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football research in an enlarged europe Series editors: A. Sonntag; D. Ranc
Football Research in an Enlarged Europe
Series Editors
Albrecht Sonntag
ESSCA School of Management
EU-Asia Institute
Angers, France
Dàvid Ranc
ESSCA School of Management
EU-Asia Institute
Angers, France
This series will publish monographs and edited collections in collaboration with a major EU-funded FP7 research project ‘FREE’: Football Research in an Enlarged Europe. The series aims to establish Football Studies as a worthwhile, intellectual and pedagogical activity of academic significance and will act as a home for the burgeoning area of contemporary Football scholarship. The themes covered by the series in relation to football include, European identity, Memory, Women, Governance, History, the Media, Sports Mega-events, Business and Management, Culture, Spectatorship and Space and Place. The series will be highly interdisciplinary and transnational and the first of its kind to map stateof-the-art academic research on one of the world’s largest, most supported and most debated socio-cultural phenomenona. Editorial Board: Richard Giulianotti (Loughborough University, UK); Kay Schiller (Durham University, UK); Geoff Pearson (Liverpool University, UK); Jürgen Mittag (German Sport University Cologne, Germany); Stacey Pope (Durham University, UK); Peter Millward (Liverpool John Moores University, UK); Geoff Hare (Newcastle University, UK); Arne Niemann (Johannes-Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany); David Goldblatt (Sports writer and broadcaster, UK); Patrick Mignon (National Institute for Sports and Physical Education, France).
More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14987
Gertrud Pfister • Stacey Pope Editors
Female Football Players and Fans
Intruding into a Man’s World
Editors
Gertrud Pfister
University of Copenhagen
Copenhagen, Denmark
Stacey Pope
School of Applied Social Sciences
Durham University
Durham, UK
Football Research in an Enlarged Europe
ISBN 978-1-137-59024-4 ISBN 978-1-137-59025-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59025-1
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Acknowledgements
First and foremost, we would like to express our thanks and gratitude to the authors who have contributed to this edited collection.
We are also indebted to the ‘FREE project’ (Football Research in an Enlarged Europe) which was funded by the Seventh Framework Programme for Research of the European Union (Project Reference: 290805 (http://www.free-project.eu/Pages/Welcome.aspx)). Findings of this project were presented at the conference ‘Women’s Football: Played. Watched. Talked About’, which took place at the University of Copenhagen in 2013. Many of the presentations and ongoing discussions following this conference focused on the topics of this book and some of the presenters were recruited as authors of the chapters.
We are grateful to Professor Albrecht Sonntag and Dr David Ranc for the invitation to contribute to FREE book series and to Palgrave for their assistance with this publication. We would also like to note our thanks to Kate Petty for her attention to detail in the proof reading of the text and to Dr Aage Radmann for the support he has offered with this book.
Finally, we are grateful to the following publishers for permission to use copyright material that has previously been published.
Chapter 2 was originally published as:
Scraton, S., Fasting, K., Pfister, G., & Bunuel, A. (1999) ‘“It’s Still a Man’s Game”: The Experiences of Top Level European Women
Pfister, G. (2013) ‘Women, Football and European Integration. Aims and Questions, Methodological and Theoretical Approaches’, Annales Kinesiologiae, 4 (1), pp. 29–43. Available at: http://ojs.zrs.upr.si/index. php/AK/article/view/19/
Portions of Chap. 8 originally appeared as:
Pope, S. & Williams, J. (2011) ‘White Shoes to a Football Match!: Female Experiences of Football’s Golden Age in England’, Transformative Works and Cultures 6. Article https://doi.org/10.3983/twc.2011.0230.
CC license: CC BY-NC 3.0 (Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported).
1 Introduction 1 Stacey Pope and Gertrud Pfister
2 It’s Still a Man’s Game? The Experiences of Top-Level European Women Footballers 19 Sheila Scraton, Kari Fasting, Gertrud Pfister, and Ana Bunuel
3 Women, Football and European Integration: Aims, Questions, Methodological and Theoretical Approaches 37 Gertrud Pfister
4 The Beginnings of Women’s Football in South-Western Germany: From a Spectacle to a Sport Event 55 Markwart Herzog
5 Women’s Football Leagues in Europe: Organizational and Economic
Marie-Luise Klein
6 Outsiders on the Inside: Integrating Women’s and Men’s Football Clubs in England
Jo Welford
7 ‘ Who Could Name an England Women’s Footballer?’: Female Fans of Men’s Football and Their Views of Women’s
9 Is There a Life Beyond Football? How Female Fans Integrate Football into Their Everyday Lives
Verena Lenneis and Gertrud Pfister
10 ‘One Is Not Born, But Rather Becomes a Fan’: The Socialization of Female Football Fans—A Case Study in Denmark
Gertrud Pfister, Svenja-Maria Mintert, and Verena Lenneis
12 Challenging or Accommodating the Football System? A Case Study of Female Football Supporter
Ramón Llopis-Goig and Helena Flores
Cornel Sandvoss and Emily Ball
List of Tables
Table 6.1 Explanation of club categorizations 110
Table 9.1 Details of the interviewees 192
Table 10.1 Socio-demographic data of the interviewees 219
Table 11.1 Percentage of female attendants in European countries 242
1
Introduction
Stacey Pope and Gertrud Pfister
Introduction
In many countries and regions of the world football (better known in the United States as soccer) is the most popular sport; it attracts millions of participants and billions of people who are interested in the game. Football plays a crucial role in the everyday lives of many fans who identify with their clubs, teams and players. Numerous fans attend football games in the stadium, and some may even plan their everyday lives around the match schedules of their teams. But football is not only important to those fans who (can) attend matches in the stadium, but also to billions of people who watch the game on television or via live streaming on their digital devices, which allow football fans to follow football from wherever they are.
Players have also become increasingly accessible and recognizable to football fans—even to those with no interest in the sport. Whannel
S. Pope (*)
School of Applied Social Sciences, Durham University, Durham, UK
G. Pfister
Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
G. Pfister, S. Pope (eds.), Female Football Players and Fans, Football Research in an Enlarged Europe, https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59025-1_1
S. Pope and G. Pfister
(2002, p. 108) showed how transformations of the media industry led to changes in the nature of sport stardom between 1945 and 1965 and describes how the rise of television coverage was crucial in this process: television brought ‘the faces of the famous’ directly into the home and ensured that male football players acquired a ‘celebrity’ status. In recent times, web 2:0 technology, global media and new networking sites have helped to make football and football players even more accessible. Current players can, for example, use social media such as Twitter and Instagram to intensify old and build new relationships with supporters and fans and also to connect with others involved in the sport including coaches, referees, pundits and former players (see The Football Collective 2016).
Besides being the most popular spectator sport with billions of fans, football is also the most popular sport by participation. Although the game is still predominantly played by boys and men, the number of female players is continuously increasing. Whereas a FIFA survey in 2006 estimated that 26 million girls and women played football worldwide, both as registered and as occasional players (Kunz 2007), the FIFA Women’s Football Survey 2014 showed that the number of girls and women who play this game had increased to over 30 million, and that over 4.8 million players were registered (FIFA 2014). In Europe, statistics have also shown that there has been an increase not only in the numbers of female players, but also in the number of coaches and referees in recent years (UEFA 2017).1 Although some caution needs to be exercised around how these statistics have been compiled, especially when estimating the numbers of female participants (see Williams 2014), there is no doubt that football is the most popular sport in the world in terms of both participation and spectatorship (Bridgewater 2014).
It is not surprising, therefore, that there are innumerable popular and academic texts about football which cover a multitude of aspects—from the knee injuries of the forwards to the love affairs of popular players. Football fans, too, gained and continue to gain increasing attention among scholars. In particular, the appearance and the behaviour of various men’s fan groups, such as hooligans and ultras, were and still are at the centre of attention, not only of scholars but also of journalists and the general public (e.g., see Armstrong 1998; Braun and Vliegenthart 2008; Rookwood and Pearson 2012; Spaaij 2008; Stott and Pearson 2007).
However there are numerous questions which have not even been asked, let alone answered, and this refers in particular to female football followers and fans.
What motivates so many men and a growing number of girls and women to spend time at the stadium or in front of TV screens following men’s teams and male players? What are the women’s experiences as fans in a men’s world and what benefits do they gain? Does football create a bonding and an understanding among fans from different countries and cultures or does it create tensions and animosities between fans of different teams? Does football contribute to the development of a European identity among the people living in various countries and regions or does it create or increase animosities? These and other questions motivated a group of scholars from eight countries to apply for a research project on ‘Football Research in an Enlarged Europe: Identity dynamics, perception patterns and cultural change in Europe’s most prominent form of popular culture’. This project focused on football and fandom in a European context and explored among other issues the social and sport-related backgrounds of football fans, their roles and behaviour at the stadium, as well as their social relations in and beyond the boundaries of their countries. In short: the FREE project—Football Research in an Enlarged Europe—investigated fandom and its influences on cross-cultural dialogues in Europe. One of the six sub-projects had a focus on the role of girls and women in intercultural dialogues of fans and was conducted by one of the editors of this book, Gertrud Pfister, and a PhD student. The questions addressed in this sub-project included the initiation of girls and women into football fandom, their roles in the fan communities and the integration of fandom in their everyday lives. These issues were explored via a survey, qualitative interviews and participant observations. Some of the results of the FREE project are presented in the contributions of Pfister, Lenneis and Mintert in this book which contains an edited collection of football studies. It includes not only results of the FREE project, but also some of the presentations given at a conference on the topic of ‘Women’s Football: Played. Watched. Talked About’ which was organized by three sociologists and football researchers working at the Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports at the University of Copenhagen in 2013. During this event one of the conference organizers,
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Gertrud Pfister, and Stacey Pope, one of the keynote speakers, conceived the idea of publishing a book to include not only some of the conference presentations, but also studies based on research and discussions that followed the conference. We chose a provocative title: Female Football Players and Fans: Intruding into a Man’s World because we wanted to emphasize that, despite the recent gains girls and women have made in the various fields of this sport, football remains a largely ‘male preserve’ (Dunning 1994; Magrath 2017).
Some of the articles of this book draw upon the extensive body of work on female football players, but focus on new aspects of, and perspectives to this topic which has already attracted the interest of a number of scholars (e.g., see Agergaard and Tiesler 2014; Caudwell 2004, 2012; Dunn 2016; Dunn and Welford 2015; Williams 2003, 2007, 2013). In addition, the book addresses the dearth of research on female football fans and provides insights into gender issues which have not been addressed in the existing fan studies (e.g., see Cere 2012; Dunn 2014; Jones 2008). Although there has been a growing interest in female fans (e.g., see Cere 2012; Dunn 2014; Jones 2008; Lenneis and Pfister 2015; Pfister et al. 2013; Pope 2011, 2016, 2017), many issues and perspectives of this phenomenon have not been the focus of the—mostly male—football researchers. In contrast to the large body of knowledge about male football supporters, studies on female fans are at present still few and far between and there is still much work to be done to redress the underrepresentation of women in research on sports fandom (Mewett and Toffoletti 2011). As Pope has argued in a recent book, there is a need for research on sports fans in general to incorporate women’s experiences ‘rather than either: ignoring women and focusing solely on issues which are not relevant for women (as has been the case in the body of work of fan rivalry and hooliganism), labelling women as “inauthentic” supporters; and/or “adding” female fans to research which is primarily focused upon male fans’ (Pope 2017, p. 4).
Furthermore, this edited collection of studies on female fans is also of considerable importance because football has become an increasingly popular spectator sport for girls and women. Pope (2017) has argued that there has been a Feminization of Sports Fandom in contemporary society which indicates the increasing numbers of female fans and their
opportunities to become involved in football, one of the most popular sports (although it is still dominated by men). This development is confirmed by statistics which show that in some countries women and girls make up an integral component of the sports crowd in football stadiums. For example, in the United Kingdom and in Germany, around 20–30 per cent of fans of Premier league and of Bundesliga teams are women (Premier League 2017; Fürtjes 2012, cited in Lenneis and Pfister 2015). Thus, although the majority of European women may not be very interested in football, there is a number of female fans who need to be included in academic research and publications on sports fans.
Pope theorizes that this process of feminization began in the 1990s and identifies two main factors for this development. First, there have been major transformations in women’s lives—at least in Western countries— which have enhanced their opportunities to engage in leisure activities, including sports fandom. Such changes began with the women’s liberation movements of second-wave feminism in the 1960s and had a large influence upon women’s lives up until today. These changes occurred in the spheres of work and employment, education, and health care, with greater access to contraceptives providing women with influence on fertility and family size which, on average, has subsequently declined. From the 1990s there has also been a major structural shift in gender relations which has changed the balance of power between the sexes, allowing women a measure of freedom and control over their lives. These societal changes enhanced women’s autonomy and opportunities to engage in leisure activities, including those activities which were traditionally reserved for men, such as football fandom.
Second, major changes occurred in professional sports with regard to the stadiums and facilities. This included the move to all-seater stadia, which were introduced in the United Kingdom in the 1990s after the Hillsborough disaster of 1989. A similar process of modernization has also occurred in stadia in other European countries; Paramio et al. (2008) define football grounds built after the 1990s as ‘postmodern stadia’. Such modern stadiums have to be built according to strict safety regulations, meaning that there is more numbered seating accommodation in stands as well as increasing standards of comfort and security. These changes have arguably created a welcoming environment for women and
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a ‘female-friendly’ atmosphere, which led to an increase in the numbers of female spectators. These changes coincided also with major changes in women’s lives (e.g., with increasing numbers of women working outside of the home) and in women’s ‘typical’ life cycles (e.g., with family size declining), but also with an increased media and social media coverage of men’s professional football which may have introduced this sport to new groups of female (and male) fans.
Further research and new publications on topics related to female football players in Europe (and beyond) are also necessary because of the recent rises in the numbers of women and girls involved in this sport. In addition, there have been major developments in women’s football at the elite levels of the game. Klein’s chapter in this book focuses on how as a consequence of the increasing numbers of female players and women’s teams, the numbers of women’s football leagues in Europe have increased and national championships have been established. Klein notes that nearly all of the 54 member associations of UEFA have established a national championship competition for women’s football teams, although there are considerable variations between the leagues in the different countries, in particular in terms of the level of their performance.
The growing interest in women’s football has led to increasing numbers of fans watching the sport—both in the stadiums and on television, as well as engaging with women’s football through traditional forms of media and/or social media. Although the numbers of fans at women’s matches are small in comparison to men’s football, there has been a slow—and in some countries continuous—rise of interest in female players and womens’ teams. For example, in England the average attendance at top national league matches increased from 200 in 2011/12 to 1058 in 2016/17 and in France attendances increased from 400 in 2011/12 to 1000 in 2016/17 (UEFA 2017). The growing interest in women’s football is mirrored by the numbers of viewers of televised women’s matches; for example, just under 328 million people watched at least 20 consecutive minutes of the 2015 FIFA Women’s World Cup in Canada, with the final between the United States and Japan reaching a global home audience of just over 60 million (FIFA 2015).
Most publications on women and football focus either on the game and its players or on the fans. One of the strengths of this book is the
coverage of women’s experiences both as players and fans in a range of European countries, including the United Kingdom, Denmark, Sweden, Germany and Spain. With the exception of Toffoletti and Mewett’s (2012) edited collection Sport and Its Female Fans, most of the existing books and articles on female fans have tended to focus upon women’s experiences in one country. This has also been the case for many—though by no means all—of the studies which have explored the situation of women’s football. In this book, the richness of insights gained from information about the game and its female players and fans in specific countries is combined with an overview of a range of European countries, allowing comparisons to be made across different cultural contexts and thus enabling an analysis of similarities and differences with regard to issues of gender inequality that girls and women continue to encounter in various ways.
The various chapters of this book highlight not only the progress of women’s football in Europe, but also ongoing challenges, including the low salaries of female football players and the financial difficulties of women’s football clubs, poor media exposure of the women’s game, negative stereotypes of female football players and issues of sexism encountered by female fans. Thus, whilst it is important to consider differences in the experiences of female players and fans in different countries and indeed, the different ways in which gender intersects with other forms of inequality such as social class, sexuality and race and ethnicity, there is one issue which female football players and fans in Europe and worldwide have in common: they are still widely perceived to be intruding into a man’s world, as the subtitle of this book indicates.
The book mostly includes original contributions, drawing upon research findings from the contributors. It also includes some reprint texts which have been published previously. These texts have been reprinted because they contribute important information and help to provide a coherent overview about women and football. The chapters draw upon different scholarly disciplines, in particular on sociology, history and economics. The contributions in this edited collection cover key issues of the main topic, women and football, and draw on different theoretical approaches to gender, football and fandom. But we acknowledge that there are other researchers who have undertaken important
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studies on women and football and have also covered topics which, due to restrictions of space, we have not been able to include.
The book is organized into two parts: Part I is dedicated to women’s football and female football players, Part II explores and describes women’s experiences as fans. Part I about ‘Women’s Football and Female Players’ begins with a reprint of an ‘inaugural’ text on the topic, with a study of Sheila Scraton, Kari Fasting, Gertrud Pfister and Ana Bunel addressing: ‘“It’s Still a Man’s Game?”: The Experiences of Top-Level European Women Footballers’ (Chap. 2). Scraton et al. draw on interviews with top-level women footballers in England, Germany, Norway and Spain to investigate national similarities and differences with respect to how women gained access to the world of football and the extent to which gender relations continue to impact on their opportunities in this sport. This study was conducted at the end of the twentieth century and Scraton et al. found a range of issues and even barriers for women entering the ‘man’s game’, including the role of males in first encouraging women to play football, the obstacles women had to overcome to gain access to this sport, and how playing this sport challenged traditional notions of femininity and created tensions for female players around physicality, lesbianism and homophobia. As some of the chapters in this book highlight, many of these issues are still very relevant for female football players today.
In Chap. 3, Gertrud Pfister presents some considerations derived from the FREE project which has been introduced above. The title ‘Women, Football and European Integration: Aims, Questions, Methodological and Theoretical Approaches’ indicates the content. Pfister argues that there is a need to discuss if and how women can participate in European football cultures and contribute to a European identity. Drawing on theoretical approaches to national identity, gender and socialization as well as on the analysis of various intersections between gender, football and fandom, she confirms the outsider status of female football players and fans and concludes that there is a need for further studies about women’s changing involvement in the game and their (potential) roles in European football discourses.
Markwart Herzog (Chap. 4) examines: ‘The Beginnings of Women’s Football in South-Western Germany: From a Spectacle to a Sport Event’.
Drawing upon a range of historical sources, Herzog reconstructs the origins of women’s football in the country and explores the numerous struggles that women faced to be able to play the game—in spite of a law of the German Football Association (passed in 1955) which prohibited football clubs to support female players or teams. This chapter provides unique insights into the barriers women had to overcome when they wanted to play football in Germany and the initiatives of players and their male supporters which eventually were successful: the German Football Federation had to give in; in 1955 women were ‘allowed’ to play the game.
In Chap. 5, ‘Women’s Football Leagues in Europe—Organizational and Economic Perspectives’, Marie-Luise Klein offers an analysis of the strategies and measures of national football associations to optimize the structure and organization of their top women’s leagues and the implications of these measures for players and clubs. Klein also examines national football associations’ strategies for increasing the sporting performance of the women’s leagues in their countries. She concludes that whilst the financial situation of top women’s clubs has improved and the numbers of semi-professional female players have increased, women’s football is still a long way off the men’s game in terms of public interest, attendances, media coverage and revenues.
In Chap. 6, ‘Outsiders on the Inside: Integrating Women and Men’s Football Clubs in England’, Jo Welford presents the findings of 10 case studies and 12 interviews to examine the relationships between the men’s and the women’s football clubs by considering financial arrangements, club development and perceived status. She argues that there are numerous ways of cooperation between the men’s and the women’s clubs and that both—a separation of men’s and women’s organizations and an integration—can have advantages but also can lead to problems.
In Chap. 7, ‘“Who Could Name an England Women’s Footballer?” Female Fans of Men’s Football and their Views of Women’s Football in England’, Stacey Pope explores the attitudes towards and the opinions about watching women’s football. Drawing on 51 interviews, Pope provides insights into the long-lasting stereotypes about female players and women’s football—presented even by women who have a high level of involvement in the sport (played by men)—but she also found positive
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attitudes. Pope also examines the (lack of) media coverage of women’s sport and its impact on fans and she argues that the negative perceptions towards women’s football have been to some extent shaped by the limited and largely negative coverage.
Part II of this book focuses upon ‘Female Football Fans and their Experiences’. In Chap. 8 Stacey Pope and John Williams provide ‘A Socio-Historical Account of Female Experiences of Football’s Golden Age in England’, a period which stretches from the late 1940s to the early 1960s. The authors argue that women fans have been largely ignored by male sociologists and historians in their accounts of football fandom. Drawing on interviews with 16 older female fans of Leicester City Football Club, Pope and Williams offer in-depth insights into women’s experiences in the football stadium, the styles of women’s support and their relationships with and perceptions of football players.
Chapters 9 and 10 present some of the findings of the group of scholars working on one of the research strands of the FREE (Football Research in an Enlarged Europe) project, which explored women’s attitudes and practices with regard to football and their engagement as players and/or fans (http://www.free-project.eu/research/Pages/feminisation.aspx). Chapter 9 is entitled: ‘Is there a Life Beyond Football? How Female Fans Integrate Football into their Everyday Lives’. The authors, Gertrud Pfister and Verena Lenneis conducted observations in the stadium and interviews with 12 female fans in Denmark to explore how dedicated female supporters balance watching football with the competing demands of work, family and leisure activities. Their findings show how women’s fandom is influenced by their (gendered) life circumstances.
In Chap. 10, ‘“One is Not Born, but Rather Becomes a Fan”: The Socialization of Female Football Fans—A Case Study in Denmark’, Gertrud Pfister, Svenja-Maria Mintert and Verena Lenneis share their insights into how girls and women developed an interest in the game and how they became fans of men’s football. Drawing on interviews with 21 female fans in Denmark, they identify the processes, events, in particular attending games in the stadium, and significant others which inspired girls and women to follow men’s football and become dedicated fans.
Chapter 11 by Aage Radmann and Susanna Hedenborg provides information on ‘Women’s Football Supporter Culture in Sweden’, a
country which has received little academic attention in relation to research on female fans. They draw upon gender theories to understand how women in this country experience and perform fandom in a society with a high degree of gender equality. Radmann and Hedenborg examine in particular how female fans develop strategies to gain respect in supporter cultures and how football fandom provides an arena in which gender norms can be transgressed, allowing women to engage in behaviours that challenge traditional notions of femininity.
In Chap. 12, ‘“Challenging or Accommodating the Football System?”: A Case Study of Female Football Supporter Communities in Spain’, Ramón Llopis-Goig and Helena Flores describe how football can be ‘empowering’ for members of women’s ‘peñas’ in Spain. Peñas’ are groups of women who carve out opportunities to enjoy watching football games together. The authors draw on seven interviews with women belonging to women-only peñas and they argue that membership in these groups provide women access to football as well as a position of recognition in this space. However, discrimination against women continues to be an issue in Spanish football.
In Chap. 13, Cornel Sandvoss and Emily Ball discuss: ‘The Limits of Appropriation: Female Football Fans, Media and Identity’. Drawing on fan studies and various sociological theories, they explore women’s fan practices which provide meaningful identity positions that may help overcome gender inequality. Among other issues, the authors explore fandom from a gender perspective and discuss their findings which showed that there were no differences between men and women in the intensity of their engagement as fans. The authors also consider the role of significant others (especially fathers and brothers) in first initiating the interest of girls and women in football. However, Sandvoss and Ball also argue that access to the game does not automatically lead to changes of the gender order.
The contributions in this book expand our knowledge on women and football, on female teams and players as well as on female football fans. It is hoped that this book will be useful to both scholars and students with an interest not only in football and football fans, but also in gender issues and—more generally—in sport sociology. We also hope that this volume will prompt further academic inquiry into the topics of both female football players and fans as well as of football and gender.
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Pope and G. Pfister
Note
1. The numbers of girls and women participating in football are still significantly lower than the numbers of boys and men. For example, the 2006 FIFA survey estimated that there were 26 million female participants in comparison to 239 million male participants (Kunz 2007). More recently, in 2014 FIFA estimated that there were 30 million girls and women playing football worldwide (FIFA 2014). Thus, despite the numbers of female participants being lower than the numbers of male participants, there are still a high number of females playing football and the numbers of female participants have been steadily increasing over time. In Europe, a recent UEFA report shows that football is the number one team sport for girls and women in 20 of its 55 member associations (UEFA 2017). The number of registered female players in UEFA’s members associations is currently 1.27 million (Masson 2016).
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Stacey Pope is an associate professor in the School of Applied Social Sciences at Durham University. She is especially interested in issues of gender and sport and has published widely on the topic of women’s sports fandom. She is author of The Feminization of Sports Fandom: A Sociological Study (2017) and S. Pope and G. Pfister
her work has appeared in a range of journals. Her research is interdisciplinary, incorporating sociology, history, sports studies, physical education, gender and leisure studies. Her research to date has included a number of areas, for example, the sociology of football and rugby union, comparative research in sports fandom, women, sport and place, the meaning of sport for women, and the formative experiences of female sports fans.
Gertrud Pfister gained a PhD degree in sport history, followed by another PhD in sociology. From 1980 to 2000, she was employed as a professor at the University of Berlin and she worked at the University of Copenhagen since 2002. She received two honorary doctorates and was awarded with Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany. Pfister conducted several large national and international research projects and published more than 200 articles and 20 books. She played and still plays a leading role in various sportrelated scientific communities. Since 2016 she is professor emerita and has time to read and write. All her life, Gertrud Pfister has been active in sport, in particular, in skiing, tennis and long-distance running. Introduction
Part I
Women’s Football and Female Players
2
It’s Still a Man’s Game? The Experiences of Top-Level
European Women Footballers
Sheila Scraton, Kari Fasting, Gertrud Pfister, and Ana Bunuel
Introduction
This chapter investigates national similarities and differences with respect to how women enter the world of football and whether gender relations continue to impact on both their access to and opportunities in the sport.
Chapter 2 was originally published as: Scraton, S., Fasting, K., Pfister, G., & Bunuel, A. (1999)
G. Pfister, S. Pope (eds.), Female Football Players and Fans, Football Research in an Enlarged Europe, https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59025-1_2
S. Scraton et al.
The data comes from 40 semi-structured interviews with top-level women footballers in England, Germany, Norway and Spain. Early male influences are discussed in relation to existing work on socialization into sport, notions of femininity and the different cultural contexts. The organization of youth sport is identified as a crucial factor in influencing girls and young women’s opportunities to play football. Furthermore, although men continue to have a considerable influence on the women’s game, even when women have no conscious intentions of resistance, they incorporate their own meanings into the sport.
Sporting Women: From Equity to Diversity
Although change has been slow, the opportunity for women to engage in a range of sports and physical activities has become available throughout Europe, Australasia and North America (Hargreaves 1994). Women’s access to football can be seen as a political outcome of a liberal-feminist discourse that centres on equal opportunities, socialization practices and legal/institutional reform. However, during the past two decades an accurate and well-rehearsed critique of liberalism has emerged, questioning the weakness of the concept of equality in accepting the gender-linked values of mainstream sports while failing to acknowledge or understand broader structures of power. Increasingly, feminist sport sociology has focused on sport as a site for relations of domination and subordination and the reproduction of gendered power relations (Hall 1996; Hargreaves 1994). As this critical work on sport has developed, the debate has moved beyond the early determinist accounts that placed men and women in a straightforward oppositional model of oppressor/oppressed, to questions of resistance, agency and empowerment (Birrell and Therberge 1994; Gilroy 1997; Whitson 1994); men and masculinities (Messner and Sabo 1990; Nauright and Chandler 1996); and differences between women in relation to age, class, ethnic identity, sexuality and dis/ability (Dewar 1993). More recently, the assault on modernist analyses by postmodern and poststructuralist theorists has further shifted the debate to accounts that focus on gendered identities, subjectivities and female sporting bodies as the sites for contestation and struggle (Cole 1994; Grosz 1994). As such, the emphasis appears to have moved back towards analyses of individual
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Transition rocks, b. 530.
Transverse vibrations, b. 44, 93, 101.
Travertin, b 546
Trepidation of the fixed stars, a 179
Trigonometry, a. 167.
Trivial names, b. 392.
Trivium, a. 199.
Tropics, a 131
Truncation (of crystals), b 319
Type (in Comparative Anatomy), b 476
Uniform force, a. 327.
Unity of Composition (in Comparative Anatomy), b 483
Unity of plan (in Comparative Anatomy), b 483
Variation of the moon, a. 179, 303. 38
Vegetable alkali, b. 264.
Vertebrata, b. 478.
Vibrations, b 44
Vicarious elements, b 334
Vicarious solicitations, a 359
Virtual velocities, a. 333.
Vitreous electricity, b. 195.
Volatile alkali, b 264
Volta-electrometer, b 299
Voltaic electricity, b 239
Voltaic pile, b. 239.
Volumes, Theory of, b. 290.
Voluntary, violent, and natural motion, a 319
Vortices, a 388
Week, a. 127.
Year, a. 112.
Zenith, a. 181. Zodiac, a. 131. Zones, a 136
A HISTORY OF THE
I N D U C T I V E S C I E N C E S.
INTRODUCTION
“A just story of learning, containing the antiquities and originals of , and their sects; their inventions, their diverse administrations and managings; their flourishings, their oppositions, decays, depressions, oblivions, removes; with the causes and occasions of them, and all other events concerning learning, throughout all ages of the world; I may truly affirm to be wanting
“The use and end of which work I do not so much design for curiosity, or satisfaction of those that are the lovers of learning: but chiefly for a more serious and grave purpose; which is this, in few words that it will make learned men more wise in the use and administration of learning ”
B , Advancement of Learning, book ii.
INTRODUCTION.
IT is my purpose to write the History of some of the most important of the Physical Sciences, from the earliest to the most recent periods. I shall thus have to trace some of the most remarkable branches of human knowledge, from their first germ to their growth into a vast and varied assemblage of undisputed truths; from the acute, but fruitless, essays of the early Greek Philosophy, to the comprehensive systems, and demonstrated generalizations, which compose such sciences as the Mechanics, Astronomy, and Chemistry, of modern times
The completeness of historical view which belongs to such a design, consists, not in accumulating all the details of the cultivation of each science, but in marking the larger features of its formation. The historian must endeavor to point out how each of the important advances was made, by which the sciences have reached their present position; and when and by whom each of the valuable truths was obtained, of which the aggregate now constitutes a costly treasure.
Such a task, if fitly executed, must have a well-founded interest for all those who look at the existing condition of human knowledge with complacency and admiration. The present generation finds itself the heir of a vast patrimony of science; and it must needs concern us to know the steps by which these possessions were acquired, and the documents by which they are secured to us and our heirs forever. Our species, from the time of its creation, has been travelling onwards in pursuit of truth; and now that we have reached a lofty
and commanding position, with the broad light of day around us, it must be grateful to look back on the line of our vast progress;—to review the journey, begun in early twilight amid primeval wilds; for a long time continued with slow advance and obscure prospects; and gradually and in later days followed along more open and lightsome paths, in a wide and fertile region. The historian of science, from early periods to the present times, may hope for favor on the score of the mere subject of his narrative, and in virtue of the curiosity which the men 42 of the present day may naturally feel respecting the events and persons of his story.
But such a survey may possess also an interest of another kind; it may be instructive as well as agreeable; it may bring before the reader the present form and extent, the future hopes and prospects of science, as well as its past progress. The eminence on which we stand may enable us to see the land of promise, as well as the wilderness through which we have passed. The examination of the steps by which our ancestors acquired our intellectual estate, may make us acquainted with our expectations as well as our possessions; may not only remind us of what we have, but may teach us how to improve and increase our store. It will be universally expected that a History of Inductive Science should point out to us a philosophical distribution of the existing body of knowledge, and afford us some indication of the most promising mode of directing our future efforts to add to its extent and completeness.
To deduce such lessons from the past history of human knowledge, was the intention which originally gave rise to the present work. Nor is this portion of the design in any measure abandoned; but its execution, if it take place, must be attempted in a separate and future treatise, On the Philosophy of the Inductive
Sciences. An essay of this kind may, I trust, from the progress already made in it, be laid before the public at no long interval after the present history. 1
1 The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences was published shortly after the present work.
Though, therefore, many of the principles and maxims of such a work will disclose themselves with more or less of distinctness in the course of the history on which we are about to enter, the systematic and complete exposition of such principles must be reserved for this other treatise. My attempts and reflections have led me to the opinion, that justice cannot be done to the subject without such a division of it.
To this future work, then, I must refer the reader who is disposed to require, at the outset, a precise explanation of the terms which occur in my title. It is not possible, without entering into this philosophy, to explain adequately how science which is I differs from that which is not so; or why some portions of knowledge may properly be selected from the general mass and termed S . It will be sufficient at present to say, that the sciences of which we have 43 here to treat, are those which are commonly known as the Physical Sciences; and that by Induction is to be understood that process of collecting general truths from the examination of particular facts, by which such sciences have been formed.
There are, however, two or three remarks, of which the application will occur so frequently, and will tend so much to give us a clearer view of some of the subjects which occur in our history, that I will state them now in a brief and general manner.
Facts and Ideas. 2 In the first place then, I remark, that, to the formation of science, two things are requisite;—Facts and Ideas; observation of Things without, and an inward effort of Thought; or, in other words, Sense and Reason. Neither of these elements, by itself can constitute substantial general knowledge. The impressions of sense, unconnected by some rational and speculative principle, can only end in a practical acquaintance with individual objects; the operations of the rational faculties, on the other hand, if allowed to go on without a constant reference to external things, can lead only to empty abstraction and barren ingenuity. Real speculative knowledge demands the combination of the two ingredients; right reason, and facts to reason upon. It has been well said, that true knowledge is the interpretation of nature; and therefore it requires both the interpreting mind, and nature for its subject; both the document, and the ingenuity to read it aright. Thus invention, acuteness, and connection of thought, are necessary on the one hand, for the progress of philosophical knowledge; and on the other hand, the precise and steady application of these faculties to facts well known and clearly conceived. It is easy to point out instances in which science has failed to advance, in consequence of the absence of one or other of these requisites; indeed, by far the greater part of the course of the world, the history of most times and most countries, exhibits a condition thus stationary with respect to knowledge. The facts, the impressions on the senses, on which the first successful attempts at physical knowledge proceeded, were as well known long before the time when they were thus turned to account, as at that period. The motions of the stars, and the effects of weight, were familiar to man before the rise of the Greek Astronomy and Mechanics: but the “diviner mind” was still absent; the act of thought had not been exerted, by which these facts were bound together
under the form of laws and principles. And even at 44 this day, the tribes of uncivilized and half-civilized man, over the whole face of the earth, have before their eyes a vast body of facts, of exactly the same nature as those with which Europe has built the stately fabric of her physical philosophy; but, in almost every other part of the earth, the process of the intellect by which these facts become science, is unknown The scientific faculty does not work The scattered stones are there, but the builder’s hand is wanting. And again, we have no lack of proof that mere activity of thought is equally inefficient in producing real knowledge. Almost the whole of the career of the Greek schools of philosophy; of the schoolmen of Europe in the middle ages; of the Arabian and Indian philosophers; shows us that we may have extreme ingenuity and subtlety, invention and connection, demonstration and method; and yet that out of these germs, no physical science may be developed. We may obtain, by such means, Logic and Metaphysics, and even Geometry and Algebra; but out of such materials we shall never form Mechanics and Optics, Chemistry and Physiology. How impossible the formation of these sciences is without a constant and careful reference to observation and experiment; how rapid and prosperous their progress may be when they draw from such sources the materials on which the mind of the philosopher employs itself; the history of those branches of knowledge for the last three hundred years abundantly teaches us.
2 For the Antithesis of Facts and Ideas, see the Philosophy, book i. ch. 1, 2, 4, 5.
Accordingly, the existence of clear Ideas applied to distinct Facts will be discernible in the History of Science, whenever any marked advance takes place. And, in tracing the progress of the various
provinces of knowledge which come under our survey, it will be important for us to see that, at all such epochs, such a combination has occurred; that whenever any material step in general knowledge has been made,—whenever any philosophical discovery arrests our attention, some man or men come before us, who have possessed, in an eminent degree, a clearness of the ideas which belong to the subject in question, and who have applied such ideas in a vigorous and distinct manner to ascertained facts and exact observations. We shall never proceed through any considerable range of our narrative, without having occasion to remind the reader of this reflection.
Successive Steps in Science 3 But there is another remark which we must also make. Such sciences as we have here to do with are, 45 commonly, not formed by a single act; they are not completed by the discovery of one great principle. On the contrary, they consist in a long-continued advance; a series of changes; a repeated progress from one principle to another, different and often apparently contradictory. Now, it is important to remember that this contradiction is apparent only. The principles which constituted the triumph of the preceding stages of the science, may appear to be subverted and ejected by the later discoveries, but in fact they are (so far as they were true) taken up in the subsequent doctrines and included in them. They continue to be an essential part of the science. The earlier truths are not expelled but absorbed, not contradicted but extended; and the history of each science, which may thus appear like a succession of revolutions, is, in reality, a series of developments. In the intellectual, as in the material world,
Omnia mutantur nil interit . . . . . Nec manet ut fuerat nec formas servat easdem, Sed tamen ipsa eadem est.
All changes, naught is lost; the forms are changed,
And that which has been is not what it was, Yet that which has been is.
Nothing which was done was useless or unessential, though it ceases to be conspicuous and primary.
3 Concerning Successive Generalizations in Science see the Philosophy, book i ch 2, sect 11
Thus the final form of each science contains the substance of each of its preceding modifications; and all that was at any antecedent period discovered and established, ministers to the ultimate development of its proper branch of knowledge. Such previous doctrines may require to be made precise and definite, to have their superfluous and arbitrary portions expunged, to be expressed in new language, to be taken up into the body of science by various processes; but they do not on such accounts cease to be true doctrines, or to form a portion of the essential constituents of our knowledge.
Terms record Discoveries. 4 —The modes in which the earlier truths of science are preserved in its later forms, are indeed various. From being asserted at first as strange discoveries, such truths come at last to be implied as almost self-evident axioms. They are recorded by some familiar maxim, or perhaps by some new word or phrase, which becomes part of the current language of the philosophical world; and thus asserts a principle, while it appears merely to indicate a transient 46 notion; preserves as well as expresses a truth;—and, like a medal of gold, is a treasure as well as a token We shall frequently have to notice the manner in which great discoveries thus stamp their impress upon the terms of a science; and, like great political revolutions, are recorded by the change of the current coin which has accompanied them.
4 Concerning Technical Terms, see Philosophy, book i ch 3
Generalization.—The great changes which thus take place in the history of science, the revolutions of the intellectual world, have, as a usual and leading character, this, that they are steps of generalization; transitions from particular truths to others of a wider extent, in which the former are included. This progress of knowledge, from individual facts to universal laws, from particular propositions to general ones,—and from these to others still more general, with reference to which the former generalizations are particular, is so far familiar to men’s minds, that, without here entering into further explanation, its nature will be understood sufficiently to prepare the reader to recognize the exemplifications of such a process, which he will find at every step of our advance.
Inductive Epochs; Preludes; Sequels.—In our history, it is the progress of knowledge only which we have to attend to. This is the main action of our drama; and all the events which do not bear upon this, though they may relate to the cultivation and the cultivators of philosophy, are not a necessary part of our theme. Our narrative will therefore consist mainly of successive steps of generalization, such as have just been mentioned. But among these, we shall find some of eminent and decisive importance, which have more peculiarly influenced the fortunes of physical philosophy, and to which we may consider the rest as subordinate and auxiliary. These primary movements, when the Inductive process, by which science is formed, has been exercised in a more energetic and powerful manner, may be distinguished as the Inductive Epochs of scientific history; and they deserve our more express and pointed notice. They are, for the most part, marked by the great discoveries and the great philosophical names which all civilized nations have agreed in
admiring. But, when we examine more clearly the history of such discoveries, we find that these epochs have not occurred suddenly and without preparation. They have been preceded by a period, which we may call their Prelude during which the ideas and facts on which they turned were called into action; were gradually evolved into clearness and connection, permanency and certainty; till at last the discovery which marks the epoch, seized and fixed forever the truth which had till then been obscurely and 47 doubtfully discerned. And again, when this step has been made by the principal discoverers, there may generally be observed another period, which we may call the Sequel of the Epoch, during which the discovery has acquired a more perfect certainty and a more complete development among the leaders of the advance; has been diffused to the wider throng of the secondary cultivators of such knowledge, and traced into its distant consequences. This is a work, always of time and labor, often of difficulty and conflict. To distribute the History of science into such Epochs, with their Preludes and Sequels, if successfully attempted, must needs make the series and connections of its occurrences more distinct and intelligible. Such periods form resting-places, where we pause till the dust of the confused march is laid, and the prospect of the path is clear.
Inductive Charts. 5 Since the advance of science consists in collecting by induction true general laws from particular facts, and in combining several such laws into one higher generalization, in which they still retain their truth; we might form a Chart, or Table, of the progress of each science, by setting down the particular facts which have thus been combined, so as to form general truths, and by marking the further union of these general truths into others more comprehensive. The Table of the progress of any science would thus resemble the Map of a River, in which the waters from separate
sources unite and make rivulets, which again meet with rivulets from other fountains, and thus go on forming by their junction trunks of a higher and higher order. The representation of the state of a science in this form, would necessarily exhibit all the principal doctrines of the science; for each general truth contains the particular truths from which it was derived, and may be followed backwards till we have these before us in their separate state And the last and most advanced generalization would have, in such a scheme, its proper place and the evidence of its validity Hence such an Inductive Table of each science would afford a criterion of the correctness of our distribution of the inductive Epochs, by its coincidence with the views of the best judges, as to the substantial contents of the science in question. By forming, therefore, such Inductive Tables of the principal sciences of which I have here to speak, and by regulating by these tables, my views of the history of the sciences, I conceive that I have secured the distribution of my 48 history from material error; for no merely arbitrary division of the events could satisfy such conditions. But though I have constructed such charts to direct the course of the present history, I shall not insert them in the work, reserving them for the illustration of the philosophy of the subject; for to this they more properly belong, being a part of the Logic of Induction.
5 Inductive charts of the History of Astronomy and of Optics, such as are here referred to, are given in the Philosophy, book xi. ch. 6.
Stationary Periods. By the lines of such maps the real advance of science is depicted, and nothing else. But there are several occurrences of other kinds, too interesting and too instructive to be altogether omitted. In order to understand the conditions of the progress of knowledge, we must attend, in some measure, to the
failures as well as the successes by which such attempts have been attended. When we reflect during how small a portion of the whole history of human speculations, science has really been, in any marked degree, progressive, we must needs feel some curiosity to know what was doing in these stationary periods; what field could be found which admitted of so wide a deviation, or at least so protracted a wandering It is highly necessary to our purpose, to describe the baffled enterprises as well as the achievements of human speculation
Deduction.—During a great part of such stationary periods, we shall find that the process which we have spoken of as essential to the formation of real science, the conjunction of clear Ideas with distinct Facts, was interrupted; and, in such cases, men dealt with ideas alone. They employed themselves in reasoning from principles, and they arranged, and classified, and analyzed their ideas, so as to make their reasonings satisfy the requisitions of our rational faculties. This process of drawing conclusions from our principles, by rigorous and unimpeachable trains of demonstration, is termed Deduction. In its due place, it is a highly important part of every science; but it has no value when the fundamental principles, on which the whole of the demonstration rests, have not first been obtained by the induction of facts, so as to supply the materials of substantial truth. Without such materials, a series of demonstrations resembles physical science only as a shadow resembles a real object. To give a real significance to our propositions, Induction must provide what Deduction cannot supply. From a pictured hook we can hang only a pictured chain.
Distinction of common Notions and Scientific Ideas. 6 When the 49 notions with which men are conversant in the common course of
practical life, which give meaning to their familiar language, and employment to their hourly thoughts, are compared with the Ideas on which exact science is founded, we find that the two classes of intellectual operations have much that is common and much that is different. Without here attempting fully to explain this relation (which, indeed, is one of the hardest problems of our philosophy), we may observe that they have this in common, that both are acquired by acts of the mind exercised in connecting external impressions, and may be employed in conducting a train of reasoning; or, speaking loosely (for we cannot here pursue the subject so as to arrive at philosophical exactness), we may say, that all notions and ideas are obtained by an inductive, and may be used in a deductive process. But scientific Ideas and common Notions differ in this, that the former are precise and stable, the latter vague and variable; the former are possessed with clear insight, and employed in a sense rigorously limited, and always identically the same; the latter have grown up in the mind from a thousand dim and diverse suggestions, and the obscurity and incongruity which belong to their origin hang about all their applications. Scientific Ideas can often be adequately exhibited for all the purposes of reasoning, by means of Definitions and Axioms; all attempts to reason by means of Definitions from common Notions, lead to empty forms or entire confusion.
6 Scientific Ideas depend upon certain Fundamental Ideas, which are enumerated in the Philosophy, book i. ch. 8.
Such common Notions are sufficient for the common practical conduct of human life: but man is not a practical creature merely; he has within him a speculative tendency, a pleasure in the contemplation of ideal relations, a love of knowledge as knowledge. It is this speculative tendency which brings to light the difference of
common Notions and scientific Ideas, of which we have spoken. The mind analyzes such Notions, reasons upon them, combines and connects them; for it feels assured that intellectual things ought to be able to bear such handling. Even practical knowledge, we see clearly, is not possible without the use of the reason; and the speculative reason is only the reason satisfying itself of its own consistency The speculative faculty cannot be controlled from acting. The mind cannot but claim a right to speculate concerning all its own acts and creations; yet, when it exercises this right upon its common practical notions, we find that it runs into barren abstractions and ever-recurring cycles of subtlety. Such Notions are like waters naturally stagnant; however much we urge and agitate them, they only revolve in stationary 50 whirlpools. But the mind is capable of acquiring scientific Ideas, which are better fitted to undergo discussion and impulsion. When our speculations are duly fed from the springheads of Observation, and frequently drawn off into the region of Applied Science, we may have a living stream of consistent and progressive knowledge. That science may be both real as to its import, and logical as to its form, the examples of many existing sciences sufficiently prove.
School Philosophy. So long, however, as attempts are made to form sciences, without such a verification and realization of their fundamental ideas, there is, in the natural series of speculation, no self-correcting principle. A philosophy constructed on notions obscure, vague, and unsubstantial, and held in spite of the want of correspondence between its doctrines and the actual train of physical events, may long subsist, and occupy men’s minds. Such a philosophy must depend for its permanence upon the pleasure which men feel in tracing the operations of their own and other men’s
minds, and in reducing them to logical consistency and systematical arrangement.
In these cases the main subjects of attention are not external objects, but speculations previously delivered; the object is not to interpret nature, but man’s mind. The opinions of the Masters are the facts which the Disciples endeavor to reduce to unity, or to follow into consequences. A series of speculators who pursue such a course, may properly be termed a School, and their philosophy a School Philosophy; whether their agreement in such a mode of seeking knowledge arise from personal communication and tradition, or be merely the result of a community of intellectual character and propensity. The two great periods of School Philosophy (it will be recollected that we are here directing our attention mainly to physical science) were that of the Greeks and that of the Middle Ages;—the period of the first waking of science, and that of its midday slumber.
What has been said thus briefly and imperfectly, would require great detail and much explanation, to give it its full significance and authority. But it seemed proper to state so much in this place, in order to render more intelligible and more instructive, at the first aspect, the view of the attempted or effected progress of science.
It is, perhaps, a disadvantage inevitably attending an undertaking like the present, that it must set out with statements so abstract; and must present them without their adequate development and proof. Such an Introduction, both in its character and its scale of execution, may be compared to the geographical sketch of a country, with which 51 the historian of its fortunes often begins his narration. So much of Metaphysics is as necessary to us as such a portion of Geography is to the Historian of an Empire; and what has hitherto
been said, is intended as a slight outline of the Geography of that Intellectual World, of which we have here to study the History.
The name which we have given to this History A H I S —has the fault of seeming to exclude from the rank of Inductive Sciences those which are not included in the History; as Ethnology and Glossology, Political Economy, Psychology. This exclusion I by no means wish to imply; but I could find no other way of compendiously describing my subject, which was intended to comprehend those Sciences in which, by the observation of facts and the use of reason, systems of doctrine have been established which are universally received as truths among thoughtful men; and which may therefore be studied as examples of the manner in which truth is to be discovered Perhaps a more exact description of the work would have been, A History of the principal Sciences hitherto established by Induction. I may add that I do not include in the phrase “Inductive Sciences,” the branches of Pure Mathematics (Geometry, Arithmetic, Algebra, and the like), because, as I have elsewhere stated (Phil. Ind. Sc., book ii. c. 1), these are not Inductive but Deductive Sciences. They do not infer true theories from observed facts, and more general from more limited laws: but they trace the conditions of all theory, the properties of space and number; and deduce results from ideas without the aid of experience. The History of these Sciences is briefly given in Chapters 13 and 14 of the Second Book of the Philosophy just referred to.
I may further add that the other work to which I refer, the Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, is in a great measure historical, no less than the present History. That work contains the
history of the Sciences so far as it depends on Ideas; the present work contains the history so far as it depends upon Observation. The two works resulted simultaneously from the same examination of the principal writers on science in all ages, and may serve to supplement each other.
