.2017
D.Churchill, DigitalResourcesforLearning,SpringerTextsinEducation, DOI10.1007/978-981-10-3776-4_1
• Thebookisavaluableresourceforthoseteacherswhowishtoconceptualize digitalresourcesfortheirownteaching.
• Thebookisusefulreferencematerialfordigitalmediapublishersanddesigners ofeducationalresourcesasitprovidesauniqueperspectiveandapproachtothe conceptualization,design,developmentanddeploymentofdigitalresourcesfor learning.
• Thebookisausefulguideforresearchersinvestigatinglearningissuessurroundingdesign,developmentanduseofdigitalresourcesforlearning.
Therehasbeenawidespreadabsenceofunderstandingsofwhataredigital resourcesforlearning,theirconnectiontoacurriculum,andtheirlearningusesand management.Often,technologiesanddigitalresourcesaretakensimplyas instructionalmediumforthetransferofexplicitinformationtopassivelearners. EventhemostcontemporaryinitiativessuchasMOOC1 andFlippedClassroom, continuetodeployinformationtechnologiesanddigitalresourcesinawaythat reflectssuchoutdatedpractice.
Digitalresourcesforlearningarebestdescribedastechnology-basedmultimedia contentspeci ficallydesignedforeducational(andtraining)purposes.Therearealot ofdigitalresourcesontheInternetandothersources,designedforvariouspurposes, suchastoprovidenewsinformation,marketingorentertainment.However,digital resourcesforlearningaredesignedwithspecifi cintentiontobeusedforlearning ratherthanforanyotherinformationpurposes.Therefore,theirdesignincludesa focusonhowpeoplelearnwiththeutilityofsuchmediaintheiractivities,andhow suchresourcescanbedesigned,developedandmanagedforthatspeci ficpurpose.
Important
Digitalresourcesforlearningarebestdescribedastechnology-basedmultimediacontentspeci ficallydesignedforeducationandtrainingpurposes.
Herearesomebriefexamplesofwhatmightbeeffectivedigitalresourcesfor learning:
• Learnersarepresentedtoaninteractiverepresentationthatpermitsthemanipulationofparametersandexplorationofrelationships,e.g.,changingsome parametersthatcausepollutionandobservingeffectonclimatechange,or changingparametersrelatedtothemigrationofapopulationandobservingthe impactonregionaleconomies.
1Amassiveopenonlinecourse(MOOC)isacontemporaryapproachtothedevelopmentofonline coursesaimedatwideparticipationandopenaccessviatheInternet.Anumberoftopuniversities intheworldprovideMOOCcoursesforfreetoprospectivestudentsandothersinterestedtolearn specifictopics.TheeducationalqualityofmanyofMOOCsisquestionableasthereisabsenceof anyusefullearningdesignstrategytoguidetheirdevelopment.
Important
Digitalresourcesforlearningaredesignedbasedonfocusonhowpeoplelearn withtheutilityofsuchmediaintheiractivities,andhowsuchresourcescanbe designed,developedandmanagedforthatspeci ficpurpose.
• Data,informationandideasarepresentedmathematically,e.g.,selectingstart andtargetdestinationonthemapandmanipulatingtheaccelerationofavehicle toobtaininformationaboutitsvelocityanddisplacement,orincreasingthe numberofvehiclesinEuropeandobtainingmathematicalorstatisticalrepresentationsoftheamountofcertainpollutantsintheair.
• Data,informationandideasareexpressedinnon-mathematicalways,e.g., manipulatingchangesinsocialwelfareregulationsandobtainingstatementsof opinionsfrompeopleacrossEurope.
• Representationsaremanipulatedgraphically,e.g.,droppinganiconofan electriccoalpowerstationonthemapandobservingthechangeinglobal warmingoversomeareasofChina.
• Data,informationandideasarerepresentedandstructuredininformationnetworksandpop-updisplays,e.g.,rollingamousepointeroveracitytoaccess informationaboutitspopulation,selectingtwoofmorecitiesandobtaining informationaboutthedistancebetweenthem;draggingaslideralongatimeline andaccessingsomehistoricalinformationrelevanttodifferentcountries.
• Dataareaccessedbydragginganiconofathermometerorabarometerand collectingdataaboutweatherconditionsindifferentlocationsonamap.Inthis approach,learnerscouldcollectsomereal-lifedataaboutaphenomenonifthis digitalresourceislinkedtosomemeteorologicaldatasource.Datacouldbe randomizedtoensurethatdifferentlearnersorteamsaccessdifferentquantities andvariousrepresentationsofthese,butremainunifiedwithinamethodof solvingaspecificproblematthecenterofalearningactivitysetforthem.
Theseexamplesillustratehowinteractiveandvisualaffordancesofcontemporaryrepresentationaltechnologiescanbeleveragedtoprovideresourcesthatcanbe usedinlearning(withinactivities).Contemporaryauthoringtools(e.g.,Adobe Flash,HTML5andMITAppInventor)allowadesignertobringinteractivityand visualizationtogetherintoadigitalresourceforlearningthat,forexample,allows themanipulationofparametersandrelationships,oraccesstodataandinformation.
Important
Activitiesarenotbuilt-inorintegralpartsofthedesignofdigitalresourcesfor learning,rather,theseareplannedbyteachersbasedonintendedlearning outcomes.Themosteffectivedigitalresourcesforlearningaretoolsthat mediatelearningactivities.
Themosteffectivedigitalresourcesforlearningarethosedesignedforuse(and reuse)inthecontextoflearning-centeredactivities. 2 Inthiscontext,andforthis book,activitiesarenotbuilt-inorintegralpartsofdigitalresourcesforlearning. Rather,activitiesareplannedbyindividualteachersbasedontheintendedlearning outcomesoftheircurriculum.Thispropositionisthecentralcornerstoneofthe ideaspresentedinthisbook themosteffectivedigitalresourcesforlearningare toolsthatmediatelearningactivities.
Inthisbook,theauthorplacescentralemphasisuponanactivitythatcreatesan experienceandanopportunityforlearnersto(a)constructand(b)useknowledge and,atthesametime,(c)developNewLiteraciesandothergenericskillsfor21st centuryparticipation.Digitalresourcesforlearningaretoolsusedintheseactivities. Thisthinkingbringsaboutthatthecentralroleofateacherisnolongerplanningof instructionalsequences;rather,itisthedesignofactivities,thatis,learningdesign.3
Important
Alearningactivitymustprovideanexperienceandanopportunityfor learnersto(a)constructand(b)useknowledgeand,atthesametime, (c)developNewLiteraciesandothergenericskillsfor21stcentury participation.
Theauthorhopesthatthisbookwillprovideauniquestrategytoadvancedigital learning,notjustteachinginschools,universitiesandotherformaleducation contexts,butalsointhecontextsofconsumerandcorporatetraining,professional developmentandprivatetutoring.Theapproachtotheclassi ficationofdigital resourcesforlearningpresentedinthisbookisauniquestrategy,whichhasnever beenexploredbeforecommerciallyorwithinalargeeducationalsystem.
1.2DigitalResourcesandLearning-CentredEducation
Educationinthecontemporaryworldrequiresthatteacherstransformtheirtraditionalpedagogicalpractices,andbecomelearningdesigners,thatis,toembrace learning-centeredpedagogy.Someaspectsofteacher-centeredpracticearecontrastedtolearning-centeredpracticeinTable 1.1.
2Learning-centeredactivitiesaredesignedtoengagestudentsinworkingontasksandexperience processesofknowledgeconstructionanduse.Anexampleofanactivityisatroubleshootingtask, adesigntaskoracasestudy.Latercharterswillprovidemorein-depthdiscussionofactivityand examples,aswellashowdigitalresourcesforlearningareusedtomediateactivities.
3LearningDesignreferstoastrategyforteachers’ instructionalplanningbasedon learning-centeredpedagogy.
Table1.1 Someaspectsofteacher-centeredandlearning-centeredpractice
Focusofteacher-centeredFocusoflearning-centered
• Learningoffactsanddeclarative knowledge
• Memorizinginformation
• Teacheriscentraltolearning
• Passingthetest/examandachieving thegrade
• Drillingofrightanswersand routines
• Learningtopassexams
• Focusoninformationpresentationto passiveleanings
• Technologyasamediachannel
• Learningfromresourcesand technology
• Learningofconceptualknowledge
• Workingwithinformation
• Activityiscentraltolearning
• Applyingknowledge,theoreticalthinkingand demonstratinggenericskills
• Problem-solving,design,projectworkand inquiries
• Learninghowtolearn
• Focusonhowlearningoccurswithinanactivity
• Technologyasintellectualpartnerinlearning
• Learningwithresourcesandtechnology
Transitiontolearning-centeredpracticesisessentialforreformsofeducation in-linewiththeneedsanddemandsofthe21stcentury.Thefollowingaresomeof thekeyrequirementsforthistransition:
• Overallapproachestoteachingpracticeneedtochangeawayfromthe instructivistandteaching-centeredtowardslearning-centered.Weneedtoensure thatourgraduatesarecompetentlifelonglearners,knowledgeworkersand creativeinnovators,notjustwalkinglibrarieswithinformationpassedtothem throughinstruction.Suchgoalscannotbeachievedthroughtraditionalteaching andlearningpractices.
• Curriculaneedtobewrittenexplicitlytoencounterthreeformsofknowledge including(a)declarative,(b)proceduralknowledge,andmostimportantly (c)conceptual.Furthermore,curriculamustbeexplicitabouthowtheseformsof knowledgeshouldbeusedinthecontextofspeci ficcourses.Usescanrange from(a)recalling,(b)explaining,(c)applying,to(d)innovating.Traditional modelsarebasedoninformationtransferandreproduction,whiletodaythisis notsuffi cientforeducation.Societiesneedgraduateswhoareabletoconstruct andworkwithknowledge,notjustknowalot.
• Astheworldisbecomingmoretechnologicallysophisticated,thereisagrowing needtolearnmoredisciplinaryknowledge.Whileweneedtoteachmoreto learners,thetimeavailableremainsthesame.Thechallenge,therefore,ishowto teachmoreinshortertime notjustcurriculumcontent,butalsoknowledgeuse skill,aswellasotherknowledgeandskillsrequiredformoderndayliving, working,learningandsocializing.
• Atthesametime,educationmustconsiderknowledgeandskillsessentialfor today’sandtomorrow’sgenerationstobeeffectiveparticipantsinsociety.These areNewLiteraciesandothergenericskillsandpractices,suchas,creativity,
Digital Literacy
•The ability to use digital technology, communica on tools or networks to locate, evaluate, use and create informa on
Tool Literacy
•The ability to use tools to manage, consume and create informa on
Tradi onal Literacy
•Reading, wri ng, speaking and listening
Informa on Literacy
•The ability to iden fy what informa on is needed and the ability to locate, evaluate, and use informa on
New Literacies
Media Literacy
•The ability to ques on, analyze, interpret, evaluate, and create media messages.
Cri cal Literacy
•The ability to ques on, challenge and evaluate the meanings and purposes of texts
Visual Literacy
•The ability to understand and produce visual messages
problemsolving,thinkingskills,lifelonglearning,andcollaborationskills. Shortertimeforteachingdisciplinaryknowledgecontentmightbeneededin ordertoallownewliteraciesandknowledgeusestoenterthecurriculuminany effectiveway.Inthiscontext,weneedtoseriouslyrethinkabouttheformsof educationalcontentandtheiruses(activities),howtoteachmoreinashorter timeandyetatgreaterdepthofunderstanding,andhowtominimizematerial butmaximizelearningthrougheffectivedesignandusesofresources.
Figure 1.1 presentsvariousaspectsofNewLiteraciesthataremorespecifi cally relatedtotoday’sinformationsociety.
Fig.1.1 Newliteraciesfor21stcentury’sinformationsociety
Thereisaneedforapracticalframeworkandaguidingmodelforteachershow tobestutilizedigitalresourcesforlearningandachievelearningoutcomesofthe multidimensionalcurriculum.4 Suchaframeworkistoserveasapowerful intervention,aligningeducationprofessionalstotransformtraditionalpracticesand promotealearning-centeredculture.Thisframeworkiselaboratedinthelaterparts ofthisbook.Thebookproposessuchaframeworkinthelaterchapters.Howdo digitalresourcesforlearning,aspresentedinthisbook,assisttransitionto learning-centerededucation?Herearesomekeyissuestoconsider:
• Digitalresourcesforlearningshouldbedesignedaccordingtothethreetypesof curriculumknowledgecontent,thatis,theseresourcescannotonlybedesigned tosupportthelearningofdeclarativeandproceduralknowledge,rather,and moreimportantly,digitalresourcesforlearningcanbedesignedtosupportthe developmentoffundamentalconceptsthatcontributetoanessentialbaseof disciplinaryandcross-disciplinaryknowledge.
Important
Digitalresourcesalonearenotsuffi cientforfullachievementoflearning outcomes.InadditiontoResources,whendevelopingalearningdesign, teachersneedtoconsiderActivity,SupportandEvaluation(RASE).
• Digitalresourcesforlearningshouldbedesignedinawaythatsupports activitieswhereknowledgeiscreatedandused,notjustforthetransferof knowledgecontent.Inthiscontext,digitalresourcesforlearningcanserveas toolsthatmediateactivitieswherelearningoccurs,andshapelearners’ thinking anddecision-making.Inotherwords,digitalresourcesforlearningcanbe practicallyuseableknowledgerepresentationswithinactivitieswherelearners engagein(a)analyticalprocessestogeneralizeandabstractconceptsandideas basedonaffordancesofdigitalresourcesforlearning,and(b)theapplicationof anycognitiveresidueemerginginthatprocesses.
• Digitalresourcesforlearningshouldbedesignedtosupportactivitiesleadingto developmentofNewLiteracies.Inthissense,digitalresourcesforlearning shouldnotsimplypresentinformationinaconvenientmanner.Rather,these shouldrequirelearnerstoapplytheirliteracies,suchasvisual,mediaandcritical literacyinordertoextractmeaning.Furthermore,digitalresourcesforlearning shouldbedesignedtosupportactivitiesthatfacilitateNewLiteracypractices
4Themultidimensionalcurriculumfocusesonthreedimensions:(a) knowledgecontent declarative,conceptualandprocedural,(b) knowledgeuse recalling,explaining,applyingand innovating,and(c) newliteracies asessentialpracticesinknowledgecreationanduseswiththe deploymentofemergingtechnologiesandpractices.
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As I, building the altars of their souls
To something that is nameless in a name, And, like a bell upon the night-tide, tolls Setting them midst their capers all to pray.
3.
This something seems at times of less import Than what is built thereto. The altars rise Immeasurable records of surmise; The achievement is indeed of the great sort, The length of their magnificence not short, But in our wonder at their grace and size Can we forget they were fashioned for your eyes, Or make of those oblivion in our sport!
Oh no, the idolater finds the idol still, Though there be pyramids to dazzle him, And paintings of high art along the wall, Still there is left the goddess young and slim, Her lips still breathe, her breasts still rise and fall,— He kills himself, if her he tries to kill.
4.
But these my friends like other men do eat, And sleep, and spend most merrily their while Upon this lily-earth; their hours beguile Each other, each with a memory to repeat. And if by chance they do a noble feat It is for them the subject of a smile, For they know well at some uncertain mile Staunch military Death will blow retreat.
Till in a moment they are one with me, And Love has conquered in an unseen way The turrets and the bulwarks of their dreams. No longer is to-morrow yesterday,
Nor life the pagan paradox it seems, And they are begging immortality.
5.
Immortal girl, what I have said in mirth About these people,—it is true of me, Only they live still rich in poverty, While I am one beyond the reach of earth. These, of their parent clay, still weigh the worth, And hesitate to plunge into the sea. But I, the sooner lost, have found in thee A new and an eternal kind of birth.
Because your eyes are flaming, and must burn, Your body fire that kills, your beauty death, I love, worshipping that which I desire. Icarus knew no more: I breathe thy breath, And touch thy hair;—if I to dust return At least I shall be cinders, you still fire.
MAXWELL E. FOSTER.
