TEST BANK for Cross-Cultural Psychology Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications, Seventh Edi

Test Bank for

Eric B. Shiraev and David A. Levy

Cross-Cultural Psychology Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications

Seventh Edition Taylor and Francis Prepared by

Eric B. Shiraev and David A. Levy The test bank contains several types of questions including:

1. Questions related to key terms (definitions); 2. Multiple choice questions (related to general comprehension and application of knowledge); 3. True-False questions; 4. Short-answer; and 5. Essay questions

There are approximately fifty questions to select from for each chapter. In addition, a short quiz has been created for every chapter. The quizzes may be used for regular and practice tests.

For additional inquiries and comments please contact professors Eric Shiraev and David Levy: eshiraev@gmu.edu dlevy@pepperdine.edu Visit regularly updated discussions related to the textbook materials on Facebook:

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. Understanding Cross-Cultural Psychology CHAPTER 2. Critical Thinking in Cross-Cultural Psychology CHAPTER 3. Methodology of Cross-Cultural Research CHAPTER 4. Cognition: Sensation, Perception, and States of Consciousness CHAPTER 5. Intelligence CHAPTER 6. Emotion CHAPTER 7. Motivation and Behavior CHAPTER 8. Human Development and Socialization CHAPTER 9. Psychological Disorders CHAPTER 10. Social Perception, Social Cognition, and Social Interaction CHAPTER 11. Personality and the Self CHAPTER 12. Applied Cross-Cultural Psychology: Important Highlights from Social Justice, Digital Culture, and Healthcare

Chapter 1

Chapter 1. Understanding Cross-Cultural Psychology

1.1 Multiple choice questions (key terms) 1. The critical and comparative study of cultural effects on human psychology is called: a. multiculturalism b. cross-cultural psychology c. cultural relativism d. cultural psychology e. cultural absolutism Answer: b

2. The term ________ refers to behavior based on interdependence, collective responsibilities, and care for others. a. individualism b. power distance c. uncertainty avoidance d. collectivism e. femininity Answer: d

3.________ is the study that seeks to discover systematic relationships between culture and psychological variables. a. multiculturalism b. cross-cultural psychology c. cultural relativism d. cultural psychology e. cultural absolutism Answer: d 4. The degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity is called in cross-cultural psychology: a. comfort zone b. uncertainty avoidance c. societal uncertainty d. degree of ambiguity e. inexact vagueness Answer: b

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5. The term _________ refers to a set of attitudes, behaviors, and symbols shared by a group of people and usually communicated from one generation to the next. a. nation b. collectivism c. cultural relativism d. cultural psychology e. culture Answer: e 6. What is the term for a cultural heritage shared by a category of people who also share a common ancestral origin, language, and religion? a. ethnicity b. collectivism c. cultural psychology d. anthropology e. cultural absolutism Answer: a 7. The view that supports judgment about other ethnic, national, and cultural groups and events from the observer’s own ethnic, national, or cultural group’s outlook is called: a. ethnocentrism b. cross-cultural psychology c. cultural relativism d. cultural absolutism e. cultural psychology Answer: a

8. Complex behavior based on concern for oneself and one's immediate family or primary group as opposed to concern for other groups to which one belongs is defined as: a. ethnocentrism b. individualism c. culture concern d. cultural relativism e. family values Answer: b 9. Which type of knowledge in cross-cultural psychology exists in the form of laws and other prescriptions established by authorities? a. authoritarian b. collectivist c. prescribed d. legal e. popular beliefs Answer: d

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10. What is the term for the view that encourages recognition of equality for all cultural and national groups and promotes the idea that various cultural groups have the right to follow their own paths of development and have their own unique activities, values, and norms? a. individualism b. multiculturalism c. femininity d. cultural relativism e. uncertainty avoidance Answer: b 11. The term_________indicates an individual’s acceptance of knowledge, beliefs, and practices related to a particular faith (fill in the blank). a. attitudes b. religious affiliation c. ethnic affiliation d. cultural dichotomy e. social identity Answer: b 12. What is the term for the extent to which the members of a society accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally? a. individualism b. power distance c. uncertainty avoidance d. collectivism e. femininity Answer: b 13. A large group of people distinguished by certain similar and genetically transmitted physical characteristics is called: a. race b. crowd c. ethnicity d. culture e. nation Answer: a 14. The term ________________refers to people’s common ways to handle uncertainty in their daily situations and lives in general. a. individualism b. power distance orientation c. uncertainty orientation d. conservative orientation e. femininity Answer: c

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15. The term _________ is used to describe cultures based largely on beliefs, rules, symbols, and principles established predominantly in the past, confined in local or regional boundaries, restricting and mostly intolerant to social innovations. a. advanced culture b. collectivism c. traditional culture d. power distance e. uncertainty avoidance Answer: c 16. Cultures based largely on modern beliefs, rules, symbols, and principles relatively open to other cultures, absorbing and dynamic, science-based, technology-driven, and relatively tolerant to social innovations are referred as: a. advanced cultures b. collectivist norms c. non-traditional cultures d. individualist norms e. industrial communities Answer: c 17. A tradition that emphasizes the subjective side of the individual (such as the sense of freedom, beauty, creativity, and moral responsibility) is called: a. the subjective tradition b. the freedom school c. the moral school d. the creativity tradition e. the humanist tradition Answer: e 18. How would you call the view that supports judgment about other ethnic, national, and cultural groups and events from the observer’s own ethnic, national, or cultural group’s outlook? a. multiculturalism b. cultural psychology c. ethnocentrism d. collectivism e. individualism Answer: c

1.2. Multiple choice questions (comprehension and application) 1. If a psychologist examines a degree to which people in a certain country accept inequality between the leaders and the led, the elite and the commons, what psychological phenomenon does this researcher actually study? a. collective identity

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b. uncertainly avoidance c. power sharing d. power distance e. democratic collectivism Answer: d Section: Empirical Examination of Culture 2. People in cultures measured “high” on the measure of _________tend to support beliefs promising certainty, and to maintain social institutions protecting conformity (fill in the blank) a. collectivism b. uncertainty avoidance c. power distance d. femininity e. masculinity Answer: b Section: Empirical Examination of Culture 3. Since the beginning of scientific polling almost seventy years ago, how many Americans consistently report that they believe in God? a. about 35% b. about 55% c. about 65% d. about 75% e. about 95% Answer: e Section: Religious Affiliation 4. In South Korea, there are several hundred thousands of professional mediators, called manshin. What is their role? a. teaching traditional medicine b. teaching the legal aspects of marriage and divorce c. direct communication with multitudes of gods and spirits d. mediating interpersonal conflicts between spouses e. mediating interpersonal conflicts between parents and children Answer: c Section: Knowledge in Cross-Cultural Psychology 5. A journal editor asks you to write a research article about “indigenous psychologies.” This means that your article is likely to be about __________________. a. culture-rooted hostility b. large cultural groups that migrate from place to place and mix with other groups while preserving some of their own customs and beliefs c. cultural groups understood from “within” with the help of methodologies associated almost exclusively with these groups d. small groups of collectivist tribes living exclusively in the mountains e. small urban communities pursuing an ethnocentric view of reality Answer: c Section: Indigenous Psychology 6. If a psychologist studies the hidden meanings that people of different countries attach to their birthday greetings, she is studying which cultural characteristics?

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a. explicit b. collectivist c. implicit d. individualist e. power-distance related Answer: c

Section: Culture

7. What is the second largest racial group recognized by the U.S. Bureau of the Census? a. Hispanic b. White c. Black d. Asian and Pacific Islander e. American Indian, Eskimo, and Aleut Answer: a Section: Society, Race, and Ethnicity 8. The Cultural Mixtures Approach challenges which concept in cross-cultural psychology? a. cultural dichotomies b. power distance c. uncertainty avoidance d. collectivism e. individualism Answer: a Section: The Cultural Mixtures Approach

9. The United States' culture is commonly associated with individualism. This means that most likely_________. a. about 90 percent of Americans are individualists b. most people in the USA enjoy individual freedom c. there are more individualist than collectivist features in the US culture d. the individualists influence the level of power distance e. the individualists influence the level of uncertainty avoidance Answer: c Section: Cultural Traditionalism 10. Which of the following is not typical of traditional cultures? a. most social roles are prescribed individuals b. there is a clear distinction between good and evil in behavior c. individuals’ choices are restricted to the boundaries of social perceptions d. truth is revealed through the competition of ideas e. all these features are typical in traditional cultures Answer: d Section: Cultural Traditionalism 11. According to evolutionary psychologist, Geoffrey Miller, the brain, like the peacock’s tail, is designed through evolution to __________________ a. attract attention of enemies b. attract the opposite sex c. help in searching for food

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d. intimidate enemies e. help in case of bad weather Answer: b Section: Evolutionary theories 12. At the turn of the twentieth century, the American sociologist Fredrick Turner (1920) argued that while facing the challenges of the frontier, Americans as conquerors and builders developed both __________________ a. individualistic and egalitarian culture b. violent and religious culture c. traditional and non-traditional culture d. respect to authority and desire to make money e. unruly behavior and individual ambition Answer: a Section: Ecocultural Approach 13. A kind of multiculturalism that involves combining features of two cultures into one unique blend is called: a. twin culture b. double-sided cultural influence c. dual culture d. biculturalism e. twofold dilemma Answer: d Section: Multiculturalism 14. A typical humanist (or the follower of the humanist tradition in sciences) is a person who embraces: a. the importance of studying human beings b. the importance of studying human beings and animals c. altruism, passion, and ethics d. action, willpower, and resolve e. creativity and originality in research Answer: C Section: The Humanities Approach

1.3. True/false questions 1. Cross-culturally, poverty and life expectancy (the measure of how long the individual is expected to live in that country) are correlated.

Answer: T Section: The Integrative Approach 2. Individuals from “high-power-distance” cultures tend to reject inequality between various social groups, such as parents and children.

Answer: F Section: Empirical Examination of Culture 3. Cultural psychology advocates the idea that mental processes are the products of an interaction between education and the individual.

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Answer: F

Section: What is Cross-cultural Psychology?

4. Although the word “Hispanic” has been the official government term in the United States since 1980, this term is generally not used in Latin America.

Answer: T Section: Society, Race, and Ethnicity 5. Two people can belong to different nationalities but share the same ethnicity.

Answer: T Section: Society, Race, and Ethnicity 6. Studies show that compared with Asians, Western Europeans such as the British and the Germans tend to be more independent in their relationships and decisions.

Answer: T Section: Collectivism and Individualism: Further research 7. Traditional cultures embrace the ideology of liberal individualism.

Answer: F Section: Cultural Traditionalism 8. Research shows that people in Eastern and Western cultures are generally similar in how they handle uncertainty.

Answer: F Section: Uncertainty Orientation 9. Max Weber believed that in success-oriented societies, people tend to see each other on the basis of “what they are,” not “who they are.”

Answer: T Section: Sociological Approach 10. Atheists or agnostics account for 4 percent of the total population of the United States, according to surveys.

Answer: T Section: Religious affiliation 11. Psychologists H. Hermans and H.Kempen suggest that the “old” cross-cultural psychology is captivated by an illusion that cultures are confined within certain geographic locations.

Answer: T Section: The Cultural Mixtures Approach 12. It was shown that people in colder areas, by far, are poorer economically than those in hotter areas.

Answer: F Section: Ecocultural Approach 13. Indigenous groups are protected by international or national laws Answer: T Indigenous Psychology 14. Natural science encompasses many branches of biology including anatomy, physiology, the evolutionary sciences, genetics, and neuroscience.

Answer: T The Natural Science Approach 15. Within the social sciences, cross-cultural psychology draws from geography and geology.

Answer: F The Social Sciences Approach

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1.4. Short-answer questions 1. John Berry suggests that among the major environmental factors influencing individual psychology are (1) ecological contexts and (2): Answer: sociopolitical contexts Section: The Ecocultural Approach

2. Name two major racial categories, besides Black, White, and Native American, historically identified in the United States.

Answer: Asian and Hispanic Section: Society, Race, and Ethnicity 3. When was the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology first published?

Answer: 1970 Section: A Brief History of the Field

4. Which view supports judgment about other ethnic, national, and cultural groups and events from the observer’s own ethnic, national, or cultural group’s outlook?

Answer: ethnocentrism Section: Ethnocentrism

5. The view that not only encourages recognition of equality for all cultural and national groups, but also promotes the idea that various cultural groups have the right to follow their own unique paths of development and have their own unique activities, values, and norms is called_____ Answer: multiculturalism Section: Multiculturalism

6. Manal was born in New York and is a U.S. citizen. Her father was born in Turkey. Her mother was born in Argentina. What is Pinar’s current nationality?

Answer: USA Section: Society, Race, and Ethnicity

7. Racial and ethnic minorities are expected to become _____ of the U.S. population by 2050.

Answer: 50% Section: Society, Race, and Ethnicity

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8. Psychologist Harry Triandis describes the individualism-collectivism phenomenon from two additional dimensions. Which ones?

Answer: vertical and horizontal Section: Collectivism and Individualism: Further Research 9. The process of globalization in the 21st century is based on three particular culturalpsychological principles. Names these principles.

Answer: freedom of choice, tolerance, and openness to experience Section: The Cultural Mixtures Approach

10. When was the International Society of Cross-Cultural Psychology established?

Answer: 1972 Section: A Brief History of the Field 11. People who are________________ tend to refer to rules, customs, or opinions of other people, including authority figures, to resolve uncertainty Answer: certainty oriented Section: Uncertainty Orientation 12. According to psychologist Satoshi Kanazawa, people tend to act in accordance with the situations that existed in their ancestral environment. Thus, humans are evolutionarily designed to be altruistic toward: Answer: their family members or their ethnic groups Section: Evolutionary Approach 13. Psychologists develop at least three views on how local cultures will respond to globalization.

The first view predicts that globalization will inevitably lead to a new international culture. The second view is based on the assumption that today’s globalization patterns will eventually pull cultures further apart. What is the third view?

Answer: globalization will probably make a difference probably for only half of the world’s population.

Section: Cultural Mixtures Approach 14. What is the name of popular beliefs, a type of “everyday psychology” created by the people and for the people?

Answer: folk theories Section: Knowledge in Cross-Cultural Psychology 15. Embeddedness as a cultural syndrome means that embedded cultures focus on the welfare of the in-group and limit concern for: Answer: outsiders’ well-being Section: Cultural Syndromes

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1.5. Essay questions 1. What is the major difference between nationality (from the formal standpoint) and ethnicity?

Give examples.

2. Describe the similarities between cultural psychology and cross-cultural psychology.

3. Describe the differences between cultural psychology and cross-cultural psychology.

4. Provide examples of vertical and horizontal collectivism.

5. What is the difference between explicit and implicit characteristics of a culture?

6. Describe the differences between traditional and nontraditional cultures.

7. What makes the Cultural Mixtures Approach distinct from other cross-cultural approaches that preceded it?

8. Describe three views in psychology on how local cultures would respond to globalization.

9. Briefly describe the Ecocultural Approach to cross-cultural psychology.

10. Provide examples of behavior that might arise in “high uncertainty avoidance” cultural settings.

11. Research shows that people in egalitarian, low power-distance cultures tend to be less preoccupied with the behavioral rules attached to the high social status. Please explain why.

12. Discuss how the factor “access to resources” affects collectivism and individualism.

13. Describe the differences between scientific knowledge and popular beliefs.

14. Describe similarities between scientific knowledge and popular beliefs.

15. Describe the differences between legal knowledge and scientific knowledge.

16. Explain embeddedness as a cultural syndrome. Give examples.

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Chapter 2

Chapter 2 Critical Thinking in Cross-Cultural Psychology

2.1. Multiple choice questions (key terms)

1. A variable that can be placed into either of two discrete and mutually exclusive categories is called: a. continuous b. dependent c. dichotomous d. independent e. uncertainty avoidance Answer: c 2. The propensity to resolve discrepancies between pre-existing schemas and new information in the direction of assimilation rather than accommodation, even at the expense of distorting the information itself is called: a. post-hoc error b. accommodation error c. bidirectional causation d. Barnum effect e. assimilation bias Answer: e

3. The ________ is a logical error that because event B follows event A, then B must have been caused by A. a. self-fulfilling prophecy b. dichotomous variable c. the Barnum effect d. the fundamental attribution error e. the post hoc error Answer: e 4. _______ is the act of thinking about thinking; engaging in a critical analysis and evaluation of the thinking processes. a. post-hoc error b. metathinking c. bidirectional causation d. Barnum effect e. assimilation bias

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Answer: b 5. The term for any generic description or interpretation about a particular individual that is true of practically all individuals or groups is known as a(n): a. the fundamental attribution error b. standup comedy c. ethnic joke d. Barnum statement e. post-hoc error Answer: d

6. A phenomenon wherein people's attitudes, beliefs or assumptions about another person (or persons) can, with or without their intent, actually produce the very behaviors that they had initially expected to find is called: a. self-fulfilling prophecy b. dichotomous variable c. the continuous variable d. the fundamental attribution error e. the post hoc error Answer: a

7. Any condition where the availability heuristic produces systematic errors in thinking or information processing, typically due to highly vivid (dramatic) although rare (extraordinary) events is called: a. Barnum effect b. continuous variable c. availability bias d. post-hoc error e. the fundamental attribution error Answer: c 8. The ____________ is a bias in attempting to determine the causes of people’s behavior that involves overestimating the influence of their personality traits, while underestimating the influence of their particular situations. a. self-fulfilling prophecy b. dichotomous variable c. the Barnum effect d. the fundamental attribution error e. the post hoc error Answer: d

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9. A(n)_________ is a strategy for problem solving that reduces complex information and timeconsuming tasks to more simple, rapid, and efficient judgmental operations, particularly in reaching decisions under conditions of uncertainty. a. heuristic b. continuous variable c. availability bias d. dichotomous variable e. uncertainty avoidance Answer: a

10. A cognitive strategy for quickly estimating the frequency, incidence, or probability of a given event based on the ease with which such instances are retrievable from memory is called: a. availability heuristic b. post-hoc error c. bidirectional causation d. accommodation error e. the fundamental attribution error Answer: a

11. Any systematic error in attribution that derives from people's efforts to satisfy their own personal needs, such as the desire for approval by others, high self-esteem, power or prestige is called: a. intellectual hunger b. paradoxical reasoning c. parataxic thinking d. motivational bias e. post-hoc error Answer: d

12. A kind of “magical thinking,” frequently responsible for superstitious behaviors, in which events that occur close together in time are erroneously construed by a person to be causally linked is called: a. Barnum effect b. parataxic reasoning c. dichotomous variable d. uncertainty avoidance e. self-fulfilling prophecy Answer: b

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13. What is the Representativeness heuristic? a. any generic, "one-size-fits-all" description or interpretation about a particular individual b. deliberate lying about self c. the logical error that because Event B follows Event A, then B must have been caused by A d. a systematic error in attribution that derives from people's efforts to satisfy their own personal needs, such as the desire for self-esteem, power or prestige e. a cognitive strategy for quickly estimating the probability that a given instance is a member of a particular category.

Answer: e

2.2. Multiple choice questions (comprehension and application) 1. Which of the following is an example of a Barnum statement? a. The halftime show during the final game received more attention than the game itself b. Sometimes female immigrants feel insecure. c. The weather in New York was very humid this week d. Iran has a resilient soccer team this year e. Australian beaches are not very crowded this winter Answer: b Section: The Barnum Effect

2. Which one of the following is an example of the Fundamental Attribution Error? a. Russia has a high rate of violent crime because of the country’s tough laws. b. Russia has a high rate of violent crime due to poverty and cold weather. c. Russia has a high rate of violent crime as a result of numerous factors. d. Russia has a high rate of violent crime because Russians are violent. e. Russia has a high rate of violent crime due to problems in their educational system.

Answer: d Section: The Fundamental Attribution Error

3. Which of the following statements most accurately describes the Belief Perseverance Effect? a. We defend our property no matter what is going on around us. b. We defend our opinions in spite of arguments that challenge them. c. We alter our opinions when we are facing strong arguments. d. We defend our opinions only when we are scared. e. We defend the opinions of others when we feel they are friendly.

Answer: b Section: Belief Perseverance Effect

4. Which of the following statements most accurately reflects the Evaluative Bias of Language?

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a. People often use language to achieve own selfish goals b. People value their own language and refuse to learn others c. Descriptions become prescriptions d. Descriptions are made without serious thought e. Language is used to make evaluations about a person’s intellectual potential Answer: c Section: The Evaluative Bias of Language

5. Jane is a Danish citizen. She is kind, goal-oriented, knowledgeable in literature, outgoing and musically inclined. Which of these characteristics would be considered a dichotomous variable? a. her Danish nationality b. her kindness c. her emotional stability d. her social behavior e. her musical skills Answer: a Section: Differentiating Dichotomous and Continuous Variables 6. Lee has earned an undergraduate degree in biology. He is motivated to become a dentist. He has ascertained three letters of recommendation from his professors and has applied to dental school. He has not yet proposed to his girlfriend. Which of these characteristics referring to Lee is a continuous variable? a. his college degree b. his dental school application c. his letters of support d. his motivation e. his status as a fiancée Answer: d Section: Differentiating Dichotomous and Continuous Variables 7. De-Barnumize the following statement: “Russians are sensitive to criticism”. a. Russians are insensitive to criticism. b. Russians are extremely sensitive to criticism but insensitive to other people’s problems c. Russians are insensitive to criticism but sensitive to other people’s problems d. Russians have an appreciation for nature and respect their ancestors e. Russians, in particular situations, become more sensitive to criticism than other groups Answer: e Section: The Barnum Effect 8. What is the name of the process (described by Jean Piaget) by which we change our existing beliefs and accept new information? a. assimilation b. accommodation c. both assimilation and accommodation d. fundamental attribution error e. metathinking Answer: b Section: The Assimilation Bias

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9. While traveling in a foreign country you are approached by a group of strangers and have to quickly surmise their intentions. You will likely use a set of quick and simple mental shortcuts to accomplish this task. These shortcuts are called: a. fundamental attribution error b. metathinking c. uncertainty avoidance d. heuristics e. self-fulfilling prophecy Answer: d Section: The Representativeness Bias 10. Why was the fundamental attribution error labeled, “fundamental” by Lee Ross? a. because this cognitive error is very common b. because people worry about money and funds before taking a job c. because people are fundamentally unhappy d. because people are fundamentally happy e. because it emphasizes that these errors are “found” and they are “mental” Answer: a Section: The Fundamental Attribution Error 11. Sana is a Canadian citizen, female, math major, extraverted, open-mined, strong, quick, anxious, and with some attention problems. In such a list of her “features” find a dichotomous variable: a. Sana’s anxiety b. Sana’s attention problems c. Sana’ strength d. Sana’s temperament e. Sana’s nationality Answer: e Section: Differentiating Dichotomous and Continuous Variables 12. Which one of these statements represents the Fundamental Attribution Error of judgment? a. Russia as a country has high violent crime rates because the weak criminal justice system. b. Russia as a country has high violent crime rates because of poverty and lack or order. c. Russia as a country has high violent crime rates because of numerous factors. d. Russia as a country has high violent crime rates because Russians are violent people. e. Russia as a country has high violent crime rates because the problems in their educational system and the lack of positive family influence.

Answer: d Section: The Fundamental Attribution Error

2.3. True/false questions 1. Emotions such as joy and anger are examples of continuous variables.

Answer: T Section: Differentiating Dichotomous Variables and Continuous Variables

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2. The term unidirectional causation refers to a relationship between two variables wherein one is the cause and the other is the effect.

Answer: T Section: Bidirectional Causation and Multiple Causation 3. A motivational bias is any systematic error in attribution that derives from limits inherent in people’s cognitive abilities to process information.

Answer: F Section: the Fundamental attribution Error 4. A continuous variable is one that lies along a dimension, range or spectrum, rather than in a discrete category, that can theoretically take on an infinite number of values and is expressed in terms of quantity, magnitude or degree.

Answer: T Section: Differentiating Dichotomous Variables and Continuous Variables 5. The following is an example of parataxic reasoning: A basketball player listens to his favorite song before a game. His team wins. He concludes that the song contributed to the tesm’s success.

Answer: T Section: Correlation does not Prove Causation 6. When engaging the belief perseverance effect, an individual readily accepts information that contradicts their preexisting beliefs.

Answer: F Section: The Belief Perseverance Effect 7. The following statement reflects thinking that is consistent with the naturalistic fallacy. “What is typical is normal and what is normal is good”.

Answer: T Section: The Naturalistic Fallacy 8. A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when people’s expectations actually produce the behaviors they expected to find.

Answer: T Section: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 9. Lee has the tendency to cling stubbornly to his beliefs in supernatural powers, even in the face of contradictory or disconfirming evidence. By doing so, Lee is engaging in the belief perseverance effect.

Answer: T Section: The Belief Perseverance Effect 10. The Barnum effect refers to people's rejection or reluctance to accept uncritically the validity of controversial statements.

Answer: F Section: The Barnum Effect 11. In the United Kingdom, different indicators of happiness haven't changed much for 40 years despite economic ups and downs.

Answer: T Section: Multiple Causation 12. If two variables are correlated, this means that one causes the other.

Answer: F Section: Correlation Does Not Prove Causation

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2.4. Short-answer questions 1. Dichotomous variables involve classification (quality), while continuous variables involve______.

Answer: degree Section: Differentiating Dichotomous Variables and Continuous Variables 2. A person says: “most people eat meat, this is normal; therefore, vegetarians—who do not eat meat— are abnormal”. What type of a fallacy is it?

Answer: naturalistic Section: The Naturalistic Fallacy

3. A friend reasons that because (according to his assumption) most Asians like spicy food, his Korean-born neighbor must like it as well. What cognitive strategy did he use when estimating this probability?

Answer: representativeness Section: The Representativeness Bias 4. Research reveals that a person’s confidence is often the result of success. However, it also demonstrates that success is the result of confidence. This is an example of what type of causation?

Answer: bidirectional Section: Bidirectional Causation and Multiple Causation

5. Tanya concludes that whenever she wears a red T-shirt, she receives a call from her employer.

She decides to wear a blue T-shirt tonight to avoid a phone call from the boss. What is the name of the type of “magical thinking” that Tanya is engaging in?

Answer: parataxic Section: Correlation does not Prove Causation

6. Joe recently lost his job and cannot find a new one. His friends and family have noticed that he has been agitated and temperamental. Due to the fundamental attribution error his friends any family are likely to conclude that his moodiness is the result of _________ rather than external stressors.

Answer: internal attributes Section: The fundamental attribution error

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7. What is the name for a variable that can be placed into either of two mutually exclusive categories?

Answer: dichotomous Section: Differentiating Dichotomous Variables and Continuous Variables 8. The statement “She has some inner conflicts” is a typical one-size-fits-all statement that is referred to in the text as____________.

Answer: A Barnum statement Section: The Barnum Effect 9. A friend who says, “I have firm beliefs and refuse to accept information that challenges them” is engaging in what type of bias?

Answer: assimilation Section: The Assimilation Bias

10. Amanda gets extremely anxious before exams and tells herself that she will not pass. She often says, “I am an exchange student. I speak the language poorly.” Although she masters the information while studying, her anxiety prevents her from expressing her ideas clearly during the exam. She scores poorly. This is an example of a_________ Answer: Self-fulfilling prophecy Section: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

2.5. Essay questions 1. Provide three examples of dichotomous variables related to human behavior. Explain these examples.

2. Why would an individual’s religious beliefs be considered a continuous variable?

3. Provide an example of a relationship between two variables that would be considered bidirectional. Explain this example.

4. In your own words, define cognitive schema and give an example.

5. Define and provide an original (own) example of parataxic reasoning.

6. “Immigrants look for a better life”. Explain why this sentence is considered a Barnum Statement.

7. Suggest an example of the Barnum effect’s influence on people’s judgments.

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8. Explain the meaning of the Availability Bias in people’s judgments (use cases provided by the mass media to draw your examples).

9. What are the key differences between cognitive and motivational biases in people’s judgments?

10. Give an example of Self-Fulfilling Prophesy using your personal experience. Explain this example.

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Chapter 3. Methodology of Cross-Cultural Research

3.1 Multiple choice questions (key terms) 1. Which approach in cross-cultural psychology argues that psychological phenomena are basically the same in all cultures? a. relativist b. ethnocentrism c. meta-analysis d. absolutist e. content-analysis Answer: d 2. The type of survey in which the researcher’s personal impact is very small because there is no direct communication between the respondent and the interviewer is called: __________ a. content-analysis b. direct survey c. focus group methodology d. indirect survey e. psycho-biographical research Answer: d 3. What is the name of the type of survey in which the interviewer maintains a direct communication with the respondent and is able to provide feedback, repeat a question, or ask for additional information? a. indirect survey b. direct survey c. focus group methodology d. content-analysis e. psychobiographical research Answer: b 4. __________ is a survey method used intensively both in academic and marketing research, during which a group of 7-10 participants respond to specific social, political, or marketing messages. a. direct surveys b. indirect surveys c. content-analysis d. group experiment e. focus-group methodology Answer: e

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5. The strategy used to establish the applicability of research findings obtained in one country or culture to other countries or cultures is called the________. a. comparativists strategy b. meta-analysis strategy c. application-oriented strategy d. absolutist strategy e. direct strategy Answer: c 6. What is the name of the strategy that attempts to find similarities and differences in certain statistical measures in a sample of cultures? a. comparativists strategy b. indirect strategy c. application-oriented strategy d. absolutist approach e. content-analysis strategy Answer: a 7. A research method that systematically organizes and summarizes both the manifest and latent content of communication is called: a. survey b. focus-group methodology c. latent analysis d. content-analysis e. arrangement method Answer: d 8. Evidence that the methods selected for the study, measure the same phenomenon across other countries or cultures chosen for the study is called: a. correlation b. equivalence c. random sample d. comparativists strategy e. application-oriented strategy Answer: b 9. _______ is the method of observation that involves the recording of people’s behavior in an environment created by the researcher. a. laboratory observation b. content-analysis c. meta-analysis d. random sample e. naturalistic observation Answer: a

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10. What is the name for the quantitative analysis of a large collection of scientific results that attempts to make sense of a diverse selection of data? a. psychological analysis b. content-analysis c. meta-analysis d. indirect surveys e. laboratory observation Answer: c 11. ________ is a method observation that involves the recording of people’s behavior in their natural environments with little or no personal intervention. a. natural witness testimony b. content-analysis c. meta-analysis d. hidden-camera method e. naturalistic observation Answer: e 12. A longitudinal analysis of particular individuals, usually outstanding persons, celebrities, and leaders, representing different countries or cultures is called: a. investigative journalism b. sensationalism c. focus-group methodology d. psychobiographical research e. content-analysis Answer: d 13. The ________ is a view is cross-cultural psychology that asserts that psychological phenomena should be studies only from “within” the culture where these phenomena occur. a. internal investigation b. application-oriented strategy c. relativist approach d. cross-cultural approach e. absolutist approach Answer: c 14. A sample having characteristics that accurately reflect the characteristics of the population is called: a. representative sample b. reliable sample c. experimental sample d. survey sample e. convenience sample Answer: a

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15. What is the name for the investigative method in which groups of people answer questions about their opinions or their behavior? a. content-analysis b. survey c. psychobiographical research d. experiment e. representative sample Answer: b 16. The term holistic is used to describe: a. the study religious motivation b. experimental medicine c. the study of symptoms of mental illness d. the study of systems with multiple interconnected elements. e. a specific statistical method to study human behavior and experience Answer: d

3.2 Multiple choice questions (comprehension and application) 1. The established cross-cultural correlation linking an increase in poverty in a community or country to an increase in violent crime would be an example of a_________ correlation. a. positive b. high c. low d. negative e. high-low Answer: a Section: Quantitative Approach 2. A clinical psychologist writes the following: “Psychological symptoms are similar around the world. If you are anxious, you are restless, not focused, and very tense. Cultural differences in symptoms are insignificant.” This statement reflects which cross-cultural approach to comparing phenomena? a. relativist b. absolutist c. correlational d. systematic e. random Answer: b Section: Comparing Two Phenomena 3. A graduate student tells you that she is going to travel India to collect comparative data for her dissertation. She indicates that she has chosen this country because she was born there and

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believes she will have a relatively easy time finding a research sample. What type of sampling strategy is she employing? a. random sampling b. systematic sampling c. convenience sampling d. experimental sampling e. reliable sampling Answer: c Section: Sample Selection 4. Which of the following is a description of a systematic sample in cross-cultural research? a. groups for this sample are selected according to an assumption or theory (for example, collectivist groups and individualist groups) b. groups for this sample are selected according to a systematic violation of a custom c. cultural groups for the research are selected randomly d. groups are selected so that each one represent one continent (Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Australia) e. a sample including at least 3 countries Answer: a Section: Sample Selection 5. If the strength of an ethnic group’s religious beliefs are said to be positively correlated with their family values, which of the following statements is true? a. A influences B but not the other way around b. B influences A but not the other way around c. A and B may influence each other d. A and B are independent and do not influence each other e. all of the above Answer: c Section: Quantitative Approach

6. Thirteen exchange students received the following scores on a written aptitude test: 2, 5, 9, 3, 3, 4, 9, 6, 6, 9, 9,1, 1. What is the median score for this group? a. 2 b. 3 c. 4. d. 6. e. 5 Answer: e Section: Quantitative Research in Cross-Cultural Psychology 7. In traditional cross-cultural psychology, cultural dichotomies were used to compare and contrast: a. observation and experiment b. Western and non-Western cultures c. content-analysis and survey methods d. random and other types of sampling e. excellent and poor test translations Answer: b Section: Cultural Dichotomies

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8. If you are conducting an experimental study assessing the impact of videos games upon the academic success of Japanese and American students, the dependent variable is _________. a. number of hours spent playing video games b. skill of video-game playing c. Japanese educational system d. grades at school e. U.S. educational system Answer: d Section: Experimental Studies 9. When assessing abuse against women, which of the following statements best reflects the absolutist approach to cross-cultural studies? a. abuse is defined differently in various places; we should not judge it using our standards b. there should not be a cultural justification of abuse against women c. women are tolerant to abuse if they are in love with the abuser d. women should understand the context in which abuse takes place e. family members are mostly responsible for abuse against women Answer: b Section: Comparing two Phenomena 10. If you were to examine African and European fairy tales to find out how often they refer to symptoms of mental illness, what kind of a methodology are you likely to use? a. naturalistic observation b. experiment c. laboratory observation d. content-analysis e. sample selection Answer: d Section: Content-analysis 11. Divorce rates around the world are negatively correlated with fertility rates. This means that the more children a family has a. the greater chance of divorce b. the less chance of divorce c. the greater chance that the husband older that his wife d. the greater chance of family conflicts e. the greater chance of conflicts with in-laws Answer: b Section: Quantitative Approach 12. Translating the original version of the method and then transferring this version back into the original language is called: a. correlation b. transfer of meaning c. absolutist approach d. content-analysis e. back translation Answer: e Section: Test Translation 13. During World War II, between 1940 and 1945, the British and American intelligence

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“bugged” several thousand German and Italian prisoners of war to gather secret recordings of their conversations with one another. What did psychologists learn from these recordings? a. they learned about correlation between two variables b. they gathered information about critical thinking c. they learned about people’s war experiences d. they gathered information about people’s memory e. they learned about the individual’s anxiety and fears Answer: C Section: Observation in Cross-Cultural Psychology

3.3. True/false questions 1. According to the absolutist approach in cross-cultural psychology, human behavior in its full complexity can be understood only within the context of the culture in which it occurs.

Answer: F Section: Comparing Two Phenomena 2. A correlation establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between the variables.

Answer: F Section: Quantitative Approach 3. Qualitative and quantitative methods are not mutually exclusive and in many cases psychologists choose both in their research.

Answer: T Section: Qualitative Approach 4. A typical focus group in psychological research consists of 100 people.

Answer: F Section: Focus-Group Methodology 5. One of the most serious weaknesses of the focus-groups methodology in cross-cultural research is that it typically relies on non-representative samples.

Answer: T Section: Sample Selection 6. A procedure called back-translation used in cross-cultural surveys usually helps researchers to make sure that a translated version of a test (survey) is as close to the original as possible.

Answer: T Section: A Hidden Obstacle of Cross-Cultural Studies 7. In a random sample, any country, a person, or group has an equal chance of being selected in the research sample.

Answer: T Section: Sample Selection 8. The term, “point of critical distinction” refers to the manners with which a person criticizes other people.

Answer: F Section: On Similarities and Differences

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9. According to the study by Matsumoto (1992), individuals from homogeneous societies tend to detect and identify other people’s emotions less accurately than people from heterogeneous societies do.

Answer: T Section: Avoiding Bias of Generalizations 10. Naturalistic observation refers to studies conducted in rural areas, away from large metropolitan cities.

Answer: F Section: Observation in Cross-Cultural Psychology 11. In an experimental study designed to investigate academic skills, you ask students from five countries to complete a difficult computerized math test. This is an example of a focus-group methodology.

Answer: F Section: Focus-Group Methodology 12. The scale English–Spanish–Mandarin–Arabic–Other is a nominal scale.

Answer: T

Section: Measurement Scales

3.4. Short-answer questions 1. There are three basic measures of central tendency: the mode, the median, and_________.

Answer: the mean Section: Quantitative Research in Cross-Cultural Psychology 2. In cross-cultural psychology the term “etic” refers to the absolutist approach, while the term “emic” refers to the_________.

Answer: relativist approach Section: Comparing Two Phenomena 3. What type of measurement scale is being used in the following example: “Please rank order your favorite forms of transportation in New York City.” □ bus □ underground metro □ cab □ own car □ bike Answer: ordinal Section: Quantitative Approach: Measurement Scales

4. After developing a therapeutic technique for treating depression you decide that you want to determine its effectiveness across several cultures. You are having difficulty choosing the

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countries for your sample. Your colleagues in Canada, Bulgaria, and China offer their help.

This would be an example of what type of sampling strategy?

Answer: convenience Section: Sample Selection 5. Imagine you have developed a test that measures a person “readiness” to get married and start a family. You find that the test is a good predictor of successful marriages. You then decide to pursue an application-oriented strategy. What are you trying to determine?

Answer: try applicability in other countries Section: Major Steps for Preparation of a Cross-Cultural Study 6. If you created an experimental procedure to study the relationship between people’s body weight and the way they are treated by their peers, the independent variable in your experiment would be _____ Answer: body weight Section: Experimental Studies 7. What terms stands for “research of research in psychological studies?”

Answer: meta-analysis Section: Meta-Analysis

8. What racial group has the highest median income per household?

Answer: Asian (and Pacific Islander) Section: Quantitative Research

9. Cross-cultural researchers pursue four major goals: to describe, to explain, to control, and_________.

Answer: to predict Section: Goals of Cross-Cultural Research

10. If you email you question to people in different countries but to not have an opportunity to communicate with them, what type of a survey are you conducting?

Answer: indirect Section: Survey Methods 11. What is cultural response bias in surveys?

Answer: the bias caused by the desire of participants to give culturallyappropriate answers Section: On Similarities and Differences

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12. What is one of the most serious weaknesses of the focus-groups methodology in crosscultural research (this weakness is related to sample selection)?

Answer: the sample is not representative Section: Focus Group Methodology 13. Which procedure used in cross-cultural surveys usually helps researchers to make sure that a translated version of a test (survey) is as close to the original as possible?

Answer: Back translation Section: A Hidden Obstacle of Cross-Cultural Studies

2.5 Essay questions 1. Explain the concept of cultural dichotomies. Give two examples.

2. Why should results of smart phone surveys be approached with caution?

3. Give an example of the comparativist strategy in cross-cultural research.

4. Describe the differences between the absolutist and relativist approaches in cross-cultural psychology.

5. How would you explain the point of critical distinction (PCD)?

6. Explain why the point of critical distinction (PCD) is thought of as a “conceptual fork” when comparing two phenomena. Why is this a useful conceptualization in the field of cross-cultural psychology?

6. Name and describe the three steps that should be taken when translating a test (or survey) for a cross-cultural study.

7. Discuss the four recommendations made for assessing cross-cultural research.

8. One of the considerable weaknesses of cross-cultural research is its overwhelming reliance on research samples comprised of college students. Why is it a weakness?

9. To receive reliable survey information in countries under authoritarian regimes can often be extremely difficult. Why? Give 2-3 reasons.

10. Studies show that people in countries such as Japan and South Korea tend to evaluate themselves critically in surveys; they tend to consider self as not necessarily hard-working. Explain the reasons for such cultural response bias.

11. Consider a situation. As a psychologist, you have developed a test that measures a person’s “readiness” to start a successful business. You find that the test is a fine predictor if a person could

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be a fine entrepreneur. Next, you decide to pursue an application-oriented strategy for your test.

What does it mean? What will you do as a researcher?

12. Why are cultural dichotomies inaccurate? Give an example.

13. Why do psychologists often use qualitative research strategies in cross-cultural studies?

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Chapter 4 Cognition: Sensation, Perception, and States of Consciousness

4.1. Multiple choice questions (key terms) 1. What is the term for a sleeplike state marked by reduced sensitivity to stimuli, loss or alteration of knowledge, and the substitution of automatic for voluntary motor activity? a. sleep b. trance c. aesthetic experience d. dream e. sensory adaptation Answer: b

2. A(n)________ is a term used to identify the feeling of pleasure evoked by stimuli that are perceived as beautiful, attractive, and rewarding. a. depth perception b. perceptual set c. aesthetic experience d. revealing experience e. sensory adaptation Answer: c 3. The organization of sensations in three dimensions, even though the image on the eye’s retina is two-dimensional is referred to as: a. depth perception b. difference threshold c. sensory adaptation d. revealing experience e. sensory threshold Answer: a 4. _________ is a quiet and relaxed state of tranquility in which a person achieves an integration of emotions, attitudes, and thoughts. a. hypnosis b. aesthetic experience c. trance d. meditation e. sleep Answer: d

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5. What is the general name for phenomena that are different than normal waking consciousness and include mystic experiences, meditation, hypnosis, trance, or possession? a. aesthetic experience b. therapy c. paranormal phenomena d. altered states of consciousness e. spirituality Answer: d

6. What is the general scientific term for phenomena that appear to contradict physical laws and suggest the possibility of causation by mental processes? a. hypnosis b. magic psychology c. conscious efforts d. social psychology e. parapsychology Answer: e 7. Which term stands for a broad range of phenomena concerning “non-material” matters related to faith, trust, and hope, in contrast to “material” matters related to ownership, accumulation of possessions, and competition? a. social psychology b. altered states of consciousness c. power of the mind philosophy d. eastern religions e. spirituality Answer: e 8. _______ refers to the tendency of the sensory system to respond less to stimuli that continue without change. a. sensation b. excessive sleep c. sensory adaptation d. meditation e. dreams Answer: c 9. The ________ refers to the minimum amount of physical energy needed for an observer to notice a stimulus. a. absolute threshold b. consciousness c. wakefulness d. perception e. meditation Answer: a

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10. A(n) ________ is a mental representation that orients people to dimensions such as time, space, and the interpersonal world. a. perceptual set b. absolute threshold c. sensory adaptation d. behavioral environment e. altered state of consciousness Answer: d 11. Spiritual practice of removing demons or any other evil spiritual entities from an individual, or a place, that are believed to be possessed or invaded by them is usually called: a. demon extraction b. exorcism c. demon extortion d. possession e. conscious invasion Answer: b

4.2. Multiple choice questions (comprehension and application) 1. Some intriguing perceptual differences were found in comparative studies of Weston and East Asian subjects. East Asians tend to be more holistic and Westerners tend to be more _______. a. creative b. impatient c. analytic d. forgiving e. aggressive Answer: c Section: How People Perceive Pictures 2. An individual’s experience with the environment (for example, living in a mountainous area) shapes this individual’s perception by creating perceptual sets. What are they? a. stress-related reactions b. perceptual expectations c. absolute thresholds d. adaptation strategies based on thinking e. negative emotions Answer: b Section: How Culture Influences What We Perceive 3. Individuals from hunter and gatherer cultures have _______ rates of color blindness than individuals from agricultural cultures.

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a. lower b. the same c. higher d. significantly higher e. highly unusual Answer: a Section: Perception of Color

4. The _________ suggests that while an ethnic group may excel in a particular sensory task, they may be less adept in others. Yet in sum, sensory and other cognitive skills are evenly balanced across ethnic groups. a. the inequality hypothesis b. the power hypothesis c. the compensation hypothesis d. the justice hypothesis e. the consciousness hypothesis Answer: c Section: Critical Thinking: Origin and Sensory Preferences 5. There is evidence that scanning patterns (scanning a text, for example) are subject to cultural variations. These variations are most closely linked with: a. perception of time b. religion c. access to water d. access to sand e. reading habits Answer: e Section: How People Scan Pictures 6. What is the most significant factor determining an individual’s susceptibility to visual illusions? a. formal schooling b. sleep deprivation c. attitude about psychological experiments d. absolute thresholds e. sensory adaptation Answer: a Section: Are We Equally Mislead by Visual Illusions?

7. Which of the following is least likely to be viewed as an Altered State of Consciousness? a. meditation b. hypnotic trance c. fantasy d. possession trance e. sleep Answer: c Section: Beyond Altered States of Consciousness

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8. Under the influence of the Protestant (Christian) tradition, developed first in Western Europe, altered states of consciousness were considered: a. normal, common phenomena b. result of difficult educational environment c. religious experiences d. human emotions e. abnormal phenomena Answer: e Section: Beyond Altered States of Consciousness 9. Until recently, the altered states of consciousness associated with religious experiences have been practically excluded from scientific psychological research. Why? a. because of the government’s restrictions on such studies b. because of the attempts of researchers to distance psychology from organized religion c. because of censorship: journals and magazines would not have published such research d. because such studies are extremely expensive and require special licensing e. because these states of consciousness are dangerous Answer: b Section: Beyond Altered States of Consciousness 10. Imagine your client during a therapy session describes her perceptions and feelings when an evil spirit invaded her body a few days ago. From a psychological perspective, how would you define this altered state of consciousness? a. visionary trance b. non-specific spirit-related coma c. spiritual awakening d. possession trance e. “Seven-days-in-Tibet” experience Answer: d Section: Beyond Altered States of Consciousness

11. Which of the following most accurately reflects the language-related theories of color perception? a. people are generally color blind but the language is used to identify brightness b. certain words are linked to various units of the visible spectrum c. language has nothing to do with the way people see colors d. when a person learns a foreign language, this individual is confused about colors e. exposure to colors blue and red reduces a person’s accent Answer: b Section: Perception of Color 12. Studies of color preferences showed that women across countries tend to choose and like _____________compared to other colors. a. reddish hues, such as pink b. blue and red colors c. greenish hues, such as olive d. yellow and red colors e. violet hues, such as lilac Answer: a Section: Perception of Color

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13. Some psychologists suggest that shamanic practices involving ritualistic trance influence ____________ a. the brain’s serotonin and opioid neurotransmitter systems b. an individual’s hormonal system c. immune system and resistance to stress d. an individual’s reaction time e. an individual’s time perception Answer: a Section: Beyond Altered States of Consciousness 14. People in monophasic cultures tend to interpret their dreams as: a. indirect indication of the dreamer’s concerns b. fairy tales coming out of the unconscious mind c. mild mental disorders d. a special kind of mental problems e. signs of demonic possession Answer: a Section: Sleep and Cultural Significance of Dreams 15. Which part of the brain, according to M. Persinger, is closely associated with so-called God experiences? a. Cerebellum b. Frontal lobe c. Temporal lobe d. Parietal lobe e. Spinal Cord Answer: c Section: Beyond Altered States of Consciousness

4.3. True/false questions 1. In many non-Western musical traditions the idea of the note, as a stable, sustained pitch is foreign.

Answer: T Section: Perception of Music

2. Individuals from polyphasic cultures are more likely to value dreams and treat them as part of reality.

Answer: T Section: Sleep and Cultural Significance of Dreams

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3. Cross-cultural psychology provides compelling evidence that sensory differences (differences in the way people hear, smell, see, etc.) between cultures are insignificant.

Answer: F Section: Perception of Color & Other Senses

4. Research suggests that residents of large metropolitan cities, in general, tend to be more susceptible to near-death and other out of body experiences.

Answer: F Section: Beyond Altered States of Consciousness 5. The compensation hypothesis, involving sensory differences between African and European cultures, has not been supported by compelling empirical data.

Answer: T Section: Critical Thinking: Origin and Sensory Preferences

6. When examining the effects of food and water deprivation on word identification, researchers found that deprivation did not alter the identification of need-related words.

Answer: F Section: How Culture Influences What We Perceive

7. As individuals age, they frequently assert that time runs faster than it did when they were young. However, this observation has not been empirically validated.

Answer: F Section: Perception of Time 8. There is a popular perception about the main attributes of Western consciousness as being linear, pragmatic, and rational.

Answer: T Section: Consciousness and Culture 9. Individuals from monophasic cultures are less inclined to incorporate dreams into their perception and daily experiences.

Answer: T Section: Sleep and Cultural Significance of Dreams

10. In the dream study conducted on a sample of Zulu South Africans, subjects with less education were more likely to consult with dream interpreters and act in response to dreams than were their more educated counterparts.

Answer: T Section: Sleep and Cultural Significance of Dreams 11. Numerous experiments have demonstrated that people have generally more difficulty judging about pictures of faces of other ethnic groups compared to faces of their own group.

Answer: T Section: How People Perceive Pictures 12. Studies show that people, including residents of big cities, are substantially slower and less accurate at visually detecting animals compared to non-living objects such as moving cars.

Answer: F Section: How People Perceive Pictures

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13. Studies show that people from Asian cultures including China, Japan, and Korea, pay more attention to the center of pictures than people from Western cultures who pay more attention to contexts and backgrounds of pictures.

Answer: F Section: How People Perceive Pictures 14. In Taiwan, the official calendar starts in 1912, the year of the founding of the Republic of China.

Answer: T Section: Perception of Time 15. Ian Spence and his colleagues found differences in men and women’s ability to distinguish objects that appear in their field of vision. Men were are generally better at remembering and locating general landmarks in pictures, while women were are better at remembering and locating flowers.

Answer: F Section: How People Perceive Pictures 16. According to the United Nations, more than 700 million people lived in absolute poverty by the end of the second decade of the twenty-first century).

Answer: T

Section: How Culture Affects What We Perceive

4.4. Short-answer questions 1. What is the main psychological (cognitive) symptom of a visionary trance?

Answer: hallucinations Section: Beyond Altered States of Consciousness

2. After spending an hour in a remote village, you become less aware of the noise caused by the constantly blowing dessert wind. This tendency to respond less to stimuli that continue without change is called: Answer: sensory adaptation Section: Sensation and Perception: Basic Principles 3. The organization of sensations in three dimensions, even though the image on the eye’s retina is two-dimensional is called: Answer: depth perception Section: Perception of Depth 4. Every evening, Andre turns off the lights in his small apartment, sits in front of the window, and experiences a quiet state of tranquility during which he achieves an integration of his thoughts, perceptions, and attitudes. Andre’s roommates mistakenly call this hypnosis. What do psychologists call this experience?

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Answer: meditation Section: Beyond Altered States of Consciousness

5. Despite significant differences in the manifest content of dreams, the ______ content is believed to be comparable cross-culturally.

Answer: latent Section: Sleep and the Cultural Significance of Dreams 6. Trance states are often associated with sensitivity to stimuli and spiritual healing. Through what mechanism of action does this occur?

Answer: the release of opiates in the body Section: Beyond Altered States of Consciousness

7. According to the text, why do most Americans draw circles in a counter-clockwise direction?

Answer: because the way most of them learned how to write in English Section: How People Scan Pictures 8. According to the text, what color is most likely to be described across cultures as “salient” and “active”?

Answer: red Section: Perception of Color

9. What is the name of the hypothesis that asserts people who are raised in an environment shaped by carpenters tend to interpret nonrectangular figures as representations of rectangular figures seen in perspective?

Answer: carpentered world Section: Are People Equally Misled by Visual Illusions?

10. The text distinguishes between two types of trances; visionary and _________ Answer: possession Section: Beyond Altered States of Consciousness 11. In which country the official calendar starts at the birthday of this country’s late communist leader?

Answer: North Korea Section: Perception of Time 12. Subjects from regions with __________________were more susceptible to the horizontal– vertical illusion than subjects from regions in which such views are rare.

Answer: open landscapes Section: Are People Commonly Misled by Visual Illusions?

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13. American Indians and Alaska Natives report a _______prevalence of pain symptoms and painful conditions when compared with the general population of the United States.

Answer: lower Section: Touch and Pain 14. According to research, East Asians as a group, tend to be more holistic, and Westerners tend to be more……

Answer: analytic (detail-oriented) Section: How People Perceive Pictures

4.5 Essay questions 1. How are aesthetical standards defined in countries where the governments restrain the free flow of information (North Korea as an example)?

2. Describe the cultural interpretations of the red color. Give several examples.

3. Describe the cultural interpretations of the black color. Give several examples.

4. What is the distinction between monophasic and polyphasic interpretations of dreams? Give several examples.

5. What is the difference between visionary and possession trances?

6. Which demographic groups are most susceptible to visual illusions and why?

7. Describe how (using which methods) a research-oriented psychologist could study possession trance. Provide one hypothetical example.

8. Describe several differences between polyphasic and monophasic cultures (in the context of dreams).

9. Studies of color preferences showed that women as a group across countries tend to choose and like reddish colors while men have a preference for greenish-blue colors. How could you explain this from the evolutionary standpoint?

10. What are the main psychological (cognitive) symptom of visionary trance? Describe them.

11. Certain perceptual mechanisms are probably pre-wired in individuals since birth. Give an example using arguments from the chapter as well as your own ideas.

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Chapter 5. Intelligence

5.1. Multiple choice questions (key terms) 1. What is the psychological term for originality or the ability to produce valued outcomes in a novel way? a. formal intelligence b. creativity c. informal intelligence d. empirical reasoning e. field independent style Answer: b 2. What is the psychological term for experience and cognitive operations drawn from everyday activities? a. formal intelligence b. sorting and classification c. empirical reasoning d. lifestyle learning e. creativity Answer: c 3. A general cognitive ability of an individual to rely more on external visual cues and to be primarily socially oriented is called: a. field dependent style b. creativity c. intelligence or intelligent behavior d. mathematical reasoning e. field independent style Answer: a

4. A general cognitive ability of an individual to rely primarily on bodily cues within themselves and to be less oriented toward social engagement with others is called: a. creativity b. field dependent style c. intelligence or intelligent behavior d. mathematical reasoning e. field independent style Answer: e

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5.________ refers to the basic cognitive operations based on abstract analysis of given premises and deriving a conclusion from them. a. empirical reasoning b. psychometric approach c. intuition d. formal reasoning e. field independent style Answer: d 6. What is the name for the syndrome that involves an individual having a low level of motivation on intelligence tests based on the belief that the tests are biased and test results are unimportant for success in life? a. low interest in learning b. field-dependent style c. low effort syndrome d. low self-esteem e. sorting Answer: c 7. The _____________ is a theory that suggests all cognitive phenomena are inborn, that they unravel as a result of biological “programming,” and that environmental perception requires little active construction by the organism. a. evolutionary view b. Darwinist view c. cultural literacy view d. nativist view e. ethnocentrism Answer: d 8. The _________ is a view based on an assumption that our intelligence can “receive” a numerical value. a. mathematical intelligence approach b. psychometric approach c. nativist view d. cultural literacy view e. field independent style Answer: b 9. What term refers to the individual way in which individuals organize and comprehend the world? a. empirical reasoning b. formal reasoning c. cognitive style d. creativity e. intelligence Answer: c

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10. What term is used to describe the global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, overcome obstacles, and adapt to a changing environment? a. cognition b. intelligence c. creativity d. formal reasoning e. street smarts.

Answer: b

5.2. Multiple choice questions (comprehension and application)

1. In the United States, early attempts to measure IQs began more than one hundred years ago.

These studies examined primarily: a. schoolchildren, army recruits, and immigrants b. prisoners sentenced for violent crimes c. government bureaucrats d. construction workers, salespersons, and farmers e. the elderly from Italian and Irish neighborhoods Answer: a Section: Ethnic Differences in IQ scores

2. The psychometric approach to intelligence is based on an assumption that human intelligence: a. is impossible to measure b. can me measure by special machines calibrated to particular cultural environments c. tends to fluctuate during the lifespan d. tends to be constant during childhood and then changes later e. can be described as having a numerical value Answer: e Section: Defining Intelligence

3. Robert Sternberg proposed three fundamental aspects of intelligence: analytic, creative and practical. He argued, however, that most modern intelligence tests only measure _______ skills. a. practical b. creative c. analytic d. creative and analytic e. practical and creative Answer: c Section: Defining Intelligence

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4. Which of the following most accurately explains the relationship between intelligence and intelligent behavior? a. intelligence is always practical, while intelligent behavior is not b. intelligence is measured by tests; intelligent behavior is impossible to measure c. intelligent behavior is a term used to describe success on intelligence tests d. intelligent behavior is based on the practical use of intelligence in specific situations e. there is no difference between intelligence and intelligent behavior Answer: d Section: Explaining Group Differences in Test Scores

5. Which of the following groups have the greatest chance of having similar IQ scores: identical twins raised apart or two biologically unrelated individuals raised together? a. two biologically unrelated individuals raised together b. two identical twins raised apart c. both groups will have equal chance to have similar scores d. both groups will have zero chance to have similar scores e. the probability is impossible to predict Answer: b Section: Do Biological Factors Contribute to Intelligence?

6. Regardless of his or her ethnic group, an individual who scores high on an IQ tests will likely have __________ in college. a. poor (low) grades b. fine (high) grades c. a mixture of high and low grades d. poor grades in social studies and high grades in math and science e. the grades are impossible to predict Answer: b Section: A Word About Cultural Literacy

7. While Brazilian and Columbian street children who earn their money as vendors were able to conduct financial operations in their minds, when asked to perform similar tasks with a paper and pencil they ___________. a. performed equally successful b. performed even better, with fewer mistakes c. refused to participate for the fear of being arrested d. prefer to use their portable computers e. performed worse than without using paper and pencil Answer: e Section: Environment and Intelligence 8. How did children of higher socioeconomic status score on memorization tests, compared to children of lower socioeconomic status? a. they scored the same b. they scored worse c. they scored better d. they refused to take such a test e. they scored the same but the boys scored much better than girls did

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Answer: c Section: Socioeconomic Factors 9. Studies reveal that children from _________ perform better on tasks that require mathematical reasoning. a. Europe b. East Asian countries c. Africa d. United States e. Australia Answer: b Section: Formal and Mathematical Reasoning 10. “No matter how hard I try, I will be held back.” This statement is a reflection of the_____ a. high-effort syndrome b. formal and mathematical reasoning c. search for social justice d. classification and sorting e. low-effort syndrome Answer: e Section: Culture, Tests, and Motivation 11. Creativity is typically defined as the process of bringing into being something that is both novel and useful. Specifically, the creative cognition approach identifies two kinds of cognitive processes implicated in creative thinking: a. summarizing and exemplifying b. processes of connection and destruction c. emotional processes and rational processes d. understanding and misunderstanding e. generative processes and exploratory processes Answer: e Section: Creativity 12. American children commonly outperform children from other countries in disciplines such as _________ a. history b. international relations c. civics d. cross-cultural psychology e. physical education Answer: c Section: Cognitive Skills, School Grades, and Educational Systems 13. Across the globe, people tend to see high intellectual skills as……. a. a person’s liability b. he ones that are impossible to archive c. a person’s asset d. a myth e. as a source of nationalism Answer: C Section: Introduction

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5.3. True/false questions 1. Research demonstrates that high intelligence scores are positively correlated with socioeconomic status.

Answer: T Section: Socioeconomic Factors

2. Investigators have observed a small but continuous decline in intelligence test performance across cultures.

Answer: F Section: IQ, Culture, and Social Justice

3. Cultural groups tend to categorize objects in terms of their specific cultural experiences associated with these objects.

Answer: T Section: Sorting 4. In 1981, the United States’ National Academy of Sciences published the results of the first national study on intelligence (the study involved various immigrant groups).

Answer: F Section: Defining Intelligence 5. While individuals with ancestral roots in East Asian countries score higher than whites (in the United States) on nonverbal measures of intelligence tests, they score equal to or lower than whites on measures of verbal intelligence.

Answer: T Section: Ethnic Differences in IQ Scores 6. While boys were more likely than girls to score in the top 5 percent on science and math tests, they were also more likely to score near the bottom of the scale on tests of reading comprehension, memory and perceptual speed.

Answer: T Section: Critical Thinking. Test Scores: Boys and Girls 7. In general, people in Western countries generally score lower on intelligence tests than members of traditional societies.

Answer: F Section: Socioeconomic Factors 8. Studies show no correlation between people’s total years of education and IQ scores.

Answer: F Section: Cognitive Skill, School Grades, and Educational Systems

9. In the United States, the differences in IQ scores between ethnic and socioeconomic groups have decreased and keep decreasing.

Answer: T Section: A Case in Point: A Global Decline in IQ Scores?

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10. Studies of Korean and Vietnamese children adopted into White homes in the United States show that they tend to grow to have IQs 10 or more points higher than their adoptive national norms.

Answer: T Section: Ethnic Differences in IQ Scores 11. In India, members of the higher castes obtain lower mean scores and examination marks than do those of the lower castes.

Answer: F Section: Ethnic Differences in IQ Scores 12. Black and White students in the United States tend to evaluate praise in a similar way.

Answer: F Section: Culture, Tests, and Motivation 13. Cognitive tests results are not necessarily and always produce negative reaction among disadvantaged groups. Tests also can help individuals make decisions related to their performance that lead to success outcomes.

Answer: T Section: Culture, Tests, and Motivation

5.4. Short-answer questions 1. Formal reasoning is the term for cognitive operations based on abstract analysis. You want to examine reasoning based on cognitive operations drawn from everyday activities. What is the term for this type of reasoning?

Answer: empirical reasoning Section: Formal and Mathematical Reasoning 2. In the first comparative study published by the National Academy of Sciences in the United States, several groups were compared according to their intelligence scores. Which groups were compared?

Answer: immigrant groups Section: Ethnic Differences in IQ Scores 3. How would you interpret the terms “culture fairness” and “test transfer?”

Answer: a test was designed for a specific ethnic group, the test questions may or may not have similar meaning for other cultural groups Section: Incompatibility of tests 4. Analyses of cognitive styles of people living in different cultures show that field-independent learners tend to live in predominately…………………cultures (write a missing word).

Answer: individualist Section: Cultural Values of Cognition

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5. Creative thinking is not necessarily valued by the rulers of authoritarian societies. Why? Answer: creative thinking, in general, puts individuals “above the crowd” Section: Cultural Values of Cognition

6. Which educational traditions could explain the differences in math test scores between Japanese and American high school students?

Answer: discipline, perseverance, and emphasis on math in curricula Section: Cognitive Skill, School Grades, and Educational Systems 7. While reading a news website you come across an article suggesting that intelligence scores worldwide have declined. Would you agree or disagree with this journalist’s assessment and why?

Answer: disagree; test scored worldwide go up Section: IQ, Culture, and Social Justice

8. Noam Chomsky, a well-known specialist on cognition, has criticized a very popular approach to intelligence. His criticism is aimed at the assumption that an individual’s success is based on ___________.

Answer: monetary success Section: And in the End, Moral Values

9. What is a possible reason (suggested in the textbook) for the steady rise in IQ scores that has been detected primarily in developed countries?

Answer: developing technologies and increasing access to them Section: IQ, Culture, and Social Justice 10. In a survey, two groups of students, Australian and Asian (including Chinese, Japanese, and Korean), were asked to provide information about so-called “self-defining memories.” These memories were to be autobiographical recollections of events they believed shaped them as individuals. Australians provided more elaborate self-focused memories and Asians produced more elaborate memories involving ___________________ Answer: other people and relationships Section: Memory 11. Binet and Simon studied whether a child, by answering a set of specially designed questions and by performing tasks, could perform ………… of his or her peers of the same age.

Answer: on the level Section: Defining Intelligence

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5.5. Essay questions 1. Why does the “general factor” approach inevitably encourage the assumptions that some ethnic and racial groups are fundamentally different in their intellectual abilities?

2. Describe the relationship between intelligence and intelligent behavior.

3. Describe the nativist view of intelligence.

4. Can a teacher’s expectations about children’s academic performance affect his or her teaching style?

5. Give examples of how national educational policies in various regions (countries) influence school curriculum.

6. If a teacher knows about ethic (racial) differences in IQ scores, how might this knowledge affect the teacher’s interaction with the students of these ethnic (racial) groups?

7. Studies show the links between breast feeding and the future cognitive performance of the child. Describe why breastfeeding may affect cognitive performance.

8. It is assumed that multicultural experiences foster the creative expansion of ideas. Consider expatriate artists and writers whose brilliant insights emerged when they left their homeland settled in a foreign country. Do you think that creativity can be sparked when a person is exposed to a foreign culture?

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Chapter 6. Emotion

6.1. Multiple choice questions (key terms) 1. ______ is an emotion aroused by being interfered with or threatened and overt or covert activities of attack or offense. a. aggression b. anger c. fight d. envy e. violence Answer: b 2. What term do psychologists use for patterns of emotional expression considered appropriate within a particular culture, age, or social group? a. feeling rules b. stress reduction c. display rules d. arousal e. censorship Answer: c 3. Which of the following terms refers to the process of identification, description and explanation of an emotional expression? a. stress reduction b. display rules c. emotion recognition d. feeling rules e. intellectual challenge Answer: c 4. What is the term for an individual assessment of emotions according to certain criteria or principles? a. evaluation of emotions b. stress reduction c. feeling rules d. arousal e. display rules Answer: a

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5. ______ are particular cultural rules about how to feel in particular situations. a. evaluation of emotions b. anger management c. display rules d. arousal e. feeling rules Answer: e

6. What is the psychological term for the environmental circumstances and individual reactions that have a strong impact on particular emotional experiences? a. provocation b. common lifestyle c. display rules d. preceding events e. common expectations Answer: d 7. Perception of a continuous challenge to a person’s capacity to adapt to inner and outer demands is called: a. humor b. preceding events c. emotional instability d. stress e. display and feeling rules Answer: d

6.2. Multiple choice questions (comprehension and application) 1. Cross-culturally, embarrassment has common physiological responses, and one of them is __________ . a. excessive salivating b. increased body temperature c. excessive sneezing d. decreased thirst e. decreased body temperature Answer: b Section: Physiological Arousal

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2. Emotional complexity or the co-occurrence of pleasant and unpleasant emotions simultaneously is more prevalent in __________ than Western cultures a. Central Asian b. Latin American c. Latin American d. East Asian e. African Answer: d Section: We Are Expected to Feel in a Particular Way 3. Western psychology and Buddhism claim that the happiness may be achieved through __________ and not necessarily through stimulus-driven pleasures. a. avoiding physical labor b. risk-taking behavior c. psychological training d. vegetable dieting e. longer duration of sleep Answer: c Section: We Are Expected to Feel in a Particular Way 4. Women as a group tend to express most basic emotions more intensely than men. One emotion is an exception. Which one? a. grief b. disgust c. anger d. surprise e. sadness Answer: c Section: Expression of Emotion 5. The text discusses the distinctions between the English word “anger” and the Ifaluk (Pacific Region) word “song”. Although they both refer to emotions involving appraisal of harm, “song” produces actions that aim at changing the offending person’s behavior. Anger, on the other hand, produces actions that aim to do what? a. make friends b. restrain the offender from doing anything c. return the other person’s harm d. negotiate a settlement or a deal with an offender e. the function is still unclear Answer: c Section: When Emotion Hurts 6. Basic human emotional expressions are __________ across cultures. a. profoundly different b. generally similar c. generally fake, insincere d. impossible to measure e. tend to be disruptive Answer: b Section: When We Laugh We are Happy

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7. Studies of the process of identification, description, and explanation of facial emotional expressions show__________. a. profound differences b. inconsistencies in the way people understand emotional expressions of anger and joy c. consistent and tremendous cross-cultural similarities d. consistent and tremendous cross-cultural similarities e. that people had very little understanding what emotions are Answer: d Section: When We Laugh We are Happy 8. An individual’s acceptance of an ethnic joke often depends on the “ethnic match”. Which of the following statements most accurately describes this condition? a. the joke is funny so that it serves as a “match” to “ignite” laughter b. the joke should not be long; otherwise people get impatient c. there is a match between the listeners and the group that is being ridiculed in the joke d. the more spontaneous the joke is the better e. the joke teller belongs to the same group that is being ridiculed in the joke Answer: e Section: Emotion as an Evaluation 9. Which of the following is not a necessary component of the universal emotion process? a. preceding event b. assessment of experience c. physiological arousal d. frustration e. behavioral response Answer: d Section: Emotions: Different or Universal? Website 10. Research suggests that as compared to Americans, individuals from _______ are, as a group, less likely to show their emotions to strangers. a. Russia b. Mexico c. Japan d. Turkey e. Canada Answer: c Section: Expression of Emotion

11. In cross-cultural comparisons, emotions may be cross-culturally similar or different, depending on the level of generalization chosen for description. Observations of specific emotional characteristics are more likely highlight ________, than are observations of generalized characteristics. a. cultural differences b. cultural similarities c. trouble that researchers encounter studying emotions d. that people around the world are reluctant to talk about their emotions e. cultural stereotypes Answer: a Section: Critical Thinking: Other Examples

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12. Cross-cultural similarities were found in the way emotions determine behavior. For example, joy causes approaching behavior, anger elicits aggressive behavior. What is the most common reaction of sadness or shame? a. similar aggressive tendencies b. walking fast c. withdrawal d. excessive talking e. no common reaction Answer: c Section: Emotion and Inclination to Act 13. In the Buddhist tradition (reflected in the Chinese language) the basic seven emotions are described as happiness, anger, sorrow, joy, love, hate, and desire. One emotion commonly appearing in all Western classifications does not appear in this line-up. Which one? a. jealousy b. disgust c. frustration d. inspiration e. depression Answer: b Section: You Cannot Explain if…….

14. Humor, according to the historian Margaret Beard, is associated with at least three interconnected features: it is about mockery—which is a form of expressing superiority over others or self; it is about encountering confusion; and, finally…. a. humor is an intellectual exercise b. humor is a memory test c. humor is an expression of violence d. humor is an attempt to apply cultural stereotypes e. humor is a tension relief Answer: e Section: The Opening Vignette

6.3.

True/false questions

1. Aggression, motivation, fear, surprise, jealousy, anger, sadness, fatigue and disgust are all called basic universal human emotions.

Answer: F Section: When We Laugh We are Happy 2. Studies of so-called preceding events show significant cross-cultural similarities.

Answer: T Section: The Meaning of Preceding Events 3. Embarrassment is characterized by the similar behavioral and physiological responses across ethnic groups.

Answer: T Section: Exercise 6.2

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4. Research on cross-cultural recognition of emotional intonation revealed that people cannot accurately identify a speaker’s emotions.

Answer: F Section: When We Laugh We are Happy 5. Across cultures, disgust prevents people from ingesting potentially toxic substances.

Answer: T Section: When We Laugh We are Happy 6. Cross-cultural studies reveal differences in the way men and women display their jealousy.

Answer: T Section: When We Laugh We are Happy 7. The recognition rate of facial expression on photographs was higher when subjects had little previous contact with other cultures.

Answer: F Section: You Cannot Explain Pain if You Have Never Been Hurt 8. Research shows that a change in voluntary facial expression causes changes in galvanic skin response (used in so-called “lie detectors”) Answer: T Section: Physiological Arousal 9. There is consistency in the way people around the world experience traumatic events such as earthquakes, floods, and violence.

Answer: T Section: When Emotions Signal a Challenge 10. Empirical studies of the early 2000s showed that Russian immigrants living in the United States experience lower levels of negative emotions.

Answer: F Section: When Emotions Signal a Challenge 11. Studies show that if a person is smiling, people have a better chance to guess his or her nationality on a photograph.

Answer: T Section: How People Assess Emotional Experience 12. Several studies showed that Chinese students were found to experience lower levels of anxiety in mathematics compared to students from Germany.

Answer: F Section: The Meaning of Preceding Events 13. Despite similarities in emotional experiences across cultures, there is no one single universal description of basic emotions.

Answer: T Section: You Cannot Explain Pain if….

6.4.

Short-answer questions

1. Which part of the human brain is referred to as the brain’s “emotional computer”?

Answer: The Amygdala Section: Physiological Arousal

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2. In a comparative Japanese-American study, which group was less likely to attribute their anger to other people (explain their anger as caused by others)?

Answer: Japanese Section: Emotion and Inclination to Act 3. In cross-cultural studies, cultural differences between two groups are greater if the level of description becomes________.

Answer: more specific Section: Critical Thinking: Other Examples 4. What are the most common physiological, cross-cultural symptoms of embarrassment?

Answer: blushing, increased body temperature Section: Exercise 6.2 5. According to Darwin, basic emotional expressions in humans are similar. Why? What purpose do they serve?

Answer: adaptive purpose Section: When We Laugh We are Happy 6. Students from the People’s Republic of China, compared to students from other countries, often demonstrate social orientation of their emotions. How does this relate to the ruling ideology in China?

Answer: communist ideology demands the primacy of the group over individual interests Section: Emotion as an Evaluation 7. Throughout the history of human civilization, one way of managing emotions has been to learn ________.

Answer: how to control their manifestation Section: Expression of Emotion 8. Researchers suggest that in the West, high levels of expressiveness are seen as signs of _______ in contrast to Asian cultures.

Answer: competence and likeability Section: Expression of Emotion 9. There are two main criteria with which to assess emotional expressions. One is frequency of an emotional expression. What is the second?

Answer: intensity Section: Expression of Emotion 10. In general, how is anger treated by most people in collectivistic cultures?

Answer: it is typically discouraged, suppressed Section: When Emotion Hurts

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11. Men who grew up in traditional, male-dominated societies tend not to reveal their emotional problems for fear of appearing weak. If you were the chief doctor in a medical facility and had a 50 year-old patient from such a culture, who would you ask to see this patient?

Answer: an older man Section: general comprehension 12. A study of samples in 32 countries showed that individualism was positively correlated with higher expressivity of emotions, especially happiness and surprise. Individualism was negatively correlated with expression of ___________ Answer: Sadness Section: You Cannot Explain Pain if…..

13. Recent studies of emotion recognition showed that subjects in China, compared to other national groups, had more problems with recognition of one emotion on photographed faces.

Which one?

Answer: Disgust Section: You Cannot Explain Pain if…..

6.5.

Essay questions

1. Explain the cultural differences in the emotional significance of preceding events.

2. Why do Chinese students—as a group—(according to empirical studies) evaluate “acceptance to college” as a more stressful event than do American students?

3. Anger is expressed in both collectivist and individualist cultural groups. However, it is discouraged more in one group than in the other. Which one and why?

4. What are the most significant cross-cultural similarities of disgust?

5. Describe cross-cultural similarities in display rules. Give an example.

6. Describe methodological problem associated with survey-based studies of emotional expressions. Give an example.

7. Several studies found that both men and women identified angry expressions (compared to other emotional expressions) most quickly. What could be the reason for this?

8. What are the differences between feeling rules and display rules? Give an example.

9. Describe jealousy as an emotional response from the evolutionary perspective. Give an example.

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Chapter 7. Motivation

7. 1. Multiple choice questions (key terms) 1. These motivational theories assume that people seek to maintain optimal levels of arousal by actively changing their exposure to arousing stimuli: a. psychoanalysis b. humanistic theories c. sociobiology d. arousal theories e. cognitive theories Answer: d 2. Which type of achievement motivation directs a person to connect with others as his or her contribution is seen as beneficial to the members of a particular group or society in general? a. collectivist instinct b. anti-selfishness c. drive d. intrinsic motivation e. collectivist-success motivation Answer: e

3. ______ refers to a type of motivation that engages people in various activities for a particular reward. a. Extrinsic motivation b. Intrinsic motivation c. Instinct d. Drive e. Collectivist-success motivation Answer: a 4. What is the term for the type of achievement motivation that affects one’s attitudes and actions and is directed toward the attainment of personal goals? a. self-actualization b. collectivist-success motivation c. instinct d. individualist-success motivation e. intrinsic motivation Answer: d

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5. ______ refers to an internal aroused condition that directs an organism to satisfy some physiological need. a. Instinct b. Drive c. Self-actualization d. Desire to act e. Emotion Answer: b 6. What is the term for a relatively complex, inherited behavior pattern that is characteristic of a species? a. instinct b. drive c. extrinsic motivation d. intrinsic motivation e. self-actualization Answer: a 7. _______ is a type of motivation that engages people in various activities for no apparent reward except the pleasure and satisfaction of the activity itself. a. drive b. intrinsic motivation c. play instinct d. childish behavior e. irresponsibility Answer: b

8. What is the general psychological term for a motivated state caused by physiological deprivation (such as a lack of food, water, etc.)? a. instinct b. hope c. need d. drive e. deprivation of action Answer: c 9. What is the term for a social need that directs people to strive constantly for excellence and success? a. a fighter’s mentality b. extrinsic motivation c. need for achievement d. instinct e. intrinsic motivation Answer: c

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10. In humanistic theories, what is the name for a ultimate level of psychological development in which individuals strive to realize their uniquely human potential-to achieve anything they are capable of achieving? a. progress b. self-actualization c. individual stability d. status quo e. financial security Answer: b 11. What is the term for a set of requirements, beliefs, symbols, and norms regarding sexuality and its expression? a. sex culture b. sexuality c. sexual instincts d. sex drive e. sex taboo Answer: a

12. What is the label for a cultural syndrome of an Eastern culture manifested in persistence at achieving economic goals, social stability, encouragement of prudence and savings, and promoting loyalty and trust by emphasizing shame? a. Aristotle’s character b. Napoleonic personality c. Indian loyalty character d. Confucian work dynamism e. Japanese samurai syndrome Answer: d

13. Find the term that describes a person who tends to be engaged in activities that are naturally rewarding and not necessarily associated with material goals such as money, fame, or high social status. a. Immaterial Personality b. Rewarding Personality c. Non-Status Personality d. Autotelic Personality e. Disassociated Personality Answer: d 14. An individual’s romantic or sexual attraction to people of the opposite sex or gender is identified as: a. homosexuality b. heterosexuality c. bisexuality 53

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d. opposite sexuality e. romantic sexuality Answer: b

15. A romantic or sexual attraction between persons of the same sex or gender is identified as: a. heterosexuality b. romantic sexuality c. homosexuality d. opposite sexuality e. same self-sexuality Answer: c 16. Peak Experiences are periodic and profound episodes of: a. anger, violence, and long-lasting frustration b. success, such as winning a multi-million-dollar prize in a lottery c. happiness, optimism, inner harmony, and creativity. d. pessimism, frustration, irritation, and sadness e. anxiety, stress, and inner insecurity Answer: c

17. A state of complete concentration and joyful immersion in a situation or activity is defined as: a. motivation b. emotion c. calm d. fun e. flow Answer: e

7.2.

Multiple choice questions (comprehension and application)

1. Evolutionary psychologists emphasize the importance of the _______ role of human sexuality. a. unconscious b. religious c. political d. moral e. adaptive Answer: c Section: Culture and Sexuality

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2. Numerous cross-cultural studies cite higher levels of aggression among _______ compared to other groups. a. young females b. mothers with children c. young males d. children under 12 e. infants Answer: c Section: Aggressive Motivation and Violence 3. A syndrome associated with a person’s belief that life has cheated him and the only way to compensate for the sense of injustice is to inflict pain on somebody else is labeled: a. “Herostratos syndrome” b. “Socrates syndrome” c. “Maslow syndrome” d. “Jung syndrome” e. “Freud Syndrome” Answer: a Section: Aggressive Motivation and Violence 4. The self-actualizing person's life is governed by the search for "being-values" (B-values) such as Truth, Goodness, Beauty, Wholeness, Justice, and Meaningfulness. This view is rooted in which of the following theories? a. psychoanalysis b. cognitive c. sociobiology d. humanistic or Maslow e. social theories Answer: d Section: Humanistic Theories 5. For years homosexuality was considered a mental illness in the United States. It is perceived as an illness today? a. yes, it is b. no it is not c. yes in males, no in females d. yes in females, no in males e. yes, only in big cities Answer: b Section: Culture and Sexuality 6. It has been observed that individuals from various regions have different taste preferences. For example, individuals from Vietnam eat dog meat, while most North Americans would consider doing so unacceptable. What does this reveal to psychologists about the relationship between culture and eating habits? a. the Vietnamese have a strange taste b. the visitors are disrespectful c. what is tasty and what is not is influenced by cultural practices d. people shouldn't try strange foods e. people are born with certain likes or dislikes for food

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Answer: c Section: A Carrot and a Beef Tongue

7. Researching for his theory of self-actualization, Maslow collected a sample consisted primarily of_________. a. Chinese and Japanese b. African-American and European-American c. Asian Hispanic d. Europeans and European-Americans e. Russian, French, and Hungarian Answer: d Section: Humanistic Theories 8. Psychoanalysis is criticized by contemporary psychology for is tendency to overemphasize the power of the unconscious as well as the role of ___________. a. desire to achieve one’s best potential b. inability to make own decisions without outside help c. sexuality and aggressiveness d. hunger and thirst e. learning disabilities related to globalization Answer: c Section: The Power of the Unconscious 9. The evolutionary approach to human motivation generally fails to explain the diversity of human motivation and underplays the influence of ___________. a. biological factors b. individual choice and reason c. age-related factors d. gender-related factors e. natural selection Answer: b Section: A Glance into Evolution 10. How could a high refusal rate affect the accuracy of surveys about sexual behavior? a. the researcher will have not much time to finish survey b. people who don’t refuse to answer questions typically lie about their sexual behavior c. the sample will not be representative: a researcher should include children in this survey, but this is impossible d. the sample will not be representative: most answers in such surveys are received from people who don’t hold traditional views on sex e. high refusal rates are not expected to affect the average of surveys Answer: d Section: Culture and Sexuality 11. Most visitors to Vietnam, when they try dog's meat say that it "wasn't tasty," "wasn't good," or "it was disgusting." Most Vietnamese, however, consider dog's meat tasty. What does this information suggest to psychologists? a. the Vietnamese have a strange taste b. the visitors are disrespectful

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c. what is tasty and what is not is influenced by cultural practices d. people shouldn't try strange foods e. people are born with certain likes or dislikes for food Answer: c Section: A Carrot and a Beef Tongue

12. More than a thousand men and women from six nations (Spain, Peru, Venezuela, the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States) completed questionnaires about their procrastination.

Results of this study showed that ___________. a. people from Europe tend to procrastinate less than people from other studied nations b. people from Latin America tend to procrastinate less than people from other studied nations c. people from Australia tend to procrastinate less than people from other studied nations d. people from the United States tend to procrastinate less than people from other studied nations e. no significant sex or nationality differences within or between nations.

Answer: d Section: Drive and Arousal 13. The famous Stanford Marshmallow Experiment was about studying: a. hunger control b. thirst c. injustice d. sleep deprivation e. impulse gratification Answer: e Section: Introduction 14. The Bobo Doll experiment showed that cross-culturally, children….. a. learn better when they study in groups b. learn violence through imitation c. learn better when they study in co-ed classes d. memorize better when they engage in play e. memorize better when they do not engage in play Answer: b Section: Aggressive Motivation and Violence

7.3. True/false questions 1. Carl Jung as one of the most prominent followers of the psychoanalytic tradition, was among the first psychologists to criticize the ethnocentric worldview of Western psychology.

Answer: T Section: The Power of the Unconscious: Psychoanalysis 2. Maslow's theory of motivation suggests that lower-level motives cannot be activated until higher-level ones are satisfied.

Answer: F Section: Humanistic Theories

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3. R.R. is looking for a job only because he needs money. This job search is likely a "product" of his extrinsic motivation.

Answer: T Section: Learning and Motivation 4. Cross-culturally, individualism and achievement motivation are negatively correlated.

Answer: F Section: Victory and Harmony 5. Across cultures, boys score higher than girls on math and science tests.

Answer: T Section: Victory and Harmony 6. Research indicates that people in industrialized nations (ex. Japan, USA, Germany) have lower rates of achievement motivation than do individuals from non-industrialized countries.

Answer: F Section: Victory and Harmony 7. When people are continuously given highly salted foods, they develop a liking for excessive salt.

Answer: T Section: A Carrot and a Beef Tongue 8. Social needs are universal and direct human beings toward self-preservation. Biological needs direct people toward establishing and maintaining relationships.

Answer: F Section: Drive and Arousal 9. These days, in Western cultures, body thinness is a major aspect of the definition of attractiveness.

Answer: T Section: When Hunger Causes Distress 10. Anorexia is a disorder that occurs only in Western countries.

Answer: F Section: When Hunger Causes Distress 11. While kissing is a cross-cultural phenomenon, it is unknown in some regions of the world.

Answer: T Section: Sex and Sexuality 12. According to the Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors men and women around the world experience similar sexual problems related to aging.

Answer: T Section: Sex and Sexuality 13. Most recent studies show that the correlations between economic development of a nation and cultural syndromes do not exist.

Answer: F Section: Achievement Motivation 14. Significant empirical data suggest that individuals who grew up during a time of economic prosperity show an increasingly greater endorsement of egalitarian, harmony, and autonomy values.

Answer: T Section: Achievement Motivation

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15. Authentic personality is associated with traits such as curiosity, purposeful behavior, and modesty.

Answer: T Section: Humanistic Theories

7.4. Short-answer questions 1. Do incarceration rates provide an accurate picture of violent behavior across nations?

Answer: not necessarily because countries have different laws and sentencing policies Section: Aggressive Motivation and Violence

2. How is premarital sex viewed in nontraditional cultural settings?

Answer: generally tolerated Section: Culture and Sexuality

3. What is Holy Anorexia?

Answer: food refusal accompanied by the person’s belief that abstinence from food is connected to divine power Section: When Hunger Causes Distress

4. Along with some psychological factors that may predispose an individual to develop an eating disorder, there are several social factors contributing to the formation of a self-image of being obese, fat, and unattractive. What are these factors?

Answer: cultural models of beauty, fashion trends, and peer pressure Section: When Hunger Causes Distress

5. While it has been shown that dangerous social conditions induce encouragement of violence for self-defense, it has also been observed that such tolerance produces a social climate permissive of such acts. This is an example of __________ causation.

Answer: bidirectional Section: Aggressive Motivation and Violence

6. In what type of cultures is violence against women (such as wife-beating) significantly underreported?

Answer: traditional and/or authoritarian Section: Aggressive Motivation and Violence

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7. A large cross-national project revealed that no relationship exists between individual achievement motivation and economic growth.

Answer: F Section: Victory and Harmony

8. Research proves that aggression is always rooted in underlying frustration.

Answer: F Section: Aggressive Motivation and Violence

9. ________ cultures endorse restrictive rules regarding the expression of sexuality among their members.

Answer: traditional Section: Culture and Sexuality

10. Studies reveal that countries seeking increased population tended to maintain a __________ stance toward homosexuality.

Answer: less tolerant or intolerant Section: Culture and Sexuality 11. In a large study, almost 30 percent of the respondents reported about their tendency to procrastinate. Half of them procrastinate for arousal reasons: they believe that they achieve better results when working under pressure. The other half are: _______________________ Answer: avoidant procrastinators: they do not perform well under the pressure of deadlines.

Section: Drive and Arousal 12. Psychoanalysis was developed primarily within the social environment of which culture?

Answer: Western Section: Psychoanalysis 13. Research shows that in Buddhist and Western societies may encourage two somewhat different types of motivation, namely “maximizing” and “satisfying.” Explain both briefly.

Answer: Maximizers are in search of the best (which leave them unhappy frequently), whereas satisficers are satisfied with what they have achieved.

Section: Achievement Motivation and Wealth 14. In Japan, there is a subjective psychological state called Jujitsu‐kan. Explain this state.

Answer: a sense of self‐reliance, relatedness to others, and a sense of trust.

Section: The Humanistic Approach

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7.5. Essay questions 1. The evolutionary perspective of cross-cultural psychology maintains that men and women experience different types of jealousy. Briefly describe these differences.

2. Provide one argument that supports the claim that Maslow’s theory of self- actualization is not necessarily applicable across-cultures.

3. Why should comparative pop-surveys on sexuality be treated with caution and skepticism?

Refer to these survey’s samples.

4. Give examples of practices related to sexual behavior in non-traditional cultural settings.

5. Describe how cultural norms regulate an individual’s display of aggression.

6. Describe psychoanalysis’ key weaknesses from the standpoint of cross-cultural psychology.

7. What is Confucian work dynamism? Could you suggest its possible analogies in the Western culture?

8. Evolutionary psychologists emphasize the importance the adaptive role of human sexuality.

Could you explain this role?

9. According to researcher Li Yinhe, most gay men in China eventually choose to marry a woman. Why does this happen?

10. Describe cultural and social factors contributing to eating disorders.

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Chapter 8. Human Development and Socialization

8.1. Multiple choice questions (key terms) 1. What is the common psychological name for the developmental period during which a child has reached sexual maturity but has not yet taken on the rights and responsibilities of the adult status? a. Immaturity b. Adolescence c. Juvenile behavior d. Early adulthood e. Youth Answer: b 2. What is the common term for the developmental period during which an individual has achieved the adult status prescribed by norms and laws of a particular society? a. Parenthood b. Legal status c. Old age d. Adulthood e. Age of responsibility Answer: d 3. The term “_______” refers to the view of oneself as an individual and a member of society. a. vision b. identity c. mental picture d. revelation e. developmental niche Answer: b 4. What is the common psychological label for the period from birth to approximately two years of age when the individual acquires initial motor, cognitive, and social skills? a. Infancy b. Adolescence c. Immaturity d. Formative years e. “Terrible Twos” Answer: a

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Chapter 8 5. The term “________” refers to the period of physical wearing and decline. a. maturity b. late adulthood c. cry off d. recession e. depression Answer: b 6. The term “________” refers to the rituals that recognize an individual’s movement from one status to another. a. means of access b. check points c. rites of passage d. pledges e. written tests Answer: c 7. What is the name of the process by which an individual becomes a member of a particular culture and takes on its values, beliefs, and behaviors? a. Social justice b. Social access c. Indoctrination d. Reincarnation e. Socialization Answer: e

8. Parents expect their children to acquire particular skills (such as walking, talking, etc.) by certain ages. This set of expectations is called the: a. developmental niche. b. expectation of life. c. value schedule. d. planned conformity. e. developmental timetable.

Answer: e 9. What is the name of the theoretical view that suggests that adults acquire attitudes and behaviors early in life and tend not to change them later? a. The Openness Model b. The Persistence Model c. Human Development d. Socialization e. Stubbornness

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Chapter 8 Answer: b 10. ________ refers to the changes in physical, physiological and social behavior as experienced by individuals across the life span from conception to death. a. Socialization b. Maturation c. Human development d. Identity e. Adulthood Answer: c

8.2. Multiple choice questions (comprehension and application) 1. More than 3,300 adolescents from 12 countries responded to the question about how many children they would love to have in the future. In most countries, on average, adolescents preferred: a. to have one child b. to have between three and four children c. to have between one and two children d. to have between two and three children e. not to have children at all Answer: d Section: Parental Values and Expectations 2. According to psychologist Lev Vygotsky, what kind of children’s interaction is most likely to advance their intellectual development? a. Interaction with the media, especially television b. Guided interaction with a more knowledgeable partner c. Interaction with the child’s peers d. Any interaction in stressful situations e. None, because the child’s intellectual development is determined by biological factors Answer: b Section: Quality of Life and the Child’s Development

3. Piaget proposed several stages of development that appear to be _______________. a. inconsistent across cultures b. common only in children from Western cultures c. common only among middle-class children d. universal across cultures e. impossible to measure across cultures Answer: d Section: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

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Chapter 8 4. Erikson’s theory of development has been criticized by psychologists for mixing objective descriptions with _______________. a. statistical formulas b. complicated stories about extraordinary cases c. subjective prescriptions d. journalist reports e. poetry Answer: c Section: Erikson’s Stages 5. Erikson’s theory of socialization is better applied to societies that practice a certain type of socialization emphasizing independence and free self-expression. What is the name of this type? a. Broad b. Narrow c. Reversed d. Absent, not present e. Government-controlled Answer: a Section: Erikson’s Stages 6. According to the World Health Organization, more than 20 million unsafe abortions take place every year, mostly in _______________. a. Asian countries b. European countries c. developed countries d. Latin America e. developing countries Answer: e Section: Life Before Birth: Prenatal Period 7. The lowest mortality rate these days is found in: a. China b. Iceland c. United States d. India e. Sierra Leone Answer: b Section: First Steps: Infancy 8. Qualitative research in New Zealand with Samoan men shows that the overt expression of emotion or feelings toward children was generally regarded as improper because, as fathers tended to believe, _______________. a. their children should not be taught any emotions b. children are not capable of learning at that age c. they as parents, have little knowledge about how to teach the young d. their children have to learn the value of humility first e. children have already learned emotions during infancy Answer: d Section: Discovering the World: Childhood

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Chapter 8 9. Societal expectations affect the way people interpret intelligence. For example, in Western cultures, fluid intelligence is particularly valued. Which of the following most accurately characterizes fluid intelligence? a. Wisdom: knowledge and experience accumulated by the individual b. Ability to count money and perform other financial operations c. Intuition: ability to predict or knowing without the use of rational processes d. Ability to form concepts, think abstractly, and apply knowledge to new situations e. Capacity to memorize large chunks of information Answer: d Section: Adulthood 10. Adults acquire attitudes and learn behaviors early in life and tend not to change them later.

Which psychological model introduces this view? a. persistence b. recency c. power d. openness e. obedience Answer: a Section: Adulthood 11. Studies show that collectivism is positively correlated with what style of parenting? a. Democratic style b. Inconsistent style c. Abusive, violent style d. Equality-oriented e. Authoritarian style Answer: e Section: Norms, Customs, and Child Care 12. Jean Piaget’s comparative studies have been criticized because of some controversy related to the age of his subjects. What specifically did this criticism refer to? a. There were too many children older than 15. b. There were too many children younger than 3. c. Accurate birth dates were not always available. d. Children between 5-7 were selected from elite schools; others were not studied. e. Experimenters were often younger than the studied children.

Answer: c Section: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development 13. One of criticisms of the Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is that the developmental stages are too closely linked with Western values. Which two values were specifically mentioned? a. Liberalism and individualism b. Liberalism and conservatism c. Achievement motivation and competitiveness d. Low power distance and high uncertainty avoidance e. Masculinity and conservatism Answer: a Section: Stages of Moral Development According to Kohlberg

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14. Right handedness in children appears to be ____________. a. genetic but prevalent in Western cultures b. genetic but less common in Western cultures compared to others c. a learned habit based on teachers’ attitudes d. prevalent in all cultures and genetic e. a learned habit based on family practices at dinner table Answer: d Section: First Steps: Infancy 15. Critics of Piaget’s theory maintain that he provoked a temptation to interpret some developmental stages as more valuable than others. Which stage might appear as most valuable? a. Sensorimotor stage b. Pre-conventional stage c. Formal operational stage d. Conventional stage e. Self-actualization Answer: c Section: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development 16. Studies show that the average age for conducting the prize-winning research for all disciplines was around ____________. a. 38 years b. 48 years c. 58 years d. 68 years e. 78 years Answer: a Section: Adulthood 17. Emile Ratelband, a Dutchman whose official age is over 70 has been battling a court case to: a. legally reduce his gender b. legally reduce his age by 20 years c. legally reduce his nationality d. legally reduce his ethnicity e. legally reduce his place of birth Answer: b Section: Opening Vignette

8.3. True/false questions

1. An early fundamental comparative study called The Six Cultures Study of Socialization began in 1954 and involved investigators from three universities.

Answer: T Section: Development and Socialization

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Chapter 8 2. In the twenty-first century, global fertility rates, which is the average number of biological children per woman, keep rising.

Answer: F Section: Quality of Life and the Child’s Development 3. Cross-culturally, girls mature as much as two years later than boys.

Answer: F Section: Adolescence 4. Psychologists recognize that, across cultures, the socialization process stops at the age of 25.

Answer: F Section: Development and Socialization 5. Western concepts of child-rearing condemn most forms of adult-child coercion.

Answer: T Section: Norms, Customs, and Child Care 6. Levy’s (1996) research on parental expectations revealed that, in societies that are small, egalitarian, and with little occupational specialization, children are expected to learn “on their own.”

Answer: T Section: Parental Values and Expectations 7. Studies of immigrants to the United States show that identity concerns only occupy people’s minds during adolescence (as Erikson predicted) and not later in life.

Answer: F Section: Erikson’s Stages 8. Studies show that an anticipated in Western cultures tendency of increased conflict and decreased closeness between parents and their children, is universal across cultures.

Answer: F Section: Erikson’s Stages 9. In a cross-cultural context, Jean Piaget’s theory accurately explains how children deal with conservation of volume, weight, and amount.

Answer: T Section: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development 10. A major criticism of Kohlberg’s studies of moral development is based on the fact that the stories used in the experiments primarily related to American subjects.

Answer: T Section: Stages of Moral Development According to Kohlberg 11. The Hindu religious tradition emphasizes a distinct separation between developmental stages (such as infancy, early childhood, and middle childhood).

Answer: F Section: Developmental Stages 12. Cross-culturally, when a couple expects a child, boys are desired more often than girls.

Answer: T Section: Life Before Birth 13. Consistent with attachment theories, findings of a comparative US-Japanese study indicated that the clear majority of mothers in both countries perceive children with desirable characteristics as “secure” and children with undesirable characteristics as “insecure.”

Answer: T Section: First Steps: Infancy

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Chapter 8 14. Right-handedness does not appear prevalent in all cultures.

Answer: F Section: First Steps: Infancy

8.4. Short-answer questions 1. Across cultures, a child’s early temperament is primarily a function of ______________.

Answer: biology Section: First Steps: Infancy 2. “What major factors contribute to the quality of life?

Answer: Availability of food, type of living conditions, quality of education, presence of violence, etc.

Section: Quality of Life and the Child Development 3. In Hinduism life is represented circularly. Explain what it is.

Answer: people live and die many times Section: Developmental Stages 4. Name one life stage that is not necessarily recognized in all countries (but recognized in relatively wealthy countries or regions).

Answer: Adolescence Section: Adolescence 5. According to Erikson’s theory, a maturing individual is expected to progress through various stages and each stage is characterized by a particular_______________.

Answer: conflict, problem, or crisis Section: Erikson’s Stages 6. A study that examined Kohlberg’s theory of moral development in more than twenty countries concluded that some stages are universal. Which stages?

Answer: first four stages Section: Stages of Moral Development According to Kohlberg 7. In predominantly individualist cultures, pregnancy is generally viewed as a private development. However, the text mentions a notable exception in the United States and other Western countries. What is it?

Answer: Husbands (fathers) being present at childbirth Section: Life Before Birth

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Chapter 8 8. Three forms of attachment are recognized across cultures. The first two are: “anxious and avoidant” and “anxious and resistant.” What is the third?

Answer: securely attached Section: First Steps: Infancy 9. Japanese infants typically have difficulty noticing the difference between which two sounds?

Answer: L and R Section: First Steps: Infancy 10. The suppression-facilitation hypothesis of human development suggests a general linkage between discouraged behavior and clinical symptoms. What is the linkage?

Answer: Suppressed behavior will not be frequent in clinical settings Section: Discovering the World: Childhood 11. Christian Arabs living in Israel are commonly viewed as a “double minority.” Why? Answer: They are Arabs and the majority of Arabs are Muslims, plus they live in a predominantly Jewish country.

Section: Major Rehearsal: Adolescence 12. That are the most common cross-cultural psychological features of adulthood?

Answer: maturity, responsibility, and accountability Section: Adulthood 13. Erikson’s views correspond in many ways with _________________traditions aiming at selftransformation through insight into the nature of self Answer: Indian philosophical Section: Erikson’s Stages of Psychological Development

8.5.

Essay questions

1. Describe the differences between broad and narrow socialization.

2. What are the cross-cultural limitations of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development?

3. In Erikson’s theory, the stages indicate a sequence that cannot always be paralleled in other countries. Explain why and provide examples.

4. What are the cross-cultural limitations of Piaget’s theory?

5. What are the cross-cultural limitations of Kohlberg’s theory?

6. Why do psychologists believe that adolescence, in the course of history, is a relatively recent cultural phenomenon?

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Chapter 8 7. The concept frozen culture describes the lives and experiences of many adult immigrants within their new homelands. What does this term mean?

8. Compare adolescence as a life stage in traditional and non-traditional cultural settings.

9.

Compare late adulthood as a life stage in traditional and non-traditional cultural settings.

10. Discuss why there is a significant difference in some countries between the number of newborn girls and newborn boys.

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Chapter 9. Psychological Disorders

9.1.

Multiple choice questions (key terms)

1. What is the name for recurrent, locally specific patterns of aberrant behavior and troubling experience that are generally limited to specific societies or areas and indicate repetitive sets of symptoms? a. Painful syndromes b. Culture-bound syndromes c. Schizophrenia d. Abnormal symptoms e. Universal syndromes Answer: b 2. Symptoms of psychological disorders that are observable in practically all cultures are called “______________.” a. peripheral b. culture-bound c. medical d. central e. professional Answer: d 3. “____________” is the term used to describe a deterioration of cognitive functioning, including memory loss, aphasia, or disturbed executive functioning. a. Depressive disorders b. Personality disorders c. Schizophrenia d. Anxiety disorders e. Dementia Answer: e 4. What is the name of the category of psychological disorders characterized by a profound and persistent feeling of sadness, despair, guilt, loss of interest in things that were once pleasurable, and disturbance in sleep and appetite? a. Depressive disorders b. Personality disorders c. Schizophrenia d. Anxiety disorders e. Dementia Answer: a

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5. ______________ is a clinically significant behavioral and psychological syndrome or pattern that occurs in an individual and that is associated with present distress or disability or with a significantly increased risk of suffering death, pain, disability, or an important loss of freedom. a. dementia b. peripheral symptom of illness c. mental disorder d. central symptom of illness e. personality disorder Answer: c 6. Enduring patterns of behavior and inner experience that deviate markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture are referred to as _______________. a. depressive disorders b. personality disorders c. schizophrenia d. anxiety disorders e. dementia Answer: b 7. What is the common name for the treatment of psychological disorders through psychological means, generally involving verbal interaction with a professional therapist? a. Healing b. Hypnosis c. Persuasion d. Obedience e. Psychotherapy Answer: e 8. __________ is a disorder characterized by the presence of delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and disorganized or catatonic behavior. a. Depressive disorder b. Personality disorder c. Schizophrenia d. Anxiety disorder e. Dementia Answer: c

9. The “__________” is a view or perspective of psychological disorders, according to which human beings develop ideas, establish behavioral norms, and learn emotional responses consistent with a set of cultural prescriptions.

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a. universalist perspective b. cognitive view c. relativist perspective d. custom-bound perspective e. global psychological view Answer: c 10. The “____________” is a view or perspective of psychological disorders, according to which people share a great number of similar features, attitudes, values, and behavioral responses despite cultural differences. a. universalist perspective b. custom-bound perspective c. local culture view d. relativist perspective e. behavioral view Answer: a 11. The ____________ is a measure of tolerance or intolerance toward specific personality traits in a cultural environment. a. intolerance barrier b. misunderstanding c. personality threshold d. tolerance threshold e. barrier of cultural environment Answer: d 12. What is the label for recurrent, locally specific patterns of aberrant behavior and troubling experience that may or may not be linked to a particular DSM-5 diagnostic category? These patterns are generally limited to specific societies or areas and indicate repetitive and troubling sets of experiences and observations. a. central symptoms b. cultural syndromes c. troubling symptoms d. recurrent syndromes e. peripheral behaviors Answer: b

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9.2. Multiple choice questions (comprehension and application) 1. According to international statistics, suicide is the lowest in predominantly _______________ countries. a. East European b. Muslim c. Protestant d. Hindu e. West European Answer: b Section: Culture and Suicide 2. As a board certified professional, you diagnosed your client, a 22-year-old man, with “demonic possession.” Upon submitting your claim to his insurance company for payment, you quickly find that they refuse to compensate you. Why did this happen? a. The insurance company is afraid to deal with the “demonic forces.” b. “Demonic possession” is recognized mostly in women. c. The diagnosis should have been given within the DSM-5 guidelines. d. The only remedy for “demonic possession” is exorcism, which is a very expensive procedure. e. You should treat the possession without charging a fee.

Answer: c Section: American Background: DSM-5 3. “Dhat” is a cultural syndrome that occurs primarily in India. However, similar conditions also occur in which two countries? a. Russia and Poland b. Sri Lanka and China c. Canada and Australia d. Libya and Chad e. Peru and Ecuador Answer: b

Section: Cultural Syndromes

4. Imagine that you are a psychologist working in private practice in the United States. You have a new client from a non-Western culture who claims that her psychological problems are caused by evil spiritual forces emitted from her mother-in-law. Would you consider this client delusional? a. No, because delusions are a typical Western set of symptoms practically unknown globally. b. No, because you have to check her mother-in-law to see if she really possesses such evil forces. c. Yes, but only if this person is relatively educated and culturally integrated in the United States. d. Yes, because it is better diagnose her with something quickly before it is too late. e. No, because the diagnosis must be given only by a witch doctor and you are not one of them.

Answer: c Section: Psychodiagnostic Biases

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5. The text addresses the notion that all cultural groups are socially stratified. What implication, if any, does this have for psychological counseling? a. No matter where a person lives or what she does, this person always will remain attached to her or his ethnic groups. b. Ethnicity matters less than religious affiliation, especially if it is related to young adults. c. Religious affiliation means more than race. d. The more medication you prescribe, the more demanding your client becomes. e. Professional occupation, income, and educational level bring diversity into any national, religious, racial, or ethnic group.

Answer: e Section: Psychodiagnostic Biases 6. Of the following, which group is most likely, compared to others, to report physical (nonpsychological) symptoms of their depressive illness? a. Russians b. Irish c. Canadians d. Bolivians e. Japanese Answer: e Section: Depressive Disorders 7. There is a statistical difference between people of Western cultures and non-Western cultures in terms of how they experience depressive symptoms. Which symptoms are more common in Western cultures than in non-Western cultures? a. Muscle pain b. Guilt c. Abdominal pain d. Euphoria, unlimited optimism e. Schizophrenia Answer: b

Section: Depressive Disorders

8. “Globally, what are the odds that an individual will be diagnosed with Schizophrenia?” during his or her life? a. One in a hundred b. Three in a hundred c. One in a thousand d. Three in a thousand e. Three in ten thousand Answer: a Section: Schizophrenia 10. Historically, many symptoms of schizophrenia recognized today were labeled ____________:

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a. anxiety b. depression c. learning disability d. stress e. madness Answer: e Section: Schizophrenia 11. How do individuals living in collectivistic cultures most commonly address their disturbing psychological problems? a. Help is commonly received from medically trained professional. b. Help is commonly received from family members and close friends. c. Help is commonly thought in museums of magic and sorcery. d. Help is commonly solicited from foreign tourists. e. Help is commonly received from college professors.

Answer: b Section: Psychotherapy 12. Which ethnic group in the United States tends to use mental health services the least? a. Irish Americans b. Russian Americans c. Mexican Americans d. Korean Americans e. Chinese Americans Answer: c Section: Psychotherapy 13. Studies show that suicidal youths are more likely than non-suicidal youths to have been born ___________________. a. outside of the United States. b. inside the United States. c. in Canada. d. in Russia. e. in Japan.

Answer: a Section: Culture and Suicide 14. What is the repressive adaptive style of coping with illness? a. An individual’s desire to seek immediate help b. An individual’s desire to look for spiritual healers c. A tendency of medical professionals to reject medication in therapy d. An individual’s desire to hide the symptoms e. A tendency of medical professionals not to diagnose mental illness Answer: d

Section: Psychotherapy

9.3. True/false questions 71

Chapter 9

1. In Psychology, “folk beliefs” refer to common assumptions about normal and abnormal psychological functioning.

Answer: T Section: Introduction to Chapter 9 2. A detailed description of known diseases and injuries called the DSM-2017 is published by the World Health Organization, a branch of the United Nations.

Answer: F Section: American Background: DSM-5 3. In Caribbean cultures, symptoms that involve a belief that the soul leaves the body after a frightening event and causes unhappiness and sickness are called “Ghost sickness.”

Answer: F Section: Cultural Syndromes 4. “Frigophobia” refers to a culture-bound syndrome occurring in China that is signified by an excessive fear of being cold.

Answer: T Section: Cultural Syndromes 5. People in non–Western cultures tend to “somatize” their distress, whereas people Western cultures have the tendency to “psychologize” it.

Answer: T Section: Depressive Disorders 6. Across cultures, the prevalence of alcohol use and abuse is greater in women than men.

Answer: F Section: Is Substance Abuse Culturally Bound?

7. Michael Phillip’s (2004) research revealed that Schizophrenia was more prevalent in Chinese females than males.

Answer: T Section: Schizophrenia 8. Japan has a high rate of suicide that is comparable to that of the United States.

Answer: T Section: Culture and Suicide 9. In collectivist cultures, compared to individualist ones, there should be more tolerance for people exhibiting histrionic or anti-social traits.

Answer: F Section: Personality Disorders 10. The cultural background of a professional (a psychologist, for example) can influence and often distort his or her perception of psychological and behavioral symptoms in other people.

This is an example of a culture-bound syndrome.

Answer: F Section: Psychodiagnostic Biases 11. The main result of the 1994 major international study is that personality disorders have relatively similar features and that they can be assessed with a reasonably high reliability across different nations, languages, and cultures.

Answer: T Section: Personality Disorders

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12. The combination of Asian cultures' belief in the unity of the mind and body with the Asian tendency not to express feelings openly may lead to the presentation of psychological complaints and the underreporting of somatic symptoms.

Answer: F Section: Depressive Disorders 13. Psychologists report that people in collectivist cultures are more likely to display repressive adaptive style than people from other groups.

Answer: T Section: Psychotherapy 14. Suicide remains the third leading cause of death among African Americans aged 15–19 years old.

Answer: T Section: Culture and Suicide 15. From the relativist perspective, mental illness cannot be understood beyond the cultural context in which it develops.

Answer: T Section: Two Views on Culture and Psychological Disorders

9.4.

Short-answer questions

1. Which European country has the highest suicide rate among Western nations?

Answer: Lithuania Section: Culture and Suicide 2. Personality disorders are viewed as enduring patterns of behavior and inner experience that deviates markedly from what?

Answer: Cultural standards Section: Personality Disorders 3. It was found that about one-half of people from these three countries have a physiological “protective mechanism” against alcohol abuse (i.e. the lack of aldehyde dehydrogenaze).

Answer: Korea, Japan, China Section: Is Substance Abuse Culturally Bound?

4. What is the name of the universally recognized disorder characterized by the presence of delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and disorganized or catatonic behavior?

Answer: Schizophrenia Section: Schizophrenia 5. Name two DSM-5 personality disorders that are diagnosed more frequently in women.

Answer: Dependent, Histrionic, and Avoidant personality disorders Section: Personality Disorders

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Chapter 9

6. Research shows that, in many rural African communities, psychological disorders are primarily associated with behaviors that demonstrate___________.

Answer: strong psychotic features Section: Depressive Disorders 7. The textbook refers to, hikikomori, a complex form of withdrawal behavior observed in Japan.

Such behavior resembles the symptoms of what DSM-5 disorder?

Answer: Schizoid Personality Disorder.

Section: Personality Disorders

8. Your clinical supervisor explains that her new policy requires all therapists and clients to belong to the same ethnic group. What is she trying to achieve by this policy?

Answer: a culture match Section: Culture Match?

9. In terms of personality disorders studied across cultures, what does the term pathologization mean?

Answer: assigning pathological characteristics to ordinary, non-pathological psychological phenomena Section: Critical thinking. Stereotype-based anticipations related to personality disorders.

10. Studies show that suicide rates tend to be higher in those nations that rank high in ____________.

Answer: subjective well-being Section: Culture and Suicide 11. Imagine that you, as a board-certified medical professional, gave your client the following diagnosis: “demonic possession” and then submit your claim to an insurance company. Will the insurance company accept your claim and why?

Answer: Most likely, they will not because your diagnosis should be made within the guidelines of the DSM Section: American Background: DSM-5

9.5.

Essay questions

1. Describe the universalist view of psychological disorders.

2. Describe several cultural variations in the expression of depression.

3. What are the differences between central and peripheral symptoms of psychological disorders?

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Chapter 9

4. Describe a situation in which a culture match between a therapist and a client would not be the best option.

5. Why are clinicians in traditional settings reluctant to give a diagnosis of “depression” to young women?

6. Discuss possible reasons why the study conducted by Michael Phillips and colleagues in China (2004) showed that schizophrenia was more prevalent in Chinese females.

7. Explain the meaning of “tolerance threshold” when referring to personality disorders.

8. Explain the negative consequences of stereotype-based anticipations related to personality disorders.

9. Suicide rates tend to be higher in those nations that rank high on subjective well-being.

Explain this finding.

10. Describe cultural factors likely contributing to suicide.

11. Explain “loss of face” as a psychological factor contributing to suicide.

12. It is reported that people in collectivist cultures are more likely to display repressive adaptive style than people from other groups. Could you explain why?

13. Explain what “stigma of mental illness” is and how cultural norms affect it.

14. Explain why people in non–Western cultures tend to “somatize” their distress, whereas people Western cultures have the tendency to “psychologize” it.

15. Explain idioms of distress. Give several examples.

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Chapter 10

Chapter 10. Social Perception and Social Cognition

10.1. Multiple choice questions (key terms) 1. How do psychologists call psychological tensions caused by the perceived mismatch between attitudes and behavior? a. attribution b. cognitive power c. frustration d. stereotype e. cognitive dissonance Answer: e 2. The tendency to be closed-minded, rigid, and inflexible in one's opinions and subsequent behavior is called “_____________.” a. dogmatism b. attitude c. cognitive dissonance d. egalitarianism e. skepticism Answer: a 3. _________________the process wherein the individual so strongly feels that he or she is a member of a group that he or she adopts its opinions, attitudes, and values. a. attitude b. obedience c. identification d. membership e. cognitive dissonance Answer: c 4. “_____________” refers to the tendency to take credit for our successes and avoid responsibility for our failures. a. Unassuming bias b. Power to judge c. Cognitive dissonance d. Self-centered bias e. Cognitive style of lying Answer: d

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5. What do psychologists call the process through which we seek to explain and identify the causes of the behavior of others and our own actions? a. Self-serving bias b. Unassuming bias c. Social attribution d. Locus of control e. Stereotype Answer: c 6. Traits or characteristics generally attributed to all members of specific groups are called ____________. a. unassuming bias b. cognitive dissonance c. locus of control d. cognitive power e. stereotypes Answer: e 7. The tendency to explain one’s own success as a result of external factors and one’s failure as a result of personal mistakes or weaknesses is called _____________. a. unassuming bias b. locus of control c. cognitive dissonance d. dogmatism e. value Answer: a

8. What do psychologists call a complex belief that reflects a principle, standard, or quality considered by the individual as the most desirable or appropriate? a. Self-serving bias b. Value c. Social attribution d. Locus of control e. Stereotype Answer: b 9. __________________ is the process through which we interpret, remember, and then use information about the social world. a. Social attribution b. Social cognition c. Social value d. Unassuming bias e. Dogmatism Answer: b

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10. Actions that reward those who follow the norms and reprove those who are deviant are called _________________. a. roles b. sanctions c. groupthink d. obedience to authority e. social facilitation Answer: b

11. _____________ A form of social influence in which individuals change their attitudes or/and behavior to adhere to existing social norms. a. conformity b. obedience to authority c. groupthink d. cooperation e. Social facilitation Answer: a 12. A form of social influence in which individuals change their attitudes and/or behavior in order to adhere to existing social norms is called _______________. a. obedience to authority b. social facilitation c. group polarization d. authoritarian power e. conformity Answer: e

13. What is the psychological term for the tendency of group members to shift, as a result of group discussion, toward more extreme positions than those they initially held? a. stereotypes b. disobedience c. conformity shift d. group polarization e. group sanctions Answer: d 14. The tendency of members of groups to adhere to the shared views so strongly that they ignore information inconsistent with those views is called ______________. a. leadership b. group polarization c. groupthink d. group inattention e. sanctions Answer: c

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15. A form of social influence in which one person simply orders one other or others to perform some action(s) is called ____________. a. groupthink b. obedience c. group polarization d. rude behavior e. sanctions Answer: b 16. What do psychologists call the effects upon performance resulting from the presence of others? a. Group polarization b. Sanctions c. Obedience d. Groupthink e. Social facilitation Answer: e 17. The tendency of some group members to exert less effort on a task than they would if working on alone is called _____________. a. laziness b. social loafing c. authoritarian power d. social facilitation e. group polarization Answer: b 18. The degree to which individuals and groups are enmeshed (involved) together is called _____________. a. embeddedness b. involvement quotient c. horizontal collectivism d. individualism e. groupthink Answer: a 19. All forces acting on group members to cause them to remain part of a group, including mutual attraction, interdependence, and shared goals are usually labeled as: a. cohesiveness b. cognitive dissonance c. obedience to authority d. individualism e. groupthink Answer: a

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10.2. Multiple choice questions (comprehension and application) 1. What type of values is associated with exercising control over society and exploiting its natural resources? a. Mastery values b. Democratic values c. Liberal values d. Conservative values e. Harmony values Answer: a Section: Attitudes and Values

2. Individuals who believe in the status quo, advocate self-discipline, and care about social order and tradition share what type of values? a. Democratic b. Liberal c. Conservative d. Socialist e. Reactionary Answer: c Section: Attitudes and Values

3. In the debate about Western and non-Western values, it is argued that, in general, Western values are based on the fundamental beliefs that the nature of human beings is selfish, scarcity is a primary condition of nature and ____________. a. progress means gradual conquest of weaker groups and territories b. happiness is impossible to achieve without knowledge c. happiness is understood as a movement toward a goal d. progress means growth, complexity, competition, and freedom e. suffering is unnecessary and people have to learn how to live without fear Answer: d Section: Western and non-Western values

4. If a researcher observed that most of the individuals from a given sample displayed an unassuming bias, what does this mean? a. The people in this group believe their behavior is the result of their own effort, talents, and skills. b. The people in this group believe their behavior is the result of external factors, such as luck and help from other people. c. The people in this group refused to talk about their own success, but insisted on talking about own mistakes. d. The people in this group said that they had no idea about why they were successful. e. The people in this group did not believe that they were successful at all.

Answer: b Section: Attribution of Success and Failure

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5. Social stereotypes are most likely rooted in____________ because they are more salient and notable. a. age characteristics b. educational opportunities c. weather patterns d. ethnic and racial attributes e. quantity and quality of food Answer: d Section: Stereotypes and Power of Generalizations

6. Which of the following statements can be best associated the frustration-aggression theory of prejudice? a. Prejudice weakens if people are frustrated about their own safety. b. Prejudice weakens when people are scared of an external threat. c. Frustration is not connected to aggression and prejudice is not based on frustration. d. People commit violent acts and then face criticism e. Prejudice is a form of displayed aggression caused by frustration.

Answer: e Section: Prejudice

7. Which of the following statements is not necessarily a reflection of a stereotype? a. All Italians like pizza and spaghetti. b. All men are aggressive. c. All Chinese politicians are corrupt. d. All US presidents were men. e. All Korean performing artists like their ancestors.

Answer: d Section: Stereotypes and Power of Generalizations 8. According to the old Indian caste system, an individual’s social status was primarily ________________. a. achieved in adolescence b. ascribed for boys, but achieved for girls c. achieved in adulthood d. ascribed e. achieved in childhood Answer: d Section: Universal Interaction 9. Which of the following is likely to be an example of an ascribed status? a. After a lengthy interview, Ravi was chosen to be the new manager of the company. b. After checking with the referees, Ravi learned that he won the championship match c. After his 18th birthday, Ravi took a test and received his driver’s license. d. After he was born, Ravi was named the heir (inheritor) to his father’s business. e. After midnight, Ravi became a newly elected member of the Parliament.

Answer: d Section: Universal Interaction

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10. Replications of the Milgram experiment in different countries _____________. a. yielded results substantially different from those obtained originally by Milgram b. failed due to financial problems associated with the cost of these experiments c. were not done due to the subjects’ objections d. yielded similar results, but only in non-democratic countries e. yielded generally similar results Answer: e Section: Following Orders 11. Milgram’s studies revealed that people tend to engage in obedient behavior ______________. a. in ordinary situations b. in highly unusual situations c. only in collectivist cultural groups d. only in individualist cultural groups e. in situations of emergency Answer: a Section: Following Orders 12. Which of the following accurately characterizes obedient behavior? a. People tend to obey when they are told that they are not responsible for their actions. b. People tend to obey less often when they are told that they are not responsible for their obedient actions. c. People tend to ask questions when they are told that they are legally responsible for their obedient actions. d. People tend to get angry when they are told that they are not responsible for their obedient actions. e. People tend to obey more often and out of confusion when they are told that they will be punished for their obedient actions.

Answer: a Section: Following Orders

13. What is the phenomenon opposite of groupthink? a. Group emotion b. Social loafing c. Authoritarian power d. Social facilitation e. Group polarization Answer: e Section: Feeling Good about Some Views

10.3. True/false questions

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1. Evolutionary psychologists suggest that values allow human groups to adjust to their environments. They become embedded in cultures and passed on to new generations.

Answer: T Section: Values 2. Individuals from Western countries are expected to demonstrate a stronger internal locus of control than individuals from non-Western countries.

Answer: T Section: Attribution as Locus of Control 3. Experimental research shows that the principle of cognitive balance does not work outside the psychological laboratories of major European and American universities.

Answer: F Section: Striving for Consistency 4. Persistent gambling may be a behavioral pattern typical for individuals with an external locus of control.

Answer: T Section: Attribution as Locus of Control 5. It is a universal tendency for men to underestimate their own IQ’s when asked to make a guess about their own intelligence.

Answer: F Section: Self-Perception 6. Negative emotions tend to make stereotypes more accessible from memory.

Answer: T Section: Stereotypes and Power of Generalizations 7. According to the deprivation theories of prejudice, people develop a prejudice against other groups when those groups are believed to be frightening or possess something they are not entitled to possess.

Answer: T Section: Prejudice 8. Most myths and fairy tales from all continents show a consistent pattern: “good” characters are those who obtained their success due to their effort and “bad” individuals are those who enrich themselves by harming others or doing nothing.

Answer: T Section: Duty and Fairness 9. People in the United States and Australia perceived stories about initially rich and subsequently poor individuals as more competent and likeable than individuals initially poor and subsequently rich.

Answer: F Section: Duty and Fairness 10. The rules of greeting and introducing oneself to other people appear similar across various ethnic groups.

Answer: T Section: Direct Contacts 11. Overall, collectivist cultures maintain weaker systems of sanctions and rewards related to group behavior as compared to individualist cultures.

Answer: F Section: Universal Interaction

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12. Compared to other national groups, Americans score lower on tests and experiments assessing conformity.

Answer: T Section: Is Conformity Universal Across Cultures?

13. Anthropologists suggest that territorial behavior is not natural for individuals and social groups.

Answer: F Section: Universal Interaction 14. People in individualist cultures are more inclined to belong to a large variety of social groups, but for shorter periods.

Answer: T Section: Universal Interaction 15. The rules of address appear to be comparable across cultures.

Answer: T Section: Direct Contacts 16. Conformity, in general, is more common in individuals from lower socioeconomic standing than individuals from upper-middle class standing.

Answer: T Section: Is Conformity Universal Across Cultures?

17. Conformity is a dichotomous variable.

Answer: F Section: Is Conformity Universal Across Cultures?

18. Unfortunately, the Milgram experiment was not conducted in countries outside the United States and researchers had no opportunity to see if this study had cross-cultural validity.

Answer: F Section: Following Orders 19. Studies show that some national differences exist in the way people maintain eye contact.

Answer: T Section: Direct Contacts

10. 4. Short-answer questions 1. Imagine that a store owner is experiencing an unpleasant state of emotions caused by a mismatch (disparity) between his belief that anger is inappropriate and his angry reaction to the rude behavior of an apparently foreign tourist. What is the psychological term for this state?

Answer: cognitive dissonance Section: Avoiding Inconsistency 2. If a person has a deep-seated belief that all individuals are equals and must share basic interests and receive similar treatment, he/she holds a(n) _____________ value system?

Answer: egalitarian Section: Values

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3. Name the two basic views of morality and justice mentioned in the text.

Answer: justice-based and duty-based Section: Duty and Fairness in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures 4. A dogmatic person would likely respond to new information in a ___________ manner.

Answer: cautious, negative Section: Psychological Dogmatism 5. Studies suggest that individuals from ___________ countries are more likely to employ an unassuming bias in explanations of success and failure.

Answer: Asian and East Asian Section: Attribution of Success and Failure 6. What kinds of emotional experiences are commonly associated with cognitive dissonance?

Answer: unpleasant feelings, frustration, displeasure Section: Avoiding Inconsistency 7. If a person has a fundamental belief in the legitimacy of an unequal distribution of power, resources, and social roles, they are supporting the notion of a(n)________.

Answer: hierarchy Section: Values 8. International surveys show that Americans, for the most part, are described as___________________.

Answer: assertive and open-minded, but antagonistic Section: National Character 9. What is cultural embeddedness?

Answer: degree to which individuals and groups are enmeshed together.

Section: Universal Interaction

10. What is the relationship between power distance and obedience to authority?

Answer: High power distance⎯stronger obedience Section: Following Orders

10.5. Essay questions 1. Explain and give examples of microaggressions.

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2. What is the unassuming bias? Give examples.

3. Describe the differences between Western and non-Western values. Describe the similarities.

4. Why do individuals from Western countries, as a group, tend to display a somewhat stronger internal locus of control?

5. Describe the distinctions between conservative values and values of autonomy.

6. Provide examples of instances in which conformity would be an effective behavioral response.

7. Compare conformity in collectivist and individualist cultures.

8. Are individuals from Western countries more or less likely to engage in social loafing than individuals from non-Western countries? Why? 9. According to cross-cultural replications of Milgram’s studies, how are measures of power distance and rates of obedience related and why?

10. Describe similarities and differences in the rules of address.

11. Explain groupthink. Which cultural factors should affect its manifestations?

12. Explain social loafing. Which cultural factors should affect its manifestations?

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Chapter 11. Personality and the Self

11.1. Multiple choice questions (key terms) 1. Placing males or the masculine point of view at the center of a theory or narrative is usually labeled as: a. feminism with male features b. power distance c. androcentrism d. classic masculinity e. gender identity Answer: C 2. ________________ is a combination, a coexistence, a blend of both male and female behavioral characteristics, features, and reflections. a. feminism b. androcentrism c. the self d. uncertainly avoidance e. androgyny Answer: E

3. _________________ Is the term that stands for a person who tends to be engaged in activities that are naturally rewarding and not necessarily associated with material goals such as money, fame, or high social status. a. a happy person b. autotelic personality c. an outgoing personality d. a Samaritan e. a believer Answer: B 4. What is the term for detaching an individual’s self from the ethnic group with which he or she has been previously associated or is associated now? a. loyalty b. disloyalty c. ethnic disidentification d. ethnic identity e. ethnic profiling Answer: C

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5. This term is traditionally assigned to women, indicting a general set of features correlated with beauty, emotionality, and nurture. a. beauty b. sacrifice c. androgyny d. femininity e. caretaking Answer: D 6. The view that women do not have equal rights and opportunities with men and that global changes are needed to achieve social justice is called: a. power distance b. uncertainty avoidance c. Darwinism d. collectivism e. feminism Answer: E 7. A complex set of behavioral, cultural, or psychological features associated with an individual’s sex is called: a. identity b. gender c. self-esteem d. sexual orientation e. femininity Answer: B

8. Gender roles are prescriptions and expectations assigned to genders on the _____________ continuum. a. female–male b. right-wrong c. accepted-rejected d. gay-straight e. gay-bisexual Answer: A

9. A category that is based on the features that are between distinctly male and female characteristics is called: a. gender b. feminism c. intersex d. heterosexual orientation

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e. middle-of-the-road Answer: C 10. The extent to which individuals believe they can control and affect events is called: a. willpower b. locus of control c. event management d. control event management e. prejudice Answer: B 11. Masculinity, which is traditionally assigned to men, is a general set of features associated with: a. physical strength, decisiveness, and assertiveness b. aggression, greed, and passion c. openness to experience, compassion, and religiosity d. power, wealth, and health e. sense of humor, wit, and greed Answer: A 12. A general assumption about men’s physical and biological superiority over women is labeled as: a. Boys Know Better b. Natural Selection c. Feminism d. Power Distance e. Natural Dominance of Men Answer: E 13. Periodic and profound episodes of happiness, optimism, inner harmony, and creativity are defined as: a. birthdays b. “happy days” c. peak experiences d. positive emotions e. ambivalent emotions Answer: C 14. A person’s general subjective evaluation, both emotional and rational, of his or her own worth is called: a. locus of control b. self-esteem c. uncertainty avoidance d. “ a personal price to pay” e. the self

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Answer: B 15. The term transgender refers to the roles that do not fit into the traditionally assigned __________ a. social status b. obedience to authority c. uncertainty avoidance d. masculinity e. gender dichotomy Answer: E 16. Perceived predominant behavioral and psychological features and traits common in most people of a nation are labeled as “_______________.” a. psychological profile b. general personality trait c. national character d. specific personality trait e. social profile Answer: C 17. The generalized belief that the control of one's reinforcements rests either on controllable internal factors or on uncontrollable external factors is called: a. power b. locus of control c. cognitive dissonance d. dogmatism e. value Answer: B

11.2. Multiple choice questions (comprehension and application) 1. Hazel Markus, a Stanford University professor, conducted a study in which her research team recruited two groups of people from the waiting areas at the San Francisco airport. These groups were: a. from the United States and India b. from North Korea and South Korea c. from Russia and China d. from South Africa and Canada e. from East Asia and from the United States Answer: E Section: Introduction

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2. When the Pew Research Center in Washington, D.C., asked Americans to evaluate the statement, “Success in life is pretty much determined by forces outside our control,” _____ percent disagreed. a. 57 b. 47 c. 37 d. 27 e. 17 Answer: A Section: Locus of Control 3. The teachings on the Four Noble Truths are central to the ________________tradition. a. Christian (Catholic) b. Islamic c. Buddhist d. Jewish e. Christian (Protestant) Answer: C Section: The Autotelic Personality 4. Studies conducted over the years have established_______ self-esteem scores in individuals from East Asian countries compared to people from North America and Europe. a. lower b. higher c. similar d. very unstable e. highly inaccurate Answer: A Section: The Self

5. A study mentioned in the book suggests that the linguistic and behavioral emphasis in a country on kenson (modesty) and enryo (reserve or restraint) lack analogous terms in Western culture. Which country has been mentioned? a. China b. Japan c. Vietnam d. Paraguay e. South Africa Answer: B Section: The Self

6. In India, there still exists a large category of people known for centuries as the Hijra, or the: a. second gender b. second class c. third level d. third gender

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e. fourth class Answer: D

Section: Traditional Cultural Views of the Sexes

7. Modern genetics have established that females have two of the same kind of sex chromosomes (marked XX), while males have two distinct sex chromosomes marked: a. XYZ b. YY c. BB d. AA e. XY Answer: E Section: Evolving Views of the Sexes 8. Women globally, on average, live about _____ years longer than men. a. 3 b. 4 c. 5 d. 7 e. 9 Answer: C Section: Evolving Views of the Sexes 9. About one in every 450 Americans identify as transgender. a. 100 b. 200 c. 350 d. 450 e. 1,200 Answer: D Section: Gender Roles 10. These days, about _____ percent of the world’s heads of government are men. a. 90 b. 80 c. 75 d. 70 e. 65 Answer: A Section: Evolving Views of Gender 11. An individual’s religious identity involves: believing, bonding, acting, and: a. fasting b. praying c. forgiving d. fighting e. belonging Answer: E Section: Religious Identity

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12. Research has shown that bodily symmetry, which is considered a cross-culturally accepted feature of a beautiful body or face, is one of the strongest predictors of _________________. a. stronger immune systems b. aggressive behavior in uncertain situations c. anti-social personality disorder d. unkind and greedy behavior e. high achievement motivation Answer: a Section: Seeing One’s Own Body

11.3. True/false questions

1. The researchers found Facebook users share posts reflecting a focus on their own “selves”— selfies, for example. Renren users in China posts, in contrast, tend to focus on “us” as opposed to the American focus on “me”.

Answer: T

Section: Introduction

2. Research shows, with some exceptions, that individuals from Western countries are more likely to display a strong internal locus of control than individuals from non-Western countries.

Answer: T

Section: Locus of Control

3. Autotelic personalities value the result of their performance more than the performance itself.

Answer: F

Section: The Autotelic Personality

4. As an American, you are more likely than other people in the world to be a volunteer.

Answer: T

Section: On National Character

5. On online dating sites, people routinely portray themselves as taller, more athletic, and thinner than they actually are.

Answer: T

Section: The Self

6. In the United States, the average male is around 5′1″ and he average female is around 5′4″.

Answer: F

Section: Evolving Views of the Sexes

7. Studies show that a gender identity, for most of us, after we establish it, tends to remain stable.

Answer: T

Section: Gender as a Social Construct

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8. Cross-cultural research obtained on samples from more than 25 countries reveals that Gender differences are small compared to individual variation within both male and female groups.

Answer: T

Section: Evolving Views of Gender

9. Most psychologists until the middle of the twentieth century maintained a generally positive view of homosexuality and bisexuality.

Answer: F

Section: Sexual Orientation: Evolving Perceptions

11.4. Short-answer questions 1. Although personality is largely a theoretical concept, it is also very important in psychological practice for at least three reasons: Answer: consistency of traits, their organization, and their causation of behavior Section: What is Personality?

2. Studies show that, compared with Asians, the British and Germans tend to be __________in attention, more oriented toward personal happiness, and ____________in their relationships.

Answer: Less holistic / more egocentric Section: On National Character 3. One of the most comprehensive international studies across 49 countries comparing various personality traits showed that national character stereotypes: Answer: Have very little basis in reality Section: On National Character 4. Sex is not strictly a dichotomous but rather a _____________variable.

Answer: continuous Section: The Sexes and the Intersex 5. Feminism is the view that women do not have equal rights and opportunities with men and that: ________________ Answer: global changes are needed to achieve social justice Section: Evolving Views of Gender 6. In terms of higher education, women outnumber men as university students in every region except __________________ Answer: South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa Section: Evolving Views of Gender

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7. What is the highest form of religious bonding? Describe it.

Answer: It is awe—the emotion of strong and lasting respectful admiration Section: Religious Identity 8. What was the reason why did George Jorgensen, a 25-year-old American artist, photographer, and an Army veteran, went to Denmark?

Answer: To perform a sex change operation Section: Seeing One’s Own Body 9. Sobal and Stunkard (1989 ) reviewed several anthropological studies that measured the correlation between an individual’s body weight and socioeconomic status. The established a remarkable tendency. What was it?

Answer: In rich countries, the correlation is negative: People who are thinner than others tend to be richer than others are as well. In undeveloped countries, in contrast, the correlation is positive: Thinner people, in general, are usually poorer than others who weigh more.

Section: Seeing One’s Own Body

11.5. Essay questions 1. Although personality is largely a theoretical concept, it is also very important in psychological practice for at least three reasons. Discuss them.

2. Describe the differences between “private” and “public” self.

3. Provide examples of the intersex category described in religious and philosophical traditions of the past.

4. Discuss the “national character” concept. Does it have at least some practical validity?

5. Describe the sources of perceptions and stereotypes related to “national characters.”

6. Discuss the relationship between a person’s internal/external locus of control and the person’s overall evaluation of their happiness.

7. Discuss the factors affecting stereotypical perceptions related to national character.

8. The descriptions of the intersex category appear in religious and philosophical traditions dating back many centuries. Give a few examples.

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9. Compare and contrast masculinity and femininity as psychological features.

10. Are there ere are differences between men and women in the prevalence of certain illnesses? Give 2-3 examples.

11. Research shows, with some exceptions, that individuals from Western countries are more likely to display a stronger internal locus of control than individuals from non-Western countries.

Discuss at least three reasons explaining this difference.

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Chapter 12. Applied Cross-Cultural Psychology

12.1. Multiple choice questions (key terms) 1. An individual who has left his or her native country and is unwilling or unable to return to it because of persecution or fear of persecution (because of race, religion, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion) is called a(n) _____________. a. colonist b. settler c. explorer d. immigrant e. refugee Answer: e 2. _____________ refers to a broad range of phenomena concerning “non-material” matters related to faith, trust, and hope, in contrast to “material” matters related to ownership, accumulation of possessions, and competition. a. Possession b. Spirituality c. Abstract thinking d. Folk philosophy e. Non-traditional thinking Answer: b 3. Which of the following provides the most accurate description of psychological counseling? a. Diagnosing a psychological disorder b. Determining which method of research is best applied to a conflict situation c. Giving financial advice regarding investments in foreign countries d. Giving legal advice regarding investments in foreign countries e. The act of providing psychological direction to a decision or course of action Answer: e 4. What is the professional term for a set of planned changes aimed at improving organizational and individual performance and well-being in a private business or government company? a. Psychological counseling b. Advice in difficult business circumstances c. Organization development d. Developmental psychology e. Standard operation procedure Answer: c

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5. The restrictive practice of reviewing and determining what is appropriate for publication or broadcasting according to moral, ideological, or political considerations is called ____________. a. rights violation b. censorship c. psychological brainwashing d. indoctrination e. psychological propaganda Answer: b 6. Pseudoscience: Knowledge and its applications that all appear scientific but are not based on: a. popular beliefs b. basic human values c. laboratory research d. approval from key government offices e. the scientific method Answer: e

12. 2. Multiple choice questions (comprehension and application) 1. Many psychologists differ in their opinions on child labor. Some believe that it is wrong without exception. Others attempt to take cultural traditions into account. Has the United Nations universally rejected child labor? a. No, there is no such a rejection. b. Yes, only in developed countries. c. Yes, only in case of girls. Boys are allowed to work. d. No, only in Africa. e. Yes, it has been universally rejected.

Answer: e Section: Human Rights 2. According to opinion polls, how have attitudes toward immigrants in the United States changed over the last several years? a. Attitudes did not change. b. Attitudes have been “cooling.” c. Attitudes have been improving. d. Attitudes have changed toward legal immigrants only e. Attitudes have changed toward women only Answer: b Section: Working with Immigrants

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3. Elfenbein and Ambady (2003) showed that a person’s facial recognition of emotions in different national groups is more accurate if ____________. a. this person did not have prior knowledge of those groups b. this person is a woman c. this person is a young professional d. this person has had significant contact with those groups. e. this person speaks two languages Answer: d Section: Business Decisions

4. Studies show that professionals are generally overconfident in their judgments or decisions and that overconfidence in general knowledge is typically stronger among __________ than among Western subject groups a. Latin American b. African c. Middle Eastern d. Asian e. Iranian Answer: d Section: Business Decisions 5. In terms of conflict resolution, in countries with high-powered distance, disagreements between two groups are typically resolved with the help of __________________. a. “magical” powers and other paranormal activities b. money c. formal rules and procedures d. friendly advice from friends e. negotiations and voting Answer: c Section: Business Decisions 6. Defenders of political censorship argue that restrictions on information are necessary to protect________. a. mental health b. social order and stability c. cultural norms of collectivism d. uncertainty avoidance e. individual rights Answer: b Section: Working and Serving Abroad 7. Which one is not a common symptom of acculturative stress? a. Nostalgic symptoms b. Loss of control c. Hallucinations and delusions d. Dissatisfaction over language barriers e. Dissatisfaction over perceived differences Answer: c Section: Working with Immigrants

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8. Spiritual factors such as strong religious beliefs, prayer, meditation, and combinations of these, affect at least four interacting physiological systems: the brain, the endocrine system, ________________ and ____________________. (name the remaining two) a. the muscle system and the bones b. body temperature and resistance to infections c. the spinal cord and kidneys d. the heart and the lungs e. the peripheral nervous system and the immune system Answer: e Section: Medical and Counseling Decisions

12.3. True/false questions 1. In the United States, African Americans have the highest mortality on most causes of death, along with Native Americans.

Answer: T Section: Health 2. Younger and unmarried immigrants (age and marital status) are more likely to be registered voters in the United States.

Answer: F Section: Working with Immigrants 3. A study of Americans with both Japanese and European ancestors showed that those who looked distinctly Japanese tended to associate more with Japanese American identity. Yet those who looked distinctively European associated more with European American identity.

Answer: T Section: Working with Immigrants 4. Less education typically implies increased poverty for the family as well as the intergenerational transmission of poverty.

Answer: T Section: Medical and Counseling Decisions 5. There is a common folk belief that there is no such thing as mental disorder. All psychological dysfunctions are a form of punishment for sinful or inappropriate behavior in the past.

Answer: T Section: Medical and Counseling Decisions 6. As applied to cross-cultural psychology, “organization development” means the creation of an atmosphere that makes people feel that they all belong to the same cultural group.

Answer: F Section: Business Decisions 7. A common opinion within the field of psychology today is that it is reasonable to work within the client’s belief system and the culture-specific components of his or her illness, without necessarily endorsing the validity of such beliefs Answer: T Section: Medical and Counseling Decisions

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8. On the basis of such comparative studies, researchers have found evidence that meditation and prayer do not affect any physiological or psychological processes of an individual.

Answer: F Section: Medical and Counseling Decisions 9. Contemporary science has no evidence that methods associated with spirituality improve recovery from acute illness.

Answer: T Section: Medical and Counseling Decisions 10. Contemporary science has evidence that that deeply religious people have a higher life expectancy.

Answer: F Section: Medical and Counseling Decisions 11. A person’s recognition of emotions in different national groups is more accurate if this person has had significant contact with those groups.

Answer: T Section: Business Decisions 12. While Christian, Jewish, Islamic, and other religious scholars are generally in favor of lifesupport machines, their opinions diff er about when life support should be discontinued.

Answer: T Section: Health

12.4. Short-answer questions 1. Psychologists have different views on when an individual’s life ends. What is the official guideline or principle that defines the end of human life in the United States?

Answer: brain death Section: A case in Point: Life and Death

2. Studies show that a key source in the transmission of AIDS in Africa is: Answer: men who migrate to urban areas in search of work, where they have unprotected sex with HIV-infected prostitutes before returning to their rural areas and unintentionally infecting their wives Section: Health 3. As a managing editor of a popular website that specializes in international news, you refuse to post (publish) a picture of a U.S. diplomat changing her clothes in a locker room. Some of your subordinates complain that your action is political censorship. You reply that there is no politics in your action because you follow your own standards of decency. What type of censorship is this?

Answer: Moral Section: Working and Serving Abroad

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4. In 2003, why did the Egyptian government ban the Hollywood blockbuster Matrix Reloaded?

Answer: the movie touches on the sensitive subject of God and creation Section: Working and Serving Abroad

5. Does a university-trained professional have an obligation to raise doubts in the minds of the local population about the validity of supernatural beliefs explaining the nature and causes of psychological problems?

Answer: it is reasonable to work within the client’s belief system and culturespecific components of his or her illness, without necessarily endorsing the validity of such beliefs Section: Medical and Counseling Decisions 6. What is the United Nations’ contemporary policy regarding birth rates in the world’s poor regions?

Answer: The policy is to lower birth rates Section: Health

7. What was the general comparative goal of the project by Iwin Leenen and colleagues conducted in poor rural areas in Guatemala?

Answer: To see if a model of counseling intervention used in Mexico would be effective in Guatemala Section: Health 9. Why are many illegal immigrants afraid to speak up against inhumane practices and customs such as domestic violence and psychological abuse?

Answer: for fear of dishonoring their families or exposing their family members to arrest or deportation.

Section: Working with Immigrants

12.5. Essay questions 1. Give examples of cultural customs that contradict the United Nations’ position on the rights of women and children.

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2. Explain the reasons suggested by men in developing countries that justify high fertility rates.

3. Describe two areas (mentioned in the text and related to international business negotiations) in which two negotiating sides should arrange an early agreement or understanding.

4. Describe different cultural beliefs related to death that might affect medical decisions.

5. “Describe 3 different cultural beliefs and practices related to mental illness.”

6. Discuss the negative impact of acculturative stress on educational success of international students.

7. Give examples of a conflict between cultural customs and the law.

8. Why, in Africa (for example), are many doctors often unwilling to record AIDS as the cause of a person’s death?

9. Why can spiritual-based coping be a useful strategy to improve the quality of life for people with some crippling injuries?

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