What makes a workplace healthy? NICOLE MATER A truly healthy workplace evaluates employee health and well being both mentally and physically. Effectively healthy workplaces increase employees’ physical health statuses, improve job satisfaction levels, increase productivity, and reduce office turnover. The purpose of this paper is to analyze and synthesize proposed design solutions for healthy workplaces by dissecting current strategies used to design offices and uncovering information that may be used in evidence based design. This information will then be analyzed within the context of four existing office buildings of varying scales and used to determine their effectiveness as healthy office spaces. Architects should use evidence-‐based strategies to design healthy workplaces that can improve the mental and physical well being of the employees who work in the building, in turn, benefit employers by increasing productivity and job satisfaction.
HEALTH
PHYSICAL
MENTAL
Mental and physical health must be considered of equal importance because mental health has the ability to influence physical health and physical health may influence mental health. People that are physically ill or injured my become depressed by their inabilities and therefore become mentally unstable and unproductive. People who have mental maladies have a higher probability of becoming ill, or in extreme cases may be driven to injure themselves.
Strategies Beneficial to Health The surgeon general recognizes the need for change within American office types. The majority of the 140 million men and women who are employed in the United States spend a significant amount of time each week at their work site. Because obesity reduces worker productivity and increases health care costs, employers are becoming more aware of the need to help promote health within the workplace. Employers can implement wellness programs
encourage physical activity through group classes and stairwell programs and create incentives 1
for employees to participate. Designers have the ability to address this condition through careful design of office campuses and individual workspaces. This will not only help to benefit employees productivity, but also their mental health. By increasing their output, workers have higher levels of job satisfaction and overall happiness.
Increase Campus Walkability Walkability is a key tool that an architect must harness when addressing the issue of healthy workplaces. “Walking 2
can be integrated into most people’s daily routines if it is made convenient by a well-‐designed built environment.” By integrating exercise into an individual’s daily commute, there is a much higher probability that the individual will achieve the recommended amount of exercise. By making the walk desirable, there is an even higher likelihood that it will be used. Addressing specific factors can help to formulate a method for creating desirable walking paths. High priority concerns are the presence of pedestrian facilities, the absence of pedestrian conflicts, and the inclusion of crosswalks. Important concerns are the maintenance of the pathway, the size of the path, the presence of a buffer between the path and the adjacent street, the compliance to universal access, and the aesthetics. A lesser priority concern is the presence of shading devices, although this varies per climate. Places where the pathway intersects or abuts a roadway are of the utmost concern. Smells and noises generated by traffic are generally considered unpleasant, and it is important to provide a buffer between the walkway and the road. It is also important to provide a practical and direct route, without unnecessary twisting ambulatory pathways. The most desirable pathways are direct routes through landscaping or along pleasant slow-‐speed roadways.
Increase Stair Use Attractive and effective staircase design can promote physical activity within the workplace. Gayle Nicoll, PhD identifies five themes of staircase design: Appeal, Comfort, Convenience, Legibility, and Safety. Convenience is 1 2
Surgeon General Regina M. Benjamin, M. D. Dannenberg
essential to promoting stair use. The stair must lie along a desired path of travel in order to present the opportunity to use it. It must be within close proximity of an arrival point and a destination, and be integrated into those spaces seamlessly. Stairs that address comfort are used more often than stairs that do not account for comfort. A very good staircase is designed to promote socio-‐operational comfort, meaning that an individual could ascend the staircase while carrying on a conversation with another person walking by his or her side. In order to accomplish this, the stairs should ensure that the amount of exertion required to climb them does not surpass a threshold of comfort, and the gait of the stair should be compatible with the stride of the prospective user. Lastly, staircases that are designed to be appealing, whether attractively or interactively, have an increased likelihood of use. Of course, none of these suggestions may interfere with safety, and the hand of a talented designer is needed to employ all of these principles without straying from the code requirements.
Ergonomic Detailing In a recent study on workplace aesthetics uncovered a strong correlation between workplace ergonomics and physical health. Although ergonomics and aesthetics both play a part in employee satisfaction and health, aesthetics showed no real correlation to physical health. Ergonomics, on the other hand, showed a very strong 3
correlation. Problems with office ergonomics contribute to higher rates of sick leave and work-‐related pain. It is equally important to address ergonomics, as it is to address aesthetic concerns. For architects and designers, this information calls attention to the details within an office. All office furniture should be ergonomically designed, and desk and chair details should be carefully planned. Any surface that a worker would encounter could be optimized ergonomically, including door handles and stair railings.
Avoid Overstimulation Features of the physical environment can contribute to overstimulation, a condition that is reached by overloading 4
an individual with stressors. It can be derived from environmental clutter and perceived spatial restraints . In an office setting, an individual reacting to overstimulation may withdraw and experience dissatisfaction with the task 3 4
Schell 212. Evans and McCoy
5
he or she has been working on in the stressful environment. Overstimulation causes individuals to become 6
distracted from their work, which leads to frustration and further stress . They may fail to complete their work in a timely manner or leave tasks incomplete in their entirety. Researchers Baum, Davis, Desor, and Paulus have identified four desired conditions that help to alleviate the pressures of overstimulation: reduced social density, increased room brightness, increased number of enclosures, and increased intrapersonal distance. Social density is defined by the “total number of individuals in a particular area, regardless of the amount of space 7
available in that area.” Studies have shown that employees react negatively to high ratios of social density. Individuals in high social density situations not only feel more crowded, which contributes to stress-‐levels, but they are also more likely to act withdrawn. Individuals in low-‐density conditions generally feel more attracted to others 8
in the room and are more likely to act socially. Intrapersonal distance is an important principle to consider when planning offices. Similar to social density, it accounts for the proximity of other individuals in a given area. Whereas social density does not account for perceptions of crowding due to measured distances, intrapersonal distance considers the exact distance between a given individual and the nearest person to that individual. Studies have shown that individuals feel “crowded, confined, distracted, and uncomfortable when there is little distance between them and another person,” and 9
“individuals perform at lower levels in close conditions as opposed to far distance conditions.” Introducing higher levels of light into offices may help to decrease negative stimulus. Regardless of the actual size of the room, a dark room seems to feel smaller than a large room. Because of this illusion, properly lit rooms have the opportunity to feel larger than they actually are. This may also help to alleviate stress caused by shortened intrapersonal distance. Although these perceptions cannot decrease the social density of the space by definition, the distance from one individual to another can be made to seem further. Office darkness “correlates significantly 5
Oldham 77. Oldham & Rotchford 544. 7 Hayduck 295. Paulus 250. 8 Dean, Pugh, & Gunderson 230. 9 Paulus 249 6
10
to office turnover and discretionary withdrawal.” Architects have many options for increasing light levels in offices. Bringing in natural light is nearly always the best possible solution, but advancements in technology have resulted in high-‐tech lighting systems that can mimic the changing color temperatures of a typical daylight spectrum. Illumination can be achieved in a variety of ways, but the effects of color should not be underestimated. Painting walls in brighter colors can increase light reflectance in a space. Dark colors should be avoided no matter how much light is introduced into a space, as their absorptive quality will counteract the desired effect. Lighting a room properly can help to alleviate stress levels in employees because bright rooms are perceived to be more spacious than dark rooms.
Whereas the aforementioned strategies have sought to increase spatial perception, the strategy of
increasing the number of enclosures within an office appears to compartmentalize and privatize the space of the individual. An “increased number of enclosures is positively correlated with an individual’s job performance, 11
workspace satisfaction, and experienced privacy.” A higher number of enclosures may help to increase focus and reduce episodes of discretionary withdrawal. Enclosures also help to decrease the perception of crowding. They help to compartmentalize the gross area of an office, breaking social density down into smaller areas that are less dense. They help to increase feelings of privacy, whether to individual workstations or groups of workstations. This strategy is flexible enough to work with many types of office organization and can be modified to benefit individual focus or collaborative teamwork.
Choose the Right Office Organization Type Motivation within the workplace is in a constant state of flux. This is due not only to daily stressors, which workers are exposed to on a daily basis, but also on the spatial and practical organization of each office. Trends in office organization have significant impacts on the way people feel about their work, in turn effecting their drive and 12
quality of performance. Practical organization is trending toward collaborative projects, and office design is changing to accommodate these recent restructurings of office organization. Offices can be organized in many
10
Barnaby 21. Oldham 77. 12 Amabile. 11
different ways, each with different effects on employee motivation. Christina Bodin-‐Danielson, PhD, a Stockholm University architectural researcher specializing in work psychology, categorizes offices into the following types: Cell Offices, Shared Rooms, Small Open Plans, Medium Sized Open Plans, Large Open Plans, and Flex Offices. Cell offices are organized as individual rooms branching off a main hallway. Each office has window access, as well as amenities for each room. The work done is cell offices is characterized by independence and is of a concentrated nature. Professions that value the work of the individual should utilize cell offices. Cell offices would be detrimental to professions that value team collaboration. Typically, higher-‐ranking employees in the technical and professional sector work in cell offices. Cell offices are advantageous because they allow for a high degree of privacy and a high degree of personalization. Individuals that work in cell offices report high levels of health and 13
job satisfaction. Shared rooms are usually organized for two or three workers, with workstations arranged freely throughout the room. Those that share the office share a window or set of windows and may add divisional barriers between each workstation for added privacy. The rest of the amenities are usually located outside of the shared room. Those within the office usually have similar assignments and may work on team projects together. Compared to other office types, workers in shared rooms tend to be younger and in lower-‐ranking jobs. This type of office often is perceived negatively because they often lack a sufficient amount of space for the workers, but individuals that work in shared room offices report high levels of perceived job satisfaction. Open plan offices are categorized by size: Small (4-‐9 persons), Medium (10-‐24 persons), and Large (more than 24 persons). Small open plan offices tend to be utilized by a somewhat older age group in mid-‐to-‐low-‐ranking jobs. Medium open plan offices serve a range of age groups. Large open offices represent the most diverse levels of office hierarchy, having the highest percentage of business and administrative management positions. Regardless of size, this type of office is usually an open room with workstations that are freely arranged in groups. Screens between workstations provide some privacy and aid acoustically. Despite the open conditions, employees in open 13
Bodin-Danielson 636.
plan offices tend to work individually on routine-‐based work with relatively low levels of interaction. Open plan offices are desirable to building owners because they have the advantage of being very flexible offices and allow the organization to be rearranged without requiring reconstruction, but medium-‐sized open plan office workers were found to have a significantly low level of job satisfaction and, overall, open plan office workers report the 14
lowest health status of any of these office types. Flex offices are unique in that there are no assigned individual workstations. Employees choose to work where they see fit and may change their location each day. Employees that work in flex offices also have the option to occasionally work from home or at other places outside of the office, like cafes or libraries. Within the office there are often support spaces for concentrated work, private phone calls, and meetings. Offices in the Media/IT sector utilize flex offices more than any other sector. The organization of a flex office lends itself to professions that value both collaboration and individual work. Professions that operate entirely from digital devices, such as laptop computers and tablets, are ideal candidates for the flex office type.
FLEXIBLE
CONTROLLED
PRIVATE
CELL OFFICE
OPEN PLAN
SOCIAL
FLEX OFFICE
SHARED ROOM
These office types create a series of relationships that can be explained with a matrix. The office types are differentiated by aspects of Control, individual vs. organizational, and Interaction, individual/private vs. collaborative/social.
Using the presented information from Bodin-‐Danielson’s research, a diagram may be extrapolated that identifies the different named office types along spectrums of flexibility and privacy. Flexibility in this case refers to the amount of personalization that is allowed within each office type. Controlled office types allow lesser amounts of individual personalization due to restraints placed on individuals by either the hierarchy of the office or by the implied social restrictions of the spatial office organization. The privacy spectrum is more straightforward, as
14
Bodin-Danielson 636.
private office types are those where individuals have more personal space and feel more segregated from their peers. Social office types are those where workers share their immediate workspace with their peers, and as a result feel as though they have little to no personal space. Based on the research diagrams shown in Bodin-‐Danielson’s article, one may further extrapolate which types of offices lead to higher levels of job productivity and health. FLEXIBLE
CONTROLLED
PRIVATE
+
-
SOCIAL
+
+
Distilling the results of the survey done by Bodin-‐ Danielsson, one may extrapolate which office types are healthy and which are unhealthy, each indicated by a plus (+) and minus (-‐) symbol.
JOB SATISFACTION
FLEXIBLE
CONTROLLED
PRIVATE
+
-
SOCIAL
+
-
Using the same system, one can further analyze the information by drawing connections between office type, health, and job satisfaction. This gives some insight as to which office types most embody a healthy workplace.
HEALTH
Assessing Strategy Efficiency within Four Case Studies
Each of the four case studies typifies one of the four office organization types listed in the previous section. Each has been noted on Architectural Record’s website as an excellent example of office design. Keeping in mind the associations that were made between organization, job satisfaction, and health, this paper will now begin to evaluate each office’s efficiency based upon the summation of amenities each presents.
Oval Offices As seen in the plan of the office building to the left, the Oval Offices complex in Sauerbruch, Germany typifies the Cell office organization. Each office is one small, private room. The architect ensured that each cell office had immediate access to natural light by placing offices around
the perimeter of the building and also plunging a large courtyard into the center of the building and placing offices around this source of light. The supporting spaces for the office fill in the remaining space on the floor plate without access to natural light. As seen in images of the interior of the office, the designer chose to paint the offices deep blue. This is makes the offices seem smaller, even though they are actually quite large. By choosing lighter colors, the office could feel more spacious. The Oval Offices are praised for their mastery of sustainable systems and the integration of mechanical subsystems with the office aesthetic. The ceiling “fingers” shown in the interior image conceal lighting, ventilation, 15
and sprinkler systems. One may choose to adopt similar strategies in future office buildings, as this integration reduces the amount of visual clutter within a space, alleviating overstimulation.
World Wildlife Fund Headquarters The World Wildlife Fund Headquarters embodies an open plan layout. There are several workstations all located in one large open area of an office. This specific office may be considered of the medium office size according to Bodin-‐Danielson’s qualifications. Though this type of office is considered to be one of the least productive and least healthy office types, the architects of this office have attempted to reduce the effects of overstimulation by segregating the office with a number of office enclosures. Natural light floods into the space, which also is composed of light colors. Both of these effects create a more productive workspace. This office attempts to encourage employees’ physical health by providing recreational space on the roof of the building. A selection of
15
Dawson.
hardy plants composes the green roof, which is permeated with walking paths. This roof space also provides an opportunity for positive distraction. Escaping the office environment for a few minutes and recalibrating oneself in 16
a space like this can be calming and overall increase productivity.
Telenor World Headquarters Telenor’s offices may be considered flex offices because of the flexibility they offer to their users. Although employees here are still assigned individual workstations, there are many untraditional spaces throughout the building where employees may choose to work. There are spaces that may be used for informal business meetings, lunch spots, and coffee breaks. There are spaces where one may choose to work for the day with their laptop 17
when they need a break from their workstation.
Natural Resources Defense Council As seen in the floor plan to the left, this office type can be considered a Shared Room organization. Three workers share each station in this office. They are each given individual desk space and a table to collaboration. This type of organization works particularly well for creative offices, but it seems to also work in this situation, which is more similar to a pro bono law office. According to Bodin-‐Danielson’s research, this type of office has high levels of job satisfaction levels, but low health levels. The Natural Resources Defense Council attempts to counteract the low health levels of employees in this office type by giving them the most access to natural light. The office is organized with Shared Rooms closest to the perimeter of the building, and conference
16 17
Dorsy. Sprekelmeyer
rooms and support spaces in the center. The building shape is more difficult to deal with here, but as the office is located within a remodeled New York office building, the designer was restricted on the amount of changes he or she was able to make. This 18
office also has included strategic staircases in order to promote physical activity. The attractive staircase design encourages stair use. They have also located different departments on different floors, requiring 19
employees to move between floors throughout the day.
Architectural Record, a major architectural publication, considers each of these offices to be a successfully healthy workspace. Regardless of office organization type, the designers of each of these spaces have made necessary changes to the standard office type in order to create spaces that promote health, both mental and physical, to their employees.
18 19
Hilkin. Hilkin.
Bibliography:
Amabile, T. M. (1993). Motivational synergy: Toward new conceptualizations of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in the workplace. Human Resource Management Review, 3(3), 185-‐201. Retrieved from <http://search.proquest.com/docview/61610119?accountid=14556>
Ashcraft, D. M. (1992). Health in the workplace. (pp. 259-‐283). Oxford, England: North-‐Holland, Oxford. doi: <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0166-‐4115(08)62605-‐9>
Barnaby, J.F. (1980). Lighting for productivity gains. Lighting Design and Application, 2. 20-‐28. Bodin-‐Danielson, C., & Bodin, L. (2008). Office Type in Relation to Health, Well-‐Being, and Job Satisfaction Among Employees. Environment and Behavior. 40(5). 636-‐668. Retreived from <http://eab.sagepub.com> Dannenberg, A. L., Cramer, T. W., & Gibson, C. J. (2005). Assessing the walkability of the workplace: A new audit tool. American Journal of Health Promotion, 20(1), 39-‐44. doi: <http://dx.doi.org/10.4278/0890-‐1171-‐20.1.39>
Dawson, Layla. (2012). The free-‐form shapes and autumn-‐colored louvers of two sibling office buildings are in contrast to the surrounding business district, proving that chart-‐topping efficiency can be sleek and comfortable too. Architectural Record. Web. <http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/Building_types_study/Office_Buildings/2011/Oval -‐Offices.asp?bts=OB>
Dean, L. M., Pugh, W. M., & Gunderson, E. K. E. (1975). Spatial and perceptual components of crowding: Effects on health and satisfaction. Environment and Behavior. 7. 225-‐236. Dorsy, Sean. (2012). World Wildlife Fund Headquarters. Architectural Record. Web. <http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/building_types_study/Office_Buildings/2012/wwf -‐headquarters.asp> Eklöf, M., & Hagberg, M. (2006). Are simple feedback interventions involving workplace data associated with better working environment and health? A cluster randomized controlled study among swedish VDU workers. Applied Ergonomics, 37(2), 201-‐210. doi: <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2005.04.003> Evans, G. W., Mccoy, J. M., & Gifford, Robert (Author of introductory parts,Auteur des parties liminaires). (1998). When buildings don't work : The role of architecture in human health. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18(1), 85-‐94. Retrieved from <http://search.proquest.com/docview/65219429?accountid=14556> Hayduk, L. A. (1983). Personal space: Where we now stand. Psychological Bulletin. 94. 293-‐335 Hilkun, Barry. (2012). Natural Resources Defense Council. Architectural Record. Web. < http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/building_types_study/Office_Buildings/2012/natio nal-‐resources-‐defense-‐council.asp> McCoy, J. M. (2002). Work environments. (pp. 443-‐460). Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc, Hoboken, NJ. Retrieved from <http://search.proquest.com/docview/619753527?accountid=14556> Nicoll, G. (2007). Spatial measures associated with stair use. American Journal of Health Promotion, 21(4), 346-‐352. doi: <http://dx.doi.org/10.4278/0890-‐1171-‐21.4s.346> Oldham, G. R., & Fried, Y. (1987). Employee reactions to workspace characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(1), 75-‐80. doi: <http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-‐9010.72.1.75>
Oldham, G. R., & Rotchford, N. L. (1983). Relationships between office characteristics and employee reactions: A study of the physical environment. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26. 542-‐556. Paulus, P. B., Annis, A. B., Seta, J.J. (1976). Density does effect task performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 34. 248-‐253. Schell, E., Theorell, T., & Saraste, H. (2011). Workplace aesthetics: Impact of environments upon employee health? Work: Journal of Prevention, Assessment & Rehabilitation, 39(3), 203-‐213. Retrieved from <http://search.proquest.com/docview/897333666?accountid=14556> Sprekelmeyer, K. (17 October 2012). Architectural Programming and Predesign Issues. Lecture. Vinnitskaya , Irina . "PUC Building: 525 Golden Gate / KMD Architects" 03 May 2012. ArchDaily. Accessed 24 Oct 2012. <http://www.archdaily.com/230834>