The Franklin - Notting Hill & Ealing High School's Science Dept Newsletter - Issue 5 (Spring 2022)

THE FRANKLIN The Science Magazine of Notting Hill & Ealing High School ◆ Spring 2022

Science Week Bumper Edition This week, the Science Faculty has organised a range of events to get involved in. During their science lessons, Year 7 will be taking part in various forensics activities in order to solve a real crime. On Tuesday there will be a Year 8 trip to Kew Gardens, a Sixth form vs Teachers University Challenge and a series of talks related to Medicine and Dentistry from Dr Bosco Li, Dr Elora Mukherjee and Hafsa Malik. The Oxford High School virtual Medical Conference is on Wednesday, open to anyone in Year 10 and above who is interested in pursuing a career in medicine and Year 7 will be participating in their ‘New Scientist Roulette’ challenge finals where they will be giving 3-minute speeches on various scientific topics inspired by randomly-allocated articles from the New Scientist. Additionally on Wednesday, there will be talks from alumnae engineer Kate Crawford, cetacean expert Eliza Lindsay and female Engineering Undergraduate of the Year Phoebe Rylatt. There will be a fun science quiz with Harrow School on Thursday alongside a Year 11 vs Teachers Scientific Spelling Bee. During Friday lunchtime, Year 8 will be showcasing their Bronze CREST projects and to finish off Science Week 2022 there will be a themed lunch in the canteen and a nail biting ‘Mothers and Daughters’ remote science quiz on Friday evening!

And last but not least, we hope you enjoy this bumper edition of The Franklin, now in its fifth edition.

Ms Brown, Editor in Chief

Ms Brown, Ms Copin, and selected Year 11 on the "Science Book Shopping Trip" expedition to Hatchard's. Pre-planning lunch in Picadilly!

CONTENTS Glow-in-the-dark pigs and banana vaccines: Has human curiosity taken a step too far?

3

Is time travel possible?

5

What lurks at the bottom of the ocean?

7

Is Poo the Key to All Our Problems?

10

What is consciousness?

12

Hydrogen: Can it save our planet?

15

Witnessing death of a red supergiant for the first time

17

Will Artificial Intelligence conquer the world?

18

Are there other universes?

20

Fingerprints

21

Are We Alone in the Universe?

23

Earth’s Artificial Moon

27

How to grow a heart

29

The population problem

31

Why do we dream?

34

Special Sixth Form Feature

36

The history of our DNA

36

How did the work of other scientists help Crick and Watson to develop their theory for the structure of DNA? 36 How did the work of other scientists help Crick and Watson to develop their theory for the structure of DNA? 39 UK Space Design Competition

44

CREST Club

45

Imperial Engineering Project

46

Two Cambridge University offers for Medicine

47

2

Glow-in-the-dark pigs and banana vaccines: Has human curiosity taken a step too far?

By Tilda Hardman Year 10

When a proposal is obviously absurd and never

stem-cell science and potentially producing

going to work, we often say ‘pigs might fly’. But

enzymes to cure maladies such as haemophilia,

what about ‘pigs might glow’? It’s not as absurd

for which there is currently no cure. Due to the

as you think. In fact, it’s happening right now

stem cell’s unique ability to regenerate damaged

and it is just one of the by-products of amazing

tissue, scientists think they could be used for

developments in genetic engineering.

transplants and reformative medicine.

The idea of glowing pigs might instantly strike

But why take such measures to merge the DNA

you as unsettling and unnecessary. After all,

of two species so unalike? This is a question

who needs swine that can luminesce under

that has been spotlighted by the Home Office

HEV light? Scientists are divided on their

and is under increasing scrutiny with statistics

efficacy with some claiming they provide

revealing that in 2020, there were 1.44 million

invaluable insight into human disease and

experimental procedures on the breeding of

others arguing they’re just mutant monsters.

genetically-altered animals.

These transgenic pigs are created by implanting

Scientists

jellyfish

material of pigs encodes a protein that lights up

DNA

into

pig embryos, boosting

have detected that the genetic

3

in a bright green hue. As it is so easily

welter of genetic remodelling, a current species

identifiable, its stem cells could be injected into

gets overrun by a new and dominant one? We

other animals so researchers can track how

may be saving human lives but are effectively

they develop without a biopsy.

saying our rights trump all those of the animal

Similar experiments have been implemented on

kingdom.

chickens to study embryo development. The eggs of these fluorescent poultry can be incubated and studied by scientists whereas mammal foetuses gestate in its mother’s uterus, making

it

much

harder

to

monitor

its

physiological developments.

Yet combining invertebrate genetic material with mammals is clearly no easy job, and it ruffles

the

feathers

of

animal

rights

organisations. However, it is also thought to be cost-effective as, in the words of Dr. Stefan Moisyadi from the University of Hawaii's Institute for Biogenesis Research, “We can make

enzymes a lot cheaper in animals than a factory that will cost millions of dollars to build,” as treatments for Haemophilia and other diseases are expensive and involve a series of lifelong injections.

Nevertheless, this trend in genetic modification is

disturbing;

GeneWatch’s

director

Helen

Wallace says “this blanket rise is worrying and bears little relation to reality.” Animals such as mice and rats have been genetically edited so they succumb to human conditions like obesity and cancer. Environmental issues also arise from the widespread creation of such creatures

It isn’t only animals who are subject to genetic intervention but even some freakish fruits and vegetables. Perhaps in a few years time, your humble

banana

will

be

an

instrument of great medical influence as people could be vaccinated against diseases like hepatitis B and cholera from a simple snack.

When an altered form of a virus is injected into a banana sapling, the virus' genetic makeup becomes permanently embedded in the plants cells, building up antibodies in the immune system of the consumer with life-saving potential.

Cancer-curing fruit salad? Pigs might not fly after all.

Sources ● ● ●

as by introducing genetically modified animals, plants and organisms into the environment, we

break-time

●

theverge.com/2013/12/30/5256732/scientists-creat e-glow-in-the-dark-pigs-using-jellyfish-dna news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4605202.st m gov.uk/government/statistics/statistics-of-scientif ic-procedures-on-living-animals-great-britain-202 0/annual-statistics-of-scientific-procedures-on-liv ing-animals-great-britain-2020 treehugger.com/bizarre-examples-of-genetic-engi neering-4869360

are devastating biodiversity. What if in this

4

Is time travel possible?

By Lollie Rabin Year 10

Although time travel is sadly not what is

slower pace compared to when you are on the

portrayed in sci-fi movies, science says that it is

ground. Many experiments have been carried

technically possible to achieve, but there is

out to prove Einstein’s theory. For example, a

much dispute about how fast you can travel.

satellite

Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity states that

gyroscopes

time travel is possible but you can’t travel faster

angular motion), to measure tiny twists and

than the speed of light. Indeed, modern theories

warps in space time made by the Earth as it

about wormholes, cosmic strings and the

moves and rotates through space. This proved

"Alcubierre drive" mean one can travel faster

that

than the speed of light. This article will seek to

manifestations.

explain these ideas and how they might make

Why does modern day science say that you can

time travel possible.

travel faster than the speed of light?

What is Einstein’s theory of relativity?

Idea #1: Cosmic Strings

Einstein published his paper on relativity in

Cosmic strings are the ‘texture of the universe’.

1916 associating the force of gravity with the

These

changing geometry of space-time. Essentially, it

defects", meaning that they are not evolving or

states that instead of gravity being an invisible

changing in any way: they are just there and

force attracting objects to another, gravity is the

cannot be removed. They were first discovered

curving or warping of space. The bigger the

in the 1970s when technology became advanced

objects, the more gravity warps the space

enough for scientists to detect them.

was

equipped

(instruments

Einstein's

strings

are

theory

with

sensitive

which

measure

had

physical

known as "topological

around it. This is the same principle that all the planets orbiting around the sun in our solar system follow.

This warping of gravity also affects the measurement of time. We tend to think of time moving at a constant rate, but as gravity can warp space, it can also dilate time.

Einstein says that the faster you travel the slower you experience time. For example, when you are on

an aeroplane, the clock will tick at a

5

When the universe was created, cosmic strings

are formed through the gravitational attraction

were formed 10-³⁵ seconds after the Big Bang

between

went into the phase transition, a process similar

competing against the resistance coming from

to what happens with, say, water molecules

the two different dimensions of our universe.

when heated or cooled. However, instead of

When the attraction is greater than the

hydrogen and oxygen atoms changing shape,

resistance, the dimensions or borders between

this change happened to the universe as a

the universes deform, and the objects touch,

whole: where it cooled very quickly, spacetime

creating the wormhole. Wormholes are only a

"cracked" slightly into hairline fractures, not

theoretical theory as an example of them hasn’t

unlike the ones we see in blocks of ice. These

been found in space yet. Creating a wormhole

cracks are cosmic strings.

could be dangerous as to first create them, you

Even though the strings are invisible to most of

need a black hole. As scientists do not know

our advanced technology they hold great

enough about black holes, it is impossible to

amounts of energy.

judge what they will do and if they are stable

A key question is what happens when two

enough to control. To use wormholes for time

cosmic

the

travel, scientists would have to find a way to

spacetime-warping so great that a person

move the mouth of one end of the wormhole in a

moving around them could take a shorter path,

specific manner, but there are risks associated

travelling faster than light, and thereby going

with this. Wormholes could suddenly collapse

back in time? If you circled the cosmic string

or bring amounts of high radiation into the

would you be able to meet yourself before you

atmosphere, both problems that we don’t have

ever left?

the knowledge to solve.

strings

pass

each

other:

is

objects

from

parallel

universes

Idea #2: Wormholes Wormholes are like tunnels in space, but they can also connect points that are vast distances apart via the warping of spacetime.

We know that they exist due to

Einstein’s

Theory

of

Relativity as if you solve it in a

certain

way,

the

mathematical answer will give you a structure like one of a wormhole. Wormholes

6

Idea #3: The Alcubierre Warp

bubble and no way to know how you would

The theory of Alcubierre warp drives is based

leave one once in a bubble.

on the concept of stretching the fabric of

In conclusion, I believe that scientists could find

spacetime in a wave-like shape which would

a way to time travel at speeds that exceed the

cause the space ahead of the object to contract

speed of light as new discoveries are being

while the space behind it would expand. The

made every day, and with new technological

object inside the wave would be able to ride the

advancements, time travel could be possible -

area, known as the ‘warp bubble’ between the

How exciting!

two warped areas of space. This concept is

Sources

known as ‘Alcubierre Metric’. Linking back to

●

Einstein's Theory of Relativity, it allows the warp bubble to appear in a previously flat region of spacetime and move effectively at speeds that exceed the speed of light. But there are a few problems with this theory. Namely, that

● ● ● ●

nbcnews.com/mach/science/what-relativity-einst ein-s-mind-bending-theory-explained-ncna86549 6 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wormhole#Faster-than-lig ht_travel en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_string space.com/20881-wormholes.html#section-throug h-the-wormhole spaceplace.nasa.gov/time-travel/en/#:~:text=In%2 0Summary%3A,than%201%20second%20per%20sec onds

there are no known methods to create a warp

What lurks at the bottom of the ocean?

By Isabella Pagadala Year 9 If you ventured to the bottom of the ocean, what

tectonic plates collide and rip apart. As magma

would you find? From lost relics to legendary

that wells up from these tears, it cools, and

creatures, the bottom of the ocean is a place of

becomes a new section of oceanic crust

spectacular biodiversity much of which is

meaning that the age and density of oceanic

undiscovered. Oceanographers believe at least

crust increases with distance from mid-ocean

75% is a region known as the “deep ocean”

ridges. The state of the crust and formations

which extends from 1,000m deep to the ocean

also reflect changes in water environments.

floor and receives no natural light.

The bottom of the ocean is also home to ruins

In the deepest parts of the ocean, the ocean floor

and artefacts from the past, which reflect the

is composed of oceanic crust, rocks and

lives of past humans, ancient climates, the

minerals, specifically basalt. Basalt is the most

evolution of our coastline and what life was like

common volcanic rock type made of magma

in the past. In the deepest sections, ocean

and is created through the process of upwelling

archaeologists can, with the help of new

on divergent boundaries. Oceanic crust is

technology, excavate the remains of ships sunk

constantly forming at mid-ocean ridges, where

from collisions, war and storms. The deeper the

7

ocean, the colder water temperatures become,

Until recently, scientists believed the deepest

resulting in better preserved shipwrecks. An

parts of the ocean to be inhospitable with no

example is an ancient Greek wreck that sank in

light and pressure 380 times greater than it is at

Antikythera in 100 BC. Found here are some of

the surface.

the oldest and best preserved objects in the

The Humboldt Squid is one of the deadliest

history of ocean archaeology. These included

predators, growing up to 2.5m long. Each

the

Antikythera

tentacle contains over 100 suckers that resemble

mechanism, a Greek device used to calculate

barbed wire. Perhaps its deadliest attribute is

astronomical occurrences. It uses the first set of

the ability to hunt in packs, many of these over

scientific scales and 30 gears that resemble that

100 squid in size. Moreover, like many deep sea

of clocks built a millennium later.

animals, Humboldt squid have bioluminescent

Incredible and spectacular creatures are also

organs for camouflage and communication in

found deep in the ocean, in depths we have only

the dark. They also have a unique pigment cell

just begun to explore. From giant squid to

called chromatophores meaning their skin can

tardigrades (water bears) creatures less than

change texture and colour faster than the

millimetre many of the creatures that lurk in the

human eye can see.

earliest

computer,

the

Deep ocean resemble near mythical creatures.

8

Another mystical creature, with astonishing

technological capabilities improving, maybe

capabilities is the Goblin shark, known for its

soon we will have a better idea of what exactly

ability to unhinge its jaw when feeding. Marine

is down there and how it came to be. And

biologists know very little about them as they

perhaps, in the future, we will be able to travel

have only rarely been sighted and and are

down into the depths for a holiday!

almost never filmed while alive. They are

Sources

named after the mythic goblins in Japanese folklore and are found at depths of 1300m.

Separating them from most deep sea sharks, they have smallish eyes with fully functional irises that contract and dilate suggesting they occasionally come into contact with natural light.

With travelling to the deepest depths of the ocean, proving harder than travelling to the moon, we still don’t know for certain what lurks in the depths. However, with scientific and

● ●

worldatlas.com/articles /the-5-layers-of-the-ocean.html. oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/deep-ocean.html wonderopolis.org/wonder/what-keeps-the-oceanfrom-draining-through-the-sand scienceline.ucsb.edu/getkey.php?key=3657 geo.mtu.edu/KeweenawGeoheritage/BlackLavas/ Basalt.html geology.com/rocks/basalt.shtml ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/sharks-rays/dwarf-lanter n-shark nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/crust/ youtube.com/watch?v=53igmq2ntKg bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-56377567 britannica.com/topic/Antikythera-mechanism whoi.edu/know-your-ocean/did-you-know/why-i s-pressure-different-in-the-ocean/ youtube.com/watch?v=UxvzjrDE1Kk oceana.org/marine-life/goblin-shark/

●

americanoceans.org/species/humboldt-squid/

● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

9

Is Poo the Key to All Our Problems?

By Amelia Cayton Year 10 I will be exploring a few of the innovative and

past decade, from either burning sludge or

surprising new uses of poo such as its use as an

methane derived from its 13 million customers'

alternate power source, paper and fuel for cars

toilets. Northumbrian Water currently uses

to name a few and whether these new uses will

anaerobic digestion to capture the methane and

solve the problem of climate change taking

carbon dioxide released by bacteria, digesting

recycling to a whole new level.

the sludge and using it to drive its gas engines

First of all, Poo Power.

to create electricity. It also injects some gas

The UN has calculated that if all of the world's

directly into the grid. It has two biogas plants,

human waste were to be collected and used for

which together have reduced the firm's annual

biogas generation, the value could be as high as

£40m electricity bill by around 20%. In total it

$9.5 billion (or in other words enough to supply

has saved the firm £15m a year. Rival UK water

the electricity for 138 million households, the

firms such as Severn Trent and Wessex Water

equivalent of powering all of Indonesia, Brazil

are doing similar things to Northumbrian, and

and Ethiopia combined). So, it's possible in

biogas production is common in countries such

theory, but is it possible in reality? The water

as China, Sweden and Germany.

firm Thames Water has successfully been using

So… yes, we have the technology and poo-power

human toilet waste to make electricity for the

is already in practice. But what are the

10

problems, why isn't it in practice globally? There

2,809 tonnes of paper from animal dung last

are not many issues with this unique source of

year, and it expects that figure to triple by the

energy, but the main problem in implementing

end of this year. And this is not only happening

poo power on a larger scale is that despite the

in Kenya, but also in many other countries with

obvious

elephant populations such as Thailand, Sri

financial

and

environmental

advantages, this may not be sufficient to

Lanka and India.

overcome what people call the "ick" factor of

Can this be generalised without elephants at

using our own waste to power our homes.

every doorstep? Yes: this paper-making process

But it is not just human poo that could solve our

can be applied to other animals with similar

problems and change the world. Animal poo

fibres found in their waste: cows, horses,

could also limit deforestation by providing an

donkeys, buffalos and others whose diets

alternative paper source other than trees. This

consist of grass. This means this sustainable

tree substitute is not as smelly as may think or

business can be performed in most countries

any different to your average piece of paper.

and the business can happen on a more global

Reportedly being the same quality and a similar

scale further helping the environment and more

price to regular paper. Poo paper is being

communities.To sum up, this poo paper could be

produced in Kenya already with 20% of their

a major contributor to the slowing down or even

paper now being made from elephant poo. This

the stopping of deforestation and could help

is obviously environmentally friendly, and saves

bring people out of poverty across the world.

indigenous trees from being destroyed. But it's

To conclude, although the majority of the

not just good for the environment; it's also good

population believe that poo is pretty useless, in

for the community, with 500 local people being

reality animal and human poo could be a large

able to pull themselves out of poverty with the

part of the future. With cars and companies

new industry providing stable income and jobs

already being powered by this sustainable

for local people.

superhero and paper already being produced by

There is also more opportunity for this business

it. I'm sure this underappreciated waste product

to grow and help more people and the

will be the star of many future innovations and

environment as 600 elephants pass through the

the answer to many of our problems, also very

sanctuary

probably will be a key player in the fight to save

producing

this

unique

paper,

meaning resources are not in short supply. 600

our planet.

may not sound like a lot but an average elephant

Sources

eats 250kg of food each day. Out of that amount

● ● ●

about 50kg of dung is produced, making 125 sheets of A4 paper. The sanctuary produced

bbc.co.uk/news/business-36162953 bbc.co.uk/news/business-37981485 corporate.uktv.co.uk/news/article/top-ten-bizarrescience/

11

What is consciousness?

By Nanthana Lathan Year 10 To this day, scientists and philosophers are still debating new ideas on what consciousness is, many of these controversial and puzzling. Many agree that there is some sort of consciousness within humans and even mammals, the topic continues to baffle scientists and philosophers.

The main debate is how and what needs to be explained and analysed to achieve the answer of what consciousness is. Some may refer to consciousness as an aspect of "inner life". It could also mean a certain level of awareness, or refer to an individual's thoughts and imagination. All these explanations have implications for our life as a society, as the idea of consciousness gives rise to the idea of

conscience.

State of Consciousness The state of consciousness refers to the brain being aware of the internal and external environments in order to react to a situation or simply being aware of our surroundings. There are times where consciousness is absent from our brain, for instance in dreamless sleeps or in comas. There are also circumstances where the relationship between the mind and the world can be hindered, known as "altinerate consciousness". This can be produced through drugs, alcohol or can occur naturally.

12

Scientific Study Scientists avoided researching the topic of consciousness for many years due to it being something hard to test, as it always seemed hard to define in measurable terms. However, there have been experiments and testing on the brain exploring how consciousness can affect the brain activity.

Neural Correlates This refers to an experiment where scientists examined the relationship between the subject doing the activity and what the brain is signalling in the scans when doing the activity simultaneously. The aim was to determine if a particular part of the brain or a pattern was seen to associate it with the consciousness awareness that is occurring when doing the activities, using several brain imaging machinery such as EEG and fMRI scans.

This led to the theory that consciousness was associated with the high-frequency oscillation of brain activity (repetitive patterns of the neural activity in the central nervous system). This idea came about in 1980 when Christof von der Maksburg and Wolf Singer stated gamma oscillation coils solve the so-called blinding problem, by linking information from different parts of the brain into a unified experience.

These experiments showed how consciousness is the state of being aware of situations and the surroundings in order for us to act accordingly. The brain shows different wavelength patterns when doing different activities therefore this could link to our consciousness and how we apply that to different circumstances we are in. Although the origins of consciousness and how it came about still remains a mystery there are still more improvements and discoveries within this area of research.

Philosophical Perspectives “Consciousness” has often been described as the part of the soul, which defines morality and ethical choices. Many religious people believe that the conscience is the voice of God guiding humans through their life and aiding them to make good choices whilst providing free will. This is one of the beliefs in Christanity, as well as other religions. It is believed that consciousness is the religious awareness of

13

God. There are often many correlations between the soul and one's consciousness. Things that are ruled by your consciousness consist of being aware of the different outcomes from situations and the variety of feelings such as guilt or worry.

Other philosophers believe that the conscious cannot be defined. Instead, they believe it is something that we have to co-exist with, without knowing the true explanation for what it is and why we have it.

Concluding words…

In conclusion, the brain is a complex organ in our body with different functions and needs.

Consciousness still remains an enigma within our body due to the testing difficulties. Yet, there are many theories associated with it. By having many interpretations of the consciousness state, it opens doors to new possibilities and allows more room for research to be done to solve this problem. In order to get a result and full explanation, new technology needs to be used and there will eventually be a breakthrough in this case. Therefore, the question on what consciousness is still stands unresolved.

Nevertheless, there are many ideas and thoughts which are used to fill that space for the definition of consciousness.

Sources ● ●

Wikipedia. 2022. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. [ONLINE] Available at: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page.

[Accessed 11 February 2022].

Is consciousness a product of the brain or/and a divine act of God? Concise insights from neuroscience and Christian theology. 2022. Is consciousness a product of the brain or/and a divine act of God? Concise insights from neuroscience and Christian theology. [ONLINE] Available at: scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0259-94222016000400125. [Accessed 11 February 2022].

14

Hydrogen: Can it save our planet?

By Ishita Nadipalli Year 9 With the rising demand for clean energy due to

water to split it into oxygen and positively

climate change, people are searching for a new

charged hydrogen ions with the electrons

fuel that can be sustainably produced and burnt

flowing

without polluting. Hydrogen amounts to 75% of

hydrogen ions pass through the membrane to

matter in the universe and when produced

the negative cathode, leaving the oxygen at the

correctly, it can be used as a versatile energy

anode and joining with the electrons in the

source with the only byproduct being water.

external circuit to form pure hydrogen. While it

This could stop the production of the biggest

is not perfect, the technology being used for

contributor to climate change: greenhouse

these

gases. But how does it work and how effective

rainbow of hydrogen extraction methods is very

will it be?

promising because if hydrogen is truly the key

Hydrogen poses a unique challenge when

to powering our future, we will need as much of

compared to fossil fuels which can simply be

it as possible.

dug from the ground: it must be separated from

Due to its simplicity, there are infinite uses for

another molecule before it can be of any use.

this clean fuel and it can be an effective

Thankfully, there are many ways of doing this

substitute for other energy sources which are

and these methods are categorised using

currently

colours. Most hydrogen produced nowadays is

example,

grey hydrogen which uses natural gas and

household which are probably fueled by natural

releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, but

gases can easily be replaced by burning

if you use carbon capture to bury the carbon

hydrogen instead. Adapting power stations to

dioxide underground it is classified as blue. Grey

run on hydrogen is not a significant problem

hydrogen is produced by reacting methane with

either as they will not need much modification

steam, using nickel as a catalyst. Other methods

and since the technology is very similar to the

are dark green, pink and turquoise but ideally,

engines of a plane, it is not unlikely that the

most of it would be produced sustainably using

abundant atmospheric gas could fuel journeys

electrolysis to split the hydrogen molecules

across the world. However, burning hydrogen is

from water and create green hydrogen, which

not the only way to obtain energy: it can also be

makes up only 1% of hydrogen produced.

converted into electricity using fuel cells. This

Electrolysis works by using two electrodes

versatility is unique to hydrogen and broadens

separated by a thin membrane called PEM. At

all the possibilities for its usage. It can replace

the positive anode, a current is sent through the

batteries and also has an advantage over them

through

processes

an

are

polluting the

external circuit. The

ever-advancing.

our

heating

atmosphere.

and

hobs

This

For

in your

15

as fuel cells last far longer. Fuel cells are a

is quickly gaining traction and developments

growing market especially sought after by data

are happening all over the world to speed up the

centres as a backup power supply, with an

process

estimated two-thirds of data centres expected to

infrastructure.

have fuel cells by 2050. They also provide a way

Despite consisting of only a proton and an

of decarbonising the transport industry, with

electron, hydrogen provides hope for the world

hydrogen cars already available to purchase in

and a way of fixing the most pressing dilemma

the UK. 1kg of hydrogen can keep a car running

that our planet has been presented with yet. It is

for up to 100km, impressive considering how

an opportunity that couldn’t come too soon and

new the technology is. The applications for

is one of many methods to help make up for the

hydrogen are endless and there is no doubt that

decades of neglect of Earth. Once the production

it will soon become a large part of the energy

process is finetuned and the necessary tests

industry.

have been carried out, hydrogen will be able to

Given its potential, how soon will we see

spread through the energy system and allow us

hydrogen used on a larger scale? The National

to consume power with less fear of the

Grid is taking steps to test and incorporate

environmental impact and less dependence on

hydrogen into its network due to their pledge to

the non-renewable fuels which helped cause

go net-zero by 2050. Its engineers are building a

this problem.

testing facility called FutureGrid to understand

Sources

how hydrogen will work with their current

●

system, and it has already been confirmed that it can be transported through their pipelines,

●

reducing the time and money required to reconstruct a compatible system. Furthermore, Linde Engineering in Germany has developed technology which allows them to separate

●

hydrogen from natural gas and they even built the world’s first full scale power plant for hydrogen

extraction.

President

●

Biden’s

infrastructure bill also dedicates $9.5 billion to clean hydrogen research and a large section of it will also go to carbon capture and building

●

of

incorporating

it

into

our

nationalgrid.com. (n.d.). What is hydrogen? | National Grid Group. [online] Available at: nationalgrid.com/stories/energy-explained/what-i s-hydrogen. pv magazine International. (n.d.). The Hydrogen Stream: World’s first full-scale pilot plant for extracting hydrogen from natural gas pipelines. [online] Available at: pv-magazine.com/2022/ 01/21/the-hydrogen-stream-worlds-first-full-scalepilot-plant-for-extracting-hydrogen-from-naturalgas-pipeline/ [Accessed 10 Feb. 2022].

ENERGY.GOV (2019). Hydrogen Production: Electrolysis. [online] Energy.gov. Available at: energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-production-el ectrolysis.

Pillsbury Law. (n.d.). Hydrogen Highlights in the Bipartisan Infrastructure Bill. [online] Available at: pillsburylaw.com/en/news-and-insights/hydroge n-highlights-bipartisan-infrastructure-bill.html.

Alverà, M. (2021). The Hydrogen revolution : a blueprint for the future of clean energy. London Hodder Studio.

power systems. The concept of hydrogen energy

16

Witnessing death of a red supergiant for the first time

By Maya Murfin Year 9 For the first time in history, over the course of

red supergiant star where we see it produce

130 days, scientists observed the collapse of a

such a luminous emission, then collapse and

red supergiant star in real time.

combust, until now." The study revealed that the

The star was a part of the galaxy NGC 5731,

star had thrown off bright gases over the

which is around 120 million light years away

summer, and that this material was around the

from Earth. Most stars of this size end their

star

lives in a massive supernova. Stars burn huge

Jacobson-Galán said, "I am most excited by all

amounts of nuclear fuel at their cores, producing

of the new 'unknowns' that have been unlocked

mass amounts of energy, heating up the core of

by this discovery.”

when

it

exploded.

Researcher

the star. This heat creates pressure that stops the star from collapsing in on itself. Gravity is constantly battling to force the star to collapse, and when the star’s fuel runs out, it cools off and the pressure drops.

The star immediately collapses and the force of this explosion causes a supernova and will create nebulas or even a black hole.

Astronomers at the University of Hawaii were alerted to the star when they detected bright radiation around the star in the summer of 2020.

The

radiation

was

detected

using

the

Astronomy Pan-STARRS telescope on Maui's

Sources ●

Haleakalā and the supernova was named 2020tlf.

130

days

later,

the

researchers

witnessed the star's collapse and the resulting

●

supernova. In a statement, senior study author Raffaella Margutti told CNN that "It's like watching a ticking time bomb.” She explained the significance of the study by saying, "We've never confirmed such violent activity in a dying

●

CNN, A.S. (n.d.). Giant dying star explodes as scientists watch in real time — a first for astronomy. [online] CNN. Available at: edition.cnn.com/2022/01/06/world/red-supergiant -star-supernova-scn/index.html [Accessed 10 Feb. 2022]. earthsky.org. (2022). EarthSky | Dying star’s explosive end seen by astronomers. [online] Available at: earthsky.org/space/dying-stars-explosive-end-su pernova-sn-2020tlf/ [Accessed 10 Feb. 2022].

Physics World. (2022). Astronomers watch the death of a red supergiant in real time. [online] Available at: physicsworld.com/a/astronomers-watch-the-deat h-of-a-red-supergiant-in-real-time/ [Accessed 10 Feb. 2022].

17

Will Artificial Intelligence conquer the world?

By Abby Gherendi Year 7 Artificial intelligence has evolved over the last

intelligence would also drive down the time

70 years and is becoming a new world

taken to perform a task. It enables multi-tasking

enterprise priced at approximately $57 billion in

and eases the workload for current resources. AI

2022, growing to a $190 billion industry by 2025.

also operates 24 hours without any interruption

With AI spreading its wings across sectors, new

or breaks. AI also has the ability to do complex

jobs

tasks, but with thorough code built in, artificial

will

be

programming,

created

in

testing,

development,

support

and

intelligence can do many things some humans

maintenance, to name a few (Duggal, N 2021).

cannot.

However, arguments have been raised as to

The enthusiasm for artificial intelligence has

whether this rather new technology will

never been easy. Many have come to fear the

become self-aware. Although Self-Aware AI

possibilities of what AI could become. Elon

does not exist yet, artificial intelligence can

Musk believes ‘AI is a fundamental risk to the

become

existence

much more intellectual than we

of

human

civilization.’

Stephen

thought and could become dangerous for

Hawking has a very similar opinion saying ‘I

humanity.

fear that AI may replace humans altogether.’

Artificial intelligence has already received a lot

These great minds cannot be wrong. Artificial

of buzz in the past decade, but it continues to be

intelligence can present threats if used in a

one of the new technology trends because of it’s

specific way. If artificial intelligence surpasses

notable effects on how we live, work and play

human intellect, it would become a major threat

are only in the early stages. AI could be used for

as to what it could do. Autonomous weapons are

countless jobs such as waiters, helping elderly,

artificial

dangerous

do,

programmed to kill. In the hands of the wrong

harnessing human knowledge to find the cure

person, these weapons could easily cause many

for dangerous diseases and many more. With all

casualties. Moreover, an AI arms race could

these jobs that AI could do, it would make life

inadvertently lead to an AI war that also results

easier for us. AI has the possibility to accelerate

in many casualties. To avoid being thwarted by

global efforts to protect the environment and

the enemy, these weapons would be designed to

preserve resources by distinguishing energy

be extremely difficult to simply “turn off,” so

emission reductions, CO2 removal, helping

humans could plausibly lose control of such a

develop

networks,

situation. This risk is one that’s present even

predicting

with narrow AI, but grows as levels of AI

Artificial

intelligence and autonomy increase (Tegmark,

jobs

greener

surveilling extreme

that

humans

transportation

deforestation, weather

and

conditions.

can’t

intelligence

systems

that

are

18

M

2016).

and

intelligence is to ‘continuously assess and

self-awareness, artificial intelligence can do

maintain control over sophisticated, evolving

anything, because they could have the vast and

algorithms

logical power to do so. Elon Musk has said “It’s

controls, and tooling that secure the trust

capable of vastly more than almost anyone

anchors along the lifecycle, from strategy

knows,

rate of improvement is

through evolution’ (Sokalski, M 2022). At every

exponential.” As progress continues rapidly in

new thing, a regular pattern falls through

labs, the threat of this new technology becomes

humans, we may be fearful at the beginning, but

broader.

as we become more familiar and proficient with

The debate about the benefits and threats that

interacting with artificial intelligence, we will

AI can bring can continue for sure as the

see more of the benefits, and not that much of

and

With

the

more

intellect

by

putting

the

in

place methods,

threats.

We

may

encounter problems along the

way

with

artificial

intelligence but if we can gain trust with it, then we can control it.

Sources ● Duggal, Nikita (2021) - Top 9 New Technology Trends for 2022, as accessed on 20 January 2022 at

technology evolves. Both sides have good reasons as to why artificial intelligence is

●

dangerous or useful. Although AI is technically in its infancy, it is growing smarter every day and it is all up to how artificial intelligence behaves. Technology is still complex but being unsolved, if we know how to control artificial

●

simplilearn.com/top-technology-trends-and-jobsarticle Sokalski, Martin (2022) - Controlling AI. AI driving transparency, explainability and trust, as accessed on 20 January 2022 at advisory.kpmg.us/articles/2019/controlling-ai.htm l Tegmark, Max (2016) - Benefits and Risks of Artificial Intelligence, as accessed on 20 January 2022 at futureoflife.org/background/benefits-risks-of-artifi cial-intelligence/?cn-reloaded

intelligence, the future might look brighter. The raised argument is not about stopping AI, but about

controlling

fundamentals

of

its

development.

controlling

The

artificial

19

Are there other universes?

By Romilly Clarke Year 7 Our Universe is part of a multiverse. Meaning that we are part of a group that consists of many different universes. According to physicists there are many different types of multiverses. This suggests that, yes, there are other universes. More to my point: The multiverse is a hypothetical group of multiple universes. Together, these universes make up everything that exists including: all of space, time, matter, energy, and the physical laws. These are also called ‘Parallel Universes’. According to Scientific

American (who say that there is not just one universe but many parallel one) a multiverse could be a realistic idea. Furthermore astronomers are able to see out to a distance of about 42 billion light-years.

We have no reason to suspect the universe stops there. Beyond it could be many—even infinitely many—domains much like the one we see.

Sources ●

● ●

New Scientist. 2022. Are there multiple universes? | New Scientist. [ONLINE] Available at: newscientist.com/question/are-there-multiple-universes/#:~:text=Well%2C%20as%20it%20happens%2C%20there,descr ibes%20different%20kinds%20of%20multiverse.. [Accessed 10 February 2022].

Wikipedia. 2022. Multiverse - Wikipedia. [ONLINE] Available at: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiverse. [Accessed 10 February 2022].

Scientific American. 2022. Why the Multiverse May Be the Most Dangerous Idea in Physics - Scientific American.

[ONLINE] Available at: scientificamerican.com/article/why-the-multiverse-may-be-the-most-dangerous-idea-in-physics/. [Accessed 10 February 2022].

20

Fingerprints

By Esha Khakha Year 7 I will be writing about how we are all unique based on our fingerprints. I was inspired to write about this because ever since I was quite small, I always wondered, “How are we all different if our fingerprints all look the same?” I put some research into it to solve the question I was thinking about and here’s what I found.

What is a fingerprint?

Fingerprints are impressions left on surfaces by the friction ridges on the finger of a person. Our fingerprint’s lines are made up of friction ridges (friction is the action of rubbing against a surface or object) ridges. Friction ridges are a raised portion of the epidermis, caused by the underlying interface between the dermal papillae of the dermis and interpapillary parts of the epidermis.

Here is a diagram to explain how this works:

21

The history of the fingerprint Nobody really noticed the fingerprints and scientists assumed it was just a form of birth mark. In 1788, a German anatomist-the study of natural organisms and living things-called Johann Christoph Andreas Mayer was the first to find out every human had an original fingerprint. Not much, unfortunately, is known about how he discovered this, but we do know he did carry out surveys, and other scientists plagiarised from him that many people have solid lines in their fingerprints that others may have, but other tiny lines that aren’t on others’ fingers.

How did we each develop unique fingerprints?

After a foetus is 17 weeks old, a baby’s surface layers of their skin begin to fold and, due to friction “ridges”, their fingerprint is set. Many people query that identical twins mean identical fingerprints, but that is not the case. So, although their shared DNA means their fingerprints look similar, they really aren’t, because a baby who’s in the womb with another baby will experience different sensations, i.e. one baby might experience more pain since they’re located on a different side to the other, changing the friction and the fingerprint. This same fingerprint will stay with us through life, and if it disappears due to cuts, it will immediately come back exactly the same.

The benefits of unique fingerprints There are many benefits, but the main use of them is that they can help keep us safe. Since nobody has the same fingerprint(but the possibility of 2 people having the same is 1 in 64 billion according to sciencefocus.com) police officers can identify criminals by examining something they have touched with their fingers. Then the police use a brush to wipe away any dust and reveal a faint fingerprint.

They then stick the faint fingerprint onto adhesive sticky sheets keeping it preserved and send it off to a laboratory and work out who the criminal was.

Sources ●

●

BBC Science Focus Magazine. (n.d.). Why do identical twins have different fingerprints? [online] Available at: sciencefocus.com/the-human-body/why-do-identical-twins-have-different-fingerprints-2/#:~:text=Even%20identical %20twins%20%E2%80%93%20who%20have [Accessed 10 Feb. 2022].

Wikipedia Contributors (2019). Fingerprint. [online] Wikipedia. Available at: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingerprint

22

Are We Alone in the Universe?

By Amelia Dunlop Year 10

For over 50 years, scientists and astronomers have been trying to search the universe for any signs of extraterrestrial life outside Earth. Currently, Earth is the only known planet in the universe to host life forms, but with the help of advancing technology and research, scientists are slowly discovering more answers of whether we really are alone in the universe.

The Habitable Zone In order for any life to exist, an exoplanet must be inside the habitable zone (or Goldilocks Zone) - the area around a star in which liquid water can be maintained on the surface of a rocky planet. The exoplanet must also have an atmosphere with the correct percentage and ratio of gases in the air for life to be sustained. To estimate whether a planet falls within the habitable zone, astronomers determine the distance between the exoplanet and the star, and the star’s size and energy output. Earth is within the habitable zone in our solar system, Venus being slightly within the inner edge and Mars being near the outer boundary. Exoplanets that orbit stars in other solar systems are sometimes too far away to determine if they have an atmosphere or whether the conditions allow them to support life. According to the Habitable Exoplanets Catalogue in March 2018, 53 exoplanets could have the capability to support and sustain life, and 13 of those exoplanets could have the potential to be habitable. Recently discovered rocky exoplanets Proxima Centauri b and c, and TRAPPIST-1 e, f and g, are all within the habitable zone of their red dwarf star and their size and position in their solar system resemble that of Earth’s.

23

Fermi Paradox The Fermi Paradox refers to the contrast between the high probability that intelligent extraterrestrial life exists, and the absence of evidence of such life. It was first described by Sir Arthur C. Clarke (the late British Sci-Fi author), who stated: "Two possibilities exist: Either we are alone in the universe or we are not. Both are equally terrifying." Many doubt the fact that there are other life forms in the universe: if there really is intelligent life, why have we not heard from any? In December 2020, an unexplained radio signal was reported from the direction of the star Proxima Centauri: some believe this to be signs from other civilisations - especially as there is a potentially habitable exoplanet orbiting that star - but it most likely that the signal originates from humans or other natural causes...

The Drake Equation In 1961, Frank Drake created the Drake Equation, to help find out whether

there

are

other

intelligent life forms in the galaxy and the amount of them.

It calculates the odds of life and communicating civilisations in the Milky Way by multiplying several variables.

The challenge for astronomers is to find numbers and values to fill the variables, so the output of the equation is usually only a rough approximation. The more evidence of life in the solar system, the more useful this equation will be to scientists in figuring out how many intelligent life civilizations are actually in the Milky Way. In the 1960’s Drake also conducted a search to scan the skies for artificial radio signals (this was named Project Ozma).

With more research into certain exoplanets, their properties and space exploration, scientists may be able to either find other life or discover why we (on Earth) are the only life forms in the whole universe.

It is more likely that one day non-intelligent life will be discovered, or new microbial life which could evolve over millions of years.

Sources ● ● ● ● ● ●

theguardian.com/science/2013/sep/01/20-big-questions-in-science space.com/25219-drake-equation.html exoplanets.nasa.gov/news/1675/life-in-the-universe-what-are-the-odds/ astronomy.com/news/2020/11/the-lonely-universe-is-life-on-earth-just-a-lucky-fluke nationalgeographic.com/science/article/alien-hunters-detect-mysterious-radio-signal-from-nearby-star livescience.com/fermi-paradox

24

How did life on Earth begin?

By Maia Roman Year 10

When Earth was formed, it was: not too hot; not

3. Finally, in Termination, a stop codon is

too cold; not too wet; and not too dry.

reached, and the complex separates and

This meant that liquid water could exist on the

releases the newly formed protein.

surface. Early on, Earth was most likely

A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides in

volcanic forming island arcs as well as dips in

mRNA that codes for one amino acid, therefore a

the ocean. Places such as ponds or lakes in

stop codon is a codon that signals the end of the

these volcanic areas are believed to be the

translation process of the protein.

environments that kindled the first life on

These two processes are effectively summed up

Earth.. Many scientists have theorised that RNA

by the central dogma of molecular biology:

was the first molecule on Earth to self-replicate

DNA → RNA → Protein.

and begin some form of evolution that led to

In the 1950s, the Miller-Urey experiment, which

more

experimented on a mixture of water and simple

and

more

advanced forms of life,

including human beings.

chemicals with electric pulses (mimicking the

So what is RNA?

impact of lightning), proved that amino acids

There

are

two

types

of

"nucleic

acids":

are easy to make. (In case you’re wondering,

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic

amino acids are the very building blocks of

acid (RNA). RNA converts genetic information

proteins.) However, other molecules of life are

from DNA to proteins and is located in every

actually harder to synthesise than we imagined,

cell. DNA is first copied onto a strand of

the

messenger RNA (mRNA) during a process called

versatility of RNA. Not only can it act like an

transcription. Then, the code on the mRNA is

enzyme, but RNA can also store and transmit

"read" and used to create a protein during a

information. The catalytic activity of the RNA

process called translation. Translation is broken

component in the ribosome synthesises all

down into three stages: Initiation, Elongation

protein in all organisms. This is what scientists

and Termination.

say suggests that RNA dominated an early stage

1. In Initiation the ribosome, mRNA and first

transfer

RNA

(tRNA)

all

link

together.

central

reason

being

the

incredible

in the evolution of life.

So how did the first RNA and DNA molecules form? When I was researching I found that a

2. Next, in Elongation, amino acids are

man named Nicholas Hud, a Georgia tech

transferred to the ribosome by tRNA and

chemist, and his team say that they have

are added to the growing protein.

discovered that “the molecule ethidium can assist short polymers of nucleic acids, known as

25

oligonucleotides, in forming longer polymers.

the Watson-Crick base pairing system is that

Ethidium can also select the structure of the

Adenine binds to Thymine and Cytosine binds

base pairs that hold together two strands of

to

DNA." As it grew, the two ends of the growing

hydrogen bonding. Their findings were that the

polymer often reacted with each other as

matching base pair was dependent on the

opposed to forming longer chains. This faced

midwife present during the reaction and that

the team with quite a challenge known as

Ethidium was the most helpful for synthesising

strand cyclization. Fortunately, Hud and his

polymers with the specific Watson-Crick base

research team discovered that if they could use

pairs of DNA.

a molecule to secure in between two base pairs of DNA, called an intercalator, they could bring short pieces of DNA and RNA together. This way, they could create much longer molecules.

The team’s conclusion from the problem they faced was that "if you have the intercalator present, you can get polymers”, but “with no intercalator, it doesn't work”. Apparently “it's that simple.

Midwife molecules are believed to be the molecular "midwives" that help “give birth” to RNA. This team tested how much influence a midwife

molecule

had

on

creating

the

Guanine,

Hud’s

conclusion

was

base-pairs

that

“the

through

midwife

molecules we used had a direct effect on the kind of base pairs that formed.” "We're not saying that ethidium was the original midwife, but we've shown that the principle of a small molecule working as a midwife is sound." So in conclusion of Hud’s conclusion, although it is not absolutely 100% scientists have found how life on Earth was created.

Sources ●

Watson-Crick base pairs that make up the structure of DNA. To clarify, the essential rule of

forming

● ●

●

●

How Did Life Begin? | NSF - National Science Foundation. 2022. How Did Life Begin? | NSF National Science Foundation. [ONLINE] Available at: nsf.gov/discoveries/dis c_summ.jsp?cntn_id=117380&org=NSF. [Accessed 10 February 2022].

Nature. 2022. How Did Life Begin?. [ONLINE] Available at: nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05098-w.

[Accessed 10 February 2022].

Pressbooks. 2022. 5.7 Protein Synthesis – Human Biology. [ONLINE] Available at: humanbiology.pressbooks.tru.ca/chapter/5-6-prot ein-synthesis/. [Accessed 10 February 2022].

Molecular ‘Midwives’ Helped Give Birth to RNA | News | Astrobiology . 2022. Molecular ‘Midwives’ Helped Give Birth to RNA | News | Astrobiology .

[ONLINE] Available at: astrobiology.nasa.gov/news/molecular-midwiveshelped-give-birth-to-rna/. [Accessed 10 February 2022]publications.

26

Earth’s Artificial Moon

By Isabella Pagadala Year 9

China has built a 2 foot vacuum which uses

2010. He is the only individual, as of now, to

magnets to recreate lunar gravity here on Earth.

have received both Nobel and Ig Nobel prizes.

Based on Andre Geim’s Nobel prize winning

Giant magnets levitate the room approximately

experiment, China aims to use the technology to

2 feet high and inside are rocks and dust,

test equipment in low gravity environments

formulated to imitate the moon's surface. It has

that mimic that of the moon.

the ability to 'make gravity disappear’ according

In 2000, Andre Giem was awarded a nobel prize

to

for making frogs levitate. Many materials are

technology could replicate lunar conditions for

diamagnetic, meaning that when placed near a

mere minutes, whereas this can supposedly

magnet, their atoms fight the magnetic field, and

intimidate low or even zero gravity conditions

the object tries to move away. If a material is

for 'for as long as you want,'. Although it is not

placed in a strong enough magnetic field, it

big enough for astronauts; it is still an immense

levitates. This is the basis for China’s moon.

step forward.

Then after discovering how to isolate graphene

This technology could be used to “assess the

in 2004 he was awarded the Ig Nobel prize in

viability of a human settlement there” and

its

designers.

Previously,

low

gravity

27

determine how equipment would hold up in

Sources

lunar conditions. A notable test are Creep tests

●

which determine how much deformation a material experiences while under a constant stress and temperature. This means the vacuum

● ●

will be a significant advantage to researchers and essential for future exploration as well as

●

allowing scientists to predict and prevent problems that may arise when in low gravity conditions.

●

It’s been called ‘the first of its kind in the world’ and will be vital for China to reach its lunar

●

goals. Chang’e 6, Chang’e 7 and Chang’e 8 are three missions with the aim to land on the moon's south pole. These will be steps towards establishing

a

joint

International

Lunar

●

Research Station (ILRS) with Russia, identifying resources and conducting investigations into the presence of ice at the lunar south pole.

●

Yan, S. (2022). China builds artificial moons with low-gravity and rocky surfaces. The Telegraph. [online] 12 Jan. Available at: telegraph.co.uk/ world-news/2022/01/12/china-builds-artificial-mo on-simulates-low-gravity/.

China builds an “artificial moon” for gravity experiments. [online] livescience.com. Available at: livescience.com/china-builds-artificial-moon [Accessed 10 Feb. 2022].

Morrison, R. (2022). China built an “artificial moon” on Earth with a low gravity environment. [online] Mail Online. Available at: dailymail.co.uk/ sciencetech/article-10394147/China-built-artificial -moon-research-facility-lunar-like-low-gravity-en vironment.html.

ZME Science. (2022). China builds the world’s first artificial moon. [online] Available at: zmescience.com/science/china-builds-the-worlds -first-artificial-moon/ [Accessed 10 Feb. 2022].

IndiaTimes. (2022). After Creating “Artificial Sun” Hotter Than Sun, China’s Making “Artificial Moon.” [online] Available at: indiatimes.com/technology/news/china-ariticialsun-moon-energy-project-559163.html [Accessed 10 Feb. 2022].

Wikipedia contributors (2022) Andre Geim, Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopaedia. Available at: en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andre_Geim& oldid=1066356281.

Cookie Absent. 2022. Cookie Absent. [ONLINE] Available at: physicstoday.scitation.org/do/10.1063/pt.5.010033/f ull/. [Accessed 10 February 2022].

28

How to grow a heart

By Maia Roman Year 10

What if I told you that there was a way

The blind form of this incredible fish is also

you could regrow your own heart if it got

science. Roughly 1.5 million years ago, some

damaged?

extremely important for future groundbreaking

Mexican river tetras, living in the Northern I am actually going to talk about a

Mexican rivers, got washed into caves by

certain species of fish that can already do this

floodwaters and became trapped there. So what

themselves.

did they do? They adapted. These tetras lost the Astyanax

pigmentation in their skin and they lost their

Mexicanus and its river dwelling form is able to

eyesight due to the permanent darkness that

self heal its heart tissue. When compared to its

surrounded them. Some had only partial

adaptation, the blind, cave dwelling Mexican

eyesight and others went completely blind or

tetra which is unable to self heal its heart tissue,

even without eyes. They have even adapted to

studies showed that two genes, known as Irrc10

have a better sense of smell via taste buds all

and caveolin, were much more active in the

over their heads, which allows them to find food

river fish following heart injury. Scientists then

more easily. These cave dwelling tetras are able

experimented on Zebrafish, a different species

to store four times more energy than the river

with healing abilities, and turned off the Irrc10

dwelling tetras, and they store it in the form of

gene. They found that without this particular

fat. This adaptation enables the fish to deal with

gene, the Zebrafish was unable to fully repair its

inconsistent food supplies of algae in the cave

heart without scarring. Scar tissue prevents the

more efficiently. Sources say that because of

heart from functioning properly because it

such a “sudden environmental change, their

reduces its ability to pump blood. Irrc10 and

phenotypic (characteristic) evolution occurred

Caveolin are present in humans, and Irrc10 is

more rapidly within about 20 000 years and is

actually related to a medical condition known

probably still ongoing.” Although 20 000 years

as dilated cardiomyopathy.

doesn’t seem very fast to us, when compared to

The

species

of

fish

is

called

could

other animals such as the giraffe, which

seriously benefit the treatment of people with

supposedly didn’t fully evolve to be truly long

heart conditions. At the moment the only

necked until 7.5 million years ago, that is a very

treatment is a heart transplant which does not

fast adaptation.

Further

research

into

these

genes

have guaranteed success because the body could easily reject it and attack the new heart

Scientists are also very interested in this

cells.

adaptation of the fish because it could lead to a

29

medical breakthrough for people with type two

So you have now read about how amazing the

diabetes. A quote from an article in the National

genetic information from these tetras could be,

Geographic: “When people have high blood

but how do you actually extract these genes and

glucose, the sugars in our cells are essentially

find out more about them? Well, as I mentioned

coated

to

before, scientists are now using a gene editing

malfunction.” “These cavefish have high blood

tool known as CRISPR Cas9. DNA is made up of

sugar, but no sugar coated proteins.” This is

4 building blocks called bases which are strung

because they have uniquely adapted to be able

together in special sequences that instructs

to regulate their blood sugar levels, and when

each cell on what to do and forms the coding

geneticists used the gene sequencing tool called

behind our every trait. CRISPR technology

CRISPR, they found that the fish had adapted to

actually originated from a natural process that

be Insulin resistant. As you may know, Insulin

has functioned as a bacterial immune system

is fundamental in the process of turning blood

for millions of years, protecting single-celled

sugar, from the food we eat, into energy. In

bacteria and archaea against invading viruses.

people with type two diabetes, their insulin is

The first of the two components are short

neither working properly nor is there enough of

snippets of repetitive DNA sequences called

it being produced. Likewise, these blind cave

“Clustered

fish also experience elevated levels of blood

Palindromic Repeats”, also known as CRISPR.

sugar yet they have remarkably few health

The second of the two components are Cas, also

impacts from it.

known as CRISPR - associated proteins, which

According to sources I have found, hybrids have

cut up DNA like molecular scissors.

actually been made between the river fish and

If a virus invades a bacterial cell,

the cave fish, and sure enough the offspring

proteins cut out a segment of the viral DNA and

turned out “expectedly chubby and showed high

add it into the CRISPR region, almost like a

glucose levels.” Geneticists have also been able

scrapbook.

to insert this insulin resistant mutation into

transferred into short pieces of RNA, which

some Zebrafish. Their results were positive and

stands for ribonucleic acid, and binds to a

showed that the Zebrafish also gained weight

special protein called Cas9. This composite

and became insulin resistant. Researchers

latches onto free-floating genetic material and

believe that further information on how these

searches for a match to the virus so that if the

fish manage to live healthily with such high

virus attacks again, the Cas9 can effortlessly

levels of blood sugar could massively benefit

destroy the viral DNA.

with

sugar,

causing

them

Regularly

These

viral

Interspaced

codes

Short

the Cas

are

next

those affected with type two diabetes.

30

This defence mechanism works in many

unusable and usually gets turned off. However,

different types of bacteria, but in 2012, scientists

if scientists add in a DNA template, the proteins

figured out how to hijack CRISPR to target any

can carry out homology directed repair. This

DNA in almost any organism! In the lab, the

guide allows the rebuilding process of a

scientists first design a “guide” RNA to match

defective gene or even creation of an entirely

the gene they want to edit. They then attach the

new one.

“guide” RNA to Cas9 which tells Cas9 which

Although CRISPR is such an amazing tool, it

gene to target. Cas9 then snips the DNA which

does not always make the exact changes that

matches the “guide”. Just by attaching this

we want. This makes it difficult to predict some

“guide” RNA to Cas9, scientists can practically

of the long term effects that CRISPR gene

edit any gene in the genome.

editing will have and raises a lot of questions

After the DNA has been cut the cell tries to

about what is ethically right and wrong. But, we

repair itself by trimming the broken ends and

should always try and explore further into the

joining them back together. This type of repair

science

process is called nonhomologous end joining

potentially the key to creating cures for the

and is apparently prone to mistakes such as

genetic diseases putting many lives in danger.

behind

things

and

this

tool

is

extra or missing bases. This makes the gene

The population problem

By Katherine Marriott Year 10

Scientists have spent decades pondering on how we can solve the world’s population problem. Many questions arise when answering this, is it better to have overpopulation or underpopulation? Can we really solve this problem?In the world we live in today, there are numerous problems in the field of earth's population. From insect colonisation of habitats, to poor living conditions, population can influence quality of life on any spectrum.

A historical example of the problem with a country having a large population would have to be China’s infamous one child policy, which remains to be a staple in discussions on population, mainly due to the economic, social and political consequences. By 1949, China’s government sporadically began promoting family planning and the use of birth control, until after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976.

Around this time China’s population was close to the 1 billion benchmark, but then under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, pragmatic steps were taken to “solve the population problem”, in 1978 a voluntary program was introduced, with the aim to encourage families to have no more than two children. This escalated in 1979 the demand grew for families to stick to one child, however this policy was nationalised in 1980 on the 25th of September in the form of a public letter published by the central

31

committee of the Chinese communist party. Although there were several exceptions, this policy was applied universally (implemented more harshly in urban environments, if the first-born child was handicapped). Contraceptives were offered, and citizens who complied were treated better, and those who wouldn’t follow the rules were forced to have abortions and recieve sterilisations (primarily women). Subsequently, there were many consequences that went beyond the goal of reducing the population. The most notable reprecution is the sex ratio. There were between 3 and 4 percent more males than females living in China, as a result of males being the more prefereable sex and females being frequently aborted or adopted into families overseas. This proved to be a problem as this became difficult as there were fewer females available for marriage. Another major problem was the glowing elderly population which relied on the younger generations to survive. The amount of people hidden from the government grew massively, although the exact number is not known, it is estimated to be around the hundreds of thousands to millions. This program came to an end in 2015, though the consequences left an impact for much longer.

The dilemma of having an overcrowded population is that quality of life is almost always compromised and later deteriorates into poverty. As the population increases, the per capita income decreases, which means that the country and its government is not able to supply all of its inhabitants with supplies and essentials that may be needed. Unemployment also proves to be one of the biggest problems in an area of high population, because there is not enough demand for workers, which ultimately causes the low GDP per capita. Overpopulation can also cause problems such as hunger, poverty, water scarcity and

32

political instability. Similarly Underpopulation is not positive either. In an underpopulated society, there is not enough labour and there is an over demand, this leads to job positions not being filled and products not being made, leading to a general lower quality and fewer luxuries in production and circulation. Taxes would be very difficult to obtain and collect as there becomes the concept of “strength in numbers” and in a society with very few members it would be difficult to provide basic necessities.

There are also biological factors such as low genetic variation, which means the communities would not be able to fight off diseases and viruses, and if a pandemic were to occur, they would not be able to handle it.

In conclusion, the only decent way to solve a population problem is to maintain the rate of the growth of the population. The approach that China took in the 1970s was authoritarian and anti-democratic, an approach that would not be taken lightly in the western world. Many faiths and religions would be against practises such as abortion, and many would morally object too. The solution to the population problem would not be a simple one to solve, as in some parts of the world overpopulation is the key issue and in others it is underpopulation. To solve the problem you would have to take it on a case by case basis, in the occurrence of a society being overpopulated, the most prominent routes to take would have to be contraception, encouraging abstinence, and scientific focus on decreasing infant mortality.

In conclusion, the path to solving the population problem is not looking at the problem generally, but rather more specifically and seeing if a certain country’s economy would be able to handle the process.

Sources ●

Brittania.com, Wikipedia

33

Why do we dream?

By Maya Murfin Year 9

We have found evidence of Ancient Mesopotamians recording their dreams as early as the 3rd millennium BCE, and the practice of trying to interpret and understand our dreams has continued to the present day.

We do not know for sure why we dream, but there are several theories that scientists have used to explain the phenomena of dreams. ●

The first theory is that we dream as a method of storing long term memories. A study done in 2010 asked participants to try and solve a maze. After their first attempt, some participants were asked to think about the maze whilst awake and the rest were asked to nap. The participants who dreamt about the maze before their second attempt did almost 10 times better than those who did not dream of the maze and those who did not nap at all. This has led researchers to theorise that some memory processes can happen only when we are asleep, this would make our dreams signals that tell us that these processes are taking place whilst we sleep.

●

The second theory is called the Continual Activation Theory and it suggests that dreams occur because your brain needs to constantly create long term memories to function normally. This theory states that when your brain activity drops below a certain level, for example when you are sleeping, your brain creates a sort of random mental screensaver made of memories that it has stored. These memories are the reason for the thoughts and feelings that we experience when we dream. In other words, we dream so that our brains never completely shut down.

●

The third theory is called the Primitive Instinctive Rehearsal theory and it argues that we dream to prepare us for possible dangerous situations. Around 3 out of 4 dreams that an average adult will have contain threatening situations, with the most common themes being accidents and failures. Most of these threats were directed at the dreamer, suggesting that they are fuelled by a sense of self preservation. These dreams allow you to practice your flight or fight instinct and can help sharpen your reaction time in case you need to use them in real life situations.

●

The fourth theory is that we dream to heal psychological wounds. Whilst we sleep, we emit significantly less stress hormones than when we are awake, even when we are dreaming about stressful situations. This has led some researchers to believe that the purpose of dreaming is to help lower the trauma felt in a difficult experience. The theory suggests that viewing traumatic events in your dreams, with lower levels of stress can allow you to process the events better and aid physiological healing.

While there is no clear answer to why we dream, new advancements in technology and a better understanding of our brain functions may allow us to answer this question with a more definitive

34

answer in the future. If you are interested in learning more about these theories, please use the links in the bibliography as they have more detailed information.

Sources ●

ed.ted.com/lessons/why-do-we-dream-amy-adkins healthline.com/health/why-do-we-dream#the-role-of-dreams ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3079906/ goertzel.org/dynapsyc/2005/ZhangDreams.htm psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/morbid-minds/202201/morbid-curiosity-in-your-d reams#:~:text=According%20to%20some%20studies%2C%20nearly,threats%20occur%20to% 20the%20dreamer. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2890316/

Science Week 2022… sneak preview!

See below the awesome programme of activities!

35

Special Sixth Form Feature The history of our DNA The Year 12 biology students had the chance to write

essays about the work of Watson and Crick and their discoveries with DNA. Sia Patel and Charlotte Pons, both in Year 12, share their ideas here…

Take 1. How did the work of other scientists help Crick and Watson to develop their theory for the structure of DNA?

By Charlotte Pons Year 12 James Watson and Francis Crick claimed to

alongside Watson and Crick. Rosalind Franklin

[1] have ‘found the secret of life’ when they

faced patronising attitudes and sexism during

discovered the DNA’s structure in 1953. This was one of the greatest discoveries in scientific history that has led to the modern knowledge of genetics and molecular biology. James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine on 10 December 1962 for their discovery of the structure of DNA. However, behind the scenes there were many other

her career due to being a woman and was not awarded the Nobel Prize along with the men she closely worked with to discover the DNA’s structure. Franklin and Wilkins worked at King’s

College

where they developed the

technique of X-ray crystallography and studied DNA using X-ray diffraction. Rosalind Franklin took the first X-ray diffraction image of DNA: ‘Exposure 51’

[2] . Wilkins shared this image with

incredibly talented and curious minds who

Watson and Crick which revealed to them the

directly and indirectly aided this discovery and

helical shape of DNA and allowed them to make

helped Watson and Crick make one of the

the crucial advance in knowing that DNA is

greatest discoveries in scientific history.

made up of two chains made up of individual

Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins played a key role in inspiring and aiding Watson and Crick to discover the DNA’s structure; in fact, Wilkins received the Nobel Prize in 1962

nucleotide pairs. These images provided by Franklin and Wilkins allowed Watson and Crick to visualise what DNA looked like in real life and without it they would not have

36

discovered, or certainly not as fast, that it has a

Chargaff was necessary to understand how the

double helix structure with a backbone and

DNA could all fit together as well as aiding the

rungs. Soon after Wilkins shared ‘Exposure 51’,

discovery that one strand of the DNA acts as a

Franklin’s image, with Watson and Crick, they

template

[3] published a paper on Nature explaining the

investigated the quantities of bases in the DNA

DNA’s structure, DNA replication during cell division and the idea of mutations. This demonstrates that both Franklin and Wilkins’ work in the research of DNA was key and greatly aided Watson and Crick develop their theory of the structure of DNA. Maurice Wilkins was not only involved in the initial development of X-ray diffraction images of DNA, but he also

for

replication.

Erwin

Chargaff

not only in humans, but also in other species.

During his experiments he found that the proportion of bases in the DNA is different for each species, arousing theories that the DNA is the genetic material for life and codes for genetic instructions. Chargaff described in his book, ‘Heraclitean Fire’, that he ‘ran out of atoms [4] and even more of patience’ when trying to

played a very important role in checking the

build molecular models of the nucleotides

validity of Watson and Crick’s proposed theories

which meant he did not manage to develop a

and models.

model for the whole structure of the DNA

Erwin Chargaff was an American biochemist who

discovered

the

ratios in

between

DNA.

the

nitrogenous

bases

Through

investigating

and comparing quantities of

different bases in DNA, he concluded that the proportion of Adenine to Thymine and Guanine to Cytosine are equal, 1:1. These equalities between

the proportions of Adenine and

Thymine and Guanine and Cytosine gave clues and helped to propose theories on the chemical pairings of the double helix. This 1:1 ratio allowed Watson and Crick to see how the bases fit together and had to bond in a certain way within the double helix structure, introducing the idea of base pairs and complementary base pairs. This accurate measure of the amounts of each nucleotide in the DNA obtained by

however his discovery of the pairing of bases, their ratios and their unique proportions within each species was key information to allow Watson and Crick to make this discovery.

Despite his important and inspirational help towards the development of a theory for the structure of DNA, Chargaff’s contributions were ignored by the Nobel Prize Committee like Rosalind Franklin; however, he was recognised by the National Academy of Sciences in 1965 by [5] being elected and has received many awards .

Crick and Watson’s discovery of the DNA structure was also aided by the discoveries of Friedrich

Miescher

and

Phoebus

Levene.

Miescher was the first scientist to isolate nucleic acid. During his research he separated the nucleic acid into its protein and acid

37

components,

it

Overall, the discovery of the structure of DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid, more commonly known

was not solely due to Watson and Crick’s

as DNA. He determined that nuclein was made

discoveries; the work, time and effort of many

up

and

scientists allowed the development of the theory

phosphorus, with a unique ratio of phosphorus

of the structure of DNA. All the discoveries that

of

leading

hydrogen,

him

oxygen,

to

name

nitrogen

to nitrogen, which helped Watson and Crick have a deeper and more detailed understanding of all the different components within DNA. The more information they had about the structure and layout of all the individual components of the DNA, the easier and clearer it became to discover the structure of DNA. Phoebus Levene also played an important role in contributing to the discovery of the structure of DNA. Levene discovered ribose sugar and deoxyribose sugar and

the

distinction

difference between

between these

them. two

This sugars

demonstrated that there is DNA and RNA separately within the nucleus. This discovery made by Levene helped and allowed Watson and Crick to determine how DNA is transcribed during protein synthesis within the nucleus by suggesting that there had to be a way for the two types (DNA and RNA) to exist. In addition to this, Phoebus Levene also discovered that within each individual building block of the

each scientist made by specialising their work were pieced together by Watson and Crick who developed the final theory of the structure of DNA. However, without these other scientists and their incredible work, this would not have been possible.

DNA there is a phosphate group, a sugar and a

Sources

base and called this phosphate-sugar-base unit

●

a nucleotide. By isolating the nucleotides and the sugars within the nucleotides, the structure

●

of the DNA became clearer, and Watson and Crick

had more information in order to

●

determine the structure of DNA. ●

NobelPrize.org, ‘The Nobel Prize Award Ceremony 1962’, Sat. 9 Oct 2021 (nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1962/award-vide o/) James Watson and Francis Crick, ‘Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid’, Nature , 25th April 1953 ‘The Discovery of DNA Structure’ (pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/06/3/l_063_01.ht ml) Fergus Walsh, ‘The most important photo ever taken?’, BBC News, 16 May 2012 (bbc.co.uk/news/health-18041884)

38

●

●

● ●

●

● ●

Maurice Wilkins biography (whatisbiotechnology.org/index.php/people/sum mary/Wilkins) Erwin Chargaff, Discovering the rules of complementary base pairing (dnalc.cshl.edu/view/15251-Discovering-the-rulesof-complementary-base-pairing-Erwin-Chargaff.h tml) National Medal of Science, Erwin Chargaff (nationalmedals.org/laureate/erwin-chargaff/) Doug Stewart, "Erwin Chargaff", Famous Scientists 9 August 2016 (famousscientists.org/erwin-chargaff/) Kara Rogers, ‘Friedrich Miescher, The Encyclopaedia Britannica, 22 August 2021 (britannica.com/biography/Friedrich-Miescher) ‘Friedrich Miescher’, DNA From the Beginning (dnaftb.org/15/bio.html) Erik Gregersen, ‘Phoebus Levene’, The Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2 September 2021 (britannica.com/biography/Phoebus-Levene)

●

‘Phoebus Levene’. DNA From the Beginning (dnaftb.org/15/bio-2.html)

Footnotes [1]

‘The Discovery of DNA’s Structure’ (pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/06/3/l_063_01.html) [2] See the end of the paper for picture of ‘Exposure 51’ [3] James Watson and Francis Crick, ‘Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid’, Nature, 25 April 1953 [4] Erwin Chargaff, ‘Heraclitean Fire’, 1 June 1978 [5] Awards Erwin Chargaff received included: Pasteur Medal in 1949, Carl Neuberg Medal in 1958, Charles Leopold Mayer Prize in 1963, Heineken Prize in 1964, Gregor Mendel Medal in 1974, and the National Medal of Science in 1975

Take 2. How did the work of other scientists help Crick and Watson to develop their theory for the structure of DNA?

By Sia Patel Year 12 James Watson and Francis Crick reached a

Rosalind Franklin. After completing extensive

groundbreaking conclusion in 1953[1], when they

research on the chemistry of carbon and coal,

discovered that the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

which allowed great strides to be made in the

molecule,

hereditary

war effort, Franklin joined the Biophysical

information of cells, is in the shape of a

Laboratory of King's College, London as a

three-dimensional double helix. However, they

research fellow in 1951. Whilst at the College,

were not the only people who had been working

she completed extensive X-ray diffraction work

on this theory at the time, and were heavily

on DNA. This led to her discovering first the

influenced by other scientists of their era.

density of DNA as well as the fact that it could

Without these other scientists’ research, it is

exist in 2 forms. Franklin and PhD student

highly unlikely that Crick and Watson would

Raymond

have developed their pioneering hypothesis.

captured

One of the most influential scientists on Crick

photographs of all time: an image of one of the

and Watson’s theory was English chemist

forms of DNA that revealed its double helical

which

contains

the

Gosling one

of

(1953)[2] the

most

subsequently significant

39

structure, known as Photo 51 (left). Franklin

confirming its accuracy and by revealing the

(1953)[2] states that, according to her research, it

significant Photo 51 to them, clarifying their

is highly probable that the structure of DNA is

theory further.

helical. Franklin’s image helped to confirm

Although Crick and Watson worked directly

Crick and Watson’s hypothesis that DNA exists

with Franklin and Wilkins to advance their

in a double helical structure, allowing them to

theory, they may not have reached this

continue their work and eventually build their

conclusion

model and making Franklin one of the most

momentous discoveries of past scientists. One

influential scientists on the double helical

notable example is Russian-born American

theory.

biochemist Phoebus Levene. After emigrating to

Another scientist who greatly aided Crick and

the US at the age of 22, Levene was appointed to

Watson in their work was New Zealand-born

the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research,

British biophysicist Maurice Wilkins. Following

where he remained for the duration of his

World War II, Wilkins joined King’s College

career. Although it was known that nucleic

London

new

acids existed in two forms, and that they

biophysics unit. It was then that he and Ray

contained the bases Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine

Gosling began to use X-ray diffraction to obtain

and Thymine/Uracil, virtually nothing was

images of different forms of DNA, a technique

known about the structure or function of nucleic

that Rosalind Franklin later built upon to take

acids. It was also found that one of the two

Photo 51. Wilkins and his team (1953)[3] spent

types of nucleic acid was found in the thymus of

years

the

animals and that the other was found in yeast.

Watson-Crick (1953)[1] proposal, and in 1962 he

Levene (1908)[4] made the discovery that the

received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or

pentose sugar ribose is found in yeast nucleic

Medicine alongside Watson and Crick. Franklin,

acid,

who had passed away due to ovarian cancer

tetranucleotide hypothesis. This hypothesis

four years earlier, was not included in this.

suggested that the four bases were present in

Another way in which Wilkins contributed

approximately equal ratios in nucleic acids.

greatly to Crick and Watson’s research was by

Levene, along with L.A Mikeska and T. Mori

showing the pair Franklin’s (1953)[2] Photo 51.

(1929)[5],

This was integral to the development of their

carbohydrate found in animal thymus nucleic

theory, although Franklin was not informed of

acids. Levene continued to work on his model

this and did not gain credit when their findings

for the structure of nucleic acids until 1935[6],

were published. Overall, Wilkins had a profound

when he published a paper stating his improved

impact on Crick and Watson’s theory by both

model, in which the links of the phosphates

as

Assistant

confirming

the

Director

of

accuracy

a

of

and

to

begin

with

subsequently

states

that

without

established

deoxyribose

is

the

the

the

40

between the deoxyriboses are correct. Although

cytosine.

Levene’s model of RNA contained some errors,

Watson to develop their model with the

his groundbreaking work allowed scientists of

pyrimidine and purine bases bonding the two

Crick and Watson’s time to further their

strands of DNA together.

conclusions as they knew the basic structure of

In conclusion, the cumulation of decades of

nucleic acids and could focus on developing the

research done by other scientists allowed James

existing models.

Watson and Francis Crick to develop their

Another scientist who laid the foundation for

theory that the DNA molecule has a double

Crick

helical

and

Watson’s

Austro-Hungarian-born

discoveries

structure.

Rosalind

Franklin

and

Erwin

Maurice Wilkins confirmed the accuracy of the

Chargaff. At the time of Chargaff’s research, it

theory, whilst Phoebus Levene and Erwin

was widely accepted that the carriers of genetic

Chargaff laid the foundation for the theory with

information were the amino acids, which could

their extensive research on components of the

combine in numerous ways to form a complex

structure of DNA.

basis for genes. However, Chargaff’s research

References

suggested that it was instead the DNA that

[1]

carried genetic material, due to the fact that

Structure

differences between the DNA of different

Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid. Nature. 171, 737-738

species

were

biochemist

was

This further allowed Crick and

discovered.

Chargaff

then

performed experiments on DNA involving the separation of the purines and pyrimidines using paper

chromatography. By doing this, he

discovered that adenine and thymine exist in

[2]

Watson, J.D and Crick, F.H.C (1953) Molecular of

Nucleic

Acids:

A

Structure

for

Franklin, R.E and Gosling, R.E (1953) Molecular

Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate. Nature. 171, 740-741 [3]

Wilkins, M.H.F, Stokes, A.R and Wilson, H.R (1953)

Molecular Structure of Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids.

Nature. 171, 738-740

roughly equal proportions in the DNA of all

[4]

species, as do guanine and cytosine. However,

Nucleic Acids. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 4,

he also discovered that the amount of the

92-94

purines and pyrimidines varied across different

[5]

species, giving the reason for genetic variation within species. Chargaff’s work directly led Crick and Watson to determine their theory, as the two scientists reached the conclusion that, because adenine and thymine are always

Mandel, J.A, Jacobs, W.A and Levene, P.A (1908) On

Levene, P.A, Mikeska, L.A and Mori, T (1929) On the

Carbohydrate of Thymonucleic Acid. Journal of

Biological Chemistry. 785-787 [6]

Levene, P.A and Tipson, R.S (1935) The Ring

Structure

of Thymidine. Journal of Biological

Chemistry. 110, 623-630 All of these are scientific papers written in

present in equal proportions, they must always

collaboration with other scientists. Scientific papers

bond together, and the same for guanine and

are also peer reviewed and so have a high reliability.

41

were originally published. The article was published in 2008, meaning that the information is up-to-date

They are also primary sources, written by the scientists themselves, and so are very reliable sources to use in my research.

Sources ●

Nature Education (2008) Discovery of DNA Structure and Function: Watson and Crick.

Available from:nature.com/scitable/topicpage/discovery-ofdna-structure-and-function-watson-397/ [Accessed 09/10/21]

●

U.S National Library of Medicine. The Discovery of the Double Helix, 1951-1953. Available from: profiles.nlm.nih.gov/spotlight/sc/feature/doublehe lix [Accessed 08/10/21]

This is a reliable source as all content in the U.S National Library of Medicine is peer-reviewed and the webpage contains a vast array of scientific publications]

This is a reliable source as Nature is a world-renowned scientific journal, in which many of the scientific papers mentioned in the essay

42

Recent Scientific Activity We spoke to students throughout the school to see what Science Faculty activities they’ve been involved in this academic year…

43

UK Space Design Competition Eliza Beresford and Lara Glenn Year 12

On Saturday 4th December, Korina Szyszko-Nicewicz, Pooja Pillai, Lara Glenn and Eliza Beresford took part in the UK Space Design Competition. As part of the competition, we were divided into 4 teams of students from different schools and given a request for proposal which involved designing an Aldrin Cycler to allow business travellers to travel back and forth between Mars and Earth in 2052.

We had no idea what to anticipate going into this competition because it was our first time, but we had a great experience. Lara and I were given the responsibility of food production for the voyage, where we had to strike a balance between the luxury elements expected by our clients and the shortage of storage capacity, while Korina and Pooja were given the task of storage of resources.

After working on our project report for the day we had to present our proposals to a panel of judges form the UKSDC. Although it was a close competition, we were ecstatic to learn that our team had advanced to the Nationals heat, which will be held at Imperial College London in March. A big thank you to Mr Yee for supporting us in this competition.

Photography by Shivani Parthipun, Eva Hitchens, Shreya Gover and Alexia Suceveanu

44

CREST Club

Alex Down and Morven Pearce Year 10

We have both taken part in ‘CREST’ club, which is a project that many young people take part in across the UK. It involves having to plan, perform, and evaluate a science experiment of your choice, with a topic that had to be centred around one of the ‘STEM’ subjects. There was a wide range of topics that were chosen, including questions about music, food, and cleaning.

Alex and her partner did an experiment on ‘Does the music genre you listen to have an affect on your health’ The practical element of our experiment involved playing a plethora of different music genres to a wide group of people to see whether what they were listening to had an effect on their heart rate. This had some interesting results, however it was as we expected. The music that tended to make people have the highest heart rate was ‘EDM’ because it was very high energy. The one that made people have the lowest heart rate was ‘Classical’ music which was also expected because the songs we chose were very calming.

Morven and Evie explored ‘What dish soap product has the best reaction when in contact with a fat based liquid?’. We did this by placing drops of food colouring in certain fatty liquids and then measured the distance they travelled when they were repelled by the liquid soaps. We found many interesting things and were able to work out that some own brand soaps worked more effectively than specialised

45

company made soaps. Additionally, we learnt how to structure a report and now know how to transfer these skills into future experiments.

We both found that ‘CREST’ club was extremely rewarding and allowed us to work nearly completely independently and creatively. It allowed us to work with our friends on a topic we were interested in, and we got to learn along the way because we would plan our experiments on our own.

Imperial Engineering Project Vysali Sivakumar, Eliza Beresford and Sia Patel Year 12 January 2022 saw the launch of an engineering and science project with Imperial College London that involves the year 12 physics students from NHEHS working in collaboration with science students from local schools, including Drayton Manor, Cardinal Wiseman and Greenford to solve the ever-growing problem of sustainable agriculture and how it can be put into practice around the world.

The aim of the project is to stretch students beyond the

curriculum

and provide networking and

learning opportunities to wider groups of students.

Our main task is to design a solution that can contribute to ‘a greener life’ by preventing loss of biodiversity and making agriculture and everyday life more sustainable. We had a lecture from an Imperial PhD student who spoke to us about her work in conservation that has taken her to various different countries. Over the next few months we will be working in-person and online with our groups to produce a report and presentation explaining our proposal, which we will then deliver to academics at Imperial in April. The winning team will hopefully have their design made into reality and possibly have the chance to present it along the Great Exhibition Road Festival next year.

We all thought that this would be a great opportunity to develop our problem solving skills and provide an insight into the real-world applications of science and engineering. Hopefully we can devise innovative solutions to a problem that is affecting so many countries around the world.

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Two Cambridge University offers for Medicine

Maya Shah and Isobel Thornton, both in Year 13, have recently received offers to study medicine at The University of Cambridge. We asked Maya about her experience while applying for the university and why she applied in the first place….

Maya writes: "I think the main

reason I applied to Cambridge was the impression it gave & the friendly students I met when visiting my sister there; though it's reputation as one of the world's top unis definitely helped!

For medicine, you have to take the BMAT

(BioMedical

Admissions

Test) and then be interviewed before you can receive an offer from Cambridge. After already dedicating my summer to the UCAT (UK Clinical Aptitude Test), I wasn't thrilled at the prospect of another admissions test but I knew I had to work hard if I wanted a chance of an interview, which paid off.

The interview for Oxbridge is different from most medical schools as it is more science-based, rather than more skills/personality-based. So I made sure I had read around certain topics I had written about in my personal statement & and things that had been in the news: Alzheimer's Disease, medical inequalities, the Covid-19 vaccines. You also need to know your A-level subjects well as they may ask you questions on this or need this knowledge to answer certain questions.

I also did a mock interview with my sister's friend who is a Cambridge medic which was extremely helpful as it got me used to the style of questions asked & when I didn't know the answer she gave me hints to help me get there.

My actual interview was quite different to what I expected, and this threw me off a bit and afterwards I actually thought it had gone very badly & I really thought I had little chance of an offer, so I was very pleasantly surprised come the 25th of January."

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From the Editors We are both very grateful to be a part of the Franklin team this year. We loved reading everybody’s articles and it was impressive to see such a wide variety of topics being covered. This experience has broadened our knowledge and we hope that everyone can find an article that stands out to them. A big thank you to everyone who submitted their articles and to anyone who was part of the team, we are delighted with the final product. We hope you enjoy!

Sylvie Reay and Aditi Aryal, Editors Sophie Alexander, Illustrator Shivani Parthipun, Eva Hitchens, Shreya Gover, Alexia Suceveanu, Noushi Hirachand, Johanna Kolawole and Lexie Swaine, Photographers Ms Brown, Editor in Chief And last but not least…

… Footage from NHEHS "Chick Cam", captured at 3pm on the 11th of March 2022, in advance of Science Week 2022.

Interested in writing for The Franklin?

Contact Ms Brown, l.brown@nhehs

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