The Edgell - Notting Hill & Ealing High School's Psychology Dept's Newsletter Issue 1 (Autumn 2021)

THE EDGELL The Psychology Publication Notting Hill & Ealing High School First Edition Autumn 2021 This is the very first Psychology publication for NHEHS and it is inspired by one of the school’s most influential alumnae, Beatrice Edgell. Edgell attended Notting Hill & Ealing High School from 1886 to 1891 and went on to make history as the first ever British woman to earn a PhD in Psychology and be named Professor of Psychology.

In 1897, Edgell was appointed a lecturer in Philosophy and Head of the Department of Mental and Moral Science at Bedford College for Women (part of the University of London), holding the post until her retirement in 1933. Edgell published Theories of Memory in 1924, an intellectual discovery on experimental studies of the ‘higher mental functions’ of the human brain and the retention of memories. Her cross-disciplinary interests in philosophy and experimental psychology helped her claim a prestigious position as the first female president of the British Psychological Association in 1927. As well as this major role, she was the first female president of the Aristotelian Society, the Mind Association, and the Psychological Division of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.

Edgell was regarded extremely highly by her students and associates alike, who noted her kindness, generosity, diplomatic skills and humour as being central features of her teaching. It is clear that Edgell had numerous, remarkable achievements in Psychology and was a true pioneer whose vision and determination have opened doors for women in the field.

We hope you enjoy this Magazine.

Miss McHenry and the Publications team (Lottie Peel, Meghna Reddy, Yasmin Hussain, and Lily Doyle) Addiction: Choice or Chance?

Hypnosis Exposed Charming,superficial, manipulative: inside the mind of a psychopath Take A Trip ‘You may be talented but you’re not Kanye West’ - Kanye West Take a Breath How does art help with your mental health?

The naked truth of Alzheimer’s Stereotypes. Are they always bad?

Wildest Dreams The Magical Properties of Colour

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1

Addiction: Choice or Chance?

By Alex Warren

There is no way to confidently predict which person will develop an addiction as nothing directly causes it, however there are risk factors that make someone more likely to become an addict. Addiction is considered as not having control over doing, taking or using something, to the point where it could be harmful to you. Most experts recognise two different types of addiction: Chemical Addiction, involving the use of substances such as drugs and alcohol, and Behavioural Addiction, involving compulsive behaviours like gambling. While gambling addictions and substance use disorders are the most well-known addictions, it is possible to be addicted to anything. Other addictions that are common, but not as well recognised, include shopping, the internet, work and caffeine. In particular, addictions to work or caffeine are often normalised amongst societies and can even be encouraged in the workplace. Addictions are harmful and difficult to recover from because the behaviour or substance has a rewarding effect on the brain, providing a compelling incentive to repeat the activity, despite any detrimental consequences.

Addiction is a very multifaceted condition that can result from a number of different risk factors that are both biological and environmental. For example, genetics have been estimated to contribute to half of the risk of developing substance use disorders. A variation in a gene that determines the makeup of brain receptors for the neurotransmitter dopamine or variations in the liver enzymes that metabolise substances can influence one’s risk of alcohol use disorder (Rodgers, 2016).

Furthermore, there are many environmental factors that can contribute to addiction. Trauma and abuse, as well as mental health factors are common risk factors as they often overwhelm an individual’s coping skills and ability to manage strong emotions, which can add to their burden of stress. Other factors such as an individual’s relationship with their parents, their accessibility to substances, employment status, and influence from peers can also contribute to the development of an

addiction. Socioeconomic status (SES) is another major factor that has been associated with addiction. Studies have shown that smoking addictions are more prevalent for individuals with a lower SES and there is evidence that attempts to quit are less likely to be successful if the addict is from a lower income background (Hiscock et al., 2012).

Treating an addiction, whether behavioural or chemical, is an incredibly difficult process. For substance use disorders the first step is typically a medically supervised detoxification from the substance. While this will not cure the disorder, it allows individuals to withdraw from the substance safely. Following this, a combination of treatments are recommended, which include staying at a residential treatment facility where trained treatment specialists can provide attention and support to individuals. Additionally, Psychotherapy and counselling is a vital addition to the treatment plan, especially if an addiction occurred as a result of distressing emotions, as these methods help individuals develop coping strategies to deal with challenges as a replacement for using substances. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is also used for behavioural addictions, where the patient will examine the thoughts and emotions that cause distress and find coping mechanisms that reduce the need for addictive behaviours. As well as Psychotherapy, peer groups that provide anonymous support from former addicts, or others working towards recovery, are also a helpful treatment option. The support groups often provide self-help programmes for individuals during the recovery process and can continue to help after recovery to maintain sobriety.

To conclude, Addiction is heavily stigmatized in society, and although an individual has recovered, the label as an ‘addict’ can continue to impact them negatively. However, it is important to remember that addiction is a mental health disorder, where individuals lack the control or choice over their addiction, and thus should be treated and considered as such.

2

Hypnosis Exposed

By Sofia Stidham Hypnosis is probably not what you think it is. It is often perceived as a form of mind control, but in reality, it is merely a state of mind with increased attention and awareness. Hypnosis is often compared to watching a movie or daydreaming, as the heightened state of awareness is almost entrancing. Additionally, when in a hypnotic state, individuals tend to be more open and responsive to the suggestions of the hypnotist. It has been found that a trained hypnotist's suggestions could even reconstruct someone’s memory and therefore how they then act whilst in a fully conscious state of mind (Orne, 2021). Therefore, it is evident that hypnosis is a powerful tool in influencing individuals and changing their behaviour. Furthermore, hypnosis corresponds with the social approach of psychology (the idea that people’s thoughts and actions are mainly influenced by others) as it exemplifies the great impact of the environment and other people on an individual's actions.

Although the process of hypnosis and how it works is a great mystery to the field of Psychology, the most noteworthy explanation of hypnosis is from the psychologist Sigmund Freud, who argues from a psychodynamic perspective of human behaviour.

According to Freud, and the psychodynamic perspective, the mind has three layers: the conscious, subconscious and unconscious. The focus of a hypnosis session is on revealing the subconscious mind, which holds any thoughts or long-term memories that can be brought back to the conscious mind. Hypnosis quiets the conscious mind, thus revealing an individual’s deep and unspoken thoughts and emotions.

Furthermore, hypnosis has many practical applications to the real world. For instance, it can be used in the justice system and in court to help improve memory recall in eyewitness testimonies. A psychological study was conducted which investigated how effective hypnosis is in eyewitness memory enhancement where 98 participants were shown a police training video of a crime and were individually interviewed 48 hours later by law enforcement personnel (Geiselman, Fisher, MacKinnon, & Holland, 1985) . Experimenters then compared the performance of eyewitnesses in three different types of interview. The first type of interview was called a ‘cognitive interview’ and involved many mnemonics (memory aids), the second type involved hypnosis, and the third type was standard police interview, thus acting as a control group. The results showed that hypnosis helped increase memory retrieval,

since the participants who were hypnotized answered more questions correctly than the control group (Geiselman et al., 1985). However, it is important to note that hypnosis may not always be effective in court settings, because eyewitnesses may not fully go under hypnosis or may be resistant to it.

Another practical application of hypnosis is hypnotherapy, which can be used to change routines and treat conditions by accessing deeply rooted habits and beliefs an individual holds in their subconscious. A study into the efficiency and effectiveness of hypnotherapy on irritable bowel syndrome was carried out where participants were given 5 sessions of hypnotherapy treatment in addition to their usual management and their results were compared against a control group (Roberts, Wilson, Roalfe, & Greenfield, 2006). The results showed that after 3 months, the hypnotherapy group had a greater improvement in symptoms. However, after 12 months, both groups showed a significant improvement in symptoms and there was no difference between the two groups with regards to the intensity of symptoms (Roberts et al., 2006). Therefore, it seems that hypnotherapy used to treat irritable bowel syndrome is beneficial as it can help make rapid improvements in an individual’s health. On the other hand, when considering the impact of science on society, it is important that individuals do not become heavily reliant on hypnotherapy, as these studies only prove that hypnotherapy improves symptoms in addition to standard treatment. This is essential to consider and question, as undesirable results are often set-aside for marketing purposes.

The fact that hypnosis controls the rest of the body poses the question of whether it is deterministic. This is because the resulting and long-lasting influence on individual behaviours, thoughts, and emotions displays how easily individuals and their actions can be influenced by others. However, hypnosis also demonstrates the concept of freewill, as individuals still have an awareness of their actions and therefore can control what they are doing. As a result, hypnosis may not be wholly reliable for many of these applications, including eyewitness testimony.

3

Charming, superficial, manipulative: inside the mind of a psychopath

By Paloma Cowperthwaite Psychopathy is defined as a neuropsychiatric disorder, in which individuals affected by it have a lack of empathy, poor behavioural controls, and deficient emotional responses. This can often result in psychopaths engaging in antisocial and criminal behaviours. Their personalities tend to be superficial and charming, as often their goal will be to manipulate others. Early in life, they can often exhibit behavioural problems, which in their adult life can be seen in frequent antisocial behaviours and at times, criminal activity, which they are unlikely to take responsibility for.

When studying the mind of a psychopath, it is important to analyse and deliberate on whether psychopaths are born or made. The question as to whether psychopaths are born or made further links to the fundamental psychological debate of nature vs nurture, which questions whether humans are more influenced by their biology (nature), or their environment (nurture). Brain scans of psychopaths have clearly shown limited activity in the regions of the brain where emotions are processed, which gives evidence to some biological influences on the presence of psychopathy (Fallon, 2005). The amygdala, which is a structure in the brain which provides us with the ability to feel emotions (specifically those related to fear) and perceive them in other people, has been proven to be much smaller in size in a psychopath’s brain than one of a neurotypical individual (Fallon, 2005).

Similarly, these brain scans showed that the medial prefrontal cortex, which is instrumental in decision making, had a reduced connection to the amygdala in a psychopath’s brain (Fallon, 2005). Through deducing meaning from these brain scans, it is clear that the biological contrasts between psychopaths and neurotypical humans can be linked to their differences in behaviour.

she possessed this condition. She explained that from a young age she felt like she was different, as during school when she was taught about genocides she recalled that she “didn’t think the holocaust was that bad” (Osborne, 2016). Golaszewski also admitted to having cravings to make people cry and knock them down for her own entertainment. When she was older she decided to visit a psychiatrist who diagnosed her with the disorder, and she was finally able to receive help. Prior to her diagnosis, she would walk through airports with drugs in her bag to see if she got caught as it was the “only thing that gave me such a high” (Osborne, 2016). Having an official diagnosis from a professional can aid psychopaths in understanding their thoughts and behaviours, and can be beneficial to them as they seek treatment and learn to manage their psychopathy.

In the workplace, there are certain jobs that people on the psychopathy spectrum are more drawn towards.

They are able to use their ability to detach emotionally to their advantage in the workplace, as they feel no remorse in identifying other’s weaknesses and manipulating them.

This is why psychopaths are more likely to be found in leadership positions where they make snap decisions based on logic and fact, rather than empathetic professions, like therapists or nursing (Joszt, 2012). A researcher at Oxford University has claimed that Donald Trump outscored Hitler on the psychopathy test (Dutton, 2016). A telling sign of Trump’s possible psychopathy is his high level of narcissism and his feeling of superiority to everyone else. In addition, as proven by the coronavirus pandemic, it is clear to see his lack of empathy for others in the way that the leader handled the financial, social, and medical crises.

Overall, this information offers a broader explanation into the mind of psychopaths and the spectrum that the disorder spans across. The studies discussed attempt to break the stigma and stereotypes around psychopaths and show how they differ from each other.

It is worth noting that not all psychopaths are violent, as it is possible for lower levels of psychopathy to be found where the individuals are not violent or harmful to society. Julia Golaszewski shared her experience with being a non-violent psychopath and how she discovered that 4

Take A Trip

By Lottie Peel

Psychedelics are a class of psychoactive substances and can cause changes in perception, mood, and cognitive processes. They have a negative reputation due to the stereotype of it being dangerous due to stories of bad trips being experienced by individuals, and these ‘bad trips’ can lead to death or other psychological issues.

Psychedelics work by acting on the brain's neural highways that use the neurotransmitter serotonin, which stabilizes mood and feelings of well-being, and cause a feeling of relaxation, happiness and hallucinations (Harteny, 2020). The impact these drugs have is mostly localized to the prefrontal cortex, which is the part of the brain that regulates abstract thinking, thought analysis, and plays a key role in mood and perception. Due to the impact of this, people report impossible things that happen when under the influence of psychedelics, such as seeing sounds and hearing colours. There are three types of psychoactive substances with the main one, found in most psychedelic drugs (such as LSD and ‘magic mushrooms’), being psilocybin. When ingested, the psilocybin breaks down into the active drug psilocin which increases the activity of serotonin in the brain and can mimic the feeling of serotonin. This is due to the similar chemical structure allowing psilocin to connect to chemical receptors and cause out of body experiences without any real stimulus, such as hallucinations (Davis, 2021). Scientists also suggest that the brain is able to temporarily rearrange itself by blocking off normal brain activity and building new biologically stable brain connections; this can make it difficult for the individual to distinguish reality from fantasy. This is evident in the increase of activity that takes place in the hippocampus and anterior cingulate cortex, which are associated with dreaming.

Unfortunately, not much research has been conducted on psychedelics and their impact on the brain and how this could relate to mental health or other aspects of well-being. One of the proposed explanations for this is because of the reputation of the topic and most common knowledge about psychedelics being seen as dangerous and taboo due to the irresponsible, recreational use of them. Most of the existing research has been done on

neural cells, fruit flies and mice, but the small amount done on humans has had to be very controlled and safe to ensure no bad effects or ‘trips’ are experienced.

Research has shown that Psilocybin has the following impacts: Improved life satisfaction: In a study done at Johns Hopkins University, participants were given psilocybin and followed up on 14 months after to check the effect of the psilocybin on mood and life satisfaction. The results showed a positive trend in moods, behaviour, and attitudes as 67% of the participants rated the experiences among the top 5 most meaningful experiences of their lives, with 64% saying it had improved their life satisfaction and well-being (John Hopkins Medicine, 2020) Decreased depression and anxiety: A study on 12 volunteers who had late-stage cancer and anxiety or depression showed a downward trend on the severity of the anxiety or depression compared with the control group who were administered a placebo. Another similar test showed similar promising results, where 6 months into taking the drug, 60% of the participants were no longer clinically depressed and around 80% displayed reduced anxiety and depression related symptoms (Lewis, 2020) Correlation between quitting smoking and improved alcohol-dependence levels: Studies show that psilocybin was significantly more likely to help smokers quit than other tactics such as nicotine gum; this was thought to be due to the fact that psychedelics are able to help rid the root problem rather than quelling the nicotine receptors for a short term effect. It was able to do this by creating a ‘cross-talk’ between parts of the brain that don’t usually communicate. This ‘cross-talk’ allows you to rethink thoughts that have never been addressed and instead just repressed, giving you a chance to ‘clean them out’ and solve any issues found (The Mind Explained, 2019).

This was helpful for treating addictions as the majority of people have these addictions for a reason that has not been properly addressed, thus being able to think deeply and see them from a new perspective, seeing that the addiction is unnecessary and unhelpful. A follow-up study showed that 60% of the participants still had not smoked two and a half years later (Lewis, 2020).

Overall, more research is needed in this area as there is evidence of the positive uses for psychedelics and, when done in the correct, controlled, and monitored conditions, they can be very safe and avoid the individual developing an addiction and cause very little toxicity to other organs in comparison to other drugs and drinking alcohol.

5

‘You may be talented but you’re not Kanye West’ Kanye West

of NPD is a structural abnormality in the prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain linked to empathy, and in the decrease of grey matter in the left anterior insula, the part of the brain linked to emotional regulation and compassion.This research demonstrates that the disorder may be caused by nature or nurture, or a combination of the two.

By Lily Doyle Most people use the term ‘narcissist’ lightly and as a verb, which is commonly used when describing a friend who commonly centres themself in conversations and social situations. However, narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) is more complex than one would assume; it affects only 1% of the population and can only be diagnosed once the characteristics of this disorder impair the individual's daily functioning. The common characteristics of a narcissist include the desire to always be the centre of attention and receive special treatment, often viewing others as inferior to themselves, and lacking empathy. This lack of empathy in particular is what can damage the social lives of narcissists; it can often lead to breakdowns of familial, romantic and professional relationships. They also are often distracted by fantasies of wealth, power and success, which can disturb their daily routine if they are constantly in a world of their own.

There are both environmental and biological factors that can cause a person to display these narcissistic qualities.

The key environmental component that is found to have an influence on the development of the disorder is parenting style. (Gregory, C. and Soriano, K., (2018).

Narcissistic Personality Disorder. Psycom, [online]) Many different types of atypical parenting can lead to this disorder, such as neglectful parenting, overprotective parenting, unpredictable/ inconsistent parenting, or being over indulged and pampered by parents. Narcissism is rarely diagnosed before the age of 18, as stereotypes about young people and children assume that they are by nature self absorbed during these developmental stages. This means that getting help and treatment for this disorder often comes later in life, and the habits and behaviours are deeply ingrained and have been reinforced over many years, so much so that they do not want to admit they have a problem! One biological factor

Narcissism is diagnosed through a number of methods, such as the narcissistic personality inventory (NPI) and the pathological narcissism inventory (PNI). The most famous test is the NPI and many celebrities have completed it, scoring significantly higher than the general population. Surprisingly, it is not the celebrity lifestyle that is believed to cause this, as there is no correlation between their time in the industry and score on the NPI. (Raskin, R.N. and Hall C.S, (1979). A narcissistic personality inventory. Psychological reports, 45, 590.)

Some conclude that these celebrities wanted to be in the spotlight as a result of their NPD, rather than the other way around. An example of a celebrity with narcissistic traits is Kanye West, who has been diagnosed with bipolar disorder and is seen to suffer from narcissism during manic episodes. The presumed cause of his mental illness was neglectful and unsupportive parenting, as his parents separated before his first birthday and his father told him that ‘he wished he’d been aborted’. This proves how being in an unstable environment in childhood has the potential to turn into narcissistic behaviour as an adult, as Kanye frequently posts self centred and vain tweets for all of his followers to see.

There are two types of NPD: grandiose and vulnerable.

Kanye West is considered a grandiose narcissist because he is very insensitive and exaggerates his importance online. An example of a vulnerable narcissist would be someone who is a lot more sensitive to criticism with a lower self esteem, and are often manipulative and sly.

These two types of narcissism differ but both carry the same prospect that the individuals affected by it act selfishly and don’t care for the wellbeing of others in their relationships. The complications of this mental illness can be mistaken for people showing signs of self confidence, the term ‘narcissist’ actually relates to the overpowering disorder.

6

Take a Breath

By Meghna Reddy

How mindfulness affects the brain There are several experiments using brain scans that have been done to show the effects of mindfulness of the brain. One example is Yongey Mingyur Rinpoche who is a Buddhist monk and mindfulness meditation prodigy.

What is mindfulness?

Mindfulness is a form of meditation where you focus and become intensely aware of what you are sensing and feeling in that moment, rather than dwelling on the past or future. Strategies can include; breathing methods, guided imagery and focusing on your senses.

Mindfulness is said to relax the body and reduce stress levels in practitioners. It stems from Sati which is a historical hindu practice and is based on Zen, Vipassana and Tibetan meditation techniques, which are all Buddhist teaching techniques and schools.

Cognitive based mindfulness therapy Mindfulness came to the west in the 1970s and has changed over time, especially as it has become mixed with cognitive psychology to act as a form of medication for people suffering from anxiety and depression.

Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy builds upon the main principles of cognitive therapy by using techniques of mindfulness meditation to teach people to consciously pay attention to their thoughts and feelings (Schimelpfening, 2021). This approach helps people review their thoughts without getting caught up in what could have been or might occur in the future.

Mindfulness based cognitive therapy encourages clarity of thought and provides tools needed to easily let go of negative thoughts instead of letting them feed negative thoughts or beliefs. The combination of mindfulness and cognitive therapy is what makes MBCT so effective.

Mindfulness helps you observe and identify your feelings while cognitive therapy teaches you to interrupt automatic thought processes and work through feelings in a healthy way. A study by Stefan Hoffman proved that MBCT was moderately effective in improving anxiety and mood symptoms from pre op to post op treatment (Hofmann et al., 2010). These results suggest that mindfulness-based therapy is a promising intervention for treating anxiety and mood problems in clinical populations. Whilst medication does generally show a higher rate of effectiveness in treating these conditions, mindfulness can be a helpful substitute for people who don't agree with medication because of side effects or religious/cultural beliefs or who prefer to use a holistic approach to their health.

He was invited to the University of Wisconsin by Scientists for an FMRI scan. Researchers found that although he was 44 years old, he had the brain of a 33 year old. Within this experiment he practiced meditation in the FMRI machine - they put water on his hand ( sometimes this water was warm and sometimes it was scalding) they also asked him to meditate at different intervals during the 90 minute session and the scientists found that - the activity in his Anterior insula which is the part of the brain that process’ a person's sense of disgust, looked very similar before and after he was shocked by this hot water. This reaction was unlike a non meditator where you could see an obvious difference when they knew they water was coming as they learn to expect the water and their brain shifts, making them feel the pain before the pain actually arrived (Adluru et al., 2020). Rinpoche stated that he didn't pay particular attention to this and that it is a self created suffering that he avoided while meditating. This shows the effects of mindfulness on the brain and the role it can play on mental health.

Overall, mindfulness can be an extremely helpful tool to combat issues regarding anxiety and depression when used in the form of mindfulness based cognitive therapy as well as for general health and clarity of life.

7

How does art help with mental health?

By Josie Lloyd

Throughout this difficult period of human existence, COVID 19 has become an ongoing global issue and during this time, mental health conditions have increased rapidly due to measures put in place for self-isolation and limited human contact. Statistics show that during the pandemic, in America, symptoms of anxiety or depressive disorder have increased from 1 in 10 adults to now 4 in 10 adults over the period of time from January to June 2020 (Panchal et al., 2021). Mental health is an issue that is a universal problem that extends beyond borders and affects nearly half of the global population at some point in their lives. A stigma exists around the idea of mental health where people find it challenging to open up about their feelings and as a consequence, people tend to keep mental health concealed and suffer in silence. A common method of managing mental health is by going to therapy, which can take on many different forms, for example mindfulness-based art therapy (MBAT).

What is art therapy (MBAT)?

Art therapy consists of a variety of different techniques and practices, from painting to pottery, which can take on many different forms. Individuals are also able to expand their perspectives of the world by visiting art museums and classes. Creating art also stimulates the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine, which is released when we do something pleasurable and overall makes us feel happier (Raypole, 2019). Dopamine is a hormone and neurotransmitter that plays an important role in your brain’s reward system and is associated with pleasurable sensations and also learning, memory and the creation of new neurons. Putting a problem in a visual medium may help a person deal better with their emotions; this may include painting the emotions and thoughts they have as a strategy for opening up about their feelings.

Mindfulness-based art therapy has been shown to help children, cancer patients, those with neurodegenerative disorders, and the mentally ill, though proponents believe anyone can benefit and overall boosts confidence and makes us feel more engaged and resilient (Eising, 2019).

Semir Zeki’s experiment - Brain activity and Art Professor Zeki, a neurobiologist at University College London, was eager to discover what activity occurs in the brain when looking at beautiful art. The experiment was revolutionary and was first tested on a group of people with different cultural backgrounds, genders and ages.

These randomly sampled participants were exposed to works of visual art and music, such as Monet’s Water Lilies and Constable’s landscapes. By using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, Zeki was able to analyse the brain activity when participants were in contact with the paintings and the scans measured blood flow in the medial orbitofrontal cortex. The medial orbitofrontal cortex is the part of the reward centre of the emotional brain and was the only region which was active regardless of the stimulus (Masri, 2019). In conclusion, Zeki found that when looking at something aesthetically pleasing, such as a Constable painting, your medial orbitofrontal cortex becomes active and blood flow in this area increases. When something is aesthetically displeasing, a different area of the brain is activated which is called the Amygdala. This part of the brain is active when one is scared or angry and it is the body’s mechanism for preparing some sort of motor action to avoid what is considered to be ugly. Zeki overall discovered that simply the act of viewing art gives pleasure, similar to falling in love.

Results - Is art helpful?

Mindfulness-art therapy has proved to be effective for people suffering with mental illness. Statistics state that recent complex brain imaging scans show how both observing and creating art stimulates pleasure centres in the brain while at the same time increasing blood flow by up to 10% in the medial orbitofrontal cortex. As a result, this activity in the brain leads to an elevated sense of wellbeing and better emotional health. An anonymous participant who attended art therapy sessions explained, “I feel so much better having had the time and place to do some art” (Slawson, 2017). This mechanism has been highly effective and impactful on people suffering with a mental illness. An evaluation revealed a 71% decrease in feelings of anxiety and a 73% fall in depression; 76% of participants said their wellbeing increased and 69% felt more socially included (Slawson, 2017).

Overall, art therapy is one of many different types of therapy that is effective for people with any sort of mental health condition. It relieves stress and releases dopamine, which is released if we do something pleasurable and makes us happier.

8

The naked truth of Alzheimer’s

depression as it is believed to be linked to abnormal functioning in this area. As Alzheimer’s disease damage spreads throughout the brain, additional areas including the frontal, parietal, and occipital lobes may become affected as the cortex overall becomes thinner and the brain gradually shrinks in size.

By Yasmin Hussain The understanding of the term dementia currently is perceived to be the loss of cognitive functioning such as thinking, remembering and reasoning, which affects the individual’s behavioural abilities to such an extent that it interferes with daily life activities. From the deterioration of memory, to trouble articulating their thoughts through language, this syndrome is associated with a progressing decline of brain functioning. The confusion stems from the name itself as dementia is not a single or specific disease, but rather an umbrella term that describes a myriad of symptoms which are generally cognitive and impair an individual’s ability to perform simple tasks and live independently. More specifically, Alzheimer’s disease is the most common type of dementia which accounts for 60-80% of dementia cases, and is also known as a progressive disease that exacerbates gradually over time (Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia, 2021). As more areas of the brain become damaged, the more symptoms arise and worsen. The greatest known risk factor for all types of dementia is increasing age, with the majority of people being diagnosed with Alzheimer’s aged 65 and over (World Health Organization: WHO, 2020).

The brain effects and its functions With the constant development of brain scanning technology, neuroscientists have been able to obtain more accurate knowledge of the effects on the brain in dementia patients, in which they have been able to detect the loss of synaptic connections in Alzheimer’s patients. Proteins have been seen to build up and form abnormal clusters called plaques cause the nerve cells to eventually die (Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia, 2021).

Consequently, dementia patients will experience symptoms of memory loss. Due to the progressive nature of this syndrome, different parts of one brain can be affected. For example, it can start affecting the part of the brain called the hippocampus, which is responsible for memory; this suggests an explanation for the symptom of short term memory loss. Dementia can also cause later impact on the amygdala, which is linked to experience and expressions of emotion, thus producing personality changes. This has also been identified to lead into

Aatreatment option for Alzheimer’s disease Since there is currently no cure for Alzheimer’s disease, there are numerous ways to reduce the behavioural and psychological symptoms, such as anxiety, agitation, and depression. Through the development and research of non-pharmacological treatments, music and art therapy have shown a positive impact on these symptoms. A recent study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of music therapy on patients with mild Alzheimer's (de la Rubia Orti et al., 2018). A sample of 25 patients received a music therapy session lasting 60 minutes. Both before and after the therapy, the patient's saliva was collected to measure the level of salivary cortisol using the ELISA immunoassay technique and a questionnaire was provided to measure anxiety and depression of participants, using the hospital anxiety and depression scale. The results demonstrated that the application of this therapy lowers the level of stress and significantly decreases depression and anxiety (de la Rubia Orti et al., 2018). Not only can this form of therapy act as an alternative to pharmacological treatments but it also helps patients recall some aspects of their previous life experiences.

To conclude, the number of dementia patients is increasing as medical advances have allowed people to live longer. As old age is one of the main risk factors of this condition, the development of innovative research needs to progress within this area to maximise the help and treatments we can provide for dementia patients.

9

Stereotypes. Are they always bad?

By Carmel Webb

A stereotype is defined as a general image or set of characteristics which lots of people believe represent a particular type of person or thing. Common examples include men being stronger than women, women being perceived as unacademic, and teenagers being rebellious. These don’t refer to every member of the targeted population but rather are common presumptions forced upon society, leading to the belief these are true. Within psychology, stereotypes align with the social area (looking at human behaviour as an influence of other people and our environment) as impacted by our behaviour socially and the developmental area (looking at how our behaviour changes through our lifespan) as upbringing has a large impact on the stereotypes we conform to and believe in.

We stereotype so frequently as it is so ingrained in our lives, common stereotypes are often featured in the news and films, such as the common portrayal of a ‘dumb blonde’ or stay at home housewife. Practically, stereotypes are frequently used to simplify and categorize information, aiding us to remember and store this in an easier way. They are often formed due to a focus on minority groups. A smaller group draws more attention and a distinct behaviour will leave a large impression, shaping societies views.

It is not straightforward to establish if stereotypes have a positive or negative influence. Despite typically being perceived in a negative light, due to the connotations they hold, when used effectively, stereotypes can create a positive impact, they can help us make judgements to help interpret unknown situations, although these may not always be accurate, and they have the potential to help maintain safety and order. For example, a common stereotype for young girls is that older men can be a threat to their safety, therefore when walking down a quiet, dark road alone, young girls may try to avoid passersby due to this belief that the situation could become dangerous and this helps women exit a potentially threatening situation. On the other hand, stereotyping can promote discrimination and prejudice which can create very damaging consequences on our society. If we look at the experiences of African Americans in the 1900s, we can see that there were commonly held prejudices that they were dangerous and a threat to society, which has had many harmful effects on society's perception of this group through the century and embedded deeply in many people’s minds.

Furthermore, once a stereotype becomes ingrained, it is very difficult to remove or change them. This issue is particularly important to be aware of regarding child development as the opinions of guardians can shape the thoughts and beliefs of children and any harmful stereotypes may be transferred.

Katz and Braley (1933) provided evidence for this issue in their study at an American university in which 100 students were given a list of 10 ethnic groups and 84 characteristics, and were asked to match traits with each ethnicity which matched their perspective of the group.

The results showed strong agreement in traits such as African Americans being described as lazy and ignorant, and white Americans being described as industrious, ambitious, and progressive. This replicates stereotypes prevalent at this time about different cultures being inferior to white Americans, thought to be a result of predetermined conditioning, embedded through family, society, and media. This study took place in 1933 so isn’t fully representative of behaviour in present day, however it does show an induction of stereotypes during a time where racial discrimination and prejudice were particularly prevalent. Similar experiments that have been conduced more recently have shown a decline in racial discrimination showing societies progression away from these tradional steroetypes.

Stereotype threat refers to a situation in which people feel that they are at risk of conforming to negative stereotypes about their social group, this is especially linked to racial and gender gaps in psychology. An example of this phenomenon is seen when girls study a subject like computer science, as they are competing against the stereotype that computing is a subject for boys as girls are academically weaker and can’t use computers as efficiently and therefore feel the pressure to perform to a high standard in order to not conform to this. Shih, Pittinsky and Ambady (1999) conducted a study into this, using a sample of Asian female students and they split these participants into 3 different conditions and all participants completed a short-questionnaire followed by a maths test. The first group were the female-priming condition, in which the questionnaire drew attention to the fact females are associated with being academically weaker than men. The second was the Asian-priming condition, whose questionnaire drew attention to the stereotype of Asians being academically gifted. The final group, used as a control, completed a questionnaire unrelated to these factors. Results showed the highest performance from the Asian-priming group.

On the other hand, the female-priming group performed poorly and showed little confidence in their academic ability as expressed by their answers to the questionnaire and physicality during the test: rereading questionions, erasing answers and appearing stressed.

So, although changing stereotypes is a significant challenge, by educating the public about why and how these are formed, society becomes more aware of how to stop them from ruling and influencing our lives.

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Wildest Dreams

By Amber Deane-Johns

We all dream, whether we remember our dreams or not, but what can this phenomenon tell us about our own brains and how they work? Humans dream for around 2 hours per night during the Rapid Eye Movement (REM) stage of sleep which happens several times throughout the night. The real purpose of dreaming is still unknown, although scientists are working to study their abstract nature in a scientific manner. Techniques such as brain scanning can be used to see which parts of the brain are at work and active in order to better understand the purpose of dreaming. For example, brain scanning has indicated that the amygdala (which deals with fear response) is the most active part of the brain while dreaming (Roland 2017). This has led to the theory that dreaming acts as a time for training survival responses and instincts. Dreams are also spaces where there are no logic restrictions, meaning that creativity and increased problem solving skills can be used with no limits, perhaps suggesting why many artists draw inspiration from their dreams. Other theories for why we dream include storing and sorting through memories as well as subconscious thoughts and feelings. For example, nightmares are likely to happen while dreaming as they help the brain to work through fears which are in our subconscious so that we can avoid facing them during the day.

As dreams are often powered by the subconscious mind, the dreams of people with certain psychological disorders can often be affected. Nightmares are one of the 17 main symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder with around 70% of PTSD diagnosed patients reporting having frequent nightmares, compared to

around 5% of the general population (Kramer, Wittmann, & Schredl, 2021; U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, 2014). Nightmares are the brain’s way of trying to process the trauma that someone has gone through and therefore cause a person to relive their trauma. This often results in frequent awakening during the night or behaviours like leaving the lights on when going to sleep, which can lead to insomnia, other sleep disorders, and tiredness; the impacts of these issues can worsen nightmares as well as other PTSD symptoms such as irritability and anxiety (El-Solh 2018) PTSD nightmares can be treated either by therapy or medication.

There are also trends that can be found in the dreams of people with schizophrenia. People with schizophrenia tend to have dreams which have less emotional content and in which they are less self-involved. In 1942, Kant found schizophrenic dream worlds to be far removed from reality and their dreams have also been reported to be violent, negative and more bizarre, however some studies suggest that the dreams are bland and void of content. A study by Kramer (2007) compared the dreams of depressed patients to schizophrenic patients and showed that schizophrenic dreams generally included more aggressive social interactions. In several studies, patients with schizophrenia were seen to have poorer recall of their dreams. Patients with schizophrenia tend to report that the subjects of their dreams are unfamiliar to them. One theory to explain this is the idea that people with schizophrenia can feel lonely and isolated due to having to deal with their disorder and coping with the symptoms and this is then projected in their dreams.

(Knopp 2000) Studying the dreams of people with schizophrenia can help focus therapy and treatment for individuals.

Analysing dreams can be very useful to scientists, even if we are still unsure of their exact purpose. In psychoanalytic therapy, the analysis of dreams can be useful as they often relate to subconscious emotions and concerns which can then be discussed in therapy.

Dreams can also be useful health indicators, as an increase in the frequency of vivid dreams or nightmares can be signs of poor mental health or other psychological disorders and can also indicate the presence of other physical illnesses such as some sleep disorders, low blood sugar, or fever. Finally, studying dreams and brain activity during dreams can help scientists to further understand the mystery that is how the brain works.

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The Magical Properties of Colour

By Alice Szlachetko When conscious associations are made between colours and concepts, it is called colour symbolism, and this is part of colour psychology. It has been theorised that these associations may originate through biological mechanisms, emotional experiences, and conditioning.

Some associations are caused by features of people or places that become characteristic, thus changing experiences of perception. For example, the colour purple has been associated with royalty because purple dye historically was very expensive and only accessible to the most wealthy in society. A theory linked to this idea is the Associative network theory, which states that nodes in the brain are connected to other nodes from experiences, such as the node for cars being linked to the nodes for tires and roads as a result of classical conditioning (Bower, 1981). Therefore, life experience can create new nodes, form new connections and strengthen or weaken existing connections.

The perceptions of colours can have both psychological and physiological impacts. As light hits cells in the back of the eyes, information is converted into electrical impulses. These are passed to the hypothalamus in the brain, which governs hormone release and the endocrine system (Nikolova, 2018). Studies have shown that the REFERENCES & HYPERLINKS TO SOURCES 1.

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