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BLENDING TECHNOLOGIES IN SECOND LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS SECOND EDITION Don Hinkelman

Blending Technologies in Second Language Classrooms

Don Hinkelman

Blending Technologies in Second Language Classrooms Second Edition

Don Hinkelman Sapporo Gakuin University Ebetsu-shi, Japan

ISBN 978-1-137-53685-3 ISBN 978-1-137-53686-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53686-0 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017960755 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018 The author(s) has/have asserted their right(s) to be identified as the author(s) of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: José Junior / EyeEm / GettyImages Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Macmillan Publishers Ltd. The registered company address is: The Campus, 4 Crinan Street, London, N1 9XW, United Kingdom

Foreword

How do teachers make sense of all the changing technology in their classrooms? This is the fundamental question addressed by Don Hinkelman’s second edition of Blending Technologies in Second Language Classrooms, a question that is explored from multiple, diverse perspectives. While reading this substantially reworked book I was reminded of Erving Goffman’s (1974) distinction between two distinct ways in which we can view our experiences—in terms of a game or the wider spectacle. Games, according to this perspective, refer to events that are on display (such as a tennis match, a sitcom, or a political speech) while the spectacle refers to the broader context that encases the game and turns it into a social occasion that is collectively experienced (whether in a gathering at home, a public arena, or in the unfolding comments on YouTube). Until recently, accounts of technology-mediated language learning and teaching tended to focus on the ‘game’ to the neglect of the wider ‘spectacle’, meaning that we have at best a partial view of the realities of how learners work with technologies in classrooms and as part of their lifeworlds. Yet Goffman’s view was that to understand the one, we need to understand the other: in games participants have defined roles and scripts whereas the larger spectacle is characterized by more diffuse interactions, activities, and episodes, with both the game and the spectacle influencing each other. A key strength of the approach taken in Blending Technologies in Second Language Classrooms is the focus on blended learning as an ecology, meaning that v

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events and practices are considered and examined as both a game and a spectacle. In what lies ahead Don Hinkelman gives analytical attention to what could be called the rules of the game, namely some of the principles and parameters that define blended learning and teaching while also focusing on the encasing spectacle and the ways in which it contributes to the game.

Adopting and maintaining broader, more contextualized perspectives on blending technologies in classrooms is a recurrent theme here and is achieved in a variety of ways. For example, ‘tool-centric’ perspectives on blended learning are avoided and in their place there is focus on sequences of actions, groupings, timings, texts, and tools with on-going reference to a rich range of examples and case studies. There is a sustained focus on the complex processes that underpin blending technologies—as in the title of the book—rather than viewing blended teaching as a ready-made package that can be inserted into classroom practice. Tool-centric perspectives are also avoided through an all-encompassing view of classrooms and in the detailed attention given to formative assessment processes, to the value of action research and ethnographic research (including auto-ethnography and institutional ethnography), and to seeing blending technologies as part of educational change. Linked to this latter point is the emphasis placed on change over time in blending technologies within a single classroom, between evolving instantiations of a course, and in specific areas such as materials development. For example, through careful observation and rich commentaries we see how both the rate and complex paths of change are impacted by curricular schedules, processes of materials production, and individual agendas together with curricular and institutional goals.

Blending Technologies in Second Language Classrooms helps us to reimagine both the focus and the margins of language classrooms and the contribution of virtual opportunities to both the game and the spectacle of language learning. I was very pleased when the first edition of Blending Technologies in Second Language Classrooms appeared given the questions and debates about blended learning that (pre)occupy our field and for the conceptual clarity that the volume brings. Earlier, in my TESOL Quarterly review of this book (White, 2016), I observed that Gruba and Hinkelman’s first edition was “the first book-length analysis of theory,

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research, and practice in blended language teaching” (p. 533), featuring “precise frameworks which are presented for analyzing trajectories of change within blended learning programs” (p. 534).

This second edition will not disappoint as it illuminates and critically considers newer fields of practice such as flipped learning, digital gamification, and blending technologies in carouselling and bricolage. The on-­ going expansion and diffusion of tools, settings, research, and practices for blending technologies in language classrooms is well captured in this book; it makes for compelling reading and will for years to come, both to establish a theoretical framework and shed light on innovative practices, within and beyond second language classrooms.

Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Harvard: Harvard University Press.

White, C. (2016). Review of ‘blending technologies in second language classrooms’. TESOL Quarterly, 50(2), 533–534.

Massey University Wellington, New Zealand

Cynthia White

Preface

Blending Technologies in Second Language Classrooms is a story of researchers, teachers, administrators, and educators striving to create learning environments that inspire and engage second language learners. This is a conceptual journey and a practical guide of principles for academics and practitioners involved in classroom teaching. These stories are not tall tales of triumph but rather a trail of disappointing attempts, positive steps, and promising revelations of learning success. It is a personal and team journey, which perhaps reflects what thousands of other teachers are doing to make sense of technology and trying to make a learning environment that fills students with energy and love of learning languages and cultures. In short, here is the main point of blending technologies: A blended learning environment combines face-to-face and virtual technologies in a process that engages learners and changes their ways of thinking and their ability to use a second language. Blend language learning is not device oriented because it views learning environments as ecologies, not tools. Ecologies are configurations of pedagogic actions, groupings, timings, texts and tools. Blended language learning does not separate the classroom world and the online world, because it embeds all forms of face-to-face technologies and digital technologies into a process that is communicative and task-based. The teacher’s role is to design tasks and configure technologies to achieve those tasks. This creates change that is more internally driven and bottom-up from direct classroom practice ix

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and less externally driven by commercial publishing or mandated curriculum.

Innovation also happens when top-down social, economic and pedagogic conditions force change in the learning environments. Teachers respond to these top-­ down actions by re-configuring their environments based on principles of purposefulness, multi-modality, appropriateness and sustainability.

Since the first edition was published in 2012, the past five years have seen a lifetime of new online technologies and a resurgence of interactive face-to-face technologies in foreign language classrooms. Further, language learning theory is undergoing a paradigm shift from computational metaphors (input, output) to ecological metaphors (environments, collective relationships). Teachers have not only incorporated mobile tools such as tablets and smart phones into learning environments (Stockwell, 2016), but at the same time are attempting to increase the amount of discussions and interactive dialogue in face-to-face sessions, often using the flipped classroom model (Johnson & Marsh, 2016).

The shift in educational strategy to ‘flipped classrooms’ (Bergmann & Sams, 2012) had just appeared just as our first edition came out, and has since been applied to language learning environments. Emerging from science, math, and technology teaching fields, research in flipped learning spread to second language learning immediately (Lockwood, 2014; Pasisis, 2015), although some claim second language teachers have always been doing this flipped process, just without online video. Now the flipped classroom has become a reality (Johnson & Marsh, 2016), but it is not yet clear why the ‘flip’ is working or what is being changed in the learning environment. What has changed in the learning landscape due to the ‘flip’ is actually the theme of this book—how technologies are blended in classrooms and how learning changes as technologies change.

Gamification is another trend that has proved disruptive in learning circles since 2010. By adding the principles of gaming to all aspects of the learning cycle, teachers have intentionally created an atmosphere of intensity that engages learners enough to generate a ‘flow’ experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Learning management systems have jumped on this bandwagon by creating badges, points, progress bars, and levels, which parallel the incentives used in the gaming world.

At the same time, task-based learning and teaching (TBLT) has grown in stature as a leading force in the pedagogical evolution of our field. In

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contrast to much in the field of computer-assisted language learning (CALL), task-based learning approaches have focused on the pedagogy first instead of the tools first. Instead of asking, ‘how can I use this tool?’, TBLT asks, ‘what is the task and what tools will help achieve the task?’ In this way, ‘task’ becomes an organizing factor in second language learning. In short, we can now define ‘technology’ as the process to achieve a task. For this reason Chaps. 4, 5, and 6 have been expanded and will explore strategic use of task-based approaches, flipped classrooms, gamified classrooms, and other blended practices that are occurring in our educational landscape.

In the same way, the process of research in blended learning ecologies has matured and expanded to include ethnographic approaches to research. Therefore, the largest chapter in the first edition, on action research, has been divided into Chap. 7 on principles of research and Chap. 8 on action research in blended environments. Then a third chapter, Chap. 9, is added to focus on classroom ethnography, auto-­ ethnography, and institutional ethnography.

Overall, the paradigm shift occurring now is the shift to ecological thinking. We know that a learning environment or learning ecology changes when one aspect within it changes. These changes are disruptions. In natural environments, changes happen when a butterfly enters the ecology, when the butterfly mates (groupings), when the caterpillar builds a cocoon (tools) and hibernates (timings), when it communicates with its colorful wings (texts) that it is ready to mate. Disruption in this ecology may not happen until temperatures change and new inhabitants enter the world. However, identifying the disruption in classrooms is difficult and deceptive. The disruption may not be the tool (the tablet computer added) but rather when (timing) and where (spaces) and with whom (groupings) the tablet is used.

For these reasons, this second edition has not only updated the original seven chapters, but added five new chapters. The first one added is on learning metaphors and ecologies (Chap. 3), followed by task-based learning/flipped/gamification strategies (Chap. 5), ecology-based research principles (Chap. 7), ethnographic research (Chap. 8), and technologies in practice (Chap. 10).

In this edition, my co-author from the first edition, Paul Gruba, collaborates with me as a critical friend and reader while focusing his time on groundbreaking research concerning program evaluation of blended

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language learning (Gruba et al., 2016). Although, this edition is written in the first person, much of the original chapters and especially the core theme of four considerations in blended language learning: purpose, appropriateness, multimodality, and sustainability reflect our co-­ authorship. In contrast to the wider view that program evaluation takes by covering institutional designs and systematic results, this edition focuses more narrowly on the design of technologies in classrooms. Gruba et al. (2016) take the core considerations of this book (purposefulness, appropriateness, multimedia, and sustainability) a step further by examining, evaluating, and assessing the cumulative and composite results of students learning languages in formal institutional settings.

In comparison, this book is more for the practicing teacher with a greater focus on classroom and mobile learning environments. It is not a catalog of teaching practices, although examples of blended practices will be useful to teachers seeking models to apply and modify in the field.

This book may, however, serve as a primer for new teachers entering the field of second language education, because it provides a framework and principles for selecting technologies, strategies, assessments, and tasks that a teacher will configure on-the-fly in a classroom situation. It is also intended for administrators and researchers seeking a theoretical basis to take an ecological approach to technologies and learning design. My attempt here is to connect mainstream theory with emerging perspectives that help make sense out of seemingly complex, chaotic change. In that sense, this book takes to heart an aim to redirect the philosophy of CALL into a philosophy of blended language learning.

There have been numerous changes and additions in this second edition. In addition to recent publications, critical reviews of the first edition in academic journals have profoundly affected the direction of this book. We would like to thank at least five reviewers that have spent time evaluating each of the chapters and offer our apologies to others whose reviews we may have missed. Recently, White (2016) in TESOL Quarterly wrote that the some of the strengths of the first edition included: this book … explores pedagogical design at three interrelated levels—micro, meso, and macro; attention is given to both the social and political dimensions of pedagogical design in blended contexts, thus bringing to light what may be

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more hidden dimensions of those processes. Here too we see the significance of the focus on blending technologies not only in the title but throughout the work, as we get a behind-the-scenes look at the processes that contribute to blended learning. (p. 533) The cases are exemplary in their richness; their attention to the particular; and their search for meaning attached to constellations of actions, groupings, timings, texts, and tools. (p. 534) A real strength of this chapter is the social and political dimensions of pedagogical design in blended contexts, thus bringing to light what may be more hidden dimensions of those processes. (p. 534)

However, White (2016) also notes a needed focus on new digital devices: the book does not really explore broader macro-level considerations such as the ways in which technological changes have put new tools and options for language learning in the hands of learners, available to them in their life-worlds. (p. 534)

That is partially because smartphones and tablets were not as ubiquitous back then, but also because the ‘teacher’ and the ‘classroom’ have been the main focus in our earlier edition and this edition. The world of the learner, who now is has multiple devices and multiple venues to explore a new language, is now a topic in the strategies section (Chap. 5), which tackles the trends of gamification and the flipped classroom of language learners. Nonetheless, devices are still not the focus, because ‘blended learning’ in this book stands from the viewpoint of pedagogy (Oliver & Trigwell, 2005) and how the teacher configures the options for a classroom community, rather than from the viewpoint of devices as learners try various tools to learn with.

Hopefully, with 24-hour websites, individualized activities, and principled design, the mobile world will be more tightly integrated with classroom work in the coming decade.

In addition to these critiques, conferences and subsequent writing for proceedings have pushed me to rearticulate and expand the principles of blending technologies. These have included GloCALL, WorldCALL,

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World Congress of Extensive Reading, EuroCALL, Japan Association of Language Teaching, JALTCALL, MoodleMoot Australia, MoodleMoot Japan, and Task-Based Learning in Asia. Each of these conferences are learning communities of practice, where practitioners demonstrate the blending of technologies for teachers to learn from.

Despite the explosion of new devices, the roots of blending technologies are not at all new. My interest in exploring learning environments was motivated at an early age. As a student during my own secondary school days, I experienced dissatisfaction with the pursuit of grades as the apparent goal of education, and came upon books such as Summerhill by E.S. Neill and How Children Learn by John Holt. These books contradicted a fixation on marks and instead focused on an engaging and motivating learning environments to spur learning ‘naturally’ without the extrinsic, artificial push of grades and report cards. Fifty years later, I believe that even more, as teachers seek to create intrinsically motivating worlds where both young and adult students can grow with learning.

The support and encouragement of this research comes from my colleagues at Sapporo Gakuin University, a small liberal arts school in the heart of Hokkaido, deep in the northlands of Japan. I would like to thank all the faculty who gave their valuable time and consideration, especially Koichi Okazaki, Shuji Sugawara, Seiichi Miyamachi, Atsushi Nakamura, Makiko Nishi, Shugo Yamazoe, Keisuke Sanada and Lisa Mizushima.

The vision, innovation, and energy for blending technologies needs the acknowledgment of pioneers such as Frank Johnson, Phil Murphy, Hideto Harashima, Tim Grose, Peter Schinckel, Matthew Cotter, Kate Sato, Michael Fitzgerald, Rob Olson, Junior Koch, Gordon Bateson, and many teachers that I have interviewed and collaborated with in field research for this book. One common refrain was that ‘the curriculum’ always drove the design of blended learning rooms and technologies in the classrooms. Both Paul Gruba and I returned to our roots in teaching in EFL programs in Japan where teachers collaborated in curriculum design, research teams, and in-house materials authoring. From these values, the considerations for blending technologies in second language classrooms were created, offering a challenge that teachers embark as a team in collaboration with other teachers and colleagues. I hope this work gives inspiration to those who are fearful of new technologies as well as those who embrace those technologies. The surprise of blended

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learning is that old technologies that some label as ‘traditional’ can be reused and are re-empowered in the learning ecology of the any second language classroom.

From this context, the second edition looks at four aspects of blending technologies: concepts, approaches, research, and practice.

The ‘Concepts’ section includes: –– Chapter 1: Evolution of Blended Language Learning –– Chapter 2: Understanding Learning Technologies –– Chapter 3: Learning Metaphors and Ecologies The ‘Approaches’ section refers to: –– Chapter 4: Designs for Blended Language Learning –– Chapter 5: Strategies for Blended Language Learning –– Chapter 6: Assessments for Blended Language Learning The ‘Research’ section is expanded from one chapter to examine: –– Chapter 7: Principles of Research in Blended Environments –– Chapter 8: Action Research in Blended Environments –– Chapter 9: Ethnographic Research in Blended Environments The ‘Practice’ section now demonstrates: –– Chapter 10: Blended Technologies in Practice –– Chapter 11: Blended Language Lessons in Practice –– Chapter 12: Blended Language Programs in Practice Therefore the aim of this book is to provide experienced teachers, teachers-in-training, program administrators, and classroom researchers with four frameworks: 1. a theoretical framework to design blended language learning classes and programs 2. a series of strategic, principled approaches that fit blended language teaching 3. a focused methodology for researching complex blended learning ecologies 4. a practical description and analysis of blending technologies in tertiary education

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Throughout, cases, examples, and analysis of the process of blending technologies in second language environments are described from a perspective of four principled considerations: purpose, appropriateness, multimodality, and sustainability.

Ebetsu-shi, Japan

Don Hinkelman

References Bergmann, J., & Sams, A. (2012). Flip your classroom: Reach every student in every class every day. Alexandria: International Society for Technology in Education.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience.

New York: Harper & Row. Gruba, P., Cárdenas-Claros, M., Suvorov, R., & Rick, K. (2016). Blended language program evaluation. Basingstoke/New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Johnson, C., & Marsh, R. (2016). The flipped classroom. In M. McCarthy (Ed.), Blended learning for language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lockwood, R. B. (2014). Flip it: Strategies for the ESL classroom. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Oliver, M., & Trigwell, K. (2005). Can blended learning by redeemed?

E-learning and Digital Media, 2(1), 17–26.

Pasisis, G. (2015). The flipped reading block: Making it work. New York: Scholastic.

Stockwell, G. (2016). Mobile language learning. In F. Farr & L. Murray (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of language learning and technology (pp. 296–307). New York: Routledge.

White, C. (2016). Review of ‘Blending technologies in second language classrooms’. TESOL Quarterly, 50(2), 532–534. doi:https://doi. org/10.1002/tesq.300.

Contents

1 Evolution of Blended Learning 1 Overview of Blended Learning 2 Computers and Language Learning 7 Considerations in Blended Language Learning 10 Consideration 1: Purpose 10 Consideration 2: Appropriateness 11 Consideration 3: Multimodality 12 Consideration 4: Sustainability 14 Summary 16 References 17 2 Understanding Learning Technologies 23 Toward a Wide Definition of Technologies 24 Performance of Technologies 27 Dimensions of Technologies 28 Dimension 1: Actions 29 Narrative Actions 30 Interactive Actions 31 Adaptive Actions 33 Communicative Actions 34 Productive Actions 34 xvii

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Contents

Dimension 2: Timings 35 Dimension 3: Groupings 37 Dimension 4: Spaces 38 Dimension 5: Texts 39 Dimension 6: Tools 42 Summary of Technology Dimensions 42 Applying the Dimensions of Technology 44 Redefinition of Technology for Second Language Learning 45 Merging CALL and Task-Based Learning Theory 46 Summary of Blended Technologies 48 References 49 3 Learning Metaphors and Ecologies 55 The Evolution of Second Language Pedagogy 57 Issue of Metaphors 58 Metaphor 1: Learning as Instruction 60 Metaphor 2: Learning as Acquisition 62 Metaphor 3: Learning as Socialization 64 Succession, Dominance, or Balance? Which Metaphor Is Best? 67 The Role of Environment 70 The Centrality of Environment 72 Can ‘Learning Ecology’ Unite the Language Learning Metaphors? 73 Moving to Language Learning Ecologies 74 Normalization as Antidote to Computer Fixation? 76 An Ecological Paradigm of Technology 77 Summary of Foundations of Blended Language Learning 78 References 79 4 Designs for Blended Language Learning 85 What Is Design? 86 Bottom-Up or Top-Down Design? 87 An Ecological, Iterative, Multi-stakeholder Model of Design 88

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Blended Environments as Hybrid, Human/Technological Networks 89 Two Ways of Change: Design and Innovation 91 Educational Change as Incremental Design 93 Bricoleur Mode of Design 94 Applying the Principles of Design 95 Educational Change as Disruptive Innovation 95 Disruptive Innovation 1: Social Media and Gamification 97 Disruptive Innovation 2: Flipped Classroom 98 Disruptive Innovation 3: Learner Analytics 98 Disruptive Innovation 4: Visible Learning 99 Disruptive Innovation 5: Quantified Self 99 Disruptive Innovation 6: Virtual Assistants 99 Creative Classroom Research Model 100 Levels of Design: Micro, Meso, Macro 102 Micro-level Design Considerations 102 Task Design 103 Lesson Planning 106 Subject Guidelines 107 Meso-level Design Considerations 108 Graduate Attributes 108 Departmental Goals and Curriculum Structure 110 Risk Management 111 Ethical Vision 112 Macro-level Design Considerations 113 International and National Standards 113 Regional and Association Policies 115 Professional Development Benchmarks 116 Summary 116 References 118 5 Strategies for Blended Language Learning 125 Moving from Tool-Centric to Aim/Assessment-­Driven Design 126 PPP: A Dominant Strategy for Curriculum Design 127 TBLT: A Core Strategy for Curriculum Design 129

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What Is a Communicative Task? What Is Not? 130 Types of Tasks: Pedagogic Categories for Differentiating Levels and Qualities of Tasks 130 Goal of Blending Technologies: To Improve the Learning Experience 132 Defining a Blended Task 133 Comparing and Separating Tasks and Technologies 135 Selecting Technologies for a Task 137 Analysis of the Task/Technology Relationship: Cases of EFL Classes in Japan 138 Sequencing: Multiple Technologies Within a Task 140 Strategies in Designing Tasks 143 Flipped Teaching Strategies 144 1. Lectures Are Inverted from Classroom Activities to Pre-class Homework Activities 144 2. Interactive/Communicative Activities Increase During Classroom Time 145 3. Texts Change from Single Media to Multimedia 145 4. Synchronous and Asynchronous Activities Are Remixed in Course Design 145 Case Analysis of Flipped Teaching in Language Learning 146 Gamification and Social Media Strategies 147 Is Gamification a Technology? Is It a Task? 149 Gamification Principles 151 Gamification Elements 152 Applying Gamification to Second Language Learning 152 How Does Gamification Expand Beyond Classroom and LMS? 154 Summary of Strategies 155 References 155 6 Assessments for Blended Language Learning 161 Defining Assessment for Blended Learning 162 Metaphors of Learning in Assessment 164 Considerations of Blended Learning in Assessment 165

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Assessment Purposes 167 Assessment for Qualifications 167 Assessment for Administration 168 Assessment for Learning 169 Assessment Principles 171 Clear Aims and Objectives 171 Authenticity and Value 172 Fairness and Objectivity 173 Efficiency and Practicality 174 Embedded Formative Assessment 175 Practice Activities 175 Feedback Activities 176 Graded Activities 177 Evaluation Activities 178 Construction of Blended Assessments 178 Assessment Participants and Roles 179 Modes of Delivery 180 Paper Assessments 180 Face-to-Face Assessments 181 Online Assessments 181 Assessment Formats 182 Transparency of Marking Through Rubrics 184 Choice of Language in Rubric Design 187 Ratios of Self, Peer, and Teacher Assessments 187 Student Development of Criteria 190 Annotations and Essay Assessments 193 Assessment in Programs 194 Action Research in Assessment 194 Institutional Obstacles 195 Instructor Attitudes 195 Perceptions of Technology 198 Learner Analytics 200 Summary 200 References 202

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7 Principles of Research in Blended Environments 207 Contextual Inquiry Versus Experimental Research 207 What Is ‘Effectiveness’ in Teaching and Learning? 210 Post-modernist Inquiry and Classroom Research 210 The Question of Effectiveness 211 Defining a Research Philosophy 213 Question of Epistemology 214 Question of Positionality 215 Question of Inference 217 Question of Validity 218 Reflecting on a Personal and Team Philosophy 221 Acknowledging Positionality 221 Discerning Personal and Collaborative Worldviews 222 Recognizing Potential Blind Spots 223 Reductionism: Analyzing Pieces of Information 224 Objectivism: Seeking Universal Truth or ‘Best Practice’ 224 Determinism: Oversimplified Causality 226 Detachment: A Pretense of Non-bias 227 Minimizing Research Traps and Pitfalls 228 Ethical Considerations 229 Summary 231 References 233 8 Action Research in Blended Environments 237 Defining Action Research in Blended Environments 237 Differentiating Action Research from Other Approaches 239 Justifying Action Research in Blended Environments 240 Issues in the Design of Action Research 242 Individual and Collaborative Positionality 243 External Validity or Transferability 243 Non-human, Hybrid Agency 244 Conducting Action Research 245 Step 1: Problem-Posing (Establishing an Appropriate Research Question) 247 Step 2: Designing (Creating the Intervention Classroom and Online Texts/Activities) 250

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Step 3: Specifying (Deciding What Data to Collect) 250 Step 4: Configuring 250 Step 5: Promoting 250 Step 6: Collecting 251 Step 7: Analyzing 251 Step 8: Reflecting (Debriefing by Faculty and Evaluation by Students) 252 Step 9: Publishing (Dissemination and Critique of Research) 252 Step 10: Institutionalizing (Selecting Sustainable Change and Next Actions) 253 Action Research Cases: Longitudinal Studies 253 Summary 254 References 256 9 Ethnographic Research in Blended Environments 259 What Is Ethnography in Educational Environments? 260 Comparing Ethnography with Other Approaches of Contextual Inquiry 262 Contextual Frameworks for Studying Blended Ecologies 263 Semiotic Analysis 264 Issues of Ethnographies 266 Types of Ethnographies 267 Type 1: Classroom Ethnography 267 Sample Classroom Ethnography of an Extensive Reading Ecology 268 Out-of-Class ER Activities Description 269 In-Class ER Activities Description 270 Interpreting the ER Program Ecology 270 Type 2: Institutional Ethnography 273 Sample Institutional Ethnography of a Blended Language Learning Ecology 274 Data Collection and Reduction with Excerpts 275 Purposive, Manual Coding 275 Analysis of Institutional Change 276

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Type 3: Autoethnography 276 Defining Autoethnography 279 The Aims of Autoethnography 280 Data Collection and Analysis in Autoethnography 281 Conducting a Blended Learning Autoethnography 283 Data Collection with Publication Summaries 284 Theme Interpretation 286 Problems and Validity of Autoethnography 287 Summary 288 References 288 10 Blended Technologies in Practice 293 Technology 1: Carouselling 294 Dimensions of Carouselling 295 Variations and Blending 295 Technology 2: Quiz Gaming/Audience Response System 296 Technology 3: Video Assessing with Paper and LMS Rubrics 299 Research Focus: Issues of Rubric Design 300 Research Method: Action Research 301 Curriculum and Course Context 301 Types of Assessments Pre-2012 303 Types of Assessments from 2012 306 Rubric Design: Adapting from Paper to LMS 307 Rubric Design: Weighting Self/Peer/Teacher 311 Rubric Design: Scale Definitions 312 Further Research 313 Summary of Blended Technologies in Practice 315 References 316 11 Blended Language Lessons in Practice 319 Bricolage Process of Lesson Design 321 Blended Tasks and Lessons 325

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Case 1: Blended Oral Communication Task 328 Task Background and Aims 329 Step-by-Step Lesson Flow 330 Technology Dimensions Within the Lesson 334 Pedagogical Actions 334 Pedagogical Groupings/Spaces 335 Pedagogical Timings 337 Pedagogical Texts/Interfaces 337 Pedagogical Tools 338 Discussion of Blended Technologies as Embedded in a Lesson 340 Discussion of Blended Learning Considerations in a Lesson 341 Case 2: Blended Process Writing Task 343 Case 3: Blended Inter-class Exchange 347 Summary 352 References 353 12 Blended Language Programs in Practice 355 Theme 1: Blended Learning Faculty Teams 356 Distributed Structure of Authority and Research 356 Sustained Professional Development 359 Theme 2: Blended Learning Materials Development 363 Years 1–2: Internet Projects and Wireless Notebooks 364 Years 3–4: In-House Project Booklets 365 Years 5–6: Customized Content-Based Materials 366 Considerations in Materials Development 367 Theme 3: Blended Learning Infrastructure 367 Curriculum-Driven Facilities Designs 370 Legacy Facilities and Redesign 371 Role of Infrastructure in Blended Language Learning 375 Principles for Blended Program Design 378 Principle 1: Collaboration 379

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Principle 2: Localization 380 Principle 3: Variability 381 Principle 4: Accountability 382 Contributions to Practice 382 Summary 384 References 385 Postlude: Future of Blended Language Learning 387 Assessment Futures 388 Moving to E-assessments 388 Adoption of Video Assessment of Performance 389 Use of Learner Analytics 390 Alignment with Values and Goals 391 Conclusions and Questions: A Third Space for Learning and Teaching 392 Teaching, Learning and Outcomes 392 Professional Development and Training 393 Policy and Leadership 393 Research and Theory Construction 395 References 397 Index 401

List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Fig. 2.2 Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2 Fig. 3.3 Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2 Fig. 5.1 Fig. 6.1 Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.3 Fig. 6.4 Fig. 7.1 Fig. 8.1 Fig. 8.2 Fig. 9.1 Fig. 10.1

Dimensions of blended technologies 27 Dimensions of a language learning technology 44 Illustration of the ‘learning as instruction’ metaphor 61 Illustration of the ‘learning as acquisition’ metaphor 63 Illustration of the ‘learning as socialization’ metaphor 67 Ecological change in educational environments 92 Creative Classroom Research Model (adapted from Johnson et al., 2014, p. 4) 100 Relationship of technologies employed in a 120-minute EFL speech task 142 Progress bar for feedback and gamification 176 A video recording and online rubric for an EFL speech class used by both teachers and students 188 Report of combined self/peer/teacher assessment scores and comments 189 A student/teacher-developed rubric for a speech class 191 Case study and action research models of educational enquiry 217 Major stages in the action research approach 245 Major stages and minor steps in the action research approach 247 Features of a blended ethnographic approach 261 Carouselling in a university EFL classroom 296

xxvii

xxviii

List of Figures

Fig. 10.2

Carouselling in a university EFL classroom (with mobile phone recording) 297 Sample screen question given to EFL learners by a quiz gaming technology 298 Syllabus for university EFL presentation skills course 302 Paper form for teacher assessment (Paper Worksheet 1) 304 Paper form for audience assessment (Paper Worksheet 2) 305 Screen display of rubric report for teacher and self-assessment 310 ‘Assess’ screen of the video assessment module 311 Rubric design in paper forms: Three scales, (Speech 1) 313 Rubric design in online forms: Three scales, (Speech 1) 313

Fig. 10.3 Fig. 10.4 Fig. 10.5 Fig. 10.6 Fig. 10.7 Fig. 10.8 Fig. 10.9 Fig. 10.10

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Table 1.2 Table 1.3 Table 1.4 Table 1.5 Table 1.6 Table 1.7 Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 2.4 Table 2.5 Table 2.6 Table 2.7 Table 2.8 Table 2.9 Table 3.1

An early taxonomy of terms related to blended learning (Smith & Kurthen, 2007) 6 Views of computer use in second language learning 8 Areas of normalization in language programs (Chambers & Bax, 2006) 9 Concepts related to purposeful blended language learning 11 Concepts related to appropriate blended language learning 12 Concepts related to multimodal blended language learning 14 Concepts related to sustainable blended language learning 16 Varying perspectives on learning technologies 25 Pedagogic actions as a dimension of technologies (Laurillard, 2002) 30 Timing dimensions in technologies 37 Grouping and space dimensions of technologies 38 Text dimensions in technologies 41 Tools as a dimension of language learning technology 43 Applying dimensions of technologies: critical reading example 45 Conceptual shifts in technology dimensions 46 Conceptual shifts in second language learning views of technology 47 Summary of learning metaphors in second language teaching 68

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Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 4.4 Table 4.5 Table 4.6 Table 4.7 Table 4.8 Table 4.9 Table 4.10 Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 5.3 Table 5.4 Table 5.5 Table 5.6 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 6.3 Table 6.4 Table 6.5 Table 6.6 Table 6.7 Table 6.8 Table 6.9 Table 7.1 Table 7.2 Table 7.3 Table 7.4

List of Tables

Qualities of single-venue learning design and blended learning ecology design 90 Education as innovation—disruptive trends, challenges, developments (based on the Horizon Report: Johnson et al., 2014) 97 Creative Classroom Research Model—28 Innovative Practices (based on the Horizon Report: Johnson et al., 2014) 101 Micro-level design considerations 103 Design considerations in blended lesson plan development 107 Meso-level design considerations of institutional goals 109 Potential mistakes in selecting technologies 111 Possible issues, causes, and potential management tactics 112 Macro-level design considerations 114 Micro, meso, and macro levels of design 117 Definitions of task in second language learning theory 131 Classroom observation data categorized by task elements 139 Technology analysis of an EFL speech-making task (Class07) 141 Technology analysis of a TBLT, blended, flipped teaching approach 148 Gamification features applied to blended learning 153 Gaming mechanisms for second language learning 154 Dominant metaphors of language learning and their relation to assessment 165 Mapping blended learning considerations to assessment 166 Purposes of blended language learning assessment 170 Questions related to assessment design elements 171 Common question types in assessment authoring systems for blended language learning 183 Rubric for assessing participation in a blended approach 186 Institutional obstacles 196 Instructor attitudes toward technologies 197 Perceptions of technologies 199 Effect of learning metaphors on contextual inquiry 213 Examples of researcher actions to establish positionality 216 Validity types and sample questions 219 Tactics to increase internal validity in contextual inquiry 220

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So far as the land extended, bird life prevailed; the species being the snowy owl, the snow-bunting, and the ptarmigan. Full collections were made of all the birds frequenting Smith Sound; and our naturalists had the satisfaction of discovering the long-sought-for breeding-haunts of the knott and sanderling.[13] Few species of marine fish were obtained, but “an interesting small salmonoid” was met with in fresh-water lakes as far north as lat. 82° 35’. A fine collection of marine invertebrates was secured by dredging and trawling; and the character of the sea-bottom from Baffin Bay up to lat. 83° 19’ N. was accurately ascertained by a series of careful soundings.

In the department of botany our naturalists were rewarded by the discovery of between twenty and thirty species of phanerogamic plants between the parallels of 82° and 83°. Much richer and more varied results were obtained in the cryptogamic flora.

Geologically, the facts arrived at were of the utmost value. “The whole west coast of Smith Sound, from Cape Isabella to Cape Union, has been fully surveyed and mapped, and large collections have been made both of fossils and rock-specimens; while the sledge-parties which explored the shore of the Polar Basin, both to east and west, brought back sufficient material to determine the geological character of the country. Silurian limestones, richly fossiliferous, were the prevailing rocks along Smith Sound. Miocene deposits, including a twenty-foot seam of coal, were found as far north as lat. 81° 44’. From the shales and sandstones of this formation a beautiful series of leaf-impressions were collected, illustrating the characteristic flora of the epoch, and presenting a remarkable demonstration of the existence of a temperate climate within five hundred miles of the present Pole at a comparatively recent geological time. Not less important are the indications of great recent changes in the elevation of the land afforded by the discovery of thick post-pliocene deposits, lying at a considerable elevation above the sea-level, and containing fossils similar to the existing marine fauna. Lastly, very interesting and suggestive observations have been made on glaciation and ice-action in general.”

This, of course, is but a summary, and a very brief and condensed one, of researches which have evidently been of the highest importance. And it might almost be said of the late expedition, that even had its geographical discoveries been less valuable, its scientific results would have entitled it to a foremost place in the annals of Arctic Enterprise.

Our record of Arctic expeditions will fitly close with a sketch of the cruise of the Pandora, a screw-yacht commanded by Captain Allen Young, which left England in the summer of 1876, in order to open up communications with the Admiralty expedition.

CHART SHOWING THE DISCOVERIES OF THE BRITISH POLAR EXPEDITION 1875–76.

[From Map accompanying Official Report published in “Nature.”]

Captain Young left Upernavik on the evening of the 19th of July, and stood away to the northward—in bad weather, and with the wind blowing a gale. Through vast fields of ice he threaded his way, sometimes under sail, sometimes under steam, until, on the morning of the 24th, he found his ship completely surrounded, in lat. 75° 10’ N. No time was lost in endeavouring to effect an escape by charging the ice at full speed,—again and again returning to the onset; and a slow but steady progress was being made, when the field in which

they were held fast, drifting before the gale, “collided” with a group of grounded bergs, and exposed the little vessel to such severe pressure, that preparations were made for abandoning her.

Provisions, ammunition, camping and travelling gear, all were made ready, and the boats were lowered as far as possible at the davits.

Meantime, heavy charges of gunpowder were used to blast the ice where it pressed the ship most severely; and the bergs taking a different direction, the Pandora began to recover herself, and before night settled down nearly to her usual level. In the darkness of the night, with the wind howling, and the snow and sleet driving in heavy showers, she moved ahead with the pack; and in this way continued her progress until the 27th, when the weather cleared, and Captain Young discovered that he had advanced right into the heart of Melville Bay, with no water in sight. Full in view were Capes Walker and Melville, the Peaked Hill, and huge glacier-streams embedded in the intervening valleys. All around was one vast monotonous sheet of rugged ice. It was not until the 29th that the Pandora, after many hairbreadth escapes, got into open water, in lat. 75° 50’ N., and long.

64° 55’ W. While thus imprisoned in the grasp of the floe, the explorers killed only one Polar bear, four seals, and a few little auks.

In a clear sea they now stood away to the westward, passing Capes Dudley, Digges, and Athol, and other headlands familiar in the records of Arctic adventure. At noon on the 31st, when off Wolstenholm Island, another gale overtook them, increasing rapidly to almost hurricane fury. This was an unpleasant experience; for the deck was washed by heavy seas, and it was with the greatest difficulty they avoided coming into collision with the icebergs which drifted rapidly through the snow and spray.

Reaching Cary Island, they landed to examine Captain Nares’ depôt of provisions, and found it in good preservation. The cairn had not been visited since Young’s call at the island on the 10th of September in the previous year. Afterwards they made for Sutherland Island, where they found a record of the American explorer, Captain Hartstene, dated August 16, 1855. It is with a curious feeling that, in these regions of almost perpetual winter, the voyager comes upon such faint memorials of men who, like him,

have dared all the perils of ice-floes and icebergs, and adventured into seas far beyond the track of ordinary commercial enterprise.

On Littleton Island, a record of the expedition was found. The document was dated July 28, 1875, and signed by Captain Nares; and it indicated the course about to be taken by the ships under his orders. Owing to the ice-encumbered condition of the straits, however, Captain Young could not follow it up; and instead of crossing to Cape Isabella, he resolved to examine the coast in Hartstene Bay, in order to seek a harbour for the relief-ship which the Admiralty had intended to send out in 1877, in case of the non-return of the Polar Expedition. This was found on the 4th of August, not far from the Eskimo settlement of Etah, and named after the Pandora. It would seem to offer every advantage as winter quarters for Arctic discovery-ships; the surrounding hills are “dotted with Arctic hares, appearing like snow-balls on the luxurious vegetation.” The little auk breeds in thousands on the cliffs, eider fowl and guillemots haunt the waters, and the adjacent valleys and pastures are frequented by reindeer.

Captain Young next made for Cape Isabella, which he reached on the 6th of August. Watchful eyes soon discovered a large cairn on the summit of this headland. A boat was lowered, and the contents of the cairn soon obtained, while despatches and letters for Captain Nares’ expedition were left in their stead. Then the Pandora steamed to the northward; but, owing to the adverse winds and the accumulated ice, could make no way, and was forced back to Cape Isabella. Another attempt was made to the eastward, and for several days the gallant little ship crossed and recrossed the straits, through the pack, always beset with ice, and frequently enshrouded in impenetrable fogs. No fewer than three times was she compelled to take shelter in Pandora Harbour. On the 19th she was driven back to the northward of Littleton Island, and Captain Young and some of his officers took the opportunity of visiting the Polaris camp. Nothing remained of the house erected by Captain Buddington except a few broken boards. The rocks were strewn with pieces of metal, fragments of clothing, and other waifs and strays. The cache in which the retreating party had deposited their books and instruments

was also examined; but the only relics were a brass bowl of a seveninch compass, a tin tube, and parts of a telescope. Some cases and casks, containing records for the use of Captain Nares, were securely placed among the rocks on the western point of the island; and Captain Young then returned to Cape Isabella.

Finding nothing here of any interest, and convinced that no travelling or boat party had reached that position from the Polar ships, the Pandora bore away to the northward under canvas. “It was very dark and thick,” says Captain Young, “but sufficiently clear to enable us to avoid the heavy ice. By nine a.m. we were up to Lecomte Island, when we were stopped by a fog until eleven o’clock, when I could see from aloft that the main pack extended across the straits into Rosse Bay. We were in a lake of land water, with closepacked and heavy ice all round, from south to north, and again closing on the land from the eastward. Our only chance of moving seemed to be through a narrow lead or slack place, running first to the east-north-east, and then again apparently towards the east coast. We entered the pack, and succeeded by five p.m. in again escaping into the land water in Hartstene Bay.” Such are the experiences of twelve hours in the ice-clogged waters of the North!

But we need not delay the reader with these minute particulars, notwithstanding their interest as illustrative of the nature of the struggle waged with so much persistency of purpose by the Arctic explorer. The sea was now covered everywhere with ice and bergs.

Storms were of frequent occurrence; and the wind and wave beaten Pandora was forced back into Baffin Bay. Here, on the 28th of August, her captain could see that the solid ice had filled the straits and the head of the bay right across to Cape Alexander. The way north being thus obstructed, Captain Young resolved on proceeding towards Upernavik, in North Greenland, hoping to find that the last ship had not already sailed for Denmark, and in that case to send an officer home with despatches, while the Pandora returned to Smith Strait.

On the 29th she was off Hakluyt Island, and steered for Bardin Bay in Whale Sound. On entering the bay, a summer tent could be seen, and some Eskimos, with their dogs, running to and fro,

evidently with the view of attracting the attention of the visitors.

Captain Young accordingly landed, with some of his officers, and accompanied by Christian, his Eskimo interpreter. The natives met them with the utmost confidence and fearlessness, assisting to haul their boat up on the shore. They were ten in number, and all members of one family. Food appeared to be plentiful with them, but they were profuse in their thanks for some walrus-flesh given by Captain Young. Their manners were frank and communicative, and they showed considerable vivacity, rejoicing over the results of a very good hunting season. Neither European ships nor white men had they seen for years; but they said that an old man, who, with his family, inhabited Northumberland Island, told of two ships which had passed to the northward “last summer.” How lonely must be the life led by these poor savages! Never gladdened by the sight of a sail; but, year after year, shut up in their frozen solitudes, and without any other object or purpose before them than to obtain just enough food to avoid a premature and miserable death!

Among their treasures Captain Young observed a ship’s bucket, half the top of a mahogany table, the paddle of a Greenlander’s kayack, much ice-worn, and a piece of packing-case marked “Lime juice—Leith;” all of which, they said, had drifted into the bay at different times from the southward. These people seemed to Captain Young of a kind and simple disposition, while they were evidently robust and healthy. All that they had—and it was little enough—they freely pressed upon their visitor; and when asked what present they would like, their chief selected only some gimlets and a fifteen-foot ash oar. The latter, he said, would split up into spear-shafts; the former he wanted for boring bone and ivory. Captain Young, however, gave them several other useful articles; accepting in return some narwhal horns, specimens of their pot-stone cooking-kettles, and of the iron pyrites which they used for striking fire. An exchange of dogs also took place; five of the dogs belonging to the Pandora being given for three of the finest bear-hunting and tame dogs of the Eskimos.

At Upernavik, the Pandora, after a stormy and dangerous passage, arrived on the evening of September the 7th, but found that

the last ship had sailed for Europe. As there were no means, therefore, of communicating with England, and as, without such communication, Captain Young did not feel authorized to winter in the North, a supply of fresh water wars taken on board, and the ship steered for home. From the 15th to the 21st she tarried at Goodhav’n, in Disco Island. In Davis Strait she encountered large quantities of heavy Spitzbergen drift-ice, and weathered a severe south-easterly gale. On the 16th of October, in lat. 54° 38’ N., and long. 44° 30’ W., she sighted the Arctic ships, Alert and Discovery, and hastened to communicate with them. They kept together until the 19th. On the following day, the Pandora was buffeted by another hurricane; but the rest of her voyage was accomplished in safety, and was marked by no incidents of importance.

Here, for the present, terminates the record of British enterprise and adventure in the Arctic World. It is difficult to believe, however, that the nation will rest until the “heart of the mystery has been plucked out,” the Secret finally mastered, and the British flag hoisted on that remote point which is conventionally known as the North Pole.

INDEX. Agaricus muscarius, 139.

Agassiz, experiments of, 116.

Alectoria jubata, 137.

Aletsch glacier, the, described, 47.

Algol, or Medusa’s Head, 39.

Arctic Highlanders, 12.

Arctic night, the, characteristics of, 32–34, 93–95.

Arctic region, extent of, 13, 14.

Atmospheric phenomena, 31.

Auk, the, described, 97, 98.

Aurora Borealis, the, phenomena of, 27; theory of, 29.

Baffin, discoveries of, 227.

Barents, adventures of, 266–269.

Barrens, the, region of, described, 16.

Bear, Polar, natural history of the, 85–93; hunting seals, 86; voracity of, 88; affection for its young, 88, 89.

Beechey, Captain, quoted, 45, 46, 55.

Bell, quoted, 78.

Bellot, Lieutenant, quoted, 123.

Bennet, Stephen, voyage of, 228.

Berkeley, quoted, 140.

Birds, migrations of, 11.

Boötes, constellation of, 40.

Bremer, Frederika, quoted, 138.

Brewster’s, Sir David, experiment with polarised light, 111.

Buddington, Captain, adventures of, 308–311.

Burrough, Stephen, voyage of, 222, 223.

Button, Captain, voyage of, 227.

Bylot, Robert, voyage of, 227.

Carlsen, Captain, voyage of, 270.

Cladonia rangiferina, 137.

Clarke, Dr., quoted, 203.

Clavering, Captain, referred to, 12.

Cochlearia, or scurvy-grass, uses of, 139.

Coleridge, quoted, 69.

Constellations, northern, list of, 37.

Cooley, Mr., quoted, 230.

Corvidæ, the, natural history of, 160.

Cryptogamous plants of the north, 141, 142.

Crystallization, process of, 108.

Cygnus musicus, 161.

D’Almeida, Count, quoted, 205, 206.

Davis, Captain John, voyages of, 224, 225.

Dolphins, the, natural history of, 82, 83.

Dorothea, the, narrow escape of, 55.

Dufferin, Lord, quoted, 166, 167, 172.

Eider ducks, the, natural history of, 103; in Iceland, 104.

Eskimo dog, the, description of, 190.

Eskimo, the, hunting the walrus, 68, 69; hut of, 76.

Eskimo kayak described, 182.

Eskimo seal-hunt, an, described, 77, 78.

Eskimo sledge, the, described, 192–196.

Eskimos, the, boundaries of, 175; character, manners, customs, and clothing, 179–196.

Falcon, the, natural history of, 160.

Faraday, ingenious experiment of, 111.

Felinska, Madame, quoted, 211.

Fish in the Arctic seas, 106.

Flora of the Arctic lands, 19.

Fox, Luke, voyage of, 228.

Fox, the Arctic, natural history of, 151–153.

Fox-trap, a, described, 152.

Franklin, Sir J., overland journey of, 231; last expedition of, 231; relics of, discovered, 233, 235, 236.

Fritillaria sarrana, the, properties of, 142, 143.

Frobisher, Sir Martin, voyage of, 223.

Frobisher Strait discovered, 223.

Gale, an Arctic, described, 70.

Gârds of Lapland, described, 207.

Germania, the, expedition of, 245–265.

Geysers, the, phenomena of, 165–167.

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, death of, 224.

Glacier-ice, peculiarities of, 112.

Glacier in Smith Strait, 124, 127; of Sermiatsialik, 128, 129.

Glaciers, characteristics of, 47; motion of, 113–115; phenomena connected with, 115–118; of the Arctic regions, 118–133; of Spitzbergen, 120, 123.

Godhav’n, 167.

Grampus, the, natural history of, 83, 84.

Greenland, scenery on the coast of, 22.

Guillemot, the, described, 96, 97.

Gull, the, described, 103.

Hall, Captain, expedition and death of, 271, 272.

Hansa, the, voyage and loss of, 245–251.

Hans the Hunter, 186–189, 284.

Hare, the Arctic, 154.

Hartwig, Dr., quoted, 15.

Hayes, Dr., quoted, 25, 35, 43, 49, 50, 59, 87, 95, 96, 124, 125, 127, 128, 138, 152, 153, 186, 191, 192, 244; Arctic expedition of, 244, 245.

Hearne, quoted, 183.

Hecla, the, and the Fury, danger of, 56.

Hegemann, Captain, 245.

Hekla, eruption of, 164.

Henderson, Dr., quoted, 172.

Hill, Mr., quoted, 213, 214.

Hobson, Lieutenant, discovers Franklin relics, 234–236.

Holland, Mr., quoted, 173.

Hore, Mr., voyage of, 222.

Hudson, Henry, discoveries of, 225–228.

Humboldt Glacier, description of, 131–134, 238.

Hutchinson, Captain, quoted, 205.

Icebergs, their dimensions, 41; their magnificent appearance, 42, 43; danger to navigation from, 44, 123; breaking up of, 49; range of, 50, 51; in Baffin Bay, 124.

Ice-fields, extent and character of, 54, 56, 57.

Ice-flowers, characteristics of, 108.

Iceland, dimensions of, 162; history of, 162; volcanoes of, 163; dreary landscapes of, 164; geysers of, 166, 167; houses and churches of, 170; travelling in, 172; horses of, 173.

Iceland moss, uses of, 138, 139.

Jacobshav’n, 168.

Jakut merchants, the, enterprise of, 217.

Jakuts, the, as bear-hunters, 212; manners and customs of, 216, 217.

James, Captain Thomas, voyage of, 228.

Joe the Eskimo, with Captain Tyson, 278, et sqq.

Kamtschatka, fisheries of, 212; the dog of, 214, 215.

Kamtschatkans, the, characteristics of, 213, 214.

Kane, Dr., quoted, 15, 32, 33, 34, 42, 68, 73, 74, 88, 91, 92, 131–134, 149, 153, 184, 185, 237, 239, 242, 243; Arctic explorations of, 237–244.

Knots, the, habits of, 11, 12.

Koldewey, Captain, referred to, 12; voyage of, 245.

Lagopus, the, 161.

Lamont, Mr., quoted, 60, 62.

Lapland, divisions and extent of, 197; climate of, 197; inhabitants of, 197; the reindeer in, 200; sledging in, 201; an interior in, 204, 205.

Lapp dialect, the, 206.

Lapp hunters, the, boldness of, 202.

Lapps, the, dress, manners, and customs of, 198.

Lapps, the Mountain, character of, 199, 200.

Lapps of West Bothnia, 206, 207.

Laube, Dr., quoted, 252.

Lemming, the Arctic, 154.

Macmillan, Dr., quoted, 135, 136, 137, 141.

Markham, C., quoted, 10, 175, 225, 226, 273.

Marten, the, 155.

Martins, M. Charles, quoted, 119, 120, 121.

M’Clintock, Captain Sir Roderick, quoted, 148, 151, 181, 265; voyage of, 234.

M’Clure, Sir Robert, quoted, 81; discovers North-West Passage, 233.

Mecham, Captain, quoted, 146, 150.

Mer de Glace of Greenland, 127, 128.

Merganser, the natural history of, 99.

Milton, Lord, and Dr. Cheadle, quoted, 158–160.

Moonlight in the Polar World, 26.

Moraines, described, 115.

Moravian mission-stations in Greenland, 179.

Mosses in the Arctic regions, 139.

Musk-ox, the, natural history of, 149, 150.

Mustelidæ family, the, in the Arctic regions, 155.

Nares, Captain, expedition of, 314, et sqq.

Narwhal, the, natural history of, 82.

Newfoundland colonized, 224.

North-West Passage, utility of, 9.

Novaia Zemlaia, temperature of, 21.

Osborn, Admiral Sherard, quoted, 44, 81, 84, 85, 87, 146, 151, 232, 236, 237.

Ostiaks, the, manners and customs of, 211, 212.

Ostrownoje, trade at, 220.

Oxyria, the, uses of, 141.

Pack-ice, description of, 53.

Parry, Captain, quoted, 44, 46, 56, 230; voyages of, 228, 229, 230.

Payer, Lieutenant, voyage of, 270, 271.

Penny, Captain, voyage of, 232–234.

Phænogamous plants of the north, 141.

Phocidæ, the.—See Seal.

Plant-life of Spitzbergen, 142; of Kamtschatka, 142, 143.

Pleiads, the, 39.

Polaris, the, voyage of, 271–313.

Polecat, the, in the Arctic regions, 156, 157.

Pole-Star, the, position of, 36.

Poole, Jonas, voyage of, 228.

Puffin, the, natural history of, 99.

Quenes, or Finns, the, 206.

Rae, Dr., finds relics of Franklin, 233.

Red snow, phenomenon of, explained, 135.

Refraction, phenomena of, 31.

Regelation, what it is, 111.

Reikiavik, description of, 168, 169.

Reindeer, the, natural history of, 144; usefulness of, 145; food of, 146; and wolves, 147; in Siberia, 218, 219.

Reindeer moss, 137.

Rendu, Bishop, quoted, 114.

Richardson, Sir J., quoted, 145.

Rock-hair, 137.

Rorqual, the, 80.

Ross, Sir James, quoted, 145.

Ross, Sir John, voyages of, 228, 231.

Sabine, Sir Edward, quoted, 10.

Sable, the, natural history of, 156.

Samojedes, the, superstitions of, 208, 209; manners and customs of, 210, 211.

Schaïtan, an Ostiak idol, 211.

Scoresby, Dr., quoted, 44, 106, 186.

Seal, the, natural history of, 71–73; flesh of, 73, 74; different genera of, 75.

Sermiatsialik, glacier of, 127, 128.

Shepherd, Mr., quoted, 104.

Skaptá Jokul, eruption of, 165.

Smew, the, natural history of, 100.

Smith Sound, route by, 228.

Snow, formation of, 108.

Snow-crystals, described, 109.

Snow-line, limit of, 20.

Somerville, Mrs., quoted, 30, 107.

Southey, quoted, 136.

Sporidesmium lepraria, 140.

Spring in the Arctic regions, 34.

Starakis, the, described, 98.

Stephenson, Captain, of the Discovery, 314.

Summer in the Arctic regions, 36.

Swan, the wild, natural history of, 105; the whistling, 161.

Tadebtsios, or Samojede demons, 209.

Tadibe, the Samojede priest, 209.

Tchuktche, the, manners and customs of, 220.

Temperature of Arctic winter, 33.

Tennyson, quoted, 105.

Thingvalla, the, in Iceland, 168.

Thorne, Dr. Robert, Arctic exploration proposed by, 222.

Tripe de roche, 137, 138.

Tundras, the stony, described, 15, 16.

Tungusi, the, characteristics of, 219, 220.

Tyndall, Professor, quoted, 47, 48, 108, 109–111, 112, 113, 115, 117, 118.

Tyson, Captain, narrative of, 278–308.

Unknown Region, extent of, 10.

Upernavik, described, 176.

Ursa Major, constellation of, 36; description of, 37, 38.

Waigatz, island of, 208.

Walrus, the, natural history of, 63; courage of, 64; gradual decay of, 67.

Walrus-hunt, a, described, 68, 69.

Walrus-hunting, how carried on, 60; proceeds of, 62.

Ware, quoted, 37, 38.

Whale, the, natural history of, 78; characteristics of the Greenland, 79, 80; the Razor-backed, 80.

Whalebone, what it is, described, 79.

Whale-fishery of the Eskimos, 81.

Whirlwinds of the north, 31.

Willoughby, Sir Hugh, loss of, 222.

Wolf, the Arctic, natural history of, 148.

Wolverine, the, cunning of, 157; anecdotes of, 158–160.

Wooded zone of the Arctic regions, 143.

Wrangel, Admiral von, quoted, 20, 81, 218, 221.

Yakutsk, temperature of, 26.

Young, Captain, cruise of, in the Pandora, 334.

FOOTNOTES: [1] The Tringa canutus of ornithologists.

[2] Abies alba et nigra.

[3] Larix Canadensis.

[4] Pinus Banksiana.

[5] Abies Sibirica, Larix Sibirica.

[6] Tyndall, “Forms of Water,” p. 137.

[7] The name given to a plain of ice near Mont Blanc.

[8] Scoresby calculated that it would require 80,000 persons, labouring continuously from the creation of man to the present day, to count the number of organisms contained in two miles of the green water.

[9] So called from its circular form, and because the surface of the leaf is marked with curved lines.

[10] A more moderate estimate says 1300 persons.

[11] The Academy, November 4, 1876, p. 453.

[12] “Here let the billows stiffen and have rest.”—Coleridge.

[13] The scarcity of animal life in the remote North is shown by the small quantity of game shot by the sportsmen of the expedition after reaching winter quarters:—six musk-oxen, twenty hares, seventy geese, twenty-six ducks, ten ptarmigan, and three foxes.

Transcriber’s Notes: 1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been corrected silently.

2. Where hyphenation is in doubt, it has been retained as in the original.

3. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have been retained as in the original.

4. Where appropriate, the original spelling has been retained.

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