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C R E AT I V I T Y A N D

ENGL ISH L ANGUAGE

TEACHING:

F R O M I N S P I R AT I O N T O

I M P L E M E N TAT I O N

AL AN MAL EY AN D TAMAS KISS

Creativity and English Language Teaching

Alan Maley • Tamas Kiss

Creativity and English Language Teaching From Inspiration to Implementation

Alan Maley The C Group Fordwich, UK

Tamas Kiss Xi’an Jiaotong - Liverpool University Suzhou, China

ISBN 978-1-137-46728-7 ISBN 978-1-137-46729-4 DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-46729-4

(eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017949958 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018 The author(s) has/have asserted their right(s) to be identified as the author(s) of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: ARCTIC IMAGES / Alamy Stock Photo Cover Design by Jenny Vong Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Macmillan Publishers Ltd. The registered company address is: The Campus, 4 Crinan Street, London, N1 9XW, United Kingdom

Acknowledgements

We are most grateful to the following for their help and advice: J.D. Brown, Ron Carter, Gavin Dudeney, John Fanselow, Vivian Gladwell, Marc Helgesen, Peter Lutzker, Peter Medgyes, Freda Mishan, N.S. Prabhu, Luke Prodromou, Carol Read, Nick Saville, Brian Tomlinson, Adrian Underhill, Nic Underhill, Andrew Wright.

We would also like to acknowledge the role of Dr. Tan Bee Tin in an earlier version of this book.

Posthumous thanks go to Alan Duff, for his creative inspiration before creativity became a fashionable concept.

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Summary of the Book

Part 1 analyses and discusses general creativity theory, creativity in education, in applied linguistics, methodology and teaching materials. In Part 2 we define the key characteristics of the creative teacher and go on to offer practical suggestions for becoming both a more creative person and teacher. In Part 3 we suggest the pre-conditions and frameworks for classroom application. In Part 4 we discuss research implications and suggest some directions for future research.

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Contents

1 Introduction 1 References 3

Part 1 Creativity: Concept to Product

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2 Creativity Theory 7 Wallas and the Four-Stage Process 7 Rhodes and the 4 Ps of Creativity 8 Koestler and Bisociation 9 Boden and Conceptual Spaces 11 Csikszentmihalyi: Individual Talent, Domains and Fields 16 Gardner and the Nature of Genius 19 Amabile and Social/Environmental Factors 20 Bateson and Martin and Playfulness 23 Nachmanovitch and Improvisation 27 Storr and Madness 30 Johnson and the Origin of New Ideas 30 Gladwell and the Spread of Ideas 35 Creativity Surveys and Trends 36 References 43 ix

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Contents

3 Creativity and Education 47 From Earlier Philosophers and Theorists 49 More Recent Critical Accounts 51 General Educational Dissenters 54 Ken Robinson 56 The Experimenters 57 Educational Creativity 60 Beghetto and ‘Creativity in the Classroom’ 61 Autobiographical Accounts and Memoirs 63 Concluding Thoughts 64 References 65 4 Creativity and Applied Linguistics 69 Creativity in Language and Language Learning 70 Creative Impact on the Domain 85 References 88 5 Creativity and Methodology 93 Macro-Level Changes 94 The Big Three: Technology, Testing and Materials 102 The Designer Methods 108 Micro-Level Creative Innovation 113 Comments on Methodology 117 References 118 6 Creativity in Materials and Resources 125 Related to Content 125 Visuals 126 Literature 126 Creative Writing 127 Storytelling 127 Music 127 Drama/Voice 128 Translation 128

Contents

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Related to Processes 129 Closing Comments 131 References 132

Part 2 Focus on the Teacher

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7 What Is a Creative Teacher? 139 Our Survey Data 142 Ur Survey Data 153 Prodromou Survey 155 References 158 8 Becoming a Creative Person 161 Getting Ready 162 Closing Thoughts 177 References 178 9 Becoming a Creative Teacher 181 The Heart of the Matter 182 Some Specific Activities to Develop Creative Spontaneity 188 Yes, But… 193 References 198

Part 3 Focus on the Classroom

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10 Pre-conditions for Classroom Creativity 205 What Creative Teachers Do 206 Dörnyei’s Motivational Strategies 207 Read’s Reflective Teacher Wheel 209 Achieving a Creative Climate in the Classroom 212 References 216

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Contents

11 Some Possible Frameworks and Procedures 219 Some Principles for Developing More Creativity 221 Some Frameworks and Typologies 224 Using Creativity Theory: The Four Ps, Guilford and Boden 225 Inputs/Processes/Outcomes Model 227 Inputs 229 Processes 230 Outcomes 231 Generative Procedures 232 Expansion 233 Reduction 233 Reconstruction 233 Repetition 234 Reformulation 234 Questioning 235 Matching 235 Selection/Ranking 236 Media Transfer 236 Comparison/Contrast 237 Interpretation 237 Creating Text 238 Performance 238 Visualisation 239 Analysis 239 Adapting Materials 240 Student-Made Materials 242 Concluding Remarks 244 References 244 Part 4 Research on Creativity

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12 Measuring Creativity 251 Research Methodologies 252 References 260

Contents

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13 Research into Creativity 263 Person Creativity 263 Process Creativity 273 Product Creativity 281 Press Creativity 286 Closing Thoughts on Creativity Research in ELT 291 References 294 14 Network Analysis of Research Papers on Creativity in ELT 299 Methodology 301 Analysis 302 Who Are Linked?

308 Central Papers 312 Summary 313 References 314 15 Suggestions for Further Research 317 Individual Creativity Versus Collaborative Creativity 317 Complex Dynamic Systems and Creativity 318 Critical Pedagogy, Critical Literacy, Knowledge Building 319 Curriculum and Syllabus 320 Language Testing and Creativity 322 Learners’ Perception of Creativity 322 Creativity and Language Teacher Education 323 Reward, Praise, Feedback and Evaluation 323 Competition Versus Collaboration 324 Summary 324 References 325 16 Conclusion 327 References 329 Index 331

List of Figures

Fig. 10.1 Fig. 14.1 Fig. 14.2 Fig. 14.3 Fig. 14.4 Fig. 14.5

Read’s reflective teacher wheel Gephi graph of the links between research papers and their references ForceAtlas2 spatialisation of the network The central cluster of the network with colour-coded communities Final network map after in-degree size adjustment and filtering applied Central papers labelled in the network map

210 303 304 306 307 312

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List of Tables

Table 7.1 Table 7.2 Table 7.3 Table 11.1 Table 13.1 Table 13.2 Table 14.1 Table 14.2

Concepts of a creative teacher; survey analysis Teaching experience of survey participants Qualities of creative teachers (Prodromou, 2002) Inputs, processes and outcomes model (Maley, 2011) Operationalising creativity in Albert and Kormos’ (2004) research Pedagogy of the possible: guidelines for practice (Murray, 2013, p. 392) Example of citation and weight in research papers Most cited research papers in creativity in ELT research

146 151 155 228 269 279 301 310

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List of Boxes

Box 2.1 Box 2.2 Box 2.3 Box 2.4 Box 2.5 Box 2.6 Box 3.1 Box 3.2 Box 4.1 Box 5.1 Box 7.1 Box 7.2 Box 7.3 Box 8.1 Box 8.2 Box 8.3 Box 8.4 Box 8.5 Box 8.6

Conceptual Spaces and Creative Processes Boden and Creativity Csikszentmihalyi’s Characteristics of Creative Individuals Stimulants to Creativity Environmental Obstacles to Creativity Advantages of Creative Activity Differences Between Education as Control and Education as Liberation Criticism of Public Education Jones (2016b) on Creativity and Language Testing Versus Evaluation Attributes, Authenticity and Atmosphere in Teacher Training The ‘My Teacher’ Project (Maley, 2010) Qualities of Teachers Their Students Remember Ideas for Meditation Exercises Stimulating Readings to Spark New Ideas Techniques for Developing Visual Awareness Techniques for Developing an Ability to Hear and Listen Techniques for Enhancing the Perception of Taste Techniques to Enhance the Sensation of Touch

12 14 16 22 22 40 48 59 79 104 140 156 156 166 169 171 174 175 176

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Box 9.1 Box 11.1 Box 11.2

List of Boxes

Guidelines for Spontaneity in the Classroom (Underhill, 2014b, p. 69) Guidelines for Making Teaching Materials Creative and Effective General Principles of Creativity to be Used in Materials Design

185 220 220

1 Introduction

Why did we decide to write this book? Because we believe passionately in the centrality of creativity in language education, in learning in general and in life itself. This is not to say that creativity is the only important factor in language learning—but without it the quality of the learning experience is seriously depleted. Creativity is not simply an optional add­on to what we do but is its very essence.

We wrote it too because creativity is so widely regarded as a desirable thing to have, in virtually every field. From fashion to architecture, from hand-held devices to gardening, from management to education, from computer games to interior design, everyone seems to believe that creativity is ‘a good thing’. It also comes top of Maslow’s pyramid and Bloom’s Taxonomy. And Ken Robinson proclaims that “creativity is the new literacy”. Unfortunately, when a term becomes a buzzword, its meaning is progressively blurred by its use in so many different contexts.

Creativity shares this erosion of clarity with a whole range of other words in popular use: identity, culture, communicative, democracy, motivation, quality—and so on. So one of our aims in writing this book is to try to define a little more clearly just what creativity might mean.

© The Author(s) 2018 A. Maley, T. Kiss, Creativity and English Language Teaching, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-46729-4_1

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1 Introduction

This is particularly important when, on closer examination, the concept proves frustratingly difficult to define concisely and accurately.

Creativity is something we readily recognise in concrete instances yet find a slippery customer when asked to define it in abstract terms. As Amabile (1996, p. 33), in one of the core texts on creativity, admits, “a clear and sufficiently detailed articulation of the creative process is not yet possible.” And she adds that “the nature of creativity is such that a complete and useful theory of creativity cannot be a single, simple theoretical statement” (p. 270). It is therefore perhaps preferable to regard creativity as a cluster of characteristics, along the lines of Wittgenstein’s (2001) notion of ‘family resemblances’. This means that here is a whole range of possible defining characteristics, but only some may be in play in any one instance.

For those in need of a clear definition, there now seems to be a consensus around Sternberg’s three key conditions for defining an act as creative: novelty, quality and relevance (Kaufman & Sternberg, 2010, p. xiii). The need for creative ideas also to be relevant is clearly a key criterion. Novelty alone is not enough.

In addition to outlining at least some of the defining traits of creativity, we will also aim to identify and bring together the factors which favour creativity, particularly in the domain of language education, not least the role of the teacher. These will underpin much of the material in Parts 2 and 3. Necessarily, we shall also draw attention to factors which constrain or discourage the exercise of creativity.

In Part 1, we shall review a variety of existing work in the field of creativity. In Chap. 2 we analyse work in general creativity theory and, from there in Chap. 3, pass to the field of education. Narrowing the field, in Chap. 4, we then review work in applied linguistics, then move on in Chap. 5 to language methodology and the role creativity has played in its development. Finally, in Chap. 6, we look at some concrete applications of creativity in published language teaching materials. In Part 1, then, there is a progressive narrowing of focus in two senses: from theoretical to practical, and from general to languageteaching specific. In this way we hope to winnow out the essential nature of creativity and the conditions which favour its development, as well as its potential benefits.

References

3

Along the way, we hope to explore the relationship between creativity and play, creativity and scientific and artistic invention and discovery, creativity and the unconscious, and creativity and learning.

Part 2 focuses on teachers. In Chap. 7, we first attempt to define what qualities characterise creative teachers, based on a number of surveys, including one we conducted ourselves. We then pass in Chap. 8 to a consideration of ways in which teachers can become more creative persons.

Our argument is simply that unless teachers as individuals have themselves developed a creative mind-set, they are unlikely to be able to graft creativity on to their daily practice. Chapter 9 focuses on ways of helping teachers integrate more creative ideas into their teaching and developing their personal creativity both within and beyond training programmes.

One key area for discussion is the need for teachers to develop strategies for dealing with the unpredictability which is at the heart of teaching through improvisation and spontaneity.

In Part 3 we first discuss, in Chap. 10, the basic prerequisites for bringing about a creative classroom. In Chap. 11, we offer some frameworks and principles for applying them to materials design. We refer back to some of the principles derived from Part 1. The focus here will be on designing materials which will stimulate creativity in the students, including the ways students themselves can contribute to generating their own materials.

Finally, in Part 4, we will consider how classroom research and inquiry might contribute to the greater application of creative ideas and practices.

Chapter 12 discusses some general issues in creativity research. In Chap.

13, we review some of the existing research in English language teaching on creativity. Chapter 14 provides a network analysis of research, with some intriguing findings. Finally, in Chap. 15 we offer suggestions for some possible research projects.

References Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in context. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Kaufman, J. C., & Sternberg, R. J. (2010). The Cambridge handbook of creativity. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Wittgenstein, L. (2001). Philosophical investigations. Oxford: Blackwell.

Part 1 Creativity: Concept to Product

2 Creativity Theory

In this chapter we shall examine the contributions of a wide variety of people who have thought deeply and long about the nature of creativity.

Some are professional scholars and researchers, others more popular and accessible. The literature on creativity is now vast, so we have had to be very selective in our choice of work to discuss. We hope nonetheless to have included work which has made major contributions to our understanding of the complex phenomenon which is creativity.

Wallas and the Four-Stage Process Among the earliest modern attempts to understand creativity were Wallas’ (1926/2014) ideas. Basing his scheme on the earlier work of Helmholz (1896), he outlined a four-stage process: Preparation, Incubation, Illumination and Verification. Given a ‘problem’, ‘puzzle’ or ‘conceptual space’, the creative mind first prepares itself by soaking up all the information available. Following this first Preparation stage, there is a stage of Incubation, in which the conscious mind stops thinking about the problem, leaving the unconscious to take over. In the third stage, Illumination, © The Author(s) 2018 A. Maley, T. Kiss, Creativity and English Language Teaching, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-46729-4_2

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a solution suddenly presents itself (if you’re lucky!). In the final Verification stage, the conscious mind needs to check, clarify, elaborate on and present the insights gained. From Wallas, we can conclude that in the classroom too, there is a need to provide rich and copious information (input), and plenty of time to process it. Equally, there is a need to verify and assess what has been produced to see if it meets the condition of relevance.

Rhodes and the 4 Ps of Creativity In 1961, Rhodes published the paper which has given rise to one of the most influential characterisations of creativity to date. In it he proposed four foci for creativity, namely person, process, press and product. “The term person, as used here, covers information about personality, intellect, temperament, physique, traits, habits, attitudes, self-concept, value systems, defence mechanisms, and behaviour” (Rhodes, 1961, p. 307). This has been highly productive in studies focusing on the characteristics of creative people as we shall see in the work of Csikszentmihalyi and Gardner below.

“The term process applies to motivation, perception, learning, thinking, and communication” (Rhodes, 1961, p. 308). Wallas’ (1926/2014) four-stage process described above is a good example of process. So too are Finke’s (1996) distinction between ‘chaotic’ and ‘ordered’ thinking, Boden’s (2001) combinational, exploratory and transformational thinking (see below), and the notion of idea generation and idea exploration phases in Finke, Ward and Smith (1992).

“The term press refers to the relationship between human beings and their environment” (Rhodes, 1961, p. 308). This notion and the word ‘press’ are rather common in the field of education. A number of creativity theorists have elaborated on the importance of the material and social environment as a stimulus or a constraint on creativity, including some we shall discuss below (Amabile, 1996).

“The word idea refers to a thought which has been communicated to other people in the form of words, paint, clay, metal, stone, fabric, or

Koestler and Bisociation

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other material. When an idea becomes embodied into tangible form it is called a product” (Rhodes, 1961, p. 309). In language teaching, the main products will be written samples of the language, though other forms of creative products are also included—oral performances, digital, multimedia and multimodal artefacts.

Koestler and Bisociation Koestler, in The act of creation (1964), suggests that the creative process operates through the bisociation of two conceptual matrices, not normally found together. He believed that putting together two (or more) things that do not normally belong together can facilitate a sudden new insight. As an example of this, he explores in detail the way humour functions, since humour often works by setting up expectations within one matrix, then confounds these expectations by placing them in a different matrix. For example, in this joke, One old woman is talking to another: ‘Do you know what happened the other day?’

‘No, what?’

‘I sent my husband Bill out into the garden to get a cabbage for lunch. And he fell down dead.’

‘So what did you do?’

‘I opened a tin of peas instead.’

Here two frames or matrices are brought together: lunch is a relatively minor matter; one’s husband’s death is deadly serious. We anticipate a serious response but instead, the wife reverts to the trivial frame of food.

It is the surprise we experience in having our expectations overturned which triggers the laughter following a joke.

Puns work in a similar way, forcing us to see one meaning, then another, in much the same way that Gestalt pictures cause our eyes to interpret the same picture in two radically different ways as we shift from one framework to another. Puns and other word play are routinely used in advertising, journalism and politics.

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One of the most famous political campaign posters of all time was the Conservative party’s 1979 ‘Labour isn’t working’ slogan: a complex play on words. ‘Labour’ is a political party but the word ‘labour’ also means ‘work’. So the slogan can be interpreted in several different ways: The Labour party is not doing its job (isn’t working hard enough) What the Labour party is doing as its work is not bringing results. If you vote for the Labour party you will be unemployed (Labour = not working).

Bisociation was also one of the key principles of the surrealist movement in art, photography, music, film, theatre and literature which flourished mainly in Paris in the 1920s and 1930s. Many of their experiments were based on the idea of bringing together two unrelated or incompatible frameworks in a random way to produce something new. Marcel Duchamp’s toilet re-framed as a piece of found sculpture and Picasso’s bull sculpture made by combining the handlebars (horns) and saddle of a bicycle (face) are cases in point. The surrealists emphasised the importance of the unconscious mind, especially dreams, of playing around and experimenting, of re-framing things and of seeing ordinary things from unusual viewpoints. They also explored the creative potential of constraints: one novelist (Perec, 1969) wrote an entire novel without using the letter ‘e’, for example. There are lessons we can learn from the surrealists too.

Koestler (1964) also explores the role of incubation—letting the mind loose to wander and freely associate, turning off conscious attention to the task and leaving room for the subconscious to do its work. He discusses the role of the subconscious and unconscious mind, including the phenomenon of sleep, dreams and the hypnagogic state half way between sleeping and waking. He notes that visualisation is a powerful factor in ‘seeing’ solutions to complex problems, citing many scientific cases in support of this, such as Faraday visualising electrical lines of force, or Kekule visualising the benzene molecule as a snake eating its own tail (the legendary Urobolus).

He emphasises the role of re-framing a problem or phenomenon— that is, seeing something familiar in a new way. “The originality of genius…consists in shifts of attention to aspects previously ignored; in

Boden and Conceptual Spaces

11

seeing appearances in a new light, in discovering new relations and correspondences” (Koestler, 1964, p. 392). He notes that conventional thinking comes in the way of such creative re-framing. We tend to accept too readily that what is habitual is correct and normal. Hence there is a tension between originality and convention: “The symbol of creativity is the magic wand which Moses used to make water come out of the rock; its reverse is the faulty yardstick which turns everything it touches into dust” (Koestler, 1964, p. 409).

Koestler’s (1964) book is now somewhat dated but many of the ideas it sets out recur in later literature and continue to be relevant. Some of these ideas can be put to use in the classroom through applying the random principle (see below) to create new and unexpected connections, using the re-framing principle, and free association of words and images.

Boden and Conceptual Spaces In contrast to Koestler (1964), Boden (1992) takes an AI (artificial intelligence) approach to investigating creativity. She asks what a computer would need to do to replicate human thought processes, and in particular whether a computer could demonstrate intuition. (This has recently been demonstrated by the Go competition in which a computer beat a champion human player.) Her focus on AI, however, need concern us only insofar as it offers insights into the creative processes which humans engage with. She refers to the self-organising properties of complex, generative systems through processes such as parallel distributed processing.

For her, creativity arises from the systematic exploration of a conceptual space or domain (e.g. mathematical, musical, linguistic). She draws attention to the importance of constraints in this process. “Far from being the antithesis of creativity, constraints on thinking are what make it possible” (Boden, 1992, p. 82). Chaos theory (Gleick, 1987) tends to support her ideas. We need a rich and varied ‘soup’ inside the conceptual bowl to increase the possibility of creative collisions and the release of new flavours. Boden’s (1992) approach is richly suggestive for language acquisition, materials writing and for teaching, in that all are rooted in complex,

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self-organising systems. The relationship between language acquisition and chaos theory is explored in depth in Ellis and Larsen-Freeman (2009).

And Thornbury (2001) makes reference to language/grammar emerging from the whirlpool of input.

Box 2.1: Conceptual Spaces and Creative Processes Boden (1992) makes much use of the idea of ‘conceptual spaces’ within which ideas are manipulated and tried out, taking account of contextual constraints, until a creative ‘solution’ to the ‘problem’ or issue in question is found. When thinking about this issue, my mind was almost saturated with Boden, yet I could not see a neat way of making these ideas clear to a reader unfamiliar with them. This is a brief personal account of how I ‘solved’ one creative problem at the micro level (the limerick) and simultaneously found what I hope is a solution to the macro problem above (how to explain conceptual spaces).

Boden (1992) refers at one point to what happens inside the brain when we are asked to complete a limerick starting with a given first line. In this case: There was a young lady from Brighton.

Having been re-reading Boden’s book The creative mind (1992) for much of the day, I went to bed at midnight. I woke at 04.30, turned on BBC 3’s Through the Night to a low volume. This programme plays classical music all night. I then lay and allowed my brain to ramble across the limerick problem set by Boden.

Because I have read many limericks and even written a few, I was subconsciously aware of the contextual constraints: there are five lines, the rhyme scheme has to be AABBA, the lines have to scan—lines 1, 2 and 5 have 3 stresses, lines 3 and 4 have 2 stresses. Additionally, the content has to be humorous, and preferably contain sexual or scatological images. ‘Clean’ limericks are not half as much fun as ‘dirty’ ones. In fact, they would hardly qualify as limericks at all.

In my hypnagogic state, half way between sleeping and waking, with the music playing softly as a background, I let my brain play with many possibilities for completing the limerick. I could even visualise the limerick in a room with all the possibilities flying around it like butterflies. The brain automatically engages with the content suggested by different rhyming words, compares them, makes choices among them by induction, finds new associations between ideas, makes new analogies, and is constantly sifting and re-combining ideas until there is some kind of closure or fit.

Boden and Conceptual Spaces

This is a summary of just some of the ideas (there were many more than I have listed) which went through my head: There was a young lady from Brighton / Who sometimes wore clothes that would frighten/ but what about the last line? Tighten? Mm. Let’s try another one. Who loved to have something to bite on/ So when her male chum/Presented his bum/ but what about the last line again? She sank her teeth into…into what? Doesn’t work. Let’s try, Who wanted her buttocks to tighten/ Because when she was viewed/ Standing there in the nude/People said …No. Never mind. Let’s just listen to the music for a bit. Who used her new sofa to fight on? No, I can’t see where that one would go … Who always made love with the light on. That’s better. So… She explained to her chum/ When I want to come… Now that last line again… Without light I think I’d be frightened. OK but I don’t like the extra‘d’ on the end of ‘frighten’. Lighten? Tighten? Brighten? Sight on? How about ‘heighten’?

With the light on my responses heighten? Still a bit awkward. Maybe, With the light on my sensations heighten. Better rhythmic fit – I think that’s it. I like the repetition of the sound [ai] in the same line – light on and heighten.

Let’s just check if it scans.

Here we go: There was a young lady from Brighton, Who always made love with the light on.

She explained to her chum, ‘When I want to come, With the light on, my sensations heighten.’

When I woke up it was 08.00. And I immediately realised that the solution to the macro problem was to do what I have just done, namely to report my mental experiences in solving the micro problem. They illustrate how a conceptual space—the limerick form—is like a room in the brain where multiple alternatives can be played around with within a set of formal and content-driven constraints. To do this the brain has already to be primed with a lot of information and experience about the problem in hand. You can’t write a limerick if you don’t know what a limerick is. It then needs time to juggle possibilities in an unhurried, relaxed way till it recognises a ‘fit’. Perhaps music can facilitate this process by helping to relax the brain and to allow unrelated ideas to fuse. Visualisation almost certainly helps too.

There is also a link here to one of the popular characterisations of the dimensions of creativity referred to by Csikszentmihalyi and Gardner (among others). They depict it as a triangle between Individual talent, the specialist Domain in which it operates, and the Field, comprising the other

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workers in the same domain. In my experience above, clearly I was exercising my individual talent (such as it is), in the Domain of poetry (subdomain, limericks) and with consideration of the expectations and judgements my readers in the Field.

Of course, writing a limerick is a relatively trivial instance of creative thinking—but I believe the process would be similar with more serious ‘problem spaces’. Readers may care to try this out with a ‘conceptual space’ of their own choosing?

Boden’s (1992) text is dense and often obscure but there is no need to follow her into the thickets of her arguments in favour of an AI approach— and in any case, the AI programmes she refers to have long since been superseded. The following points are the most relevant for our purposes here: Box 2.2: Boden and Creativity • Ideas do not come from nowhere. “Insights do not come from the gods – and they do not come from nowhere either” (p. 18); • They often come to us when we are thinking about something else; • They are often formed on the basis of extensive ‘tacit knowledge’ (Polanyi, 1966/2009). This is the kind of expert knowledge acquired from long familiarity with a given domain or field; • There is great value in ‘playing around’; “nothing is more natural than ‘playing around’ to gauge the potential – and the limits – of a given way of thinking” (Boden, 1992, p. 46). “creativity has much in common with play” (p. 46). Another term for playing around is ‘exploration’. The links between creativity and play are dealt with in more detail below (Bateson & Martin, 2013); • Constraints are important. “Constraints on thinking do not merely constrain, but also make certain thoughts – certain mental structures – possible” (Boden, 1992, p. 46). “a creative genre can be based on precisely specifiable rules” (p. 77). We can think of constraints as the nozzle which shapes the fluidity of thought and gives it force; • Chance is important but we also need the specialist knowledge and experience which will make it possible to recognise it. “chance with judgment can give us creativity; chance alone, certainly not” (p. 221). Or, in Pasteur’s words, “Fortune favours the prepared mind”;

Boden and Conceptual Spaces

15

• Heuristics, such as ‘consider the negative’ are a powerful way of generating ideas. They can be used “to prune the search tree. That is, they save the problem-solver from visiting every point on the tree, by selectively ignoring parts of it” (p. 78); • So too are analogy and metaphor. But to function effectively, they need to be based on experience, information and expertise in the domain.

Both analogy and metaphor are often linked with visual and spatial mental representations; • Induction, involving the ability rapidly to compare, analyse and select relevant items is also a key process. This is one thing AI programmes are designed to do; • Semantic networks of associations are another way of generating ideas, where one item links to another in a potentially endless chain of associated ideas; • Scripts (Schank & Abelson, 1977) and frames are helpful in organising semantic networks; • Chaos theory (Gleick, 1987) can offer suggestive directions for thinking about creativity—and about teaching, in particular the way that small events can have disproportionately large consequences; • Mere novelty is not the same as creativity. “Even everyday P-creativity requires that systematic rule-breaking and rule-bending be done in domain-relevant ways” (Boden, 1992, p. 254); • Everyone has the potential to be creative. “creativity … based in ordinary abilities we all share, and in practised expertise to which we can all aspire” (p. 256).

Boden (2001) later developed her threefold typology of creativity processes: combinatorial, exploratory and transformational. Combinatorial creativity consists of associating old ideas to create something new. Using the analogy of cooking, an example would be fusion cuisine, where two or more distinctive cuisines are blended into a distinctive new one.

Exploratory creativity is about exploring the conceptual space within the existing system of rules to find new arrangements. Using cooking again, it could involve experimenting with longer or shorter cooking times, or with the temperature at which dishes are served (such as cold soup, or fried ice cream) or new ingredients in old dishes (such as vegetarian cutlets). Transformational creativity involves a wholesale alteration of rules to bring about a whole new perspective. For example, the invention of the microwave oven transformed the way food can be prepared, or how dry-­ freezing food items transformed cooking practices.

16

2 Creativity Theory

sikszentmihalyi: Individual Talent, Domains C and Fields Csikszentmihalyi (1990) takes a multidimensional view of creativity as an interaction between individual talent, operating in a particular domain or discipline, and judged by experts in that field. He also has interesting observations about the role of ‘flow’ in creativity: the state of ‘effortless effort’ in which everything seems to come together in a flow of seamless creative energy (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). This can be related to the earlier work of Craik and Lockhart (1972) on ‘depth of processing’, which demonstrated how we retain better what we have acquired through more engaging, complex and psychologically demanding processes.

Csikszentmihalyi (1996) further explores creativity through analysing interviews with 91 exceptional individuals, and isolates ten characteristics of creative individuals. He concludes that creative people live highly complex lives, which manage to combine apparently conflicting characteristics:

Box 2.3: Csikszentmihalyi’s Characteristics of Creative Individuals • They are possessed of high levels of energy, yet manage to switch off for rest and reflection. Paradoxically, it is in these periods of rest that many creative ideas are born.

• They are both smart (i.e. highly intelligent) but also naïve, in the sense that they see things in a child-like way, which brings them to question what is ‘obvious’ to others.

• They are highly playful (see also Bateson and Martin (2013), below) but also demonstrate incredible discipline and persistence in working through the practical implications of their creative insights. One is reminded of Picasso’s declaration, “Je ne cherche pas. Je trouve” (I don’t search, I find), highlighting the role of ‘inspiration’—and its apparent contradiction in, “Genius is 1% inspiration and 99% perspiration” (variously attributed to Edison and Einstein), which emphasises the role of discipline and effort. The paradoxical interplay of freedom with constraints is a recurring theme in creativity studies.

• They demonstrate a high degree of imagination and fantasy combined with a hard-headed sense of reality: “creative people are original without being bizarre” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996, p. 63).

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Were vanquished, and put to foule disgrace, And how that he in lieu of life him lent, Had vow’d vnto the victor, him to trace And follow through the world, where so he went, Till that he him deliuered to his punishment.

He therewith much abashed and affrayd, xxii Began to tremble euery limbe and vaine; And softly whispering him, entyrely prayd, T’aduize him better, then by such a traine Him to betray vnto a straunger swaine: Yet rather counseld him contrarywize, Sith he likewise did wrong by him sustaine, To ioyne with him and vengeance to deuize, Whylest time did offer meanes him sleeping to surprize.

Nathelesse for all his speach, the gentle knight xxiii Would not be tempted to such villenie, Regarding more his faith, which he did plight, All were it to his mortall enemie, Then to entrap him by false treacherie: Great shame in lieges blood to be embrew’d.

Thus whylest they were debating diuerslie, The Saluage forth out of the wood issew’d Backe to the place, whereas his Lord he sleeping vew’d.

There when he saw those two so neare him stand, xxiv He doubted much what mote their meaning bee, And throwing downe his load out of his hand, To weet great store of forrest frute, which hee Had for his food late gathered from the tree, Himselfe vnto his weapon he betooke, That was an oaken plant, which lately hee Rent by the root; which he so sternely shooke, That like an hazell wand, it quiuered and quooke.

Whereat the Prince awaking, when he spyde xxv The traytour Turpin with that other knight,

He started vp, and snatching neare his syde His trustie sword, the seruant of his might, Like a fell Lyon leaped to him light, And his left hand vpon his collar layd.

Therewith the cowheard deaded with affright, Fell flat to ground, ne word vnto him sayd, But holding vp his hands, with silence mercie prayd.

But he so full of indignation was, xxvi That to his prayer nought he would incline, But as he lay vpon the humbled gras, His foot he set on his vile necke, in signe Of seruile yoke, that nobler harts repine.

Then letting him arise like abiect thrall, He gan to him obiect his haynous crime, And to reuile, and rate, and recreant call, And lastly to despoyle of knightly bannerall.

And after all, for greater infamie, xxvii He by the heeles him hung vpon a tree, And baffuld so, that all which passed by, The picture of his punishment might see, And by the like ensample warned bee, How euer they through treason doe trespasse.

But turne we now backe to that Ladie free, Whom late we left ryding vpon an Asse, Led by a Carle and foole, which by her side did passe.

She was a Ladie of great dignitie, xxviii And lifted vp to honorable place, Famous through all the land of Faerie, Though of meane parentage and kindred base, Yet deckt with wondrous giftes of natures grace, That all men did her person much admire, And praise the feature of her goodly face, The beames whereof did kindle louely fire In th’harts of many a knight, and many a gentle squire.

But she thereof grew proud and insolent, xxix That none she worthie thought to be her fere, But scornd them all, that loue vnto her ment, Yet was she lou’d of many a worthy pere, Vnworthy she to be belou’d so dere, That could not weigh of worthinesse aright.

For beautie is more glorious bright and clere, The more it is admir’d of many a wight, And noblest she, that serued is of noblest knight.

But this coy Damzell thought contrariwize, xxx That such proud looks would make her praysed more; And that the more she did all loue despize, The more would wretched louers her adore.

What cared she, who sighed for her sore, Or who did wayle or watch the wearie night?

Let them that list, their lucklesse lot deplore; She was borne free, not bound to any wight, And so would euer liue, and loue her owne delight.

Through such her stubborne stifnesse, and hard hart, xxxi Many a wretch, for want of remedie, Did languish long in lifeconsuming smart, And at the last through dreary dolour die: Whylest she, the Ladie of her libertie, Did boast her beautie had such soueraine might, That with the onely twinckle of her eye, She could or saue, or spill, whom she would hight.

What could the Gods doe more, but doe it more aright?

But loe the Gods, that mortall follies vew, xxxii Did worthily reuenge this maydens pride; And nought regarding her so goodly hew, Did laugh at her, that many did deride, Whilest she did weepe, of no man mercifide.

For on a day, when Cupid kept his court, As he is wont at each Saint Valentide,

Vnto the which all louers doe resort, That of their loues successe they there may make report;[510] It fortun’d then, that when the roules[511] were red, xxxiii In which the names of all loues folke were fyled, That many there were missing, which were ded, Or kept in bands, or from their loues exyled, Or by some other violence despoyled.

Which when as Cupid heard, he wexed wroth, And doubting to be wronged, or beguyled, He bad his eyes to be vnblindfold both, That he might see his men, and muster them by oth.

Then found he many missing of his crew, xxxiv Which wont doe suit and seruice to his might; Of whom what was becomen, no man knew.

Therefore a Iurie was impaneld streight, T’enquire of them, whether by force, or sleight, Or their owne guilt, they were away conuayd.

To whom foule Infamie, and fell Despight Gaue euidence, that they were all betrayd, And murdred cruelly by a rebellious Mayd.

Fayre Mirabella was her name, whereby xxxv Of all those crymes she there indited was: All which when Cupid heard, he by and by In great displeasure, wild a Capias Should issue forth, t’attach that scornefull lasse.

The warrant straight was made, and therewithall A Baylieffe errant forth in post did passe, Whom they by name there[512] Portamore did call; He which doth summon louers to loues iudgement hall.

The damzell was attacht, and shortly brought xxxvi Vnto the barre, whereas she was arrayned: But she thereto nould plead, nor answere ought Euen for stubborne pride, which her restrayned.

So iudgement past, as is by law ordayned In cases like, which when at last she saw, Her stubborne hart, which loue before disdayned, Gan stoupe, and falling downe with humble awe, Cryde mercie, to abate the extremitie of law.

The sonne of Venus who is myld by kynd, xxxvii But where he is prouokt with peeuishnesse, Vnto her prayers piteously enclynd, And did the rigour of his doome represse; Yet not so freely, but that nathelesse He vnto her a penance did impose, Which was, that through this worlds wyde wildernes She wander should in companie of those, Till she had sau’d so many loues, as she did lose.

So now she had bene wandring two whole yeares xxxviii Throughout the world, in this vncomely case, Wasting her goodly hew in heauie teares, And her good dayes in dolorous disgrace: Yet had she not in all these two yeares space, Saued but two, yet in two yeares before, Through[513] her dispiteous pride, whilest loue lackt place, She had destroyed two and twenty more.

Aie me, how could her loue make half amends therefore?[514] And now she was vppon the weary way, xxxix When as the gentle Squire, with faire Serene, Met her in such misseeming foule array; The whiles that mighty man did her demeane With all the euill termes and cruell meane, That he could make; And eeke that angry foole Which follow’d her, with cursed hands vncleane Whipping her horse, did with his smarting toole Oft whip her dainty selfe, and much augment her doole.

Ne ought it mote auaile her to entreat xl

The one or th’other, better her to vse: For both so wilfull were and obstinate, That all her piteous plaint they did refuse, And rather did the more her beate and bruse.

But most the former villaine, which did lead Her tyreling iade, was bent her to abuse; Who though she were with wearinesse nigh dead, Yet would not let her lite, nor rest a little stead.

For he was sterne, and terrible by nature, xli And eeke of person huge and hideous, Exceeding much the measure of mans stature, And rather like a Gyant monstruous.

For sooth he was descended of the hous Of those old Gyants, which did warres darraine Against the heauen in order battailous, And sib to great Orgolio, which was slaine

By Arthure, when as Vnas Knight he did maintaine.

His lookes were dreadfull, and his fiery eies xlii Like two great Beacons, glared bright and wyde, Glauncing askew, as if his enemies He scorned in his ouerweening pryde; And stalking stately like a Crane, did stryde At euery step vppon the tiptoes hie, And all the way he went, on euery syde He gaz’d about, and stared horriblie, As if he with his lookes would all men terrifie.

He wore no armour, ne for none did care, xliii As no whit dreading any liuing wight; But in a Iacket quilted richly rare[515] Vpon checklaton he was straungely dight, And on his head a roll of linnen plight, Like to the Mores of Malaber he wore; With which his locks, as blacke as pitchy night, Were bound about, and voyded from before,

And in his hand a mighty yron club he bore.

This was Disdaine, who led that Ladies horse xliv Through thick and thin, through mountains and through plains, Compelling her, wher she would not, by force[516], Haling her palfrey by the hempen raines.

But that same foole, which most increast her paines, Was Scorne, who hauing in his hand a whip, Her therewith yirks, and still when she complaines, The more he laughes, and does her closely quip, To see her sore lament, and bite her tender lip.

Whose cruell handling when that Squire beheld, xlv And saw those villaines her so vildely[517] vse, His gentle heart with indignation sweld, And could no lenger beare so great abuse, As such a Lady so to beate and bruse; But to him stepping, such a stroke him lent, That forst him th’halter from his hand to loose, And maugre all his might, backe to relent: Else had he surely there bene slaine, or fowly shent.

The villaine, wroth for greeting him so sore, xlvi Gathered him selfe together soone againe, And with his yron batton, which he bore, Let driue at him so dreadfully amaine, That for his safety he did him constraine To giue him ground, and shift to euery side, Rather then once his burden to sustaine: For bootelesse thing him seemed, to abide[518] So mighty blowes, or proue the puissaunce of his pride.

Like as a Mastiffe hauing at a bay xlvii A saluage Bull, whose cruell hornes doe threat Desperate daunger, if he them assay, Traceth his ground, and round about doth beat, To spy where he may some aduauntage get;

The whiles the beast doth rage and loudly rore:[519] So did the Squire, the whiles the Carle did fret, And fume in his disdainefull mynd the more, And oftentimes by Turmagant and Mahound swore.

Nathelesse so sharpely still he him pursewd, xlviii That at aduantage him at last he tooke, When his foote slipt (that slip he dearely rewd,) And with his yron club to ground him strooke; Where still he lay, ne out of swoune awooke, Till heauy hand the Carle vpon him layd, And bound him fast: Tho when he vp did looke, And saw him selfe captiu’d, he was dismayd, Ne powre had to withstand, ne hope of any ayd.

Then vp he made him rise, and forward fare, xlix Led in a rope, which both his hands did bynd; Ne ought that foole for pitty did him spare, But with his whip him following behynd, Him often scourg’d, and forst his feete to fynd: And other whiles with bitter mockes and mowes He would him scorne, that to his gentle mynd Was much more grieuous, then the others blowes: Words[520] sharpely wound, but greatest griefe of scorning growes.

The faire Serena, when she saw him fall l Vnder that villaines club, then surely thought That slaine he was, or made a wretched thrall, And fled away with all the speede she mought, To seeke for safety, which long time she sought: And past through many perils by the way, Ere she againe to Calepine was brought; The which discourse as now I must delay, Till Mirabellaes fortunes I doe further say.

FOOTNOTES:

[499] i 1 the] a 1609 [500] iii 5 scathe 1609 [501] 7 arm’d 1596 [502] v 7 where 1596 [503] vi 4 tyde: 1596 tide: 1609 [504] xiii 5 deed, 1596 [505] xiv 6 how 1596 [506] xv 9 earned 1609 [507] xvi 1 wrathfully 1609 [508] xvii 6 tracking 1609 [509] xix 8 slumber 1609 [510] xxxii 9 report. 1596 [511] xxxiii 1 rolles 1609 [512] xxxv 8 there] their 1609 [513] xxxviii 7 Throgh 1596 (4o Art. Seld. S. 22, Bodl.)

[514] 9 therefore. 1596: therfore. 1609 [515] xliii 3 rare, 1596, 1609 [516] xliv 3 not by force 1596, 1609 [517] xlv 2 vilely 1609 [518] xlvi 8 abide, 1596 [519] xlvii 6 rore, 1596 [520] xlix 9 Words] Swords conj. Church

Cant. VIII.

Prince Arthure ouercomes Disdaine, Quites Mirabell from dreed: Serena found of Saluages,

By Calepine is freed.

Ye gentle Ladies, in whose soueraine powre i Loue hath the glory of his kingdome left, And th’hearts of men, as your eternall dowre, In yron chaines, of liberty bereft, Deliuered hath into your hands by gift; Be well aware, how ye the same doe vse, That pride doe not to tyranny you lift; Least if men you of cruelty accuse, He from you take that chiefedome, which ye doe abuse.

And as ye soft and tender are by kynde, ii Adornd with goodly gifts of beauties grace, So be ye soft and tender eeke in mynde; But cruelty and hardnesse from you chace, That all your other praises will deface, And from you turne the loue of men to hate.

Ensample take of Mirabellaes case, Who from the high degree of happy state,

Fell into wretched woes, which she repented late.

Who after thraldome of the gentle Squire, iii Which she beheld with lamentable eye, Was touched with compassion entire, And much lamented his calamity, That for her sake fell into misery: Which booted nought for prayers, nor for threat To hope for to release or mollify; For aye the more, that she did them entreat,[521] The more they him misust, and cruelly did beat.

So as they forward on their way did pas, iv Him still reuiling and afflicting sore, They met Prince Arthure with Sir Enias, (That was that courteous Knight, whom he before Hauing subdew’d, yet did to life restore,) To whom as they approcht, they gan augment Their cruelty, and him to punish more, Scourging and haling him more vehement; As if it them should grieue to see his punishment.

The Squire him selfe when as he saw his Lord, v The witnesse of his wretchednesse, in place, Was much asham’d, that with an hempen cord He like a dog was led in captiue case, And did his head for bashfulnesse abase, As loth to see, or to be seene at all: Shame would be hid. But whenas Enias Beheld two such, of two such villaines thrall, His manly mynde was much emmoued therewithall.

And to the Prince thus sayd; See you Sir Knight, vi The greatest shame that euer eye yet saw?

Yond Lady and her Squire with foule despight Abusde, against all reason and all law, Without regard of pitty or of awe.

See how they doe that Squire beat and reuile; See how they doe the Lady hale and draw.

But if ye please to lend me leaue a while, I will them soone acquite, and both of blame assoile.

The Prince assented, and then he streight way vii Dismounting light, his shield about him threw, With which approching, thus he gan to say; Abide ye caytiue treachetours vntrew, That haue with treason thralled vnto you These two, vnworthy of your wretched bands; And now your crime with cruelty pursew.

Abide, and from them lay your loathly hands; Or else abide the death, that hard before you stands.

The villaine stayd not aunswer to inuent, viii But with his yron club preparing way, His mindes sad message backe vnto him sent; The which descended with such dreadfull sway, That seemed nought the course thereof could stay: No more then lightening from the lofty sky.

Ne list the Knight the powre thereof assay, Whose doome was death, but lightly slipping by, Vnwares defrauded his intended destiny.

And to requite him with the like againe, ix With his sharpe sword he fiercely at him flew, And strooke so strongly, that the Carle with paine Saued him selfe, but that he there him slew: Yet sau’d not so, but that the bloud it drew, And gaue his foe good hope of victory.

Who therewith flesht, vpon him set anew, And with the second stroke, thought certainely To haue supplyde the first, and paide the vsury.

But Fortune aunswerd not vnto his call; x For as his hand was heaued vp on hight, The villaine met him in the middle fall,

And with his club bet backe his brondyron bright So forcibly, that with his owne hands might Rebeaten backe vpon him selfe againe, He driuen was to ground in selfe despight; From whence ere he recouery could gaine, He in his necke had set his foote with fell disdaine.

With that the foole, which did that end awayte, xi Came running in, and whilest on ground he lay, Laide heauy hands on him, and held so strayte, That downe he kept him with his scornefull sway, So as he could not weld[522] him any way.

The whiles that other villaine went about Him to haue bound, and thrald without delay; The whiles the foole did him reuile and flout, Threatning to yoke them two[523] and tame their corage stout.

As when a sturdy ploughman with his hynde xii By strength haue ouerthrowne a stubborne steare, They downe him hold, and fast with cords do bynde, Till they him force the buxome yoke to beare: So did these two this Knight oft tug and teare.

Which when the Prince beheld, there standing by, He left his lofty steede to aide him neare, And buckling soone him selfe, gan fiercely fly Vppon that Carle, to saue his friend from ieopardy.

The villaine leauing him vnto his mate xiii To be captiu’d, and handled as he list, Himselfe addrest vnto this new debate, And with his club him all about so blist, That he which way to turne him scarcely wist: Sometimes aloft he layd, sometimes alow; Now here, now there, and oft him neare he mist; So doubtfully, that hardly one could know Whether more wary were to giue or ward the blow.

But yet the Prince so well enured was xiv With such huge strokes, approued oft in fight, That way to them he gaue forth right to pas.

Ne would endure the daunger of their might, But wayt aduantage, when they downe did light.

At last the caytiue after long discourse, When all his strokes he saw auoyded quite, Resolued in one t’assemble all his force, And make one end of him without ruth or remorse.

His dreadfull hand he heaued vp aloft, xv And with his dreadfull instrument of yre, Thought sure haue pownded[524] him to powder soft, Or deepe emboweld in the earth entyre: But Fortune did not with his will conspire.

For ere his stroke attayned his intent, The noble childe preuenting his desire, Vnder his club with wary boldnesse went, And smote him on the knee, that neuer yet was bent.

It neuer yet was bent, ne bent it now, xvi Albe the stroke so strong and puissant were, That seem’d a marble pillour it could bow, But all that leg, which did his body beare, It crackt throughout, yet did no bloud appeare; So as it was vnable to support So huge a burden on such broken geare, But fell to ground, like to a lumpe of durt, Whence he assayd to rise, but could not for his hurt.

Eftsoones the Prince to him full nimbly stept, xvii And least he should recouer foote againe, His head meant from his shoulders to haue swept.

Which when the Lady saw, she cryde amaine; Stay stay, Sir Knight, for loue of God abstaine, From[525] that vnwares ye weetlesse doe intend; Slay not that Carle, though worthy to be slaine:

For more on him doth then him selfe depend; My life will by his death haue lamentable end.

He staide his hand according her desire, xviii Yet nathemore him suffred to arize; But still suppressing gan of her inquire, What meaning mote those vncouth words comprize, That in that villaines health her safety lies: That, were no might in man, nor heart in Knights, Which durst her dreaded reskue enterprize, Yet heauens them selues, that fauour feeble rights, Would for it selfe redresse, and punish such despights.

Then bursting forth in teares, which gushed fast xix Like many water streames, a while she stayd; Till the sharpe passion being ouerpast, Her tongue to her restord, then thus she sayd; Nor heauens, nor men can me most wretched mayd Deliuer from the doome of my desart, The which the God of loue hath on me layd, And damned to endure this direfull smart, For penaunce of my proud and hard rebellious hart.

In prime of youthly yeares, when first the flowre xx Of beauty gan to bud, and bloosme delight, And nature me endu’d with plenteous dowre, Of all her gifts, that pleasde each liuing sight, I was belou’d of many a gentle Knight, And sude and sought with all the seruice dew: Full many a one for me deepe groand and sight, And to the dore of death for sorrow drew, Complayning out on me, that would not on them rew.

But let them loue that list, or liue or die; xxi Me list not die for any louers doole: Ne list me leaue my loued libertie, To pitty him that list to play the foole: To loue my selfe I learned had in schoole.

Thus I triumphed long in louers paine, And sitting carelesse on the scorners stoole, Did laugh at those that did lament and plaine: But all is now repayd with interest againe.

For loe the winged God, that woundeth harts, xxii Causde me be called to accompt[526] therefore, And for reuengement of those wrongfull smarts, Which I to others did inflict afore, Addeem’d me to endure this penaunce sore; That in this wize, and this vnmeete array, With these two lewd companions, and no more, Disdaine and Scorne, I through the world should stray, Till I haue sau’d so many, as I earst did slay.

Certes (sayd then the Prince) the God is iust, xxiii That taketh vengeaunce of his peoples spoile.

For were no law in loue, but all that lust, Might them oppresse, and painefully turmoile, His kingdome would continue but a while.

But tell me Lady, wherefore doe you beare This bottle thus before you with such toile, And eeke this wallet at your backe arreare, That for these Carles to carry much more comely were?

Here in this bottle (sayd the sory Mayd) xxiv I put the teares of my contrition, Till to the brim I haue it full defrayd: And in this bag which I behinde me don, I put repentaunce for things past and gon.

Yet is the bottle leake, and bag so torne, That all which I put in, fals out anon; And is behinde me trodden downe of Scorne, Who mocketh all my paine, and laughs the more I mourn.

The Infant hearkned wisely to her tale, xxv And wondred much at Cupids iudg’ment wise,

That could so meekly make proud hearts auale, And wreake him selfe on them, that him despise.

Then suff’red he Disdaine vp to arise, Who was not able vp him selfe to reare, By meanes his leg through his late luckelesse prise, Was crackt in twaine, but by his foolish feare Was holpen vp, who him supported standing neare.

But being vp, he lookt againe aloft, xxvi As if he neuer had receiued fall; And with sterne eye-browes stared at him oft, As if he would haue daunted him withall:[527] And standing on his tiptoes, to seeme tall, Downe on his golden feete he often gazed, As if such pride the other could apall; Who was so far from being ought amazed, That he his lookes despised, and his boast dispraized.

Then turning backe vnto that captiue thrall, xxvii Who all this while stood there beside them bound, Vnwilling to be knowne, or seene at all, He from those bands weend him to haue vnwound.

But when approching neare, he plainely found, It was his owne true groome, the gentle Squire, He thereat wext exceedingly astound, And him did oft embrace, and oft admire, Ne could with seeing satisfie his great desire.

Meane while the Saluage man, when he beheld xxviii That huge great foole oppressing th’other Knight, Whom with his weight vnweldy[528] downe he held, He flew vpon him, like a greedy kight Vnto some carrion offered to his sight, And downe him plucking, with his nayles and teeth Gan him to hale, and teare, and scratch, and bite; And from him taking his owne whip, therewith So sore him scourgeth, that the bloud downe followeth.

And sure I weene, had not the Ladies cry xxix Procur’d the Prince his cruell hand to stay, He would with whipping, him haue done to dye: But being checkt, he did abstaine streight way, And let him rise. Then thus the Prince gan say; Now Lady sith your fortunes thus dispose, That if ye list haue liberty, ye may, Vnto your selfe I freely leaue to chose, Whether I shall you leaue, or from these villaines lose.

Ah nay Sir Knight (sayd she) it may not be, xxx But that I needes must by all meanes fulfill This penaunce, which enioyned is to me, Least vnto me betide a greater ill; Yet no lesse thankes to you for your good will.

So humbly taking leaue, she turnd aside, But Arthure with the rest, went onward still On his first quest, in which did him betide A great aduenture, which did him from them deuide.

But first it falleth me by course to tell xxxi Of faire Serena, who as earst you heard, When first the gentle Squire at variaunce fell With those two Carles, fled fast away, afeard Of villany to be to her inferd: So fresh the image of her former dread, Yet dwelling in her eye, to her appeard, That euery foote did tremble, which did tread, And euery body two, and two she foure did read.

Through hils and dales, through bushes and through breres xxxii Long thus she fled, till that at last she thought Her selfe now past the perill of her feares.

Then looking round about, and seeing nought,[529] Which doubt of daunger to her offer mought, She from her palfrey lighted on the plaine, And sitting downe, her selfe a while bethought

Of her long trauell and turmoyling paine; And often did of loue, and oft of lucke complaine.

And euermore she blamed Calepine xxxiii The good Sir Calepine, her owne true Knight, As th’onely author of her wofull tine: For being of his loue to her so light, As her to leaue in such a piteous plight.

Yet neuer Turtle truer to his make, Then he was tride vnto his Lady bright: Who all this while endured for her sake, Great perill of his life, and restlesse paines did take.

Tho when as all her plaints[530] she had displayd, xxxiv And well disburdened her engrieued brest, Vpon the grasse her selfe adowne she layd; Where being tyrde with trauell, and opprest With sorrow, she betooke her selfe to rest.

There whilest in Morpheus bosome safe she lay, Fearelesse of ought, that mote her peace molest, False Fortune did her safety betray, Vnto a straunge mischaunce, that menac’d her decay.

In these wylde deserts, where she now abode, xxxv There dwelt a saluage nation, which did liue Of stealth and spoile, and making nightly rode Into their neighbours borders; ne did giue Them selues to any trade, as for to driue The painefull plough, or cattell for to breed, Or by aduentrous marchandize to thriue; But on the labours of poore men to feed, And serue their owne necessities with others need.

Thereto they vsde one most accursed order, xxxvi To eate the flesh of men, whom they mote fynde, And straungers to deuoure, which on their border Were brought by errour, or by wreckfull wynde.

A monstrous cruelty gainst course of kynde.

They towards euening wandring euery way, To seeke for booty, came by fortune blynde, Whereas this Lady, like a sheepe astray, Now drowned in the depth of sleepe all fearelesse lay.

Soone as they spide her, Lord what gladfull glee xxxvii They made amongst them selues; but when her face Like the faire yuory shining they did see, Each gan his fellow solace and embrace, For ioy of such good hap by heauenly grace.

Then gan they to deuize what course to take: Whether to slay her there vpon the place, Or suffer her out of her sleepe to wake, And then her eate attonce; or many meales to make.

The best aduizement was of bad, to let her xxxviii Sleepe out her fill, without encomberment: For sleepe they sayd would make her battill better.

Then when she wakt, they all gaue one consent, That since[531] by grace of God she there was sent, Vnto their God they would her sacrifize, Whose share, her guiltlesse bloud they would present, But of her dainty flesh they did deuize To make a common feast, and feed with gurmandize.

So round about her they them selues did place xxxix Vpon the grasse, and diuersely dispose, As each thought best to spend the lingring space.

Some with their eyes the daintest[532] morsels chose; Some praise her paps, some praise her lips and nose; Some whet their kniues, and strip their elboes bare: The Priest him selfe a garland doth compose Of finest flowres, and with full busie care His bloudy vessels wash, and holy fire prepare.

The Damzell wakes, then all attonce vpstart, xl