PART ONE: Strategies for Reading and Writing Arguments CHAPTER 1 Understanding Persuasion: Thinking Like a Negotiator APPROACHING THE TOPIC A major goal of this chapter is to help students understand the nature of argument. Bombarded by ads and television images of shouting heads, students may perceive argument as a battle, a verbal call to arms in which the loudest opponent wins. Argument might also be seen as forceful overstatement or exaggeration to make a point. Students need to understand that argumentation is not a shouting match. Rather, it is an art requiring reason, logic, and evidence to convince others. The work that goes into crafting an argument essay takes time, reflection, and extensive research. The ultimate goal of an argument essay is to convince a reader to change his or her thinking about a particular issue or to take a particular action. Helping students appreciate the differences among debate, dialogue, and deliberation is a good introduction to the complex nature of argumentation. Debate is the act of presenting an argument and being challenged by someone with a different view. A student must learn to formulate a claim, to provide reasons in support of that claim, and to anticipate opposition to his or her argument. Dialogue refines the nature of argumentation and involves listening and sharing ideas with those who hold different views. Unlike debate, dialogue is a way to discover what others think about a particular issue. It is about listening. Deliberation is the process of considering and evaluating the perspectives from all sides of an issue and reaching an informed conclusion about that issue. Deliberation enhances one’s understanding of the common and conflicting concerns. To test students’ awareness of how arguments pervade social exchanges, ask students to brainstorm lists of arguments they have heard, whether in the media, at home, in the dorm, or on the street. It might also be useful to have students (alone or in groups) look up the definitions of words such as argument, debate, confrontation, and negotiation. Then ask them which strategy they would likely use in a disagreement with their parents, a friend, a clerk in a store, a policeman, the president of their school, or the president of the United States. What makes them choose one definition of argumentation over another in order to make their point?
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ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING TAKING A “WAR OF WORDS” TOO LITERALLY DEBORAH TANNEN 1. Tannen points out that, instead of exploring the many facets of an issue, the media prefer to make everything a battle. Controversy sells and conflict is interesting. The problem is that, by assuming a polar position and defending it to the death, we close our ears to other points of view. It becomes a situation where everyone is talking and no one is listening. Newspapers employ provoking and often adversarial headlines designed to stir up reader interest. Reporters endeavor to reveal all the hidden dirt on a public figure—rarely highlighting positive things the individual may have done. Class discussion may include a debate regarding the political battles currently taking place in Congress, in the financial industry, or regarding social security reform. News media aren’t the only culprits here. Most television talk shows feature adversarial confrontations like the one featured in Tannen’s article. In fact, most political “talk shows” are scream fests, where pundits yell over each other like kids in a schoolyard. Or, reporters deliberately goad their subjects and play to the audience’s presumed bias to the topic. Have students consider the heated debates fanned by the media regarding taxes, gun control, health care, immigration policy, and the war in Afghanistan. 2. By taking sides, we may block out any reasonable perspective that the other side may present. In other words, we prevent consensus. Gun control could be one example. One side says ban all guns (guns kill people), and the other says we have the constitutional right to bear arms (people kill people). Neither side wants to listen to the other, and very little progress has been made on the issue because no one is willing to give up any “ground.” Students should come up with many examples of how toxic political differences make for nearly impossible resolution on hot issues. 3. Students’ answers will vary. 4. Debate is often encouraged in many classrooms, especially in higher education. While the objective is usually to encourage discussion, argument is often the end result. The problem is that once arguments get really going, it is difficult to return the class to a more objective and thoughtful level. In some cases, students may become so angered at each other that shouting matches result. Tannen points out that this method of inquiry prevents productive discussion and eliminates the possibility for consensus. The “winner-take-all” approach to arguments may prevent meaningful dialogue. The inflexibility of this approach rarely solves the problem. In a situation where somebody “wins” and somebody “loses,” there is bound to be resentment. In your effort to get your point across, you may forget the central issues and alternative viewpoints. Moreover, when you are on the losing side, you may be unlikely to adopt the “winning” point of view anyway. 3
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING THE CASE AGAINST TIPPING MICHAEL LEWIS 1. Probably not. But Lewis makes a valid point that tipping has become more like a tax, rather than representing appreciation for excellent service. Lewis wants to alert readers to this growing trend in our society, perhaps to motivate a change in behavior. Lewis explains why he feels uncomfortable tipping, and not tipping. On the one hand, he feels that it is a shakedown and also a holdover from a more servant-driven era of history. He also feels that when tipping is obligatory, it ceases to have any meaning. 2. Students’ answers will vary. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING A GENERATION OF SLACKERS? NOT SO MUCH CATHERINE RAMPELL 1. Student answers will vary. 2. The author believes that the older generation’s criticism of the younger generation is certainly nothing new. Such criticism is common across generations. However, two things distinguish the criticism as unique: 1) in general, Generation Y isn’t contesting that they are more self-centered, less patient, and more lazy. They seem to agree that the older generation worked harder and planned better. Further, technology has contributed to this view. However, the author also notes that Gen Y contributes more time to community service than past generations, defying the slacker stereotype. 3. The author observes: “They [Generation Y] can access just about any resource, product or service anywhere from a mere tap on a touch screen. And as many critics have noted, it’s also easier to get A’s.” Moreover, they study less than their predecessors while in college, and are more likely to get financial help from their parents. Rampell uses sources with quantifiable data to back up her statements. 4. Students’ answers will vary. Ask students to discuss if they think there is anything behind the belief that Generation Y is a generation of “slackers.” 5. Students’ answers will vary. 6. Students’ answers will vary. 7. Ask students to consider the reasons the author titled her article this way. Does it encourage them to read the piece? Does it help lead the audience? Set up an argument? Explain. 4
ANSWERS TO CHAPTER- END EXERCISES 1. a) arguable b) arguable c) not arguable d) arguable e) arguable f) not arguable g) not arguable h) not arguable i) arguable j) arguable k) arguable l) arguable m) arguable n) arguable o) not arguable p) arguable q) arguable r) not arguable 2. Students’ answers will vary. 3. Students’ answers will vary. 4. Students’ answers will vary.
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CHAPTER 2 Reading Arguments: Thinking Like a Critic APPROACHING THE TOPIC The focus in this chapter is on critical reading. Students need to develop the patience and skill to analyze, absorb, and question what they read on many different levels. Critical reading is active reading that looks beyond the surface of words and thoughts on the printed page to explore their meaning and significance. The critical reader does not accept a writer’s ideas at face value but digs deeper into the text to weigh the writer’s claims, evaluate the writer’s evidence, and question the assumptions behind the writer’s ideas. The various strategies for critical reading that are discussed in this chapter help the student accomplish this. Previewing the reading, skimming the reading, annotating the reading, summarizing the reading, and outlining the reading are just a few of the ways a student can learn to read critically. Stress that, although this process might seem laborious, it helps students see the infrastructure or the “bones” of an essay. To better understand critical reading, ask students to discuss in groups the approach they take to reading the following: a restaurant bill; an email from a close friend; a college catalogue entry outlining the courses necessary for their degree; an article in the local paper regarding a traffic accident involving a friend; a print ad for a new model car; a magazine exposé of medication they take for a serious health problem; an article in a national news magazine about the war in Afghanistan. Ask them to discuss the different levels of reading skills they use in each situation and why. Can they define different reading styles? Different approaches? Different concerns? ANSWERS TO CHAPTER END EXERCISES 1. 2.
Students’ answers will vary. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l.
ad hominem non sequitur, begging the question slippery slope, ad populum non sequitur red herring, ad hominem false analogy non sequitur circular reasoning hasty generalization, and post hoc, ergo propter hoc false analogy stacking the deck ad populum
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CHAPTER 3 Finding Arguments: Thinking Like a Writer APPROACHING THE TOPIC A student’s first major step in writing a good argument is deciding what to write about and how to develop one’s ideas. And that isn’t always easy. Students need to realize that their immediate world—like the greater one around them—offers countless possibilities for argumentation. If students are stuck for a topic, have them consult their campus newspaper, the local newspapers, billboards and bulletin boards, radio talk shows, and even conversations at local eating spots to discover issues that people are debating. Once they arrive at a topic, they need to know how to get started and to develop a topic. Have them try some of the techniques discussed in this chapter—brainstorming, clustering, free writing, asking questions, and engaging in dialogue. You might even have them break up into three or four groups, then give them a word with which to free-associate, moving from one person to the next. By the last student in the circle, an issue worth arguing will probably surface—and one they may like to write about and have some ideas to explore. Of course, whatever topics they arrive at should be suitable for argumentation as well as narrow and manageable. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING WHAT’S THE RUSH? STEPHANIE BOWER 1. Bower states her claim in the first paragraph, “Because of these limitations and shortcomings, local television news has developed a reputation for journalistic mediocrity. With dozens of quality online news sources available for consumption at your convenience, local television news faced more competition than ever. Local newscasts must reconsider their responsibilities and their approach. Otherwise, mediocrity will result in obsolescence.” Students’ answers will vary as to whether they agree with this claim or not. Invite students to respond with their own viewpoints based upon experience. 2. Bower kept her topic to the issue of local television news programs and provided many reputable sources to back her viewpoint. Most students are likely to agree that her argument was accessible and relevant to her claim. 3. Students’ answers will vary. 4. Limited financial resources seem to be the primary reason for local news coverage mediocrity. Bower also cites poor reporting skills and production laziness—it is easier to get a feed than send a reporter out to a scene. Ask students to explain why they feel these reasons make sense—or not. 5. Students’ answers will vary. 7
6. Bower offers several suggestions, all of which may be realistically implemented, but station politics and “best practices” could interfere with any changes to the format followed by local broadcasts. She suggests the following improvements: 1) jazzy, but empty, promotional graphics introducing stories or newscasters could be shortened or even cut entirely; 2) stories on back-to-back programs could air less frequently; 3) leave national and international coverage to the national network programs; 4) feature fewer teasers and make sure teasers that are used are on target and not mere fluff. 7. Students’ answers will vary. 8. Students’ answers will vary.
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CHAPTER 4 Addressing Audiences: Thinking Like a Reader APPROACHING THE TOPIC The objective for this chapter is twofold: to get students to understand who their audience is, and to encourage them to adapt their arguments to this particular audience. Identifying one’s audience comes from asking the right questions: Who are my readers? What is their approximate age? gender? educational level? socioeconomic status? political and/or religious affiliation? profession? Also, students must ask themselves: How do I want them to respond to my argument? How can I persuade them to listen to my ideas? What values and beliefs do we share? What similar common experiences have we had? After identifying the audience, students must adapt different aspects of the argument to suit the audience: the kind of language to use (e.g., professional or scholarly vocabulary vs. straightforward prose); the tone that would best appeal (e.g., humorous, serious, emotional, or dispassionate); the reasons that would best persuade; and the outside authorities that will most impress readers. ANSWERS TO SAMPLE ARGUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS “LET’S BAN ALL FLAVORS OF CIGARETTES” DERRICK JACKSON 1. Jackson argues that the Food and Drug Administration’s ban on candy- and fruit-flavored cigarettes is misleading because it fails to include menthol-flavored cigarettes. While candyand fruit-flavored cigarettes make up only one percent of the market, menthol-flavored cigarettes make up 30 percent of the market. Jackson makes the point that “as long as this exemption exists, it means that government coffers are more important then the coffins for the annual 443,000 lives lost every year to tobacco.” He claims that smokers of menthol cigarettes find it more difficult to stop smoking. Additionally, he observes that the failure to ban menthol cigarettes has racist overtones, since 80 percent of black smokers prefer menthol. He argues that the FDA has an obligation to ban menthol cigarettes. 2. Jackson addresses an audience who most likely shares his distain for the tobacco industry. For instance, he refers to “cancer-stick observers” and to “Big Tobacco,” thus making an allusion to “Big Brother” of George Orwell’s dystopian novel, 1984. He is relentless in his criticism of bureaucrats who put government tax revenues above the 443,000 lives lost every year to tobacco and of the FDA that has failed to ban menthol cigarettes. He even makes the charge that this exemption is racist since 80 percent of tobacco smokers prefer menthol cigarettes. He assumes his audience is politically savvy, sophisticated, and well read, as he makes references to the tax implications of the ban, the American Legacy Foundation’s response to the ban, and the response of industry marketing executives. 3. In Chapter 4, every writer addressing the issue of cigarette smoking (Jackson, Gori, and Cavallaro) makes an impassioned argument for his or her point of view. Each writer strongly 9
stresses evidence supporting his or her point of view and does not spend much time trying to state or understand the opposing point of view. Nevertheless, the tone of each essay, though impassioned, is fair and well thought out. 4. Jackson does not antagonize his reader because he assumes that readers agree with him. If a reader happened to be an executive from a tobacco company, he or she would likely feel they were unfairly represented, as in paragraph 10, where the tobacco CEO of Lorillard defends his plans to continue producing menthol cigarettes and discusses “brand equity” and “Key markets where the opportunity—that is, menthol opportunity—is greatest.” Or in paragraph 11, where the CEO of Reynolds American talks about key markets for menthol cigarettes, seeing “a lot of additional Hispanic in that demographic…” 5. Jackson may be guilty of stacking the deck as he cites no references that in any way present a positive view of the cigarette industry. CEOs are seen as soulless industrialists. Likewise, government is seen as misrepresenting the scope of this bill, hoping most people would believe the ban of candy- and fruit-flavored cigarettes to be far more significant than it is. The politicians omit the fact that those cigarettes represent one percent of cigarettes smoked. Both government officials and cigarette manufacturers are presented as duplicitous. 6. Jackson establishes common ground with the reader by being highly readable, on the side of the victimized smoker, and against irresponsible profiteering. 7. The purpose of Jackson’s essay was to demonstrate the hollow nature of the FDA’s ban on candy- and fruit-flavored cigarettes. THE BOGUS “SCIENCE” OF SECONDHAND SMOKE GIO BATTA GORI 1. Gori tackles the issue of the impact on health of second-hand smoke: He asks, how real is that threat, and, in fact, is there any scientifically reliable way it can be measured? As a scientist, his thesis is, “No measure of cumulative lifetime secondhand smoke exposure was ever possible, so the epidemiologic studies estimated risk based not only on an improper marker of exposure, but also on exposure data that are illusory.” He debunks the idea promulgated by some that any exposure to secondhand smoke, no matter how minimal, is dangerous and that such exposure will inevitably lead to cancer or cardiovascular disease. He claims that prominent anti-smokers are, in some cases, deliberately ignoring what science so plainly proves—that a quantifiable relationship between exposure to secondhand smoke and lung and cardiopulmonary disease cannot be established. 2. It seems that Gori assumes his audience is misinformed and gullible, that his audience has bought the secondhand smoke argument, applying no analytical thought. He refers to “policymakers” and “activists” who want the government to “crack down on secondhand smoke exposure” given what the “science” has said about such exposure. He devotes the first three paragraphs to outlining popularly accepted ideas about secondhand smoke. Gori devotes the remainder of the essay to explaining the imperfection and unreliability of scientific studies that support these mistaken views. He is very thorough and succinct. 10
3. Gori focuses on proving how current studies professing to demonstrate the dangers of secondhand smoke are poorly structured and executed. He does a good job explaining the weakness of these studies as in paragraphs 6 and 7, where he demonstrates the inadequacies of recall regarding secondhand smoke experiences. 4. Gori seems a bit fed up with his audience and anti-secondhand-smoke proponents. In paragraph 11, he mocks proponents saying, “It has been fashionable to ignore the weakness of ‘the science’ on secondhand smoke.” He refers to the Faustian bargain in which people take a blind eye to the weakness of studies in the belief that the eradication of secondhand smoke is a higher good. He refers to the gullibility in these studies in paragraph 12 as the “tyranny of deception.” 5. Gori demonizes the gullible public to an extent when he writes in a mocking fashion, “Presumably, we are grown-up people, with a civilized sense of fair play, and dedicated to disciplined and rational discourse.” Gori admonishes or scolds readers in an attempt to enlighten them. 6. Gori communicated effectively, not so much by establishing common ground as by pointing out in a rigorously logical way the common misperceptions people have about secondhand smoke. 7. The purpose of this essay was successfully accomplished in the first half of the piece (paragraphs 1–9) by a thoroughly logical parsing of the criteria for a legitimate scientific study.
SMOKING: OFFENDED BY THE NUMBERS DANISE CAVALLARO 1. While over four million smokers die annually from complications connected to cigarette use, and another 57,000 die from diseases caused by secondhand smoke, the cigarette industry is still doing a strong business. Cavallaro also proposes that cigarettes should be banned in movies targeted at younger audiences. 2. Cavallaro is addressing an informal audience, most likely her peer group of college students. Her tone is conversational, and she makes several jokes. 3. Cavallaro uses facts and figures to support her viewpoint, but does not provide much balance by way of alternative viewpoints. 4. Cavallaro speaks directly to the audience and acts as if members are will agree with her view that smoking is dangerous and bad for teens. 5. There are a few logical fallacies in Cavallaro’s argument. First, she taps into ad populum, appealing to a group mentality. There is even a touch of ad misericordiam, in that she implies 11
if we don’t change current smoking practices, teens will die. Students can determine whether her data “stack the deck” in favor of her argument. 6. Cavallaro establishes common ground through humor, statistics, and common experience— everyone knows a smoker or has a family member who smoked. She appeals to common experience. 7. The purpose of the essay is to encourage both cigarette education programs for teens and the suspension of cigarette use in popular media toward the greater goal of improving public health. ANSWERS TO CHAPTER END EXERCISES 1. Students’ answers will vary. 2. Three reasons in favor of each claim are: a. * Snowboarders tend to be young, reckless males who take risks. * Snowboarders jeopardize the slopes of family skiers. * Snowboarders tend to ski at extreme speeds. b. * A 55-mile speed limit will reduce the number of fatal accidents. * A 55-mile speed limit allows for more reaction time. * A 55-mile speed limit nationwide takes the guesswork out of traveling on highways. c. * Advertising condoms on television would help remove the embarrassment associated with talking about them. * Advertising condoms on television would publicize their benefits. * Advertising condoms on television could help reduce sexually transmitted diseases. d. * Denying federal aid to students with drug convictions sends a clear message to young people on the ramifications of drug use. * The government should not assist students who break the law. * Students will have a response to peer pressure: “I can’t; I could lose my loan.” Three reasons to oppose each claim are: a. * Snowboarding provides a good, athletic outlet for teens. * Snowboarders often stay on slopes specifically designated for that purpose. * Snowboarders exercise more caution because they know they are monitored closely by the ski patrol. b. * A 55-mile per hour speed limit is unrealistic since few people drive that slowly. * A 55-mile per hour speed limit will increase commuting time. * A 55-mile per hour speed limit may increase the traffic jams on highways. c. *Advertising condoms on television may send the message that sexual promiscuity is permissible. * Advertising condoms on television may offend some people. * Advertising condoms on television could encourage teen experimentation. d. * Students with a drug conviction shouldn’t be penalized for what could be only one mistake. * Refusing federal aid could make students drop out of school; less educated people may be more likely to break the law again. 12
* Refusing federal aid to students in this category is too vague; isn’t there a difference between a drug dealer and a teen who tries pot? 3. Students’ answers will vary. 4. Students’ answers will vary. 5. The connotations of the following words include: a. Weird: implies that something is odd or wrong with her choice. Exotic: of an intriguing nature and foreign in a positive way. Unusual: different from the expected, may be good or bad. b. Polluting: gives an impression of chemical and environmental dangers. Stinking up: a less formal, slang expression implying distaste. Fouling: a sense of toxicity, dangerous to health. c. Unaware: simply uninformed, doesn’t know the facts. Ignorant: implies stupidity or lack of education. Unconscious: gives the impression of being oblivious to one’s surroundings. d. Popular: part of a movement approved by a large group and in vogue. Trendy: a passing fad, not likely to last; without permanence. Common: part of an established way of thinking. e. Stomped: implies anger, hostility, and some level of immaturity. Marched: seems purposeful, with determination. Stepped: she simply left. 6. a. Ignoring the weakness of arguments regarding the dangers of secondhand smoke is compared to a Faustian bargain. This metaphor suggests the consequences of deliberate blindness to scientific truth will have ominous consequences. b. Using a metaphor “warts” and “dirt” are the flaws or weakness of the subjects of biographies that stress the negative in a person’s life. c. Personification is used as colleges or universities are personified as a person who winks to suggest overlooking or tolerating something—in this case, binge drinking on college campuses. d. The cup on the counter is compared to a gesture of thanks. This implied metaphor works well. e. A simile is used to compare the disappearance of the emotional authenticity of young girls to the disappearance of ships in the Bermuda Triangle. In both cases, the disappearance is sudden and inexplicable. f. Natural selection is personified: pushing buttons “that coax us toward adaptive choices.” g. Using a metaphor, racial profiling is compared to a tool. 13
h. Metaphor is used when cigarettes are compared to “cancer-sticks” and personification is used when the tobacco industry is compared to a person called “Big Tobacco” who closes “the candy store on cigarettes flavored like Hershey’s or Life Savers.” i. Simile is used as censored books are compared to witches burned at the stake because they were thought to be dangerous. 7. It is not that we are unconcerned with space exploration; it is that many Americans do not understand what these untold billions of dollars can accomplish. While significant advances have been made in space research, we ask ourselves: Is life any safer? Are material goods more abundant? Has the expense extended our life expectancy or improved our overall health? The answer is no. Congressional leaders must realize that the nation’s urgent problems of crime, homelessness, and unemployment are here on earth. No government budget should be spared, including NASA’s. While some people may object to cutbacks, they must remember that our tax dollars are limited. Overall, spending money on space exploration is wasteful.
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CHAPTER 5 Shaping Arguments: Thinking Like an Architect APPROACHING THE TOPIC As simple as it sounds, the three essential components to an argument are the beginning, the middle, and the end. Every student can probably recite this litany. However, unless each of these components is executed fully and achieves its purpose, an essay will feel incomplete, truncated, or misshapen. In the introduction, students should know that it is here that their topic is introduced. Also, here they should establish their particular appeal, whether to readers’ reason, emotions, or sense of ethics—or some combination. Finally, and most importantly in the introduction, the writer identifies his or her position on the topic. In the middle of the argument, the writer may accomplish all or most of these steps: provide background information, respond to other points of view, present reasons in support of his or her claim, and anticipate possible objections to reasons. At the argument’s end, the writer summarizes the argument and reasserts its claim. To reinforce these ideas, one strategy is to bring in a few sample arguments from the editorial pages of different newspapers and magazines. Pass out photocopies of different introductions to the class and have students discuss the different strategies the authors employed to begin their arguments. Which were most effective, and why? Which were least effective, and why? Do the same with the authors’ conclusions and have the class discuss which were most and least effective and why. Next, have students consider the middle of the essay, those core paragraphs which provide the background information. Have them consider why the issue is significant, how people are affected by it, who in particular would be most affected, the factors that have caused the problem or situation to develop, and the consequences if the situation is not corrected. Although this will be handled in the next chapter in more detail, have students examine the evidence, the supporting facts, statistics, or other hard information that readers need in order to follow the authors’ reasoning. Furthermore, have students evaluate the terminology and tone of the presentation. Were these effective? Persuasive? Although there are many different kinds of arguments, in this text we address two basic types: the position and the proposal. In a position argument, the writer addresses the ethical or moral aspects of a controversy and writes an argument designed to change the audience’s feelings or positions about an issue. A position argument does not offer the solution. Rather, it tries to persuade the audience that a problem—one not seen or understood—exists. In a proposal argument, the writer not only identifies a problem but also recommends a solution that will result in real change. To best illustrate these basic types of argument—or a combination of the two—have students collect sample arguments from the Internet, books, newspapers and magazines and have them try to classify their findings according to these basic categories or a combination of the two.
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ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS BRING EAST BRIDGEWATER ELEMENTARY INTO THE WORLD AMANDA COLLINS 1. Collins identifies the problem in her second paragraph, making the claim that schools that do not offer foreign language instruction are a disadvantage to students. However, while Amanda offers data from Europe to demonstrate that there is a wide disparity between language instruction in European elementary schools and American schools, students may not necessarily agree that she proves that the problem is significant. Amanda does explain why she feels that the lack of language instruction negatively affects young students, but doesn’t prove that American graduates fail to compete in a global economy. 2. Collins proposes in the section titled “Optimal Solution for East Bridgewater” (paragraph 12) that the school system adopt some version of the Foreign Language in Elementary School (FLES) program. 3. Collins identifies the problem as lack of language instruction—a problem she feels would be solved with the implementation of the FLES program. However, beyond fundraising for the program (“Optimal Solution for East Bridgewater”), she does not explain concretely how the program will overcome the financial obstacles it will certainly face. The solution cannot be proven without being actually tried, and Collins skips this part of the discussion. She does provide detailed information on how the program works, but the issue may require further proof. 4. Much of Collins’ essay assumes that her readers will agree with her viewpoint. There are several objections or questions readers could raise that she fails to address. 1) While foreign language instruction is indeed more common in Europe, where many languages are spoken in a relatively small area, is it necessary for the United States? 2) Parents may not agree that children must learn a foreign language at an early age in addition to math and science. 3) Globalization does not necessarily mean that Americans need to know more languages. 4) While the study “Exploring the Economics of Language,” reports that multi-lingual countries have a competitive edge, one could argue that economically, Americans seem to be doing okay. 5) What happens if fundraising fails to raise revenue? 5. Collins does not mention any other programs to solve the foreign language instruction deficit at East Bridgewater Elementary. 6. Overall, Collins may come across as reasonable, but somewhat biased and a little arrogant. For example, when she wonders why parents aren’t “outraged” that their children aren’t receiving language instruction, she inadvertently insults their ability to make judgments regarding their children’s academic programs.
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ANSWERS TO CHAPTER END EXERCISES Questions 1–8: Students’ answers will vary, for this section, but encourage students to think about the relationship between what they say and the order in which they say it. Why is structure important? In what ways can it make or break an argument? Can they think of examples of times where they found themselves distrusting a source because of the way an argument was framed?
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CHAPTER 6 Using Evidence: Thinking Like an Advocate APPROACHING THE TOPIC A key objective of this chapter is to get students to identify and use acceptable forms of supporting evidence. In the text, we divided evidence into four major categories: personal experience, outside authorities, factual references and examples, and statistics. Regardless of which kinds of evidence students decide to use, it is critical to develop the skill to evaluate the validity of the evidence. This would include knowing the kinds of tests to which one must subject evidence by asking key questions. One useful strategy to help students to evaluate support for their own arguments is to hand out a copy of an essay from the textbook or from some other source. Give students enough time to read the piece, and then ask them to apply these questions: • Is the evidence sufficient to support the point the author is making? • Is the evidence detailed enough? • Is the evidence relevant? • Is the evidence up-to-date and verifiable? • Is the evidence slanted or lacking in objectivity? Hopefully, after some good class discussion, students will get a sense of how effective the evidence is in their own papers. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS PRAYER IN PRISON: RELIGION AS REHABILITATION ARTHUR ALLEN
1. Put simply, Allen is arguing that religious anti-recidivism programs for convicts are a better solution than punishment-based programs. He bases this information on data collected from the Canada Safety Council. His pro/con list may have compared punishment-based programs to religious-based programs. 2. The author seems to embrace a religious viewpoint. It would appear that his target audience is law enforcement decision-makers, but that is ambiguous. In fact, his audience seems to be poorly defined. If the author is indeed religious himself, it may skew his viewpoint in favor of religious anti-recidivism programs. 3. Allen uses Websites, books, and studies to reference his points. He seems to rely primarily on the Canada Safety Council for statistical data, and he quotes William Bennett as well. Both offer conservative viewpoints that might be biased in favor of his argument. 4. There are a few holes in Allen’s argument that may undermine his viewpoint. First, his use of the Canada Safety Council for his statistics may seem strange to a reader because he is writing about the penury system in the United States. Why not use studies and information from the Department of Justice and the Office of Justice Programs? In paragraph 3, he makes a bandwagon appeal: “There are no questions, however, about [religion-based 18
rehabilitation’s] effectiveness.” No questions? This makes a sweeping assumption. Perhaps of greater concern is the fact that Allen fails to demonstrate in his statistics that the programs were religion-based. In paragraph 5, he makes another assumption not in evidence: “If a person is pushed to the point where he or she needs to sell drugs and rob stores in order to afford to pay the bills…” He assumes that criminals are basically good people “pushed” to a life of crime. He assumes that they rob stores to “pay bills.” If this were indeed the case, his “change from within” argument may hold more weight. But this assumption is not proven in his essay; it is only the author’s assumption of the motivation behind crime. Overall, Allen’s slanted assumptions, statistical bias, and overall lack of substantial fact checking and use of reputable sources undermine the basic point of his argument. 5. Students’ answers will vary.
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CHAPTER 7 Establishing Claims: Thinking Like a Skeptic APPROACHING THE TOPIC The objective of this chapter is to introduce student writers of arguments to the Toulmin model, which some instructors favor. Stephen Toulmin, a British philosopher and logician, analyzed hundreds of arguments from various fields of politics and law in his book The Uses of Argument. He concluded that nearly every argument has certain patterns and parts: Claim – The assertion you are trying to prove. Grounds – The evidence that supports your claim. Warrant – The assumptions and principles that underlie your claim and connect your claim to the grounds. Backing – The reasons that demonstrate the reliability of your claim. Qualifiers – Words or phrases that show when, how, and why your claim is reliable. Rebuttal – The exceptions to the claim. To illustrate the Toulmin model, we include two controversial essays that take opposite stands on a nasty issue—mothers who kill their newborn babies. The first, by author and neuroscientist Stephen Pinker, provides a very logical but highly provocative argument about infanticide. In his essay, he explains why he thinks mothers sometimes kill their newborn babies. While taking a controversial stand on a disturbing issue, Pinker argues that neonaticide can be viewed as an acceptable form of behavior if seen in the context of our evolutionary ancestors. As Pinker readily admits, the idea is repugnant to civilized society, and he does not advocate its practice. Yet he urges that readers try to understand a context that might drive women to commit such an act. While Pinker’s view is disturbing, for his essay to be persuasive the reader must be willing to accept each of his warrants and the backing he uses to support them. In the chapter, we have isolated and discussed each to demonstrate the careful logic that holds the argument together. In the companion essay, author Michael Kelley attacks Pinker’s claim by questioning each of his warrants and their backing. Dismissing Pinker’s premise as “dishonest” science, Kelley levels criticism at one of Pinker’s sources as “radical”—a lesson to students to carefully choose their sources when summoning evidence. In spite of how repugnant an idea is, such arguments cannot be repudiated unless fully understood. Thus, asking students to put aside their emotional reactions and take a close look at the analysis of Pinker’s argument using the Toulmin method may demonstrate how carefully Pinker has crafted his argument to challenge many of our assumptions about human behavior and motherhood.
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ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ARGUING FOR INFANTICIDE MICHAEL KELLY 1. Kelley claims that despite his prior belief that abortion would not cause an overall devaluation of human life, Pinker’s article, which was printed in The New York Times, indicates that it indeed has. He then proceeds to explain what was wrong with Pinker’s claims and support. 2. Pinker claims that infanticide, in cases such as those recently publicized by the media, is not as morally horrible as we think. Many cultures accept infanticide. Furthermore, mothers instinctively weigh the overall “survival” prospects of the infant when deciding whether to let it live or die. Kelley objects to Pinker’s references from “moral philosophers” regarding what makes one human, his hypothesis on how the mind works, and his argument’s support by Michael Tooley. Kelley attacks Tooley’s reasoning and thus, that of Pinker as well. 3. Kelley largely disregards Pinker’s comments on the actions of a few “depressed new mothers” to compare their actions to that of “millions of mothers.” This allows Kelley to focus on the “monstrosity” of Pinker’s claim. However, Kelley’s omission may actually skip a point he should have addressed—that the action of depressed new mothers is one of the mother’s perception of her own survival, not that of the infant’s. 4. Kelley implies that the legalization of abortion has caused an intellectual and moral shift in American culture typified by the opinions of people such as Pinker. If Pinker, a respected scientist, believes this, and The New York Times, a respected newspaper, prints it, then it must represent the opinions of a larger population. 5. Kelley’s use of words indicates that he may believe that Pinker is leaving himself an out. By rewording Pinker’s warrant this way, he implies to the audience that this is exactly what Pinker was advocating. 6. Euphemizing something means you make it sound less harsh, such as saying “she passed away” instead of “she died.” Kelley proposes that Pinker took the basic ideas from Tooley’s article and made them sound less harsh. This means that Pinker embraces the same ideas as Tooley: he just prettified the language. Kelley reinforces the connection between Pinker and the more radical Tooley by pointing out that Pinker does indeed quote Tooley in his article. Pinker may not actually endorse Tooley’s theories, but Kelley makes it sound like he does. 7. Students’ answers will vary. 8. Students’ answers will vary.
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DID I MISS SOMETHING? STUDENT PAPER 1. The author’s claim is that divorce hasn’t hurt him or affected his well being, despite warnings “experts” have given. Students may agree or disagree with his perspective, depending on their own experience with divorce. How people speak of divorce often depends on their generation—older generations may indeed still discuss it in “lowered tones” while other groups, for whom divorce is perhaps more common, speak of it unabashedly. 2. The author bases his claim on personal experience, perhaps the most convincing evidence he could provide. He describes how he has—or hasn’t—been emotionally affected by his parents’ separation. His description, however, does not acknowledge the opinion of “experts” in the field, who may disagree with his first-hand experience, or question his assertions. 3. Students’ answers will vary, but the author does make good use of cultural assumptions here. Most people would agree that love is the fundamental base of good parenting, at least on the surface. Child psychologists may argue, however, that many other factors are equally important—such as discipline, structure, and creating a healthy environment. 4. Again, the author’s statement taps into a widely held belief that love is the most important component of a successful parent/child relationship. But are all loving parents successful ones? One could argue that many children who abuse drugs, drop out of school, or commit crimes had loving parents. And what about loving parents who cannot even afford to furnish children with basic necessities, let alone “sophisticated gourmet delicacies”? Are they guaranteed success simply because they love their children? Class discussion could cover the elements of what makes a successful parent, and how this success is assessed. 5. The author makes many convincing warrants in this essay. A few include 1) love makes a family, 2) a loving parent is a good parent, 3) happy, separated parents are better than married miserable ones, 4) because 60 percent of marriages end in divorce, a large group of children of divorce make up the “norm,” 5) society has “evolved” to better accept and accommodate divorce, 6) benefits of divorce include no parental “double-teaming” and greater appreciation for the time one has with one’s parents. 6. Rather than weakening the author’s essay, this statement serves to make it stronger. He is anticipating some reader rebuttal, and acknowledges that he may seem too “cheerful.” He then admits to some difficulties, but frames them in such a way as to explain why these difficulties are not that bad. It is interesting, for example, that when describing how during holidays he is not with one parent, he says that his parent is forced to explain, “Lowell is with his father/mother.” In other words, he is sensitive to how the situation is difficult for his parents, rather than difficult on him. 7. Throughout his essay, the author anticipates rebuttal. For example, he comments that “…many unfortunate people have had their lives torn apart…” by divorce, and he admits that divorce means he is always away from one parent half the time. However, he does not seem to anticipate the arguments made by some psychologists who make claims very different 22
from the author’s. Class research into statistics may provide a forum for rebuttal. For example, are children of divorce more likely to drop out of school? Are they less likely to pursue higher education? Are they more likely to live in poverty? Because the author’s narrative is based primarily on personal experience, he leaves a great deal of room for statistical and intellectual rebuttal. 8. Students’ answers will vary. 9. Students’ answers will vary.
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CHAPTER 8 Using Visual Arguments: Thinking Like an Illustrator APPROACHING THE TOPIC Visual arguments use many different forms of media, including fine art, advertisements, cartoons, graphics, and news photos. Because the goal of a calculated visual is to persuade, coax, intimidate, or otherwise subliminally influence its viewer, it is important that students of argument discern the strategies or techniques employed just as they do to written arguments. Students need to understand: • Who the target audience is. • What claims are made in the images. • What shared cultural assumptions—or warrants—are made. • What the supporting evidence is. After students read this chapter, pass out sample visuals to the class—ads, cartoons, or provocative news photos. Get a class discussion going by asking these questions: • What aspects of the image catch the eye? • What is significant about the image? • What verbal information is included? • How does the visual employ color and shading? • What symbolism is embedded in the image? • Does the image tap into any cultural assumptions or images? You might even pass out copies of an ad for the same product—cologne, soft drink, or automobile—and ask them which ad they think is the most effective, and, specifically, why. With guidance from the chapter’s analyses of the various samples, some useful discussion should be generated, as students will be encouraged to employ visuals to support their own arguments.
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION GUERNICA PABLO PICASSO 1. Students’ answers will vary. 2. This mural features many “central” figures: the figure with outstretched arms at the right of the painting; the wailing mother at the left; the head emerging from the window at the top; the twisted horse in the center; the arm with the broken sword at the bottom. Because Picasso is presenting many different images that “happen” over a period of time, each image is considered as a separate part of a whole event. 3. The title orients viewers to what is happening in the mural. Without this title, viewers could have inferred the painting’s overall meaning, but may have not understood its direct 24
inspiration. Because Picasso wanted his audience to understand what he was depicting, he named the painting after the town that had suffered this horrible event. 4. Almost all the images in the painting are exaggerated, which is in keeping with the style of the work. However, some images stand out more than others. Students may discuss which ones seem to be more prominent and exaggerated, and why. 5. Picasso presents war as a black-and-white mural, in “frank” terms. The images are stark and color is absent. Students could discuss what this color choice may symbolize, and if the painting would have been different if presented in color. 6. Students’ answers will vary. 7. We know from Picasso’s sketches that he carefully considered each figure in his painting, so we may presume that almost every figure symbolizes something. For example, we know that the bull is a symbol for Spain. At the bottom of the picture, an arm clutches a broken sword. Spanish swords were world renowned, as well as Spain’s traditions of heroism and honor, but the sword is broken, useless against the destructive force of bombs. The people of Guernica did not have a chance to fight an enemy or defend themselves. The innocent subjects of the painting also relay the idea that cowards—who attacked sleeping people, and killed women and children—perpetrated the attack. Students should discuss what other symbols they see in the painting, such as the meaning of the light bulb at the top of the mural. SAVE FREEDOM OF SPEECH NORMAN ROCKWELL 1. In addition to the standing man, two other faces assume prominence: the two men beside and in front of the standing figure, who look up at him with respect and interest. 2. The central image, as discussed in the text, is the standing man. Students should further discuss Rockwell’s reasons for choosing to depict this particular figure in his poster. 3. The poster features a title in capital letters that tell you what action is taking place in the picture. Ask students how their impression of the painting changes when the poster’s title is taken away. Without the title, would the writing at the bottom of the poster make any sense? 4. Facial expressions are emphasized for emotional impact. The man’s face resembles Abraham Lincoln, an idealized president. Even the people themselves represent an idealized image of small-town America. 5. The figure stands before a black background, which serves to highlight him. The use of shadow on his face also focuses the viewer’s eye on him. 6. Students’ answers will vary.
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7. Symbolism may be implied in the resemblance between the man and Abraham Lincoln. His humble clothing and the papers in his pocket further contribute to the aura of a hard-working, thoughtful man exercising his rights. SAMPLE ADVERTISEMENTS Students will have different responses to and interpretations of these ads. Encourage them to apply the critical thinking questions outlined in this chapter, including the objective of the ad. What techniques through words and images does the ad employ to get students to pay attention? More ads appear at the end of Chapter 10, if you wish to broaden the class discussion with some additional material. We have “answered” below one set of questions for the ads provided in this chapter to help instructors get started. ADVERTISEMENT: M&M’s 1. A peanut and chocolate M&M are shown waving two packages of candy. The ad assumes that the audience is familiar with images of the Easter Bunny, the M&M guys, and the holiday traditions concerning Easter. It also presumes the viewer will recognize the twist— the beaver wearing fake bunny ears. 2. The M&M guys are icons, appearing on television and in print ads, as well as represented in toys and supermarket displays. They are the personification of the product. Candy brought to life. 3. The ad could appeal to anyone who enjoys chocolate candy. The humor of the ad draws in a wide audience. 4. Students’ answers will vary. 5. Viewers would need to understand the cultural traditions of Easter, the icons of the two M&M guys, the concept of the Easter Bunny, and the idea that things should be “officially approved” by authority figures. ADVERTISEMENT: VICTORIA’S DIRTY SECRETS 1. At first glance, the woman easily could be a Victoria’s Secret (VS) model. She is wearing undergarments typical of the brand’s line, and sports the signature wings of its “Angel” brand. Of course, the chainsaw stops the viewer in his or her tracks, encouraging the viewer to see what the heck is going on here. 2. The drawing has a raw look and implies that the model is indeed in a real VS ad but has been scribbled over. It appears that someone “drew” the chainsaw over a real ad.
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3. The text makes an argument that VS is wasting Canadian forests 1) by using paper with a low recycled fiber content, and 2) sending out an amazing one million catalogues per day. While the preservation group admits that VS has started to use paper with some recycled fiber content, it feels that the company can do much better. Students’ answers will vary on the effectiveness of the argument. 4. It is both. It presents a position against deforestation of endangered woodlands, and then proposes that consumers do something about it. 5. Students’ answers will vary, but ask them whether sex (or surprise) sells—either way. 6. The photo insert reinforces the points made in the ad’s text. EDITORIAL CARTOON: “BACK IN AUGHT FIVE” 1. The claim is that education is of lesser importance to Americans than highways, cars, and transportation. 2. Educated audiences will understand the humor. The signs feature misspelled words, and are likely to strike a chord in those readers who value education. No solution is offered, only the implicit warning that if we don’t change our priorities, we are headed down a “bad road.” 3. The cartoon is sarcastic and slightly disturbing in its overall warning about the state of education in America. 4. The cartoon could appear in any area, but may have more appeal in the Midwest. It could easily be tailored to a region by changing the signs. 5. A close inspection of the cars reveals that they are not actually on the road, but hovering above it. The bumper extensions could be related to the levitation of the cars. The grill-like tray could be a solar panel. The SUV 2020 tells the viewer that sports utility vehicles are still around, and will be a part of our illiterate future. 6. “Aught five” means 2005, a critical point in which decisions were made to improve highway transportation systems instead of channeling more money into education. 7. Rather than arguing “against” highway improvement, the cartoonist is advocating for the intelligent allocation of spending. In this case, the cartoonist argues that spending money on education is of critical importance, and the failure to do so will lead to a stupider society twenty years down the line.
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EDITORIAL CARTOON: “I HATE THEM” 1. It is ambiguous about exactly whom the first child “hates,” and he is the only individual in the cartoon who knows exactly whom the other children “hate.” In the context of a postSeptember 11, 2001 culture, we may infer that the child hates the people responsible for terrorist attacks, or by extension, Muslims. He could be reacting to comments made by his parents, but how precise these comments are is uncertain. However, the cartoon does not necessarily need the context of September 11 to be effective. It could have been published in Great Britain in July of 2005, or anywhere at any time. Readers could apply their own targets for “them.” 2. The second child’s comments are highly significant to the message of the cartoon. His statement represents the dynamics of group thinking and hammers home the idea that hate is an easy concept to accept. At least he questions the object of the hate; the third child doesn’t seem to think it is important. The facial expressions of each child are clearly angry and hard—the final child seems content to simply hate, without concerning herself with the particulars of “who.” 3. The cartoonist’s claim is that hate is infectious and learned. The first child “hates,” the second child agrees, although he is uncertain as to whom they “hate,” and the third child ceases to question. The cartoonist also effectively demonstrates group behavior. 4. This cartoon would be equally effective ten or twenty years ago and ten and twenty years in the future. Hate is timeless, as are group dynamics. Children will still learn hate from their parents and pass the feeling among themselves. The characters may change, but the emotion and dynamic remain predictable. NEWS PHOTO: HOMELESS COUPLE 1. The photographer assumes that the audience will be sensitive to the plight of the homeless and will care about the people in the photo. 2. Some details include: the crate the woman is sitting on; the fact that the couple is loitering in an alley on an obviously very cold day; the cup the woman is holding; the many layers of clothing she is wearing (and the coat is out of style, probably a donation to a shelter); and even the couple’s facial expressions. 3. Ask students to consider how these elements all contribute to how viewers interpret the photo and presumably the plight of the couple. 4. The couple is not exactly heroic, but is not deserving of scorn either. Their faces are almost blank and unreadable. The couple looks certainly downtrodden, but not broken. One wonders if their facial expressions would change if someone came by and put money in the cup.
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5. The claim is that homelessness can affect anyone—men and women. Both subjects do not seem to be “typical” stereotypes—they are not dirty or drunk, or old and unkempt. Their faces still have dignity. 6. The background is necessary to the photo’s message. They are in an alley, and they are outside, pushed back from the main path and out into the cold. 7. As mentioned in the answer to question five, the couple does not seem to fit the cultural stereotype of homeless people. Students may or may not feel that the photo sends a message about urban poverty, or that the photo affects their viewpoint of it. 8. Students’ answers will vary. A DOUBLE STANDARD OF OLYMPIC PROPORTIONS LEE INNES 1. Students’ answers will vary. 2. The illustrations help visually demonstrate that the men’s uniforms provide much more coverage than the women’s uniforms—demonstrating a disparity. 3. Students’ answers will vary, but their responses depend on the fan and his or her motivation for watching the event. One could conjecture that athletes may have reacted unfavorably to the uniform. Enough concerns were expressed over the uniform that it could indeed change within the next decade. 4. Students’ answers will vary. However, a lack of publicized complaint does not necessarily mean that women were happy with the uniforms or that they were apathetic about them. Female athletes did push back—for example, swimming uniforms are changing, tennis players have more options. Moreover, allowing female athletes the option of wearing uniforms offering more coverage may have reduced complaints. 5. Students’ comments will vary.
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CHAPTER 9 Researching Arguments: Thinking Like an Investigator This chapter discusses documentation format and is self-explanatory. There are no questions that need to be answered in this chapter for the Instructor’s Manual.
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PART TWO: Thematic Readings CHAPTER 10 Advertising and Consumerism APPROACHING THE TOPIC Whether or not we realize it, advertising has a profound impact on our lives. Advertising is omnipresent—we scan advertisements in newspapers and magazines, and flashy billboards lure us to the newest Italian restaurant or entice us to try the newest beer. From the time we wake in the morning to the moment we close our eyes at night, advertising accompanies us, influencing our choices from what to buy to what to wear, what to eat, and sometimes, what to think, subtly shaping values in the process. The readings in Chapter 10 examine how advertising and consumerism create a sense of need, encourage our quest for stuff, and manipulate our language. Encourage students to explore the following questions as they read this chapter: • • • •
What strategies do advertisers use to induce us to buy their products? How do visual images and language influence consumer choices? How do advertisers twist language to imply that products are better or more desirable than other similar products? How do advertisers tap into our inner desires to be accepted, liked, and admired? How do they influence American culture by exploiting our insecurities? In what ways are today’s young consumers (18–25-year-olds) more or less savvy to advertising’s tactics when compared to generations before them?
Please note that throughout Chapters 10–17, the answers to certain questions appear in boldface. These questions have been identified by the authors as particularly appropriate for stimulating class discussion and debate. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION THE DAILY YOU JOSEPH TUROW 1. By exploiting cultural divisions, advertisers can target consumers in different social and economic brackets to buy products and services. Consumers are divided socially and culturally from each other. 2. Students’ answers will vary, but the type of ads you see may influence how you view yourself. For example, if a woman in her 40s is bombarded with Botox and weight loss ads while online, she may begin to believe she needs these products. A young man viewing protein supplements and gym memberships may also begin to question his physique. Are you in a luxury car demographic? Or a no-credit check loan category? What does each mean to the viewer?
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3. If different people from the same family use the same computer, the algorithm data-miners use may be skewed. 4. Advertisers adjust packaging or make individuals “useful targets” by separating audiences into different groups. Such groups are created according to distinctions that advertisers feel will make audiences feel secure and comfortable. Students can work in groups to list examples of packaging. 5. The author’s tone can be taken as neutral (fact-giving), but it is also one of sincere concern that conveys his disapproval of the extremes to which market segmentation and target marketing dictate consumers’ lives. 6. The idea that every online move is tracked could indeed “creep out,” consumers who like to believe they are in control of their Web use. Recently it was reported that Mac users were quoted higher online prices than PC users, so even the computer you use to surf on could influence your online experience. IT IS ALL IN THE DETAILS JENNIFER BAUMGARTNER 1. Baumgartner appeals to her audience to agree with her by asking questions and referencing shared experiences. For example, she asks her readers to consider Abercrombie and Fitch. She references a presumed experience in which the reader has viewed A&F ads and entered an A&F store. Her essay could be stronger with more references to data proving her points, rather than merely pointing out what seems obvious (when we wear a logo, we are agreeing with what it represents). 2. Students’ answers will vary. Open this question up for discussion. Focus on Baumgartner’s point that “if we wear logos, we are saying that we support the label as well as the life-style that goes along with it.” Are students aware of logos? Are they careful with what logos they wear? What logos would they not be caught dead wearing, and why? 3. Students’ answers will vary. 4. Baumgartner refers to the character of Carrie Bradshaw, played by Sarah Jessica Parker, on the program Sex in the City. Bradshaw has a love of high fashion—particularly for Manolo Blahnik shoes. She will sometimes forgo necessities in order to afford a pair of $800 Jimmy Choos. Some students may relate. Have they ever blown a paycheck on a Coach bag or a pair of A.G. Jeans? 5. Students’ answers will vary. 6. Students’ responses will differ based on their personal point of view. While what Baumgartner says may make sense to a person with a secure sense of self, or an older adult, her view that you shouldn’t need logos to make you feel good may seem simplistic. In certain 32
social circles, logos may be the markings of the tribe. If you want to belong to a particular social group, you need the “uniform.” BRANDED WORLD: THE SUCCESS OF THE NIKE LOGO MICHAEL LEVINE 1. Students’ answers will vary. If you feel comfortable, pick a student or two from class who is wearing something with a logo on it. Ask the class to identify the logo and what it “means.” 2. Students’ answers will vary. 3. Students’ answers will vary. 4. Students’ answers will vary. 5. Knapp feels that Nike has branched out perhaps too broadly in a now flooded market with many other competing brands. Many companies make great sneakers today, so the brand means less about quality and product and more about choice of logo. Finally, trends come and go, and while Nike is still immensely popular, there are many popular brands on the market today competing for a finite consumer base. DISTURBING TRENDS IN JUNK FOOD ADVERTISING FOR CHILDREN LAURA GOTTESDIENER 1. Advertisers use exciting commercials, toys, sweepstakes, and games at Websites to entice children to embrace the brand. Ask students to share their experiences as children with particular brands. 2. Students may or may not agree, but ads targeting children focus on not only getting children to desire the fattening food (through cartoon characters and toys), but also encourage the “nag factor”—getting kids to bug their parents until they get the desired food. Kids don’t consider food quality, they just want the toy and the experience that comes with the food. 3. As Gottesdiener explains, children, especially young children, are unable to differentiate regular programing from commercials. They lack the critical thinking skills necessary to determine when something is being “sold” to them. 4. Students’ answers will vary. Many, however, may admit that they themselves eat a fourth meal, after dinner but before bedtime. 5. Industry regulation is naturally geared toward the interests of industry. The bigger question could be whether the government would be able to regulate the industry, or whether lobbying efforts would essentially prevent any change in this arena.
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READING THE VISUAL: BUMP 1. Students’ answers will vary, but the tread mark and tag line at the bottom of the photo allude to a car “running over” the world. Is Adbusters trying to say that Americans are running over the planet? 2. Students’ answers will vary. 3. Students’ answers will vary. THE LANGUAGE OF ADVERTISING CHARLES O’NEILL 1. Open this question for class discussion. If the function of a bag, for example, is to contain items so that they may be efficiently transported from place to place, such as lipstick, a cell phone, and a wallet, why do some women shell out hundreds—indeed thousands—of dollars for one? What makes one bag different from another? 2. O’Neill cites several charges that have been made against advertising. In support of advertising, O’Neill’s primary argument is simply that advertising language is only a reflection of the society around it, and that “slaying the messenger would not alter the fact— if it is a fact—that ‘America will be the death of English.’” Furthermore, he says that advertising does not force us to buy anything, but rather stimulates the development of new products in the marketplace and conveys certain information. Anticipating the objections lends support to his claims, since his rebuttals are logical; students may even note that these are already mainstream beliefs. 3. O’Neill explains that “ordinary language” is used to serve sales through careful engineering. They use repetition, thoughtful adjectives, and psychology to entice us to buy. In essence, ads must convince us that we 1) need the product, and 2) will be happier for having bought it, and 3) that the product is better than other products that are identical to it. Most copywriters would admit to tapping into popular consciousness. It is likely that they would argue that the words used in ads carry meanings or connotations that are universally understood. Encourage students to share their experiences with the rest of the class. As the course instructor, you may wish to describe a time when you were influenced by the language. Perhaps it was the promise of a clear complexion or stronger cleaning power. If you admit that you, too, have been hooked by weasel words, students may open up and share their own experiences. 4. Students’ answers will vary. 5. O’Neill’s style could be described as “advertising” style. In his own writing, he makes use of some of the techniques he describes. First, he personalized his writing, involving the reader in the communication process. Several times in the introduction he addresses the reader as you. To emphasize his point about the simplicity of language, he supports his narrative with the most effective kind of testimonial available: an invitation for the reader to conduct fog 34
index calculations on ads. Furthermore, O’Neill’s own language is simple and direct. In a sense, he is selling the language of advertising in his discussion, without raising his vocabulary or voice. Finally, he carefully engineers his own language to mirror the practices of ad writers by carefully selecting the words. As part of an in-class assignment, ask students to bring ads or to think of examples to participate in a broader discussion. READING THE VISUAL: SAMPLE ADS AND STUDY QUESTIONS This section features six advertisements. Separate the class into six working groups and have them discuss one add in depth, with one person acting as “note taker.” Then as a class, review each group’s findings. After each group presents their answers, ask the class whether they agree or wish to add to the analysis. Later, explore how our individual life experiences inform how we view and interpret an ad. For example, how might a handbag junkie respond to the second ad, with the impoverished and emaciated woman “modeling” the expensive handbag? Would they roll their eyes? Not get it? Feel guilty? What about the counter-culture socialist student? Feel angry? Morally vindicated? ADVERTISERS: MEN ARE NOT IDIOTS GLENN SACKS AND RICHARD SMAGLICK 1. Students' answers will vary. Open this question up for discussion. Do "male bashing" commercials effectively sell products? Are they more likely to garner audience attention? Why or why not? 2. The authors provide several examples of commercials that diminish men, as well as instances where consumer opinion influenced changes in broadcasting. The authors lead with their thesis: "the way the advertising industry portrays men has been drawing increasing scrutiny by both the trade press and the mainstream media." The authors then go on to illustrate their point that while portrayals of men as foolish persist, the trend is changing. 3. Male characters in commercials often depict a certain type of stereotype--men as incapable, helpless in the domestic sphere, sloppy, and sexist. Students' general perceptions of men will vary, but many are likely to agree that few men really are like the foolish stereotypes in commercials. 4. Students' answers will vary. 5. This is a good question for classroom brainstorming, followed by discussion. To broaden the conversation, ask students to identify some commercials that present female stereotypes as well. How do the two compare?
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CHAPTER 11 Gender Matters APPROACHING THE TOPIC The last century brought tremendous changes in the roles of men and women—socially, economically, and politically. The readings in this chapter encourage students to consider the ways that gender influences how we interact with our world and with one another. As you teach this chapter, warn students that it is easy to think that points of view based on gender have no middle ground. It is important to direct them to try to see other points of view and to try to imagine what it is like to be a member of the opposite sex. • • • • • • •
How have changing gender roles in the workplace over the last thirty years affected personal and social relationships between men and women? Why is adolescence a particularly difficult time for teenagers dealing with gender-based issues? How does pop culture affect our impressions of what it means to be male and female? What traditional ideas do we retain about men’s and women’s gender roles? How should we respond to the cultural view of women as easy targets for violence? In an effort to address the educational needs of girls, have we neglected the equally compelling needs of boys in the classroom? Do gender differences create problems in our ability to communicate with each other?
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION SAPLINGS IN THE STORM MARY PIPHER 1. Pipher uses this analogy to emphasize her claim that adolescent girls in America become vulnerable and eventually “lost” as they conform to cultural perceptions. Have students locate places in the text where Pipher employs this analogy and discuss the behavior of girls before and during adolescence. Ask students to think of times when they too have lost or pushed aside their “authentic selves” due to cultural pressures, and then ask them to share how they “resurfaced.” 2. Students’ answers may vary, but direct them to the three factors which Pipher states “make young women vulnerable.” If students do think girls must make sacrifices in order to “fit in” socially, have them elaborate on what is sacrificed and how that sacrifice leads to peer acceptance. 3. Pipher feels that “androgynous adults are the most well-adjusted.” Have students make separate lists of the behaviors androgynous girls and boys would benefit from in order to highlight their prescribed notions of gender roles; note the differences and ask how the transition from adolescence to adulthood might further change these and why.
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4. One way of having students see if Pipher’s article is of universal application is for them to isolate one paragraph and replace the word “girls” with “boys.” In thinking of parent-child relationships and corporate America’s influence, the gender of an adolescent might not matter, but what issues that Pipher brings up are solely in relation to girls? Have students debate the issue of perceptions and images in order to note any differences in opinion that are gender-based. 5. Have students first define the intended audience of this piece. If it does not include men, ask them what parts of the piece could be considered general concerns for adolescents, then speculate on what Pipher’s male clients’ issues might be. If she had included some adolescent male issues, how would her thesis be different? Return to question number one and ask students to consider if and how adolescent boys “disappear mysteriously into the Bermuda Triangle.” 6. Lead students through brief descriptions of gender stereotypes of the 1930s, 1950s, etc., noting national concerns of these time periods. Ask students to note Pipher’s examples of Michelle, Holly, and Gail and then to place these three girls’ problems into the different historical contexts. Discuss how the underlying social pressures facing these girls have changed according to each decade and how Pipher’s advice to them might also change. MUSCULAR BODY IMAGE LURES BOYS INTO GYM AND OBSESSION DOUGLAS QUENQUA 1. Young men and boys are responding to media-driven images of muscular, chiseled male bodies. Moreover, they wish to quickly develop muscular results from their bodybuilding. Dr. Harrison Pope observes, the portrayal of men as fat-free and chiseled “is dramatically more prevalent in society than it was a generation ago.” Kids are using steroids and other unsafe products to achieve fast, and often unnatural, results. 2. Students’ answers will vary, but discussion can address how images of heroes and action figures influence boys’ behavior and their images of the ideal male figure. 3. Cultural messages include the glorification of muscular figures, such as of action heroes, pressure to athletically outperform peers, and the attraction of shortcuts. Children see exaggerated body images every day in toys, video games, and cartoons. The influence may be subtle, but pervasive. An in-class dialogue can address whether children know how to decipher the images and separate reality from hype. 4. The author refers to many experts and medical specialists in his essay. He details personal experiences, cites studies, and provides quotes from teens and experts. His support provides solid evidence for his conclusions and balances his essay as a well-researched piece. 5. Both men and women feel pressure from media-driven images to pursue unrealistic body shapes. Women may extreme diet, even to the point of anorexia. Men may use steroids to enhance their muscle mass and spend hours in the gym, all in an effort to be “perfect.” 37
READING THE VISUAL: NEDA AD AND BOSS AD 1. The ads assume that the young people reading them are concerned with body image. The ads play into social presumptions about male and female body images. When asked if they were satisfied with their bodies, a higher proportion of adolescent males indicated that they were comfortable with their physiques. Young women, on the other hand, were more critical, saying that they were too heavy, too short, or lacked the right complexion. The two ads play into these very assumptions—that young women, who are indeed statistically more likely to suffer from an eating disorder, are critical of their looks. Young men are more likely to believe that cologne will only augment their already handsome, buff selves. Thus, young women are portrayed as vulnerable and insecure, and young men as confident and strong. Students should discuss how these images play to their peer group. 2. In 2005, the Wall Street Journal reported that men’s colognes were enjoying strong sales among mid-teen customers. While most college males did own at least some kind of cologne, younger teens seemed to buy into the idea that a fragrance truly could improve their social standing with the opposite sex. The BOSS ad does show an idealized male form, implying that those who use the product will either be like, or evoke a similar reaction to, the man depicted in the ad. 3. The NEDA ad shows a young woman who is so thin that she is a skeleton. The BOSS ad shows lean and hard-bodied young man. Both bodies are exaggerated to make a point, but the male form does not take the physique to an extreme. 4. Students’ answers will vary, but both ads are eye-catching. 5. The NEDA ad tries to address the disconnection between what anorexics “see” and what the world sees. This body dysmorphia occurs when the young woman sees herself as much larger than she actually is—and imperfect. The rest of the world sees an emaciated skeletal person, but that sufferer sees only imperfection and “fat.” 6. Students’ reactions to the ad will vary. Ask them to consider if they view the young man as indeed “sexy” and to whom. IN THE COMBAT ZONE LESLIE MARMON SILKO 1. Have students seek Silko’s answers to these questions, but extend the discussion to ask them for their personal answers to them as well. Do they agree or disagree with Silko’s claims? 2. Students’ answers will vary. If the majority disagree with Silko’s father’s comment, ask them what they feel could equalize the differences between men and women.
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3. Defining patriarchy can stem from a discussion of gender role stereotypes. What are “traditional” male and female roles? A discussion of what feminism is should also supplement remarks on patriarchy. How does one gender’s assumption that it holds more power transfer into physical acts of violence? Remind students to focus on violence toward women by strangers or casual acquaintances, not from domestic violence. 4. Have students reflect on each of the five rapists described in terms of power. How could they scale them in such terms, i.e., which ones do they think had the most desire for power and why? 5. Students can explore what their feelings are about women who can defend themselves and why these two male groups might fear such women in their lives. With respect to the application of this statement to American society, have students define American belief systems in terms of gender relations. Then consider what the differences would be for women living in rural and urban regions of the country. Silko gives examples of potential acts of violence upon her in both settings. 6. First ask students what they understand Silko’s thesis to be. Ask students what is the main point of her example of her trip to the pet store to see what support it offers to that thesis. Then ask them to consider how the essay might read if this example were deleted. 7. Considering all of the examples Silko offers to justify women’s use of firearms, guide students through the metaphors she creates, e.g., who/what is hunted and by whom? CHILD-MAN IN THE PROMISED LAND KAY S. HYMOWITZ 1. Hymowitz explains that these magazines are popular because they appeal to the natural inclination of men to remain in a state of adolescence as long as possible. It reveals that, given the opportunity and the choice, men will embrace this state and choose it above others. Whether these magazines would have been popular 30 years ago is debatable, but at the time, it was not socially acceptable to be a “child man.” Then, it would have been pathetic, not empowering. Social shifts have allowed the child-man phase to be prolonged, and thus, made it more acceptable as a life-choice for men in their 20s and 30s. 2. Hymowitz notes that in the past, by age 26, most men had achieved the milestones of adulthood. Today, these milestones are not reached until about a decade later, at least for many college-educated men. Hymowitz believes that this shift keeps men in an “immature” state, to society’s ultimate detriment, as well as their own. 3. Students’ answers will vary. 4. According to Hymowitz, the mass media is pandering to men’s inherent desire to remain in a state of young adulthood because it is after their wallets. The longer men remain in this state, the longer they will be able to spend on disposable items such as video games, electronics, 39
and liquor, free of the responsibilities of mortgages, child care, and lawn equipment. But secondarily, the messages mass media promote are changing the way men view themselves and how they fit in. While it may seem “fun” to be a frat boy in your thirties, it also means that you are capable of being nothing more than that, and that society has no higher expectations of you. 5. Students’ definitions will vary. Ask students to create profiles working in small groups. Alternatively, students can also define what it means to be a young woman in the “new girl order.” 6. If men prolong adolescence, families and family units must be also delayed. Socially, adolescents do not understand the virtues of fatherhood, responsibility and contribution. Moreover, Hymowitz argues, men who do “move on to marriage” do so with a sense of regret, seeking to maintain their “coolness” rather than seeing fatherhood and marriage as a worthy life goal. STRONG ENOUGH WENDY SHANKER 1. Open to discussion. This could be a good question with which to open the discussion of body image and how we formulate our ideals for both ourselves and for others. What is “perfect”? What influences it? How do we measure ourselves against a perfect image, and what does it do to our self-esteem when we use perfect as a measuring stick? For men, what happens when we judge real women by this measure? 2. Students’ answers will vary. Many listeners thought that Imus’s comments were racist first, sexist second. He was clearly commenting on the players’ race by describing their hair. He then referred to them as “hos,” by definition means a promiscuous female, which was more likely another insult directed more at their race. 3. Open this question up for class discussion. Ask students to consider the images that they see on a daily basis (they may not even be aware of them) that promote certain body types as better than others. Bring in some magazines or show some recent ads that have aired on television (www.adcritic.com or http://creativity-online.com/ may have some to review, or try www.youtube.com) to help students critically assess the images they see every day. Discuss how the media influences our view of what is sexy and physically appealing. More importantly, how does this influence the way men react to women who do not fit the ideal? 4. Shanker clearly places the blame on both men and women. First, she blames men for shaming women who do not conform to beauty ideals perpetuated by the media. When women do not fit the male ideal, they are scorned, ridiculed and made to feel ashamed. Second, she blames women for not standing up more to this treatment, reminding her readers that you can only feel hurt if you let the insulter’s comment affect you. She also notes that women who pluck, suck, spritz and wax are doing it not for themselves, but for men.
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5. Students’ answers will vary, but she does seem to blame men for most of the social pressures placed upon women to aspire to be a certain size, shape, and style. She uses examples from both her personal experience and the media, but doesn’t provide much by way of balance. Men may feel unfairly blamed. Ask male students to respond to her allegations with their own views. 6. Students’ views will vary. However, the fact that Shanker has published a book about being at peace with one’s (large) size may lend some credibility to her comments that women must fight against social pressures and stigmas. READING THE VISUAL: WOMENT IN COMBAT 1. The image is of Rosie the Riveter, a iconic woman appearing on World War II posters. Rosie represented the American women who worked in factories, most of whom produced munitions and war supplies. These women filled jobs traditionally performed by male workers but who were now in the military. Rosie the Riveter is commonly used as a symbol of feminism and power. In this image, Rosie retains her iconic pose, hair color and hair tied in a kerchief. 2. The image harkens to a time when women were expected to fill men’s roles because of necessity. The USA needed women to leave the home and work in factories, farms, and offices. They needed to run things at home while men were off at war. The image connects back to the idea that women can and have filled traditionally male roles. 3. Students’ answers will vary. In the fall of 2013, three women became the first females to graduate from the Corps’ tough-as-nails enlisted infantry training school in North Carolina. The three completed the 59-day course and met the same test standards as the men. This graduation followed a January 2013 decision to open up combat positions to women, most of them in the Army, by allowing them to serve in many jobs at the battalion level. 4. Students’ answers will vary, but class discussion should address the different aspects of women serving in the military and the chances of some women successfully completing combat training on the Marine level. THE END OF MEN? HANNA ROSIN 1. Ericsson’s method would increase the odds of producing male offspring over female when used for artificial insemination. The fear was that once this method was widely available, couples would use it to produce boys, who were presumed to be the more desired sex. However, when the process was used, it turned out to be used in reverse—that is, the X chromosome sperm were more likely to be used in order to improve the odds of producing a female offspring. Today, at fertility clinics, almost 2/3 of parents who are given the opportunity to select the sex of their child are opting for daughters.
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2. The story of Ronald Ericsson is used to demonstrate that cultural preferences can shift, and often without us understanding why. When Ericsson’s method was developed, it was presumed that it would be used to produce more male offspring, skewing gender demographics. Rosin points out that cultural changes over the last 30 years have influenced our preferences in some surprising ways. 3. For most of human history, boys (and the men they grow up to be) were preferred because it was males that provided protection, hunting, and physical force to ensure the survival of the species. Today, the world economy is not driven by brute strength, armies can fight battles through computers and with sophisticated weaponry, and agriculture is largely dependent on machinery. Rosin provides many examples of this power shift. It may be worth noting that, in nations where technology is not available or part of mainstream society, males are still preferred. 4. In cultures where a white-collar workforce drives business, women are now viewed as levelheaded, less likely to engage in unprofitable power struggles, and more likely to seek consensus. In fact, Rosin notes that some people blame the current financial crisis on testosterone-driven decision making. While this point is debatable, ask the class to consider male and female dynamics in the workforce, and whether they are different. 5. Men continue to shy away from “nurturing” or “female” professions of teaching, nursing, and childcare, largely because of cultural holdovers that say that these jobs are not manly. In some areas of the U.S. where gender stereotypes are less ingrained, males pursuing nursing degrees is growing. But the idea that men caring for children is normal is still not mainstream. In 2012, a new sitcom, “Guys with Kids” is likely to extend this cultural stereotype as an aberration and worthy of ridicule. Open this question up for group discussion and ask males in the class whether they would consider jobs in the nurturing professions, and if not, why. 6.
Rosin notes that there are pros and cons to having a female dominated workforce. She fears that if men feel disenfranchised, they will become ungrounded and uninspired. We do not want boys growing up with the negative feelings girls had several generations ago.
7. Fewer women look to marriage for economic stability. Further, if a woman is involved with a man who is unemployed, she is unlikely to view him as marriage material, although she may let him father a child with her. Women are more likely to go to school and secure employment while also juggling the responsibilities of motherhood.
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STILL A MAN’S WORLD PHILIP N. COHEN 1. Cohen points out that both Mundy and Rosin have drawn sweeping conclusions from data, but failed to actually demonstrate the reality playing out in America’s offices, factories, and healthcare institutions. For example, he concedes that women earn more college degrees today than men do. However, he notes that women were doing this 20 years ago, and failed to make significant gains over men in high-level positions or to earn equal salary. Moreover, certain disciplines, including engineering and science, remain highly male, while others, such as education and English, remain highly female. Female dominated disciplines tend to pay much less than the male dominated ones. 2. Cohen’s entire article refutes many points Rosin and Mundy make regarding the rise of women. A good section to discuss is paragraphs 25-29, in which Cohen highlights a few specific problems with Rosin’s argument (and by extension, Mundy’s). Rosin, he argues, not only makes sweeping generalizations, she refuses to argue data-based points. Cohen also fears that because Rosin is a good writer, the fact that her argument is faulty may be unclear to the reader. This does a huge disservice to society. 3. Students’ answers will vary. Mundy’s argument, which Cohen concedes is better thought out than Rosin’s, is still based on the premise that more women are earning college degrees than men, and the wage-gap between single, childless, college-educated women and single, childless, college-educated men has closed in many areas of the country. The country, however, isn’t mostly populated with this segment of people. It is a small representation of the population as a whole, and one that tends to pair up along the college/non-college divide. Also, Cohen points out that after marriage and/or childbearing, women begin to lose their margin. 4. In paragraph 10, Cohen notes that while women have indeed improved their relative status in medical fields, it isn’t a uniform rise across the entire discipline. While he doesn’t explain why women have failed to rise in more lucrative medical fields such as surgery and specialties, he does note that women are more likely to become pediatricians and family practitioners, which tend to pay less. He conjectures that one reason women are dominating certain fields, such as in pharmacy and veterinary medicine, is because these fields are “safety valves” for smart women who cannot break through the more male-dominated medical disciplines. Discuss with students the concept of male and female dominated industries, why disparities in pursuit of particular careers exist—including the cultural and social bias that may exist—and whether men are still guarding the highest levels of the board room and medicine from women, as Cohen suggests. 5. Student’s responses will vary.
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6. Cohen argues that simply because some women earn more than their husbands do, a femaledriven power structure is not imminent. He notes that such marriages are not yet the norm, and that even if they did become the norm, women still face bias in career growth opportunity, their roles as mothers, and lack of representation in high-power, high-earning fields. 7. After comparing the two arguments, ask students to explain why they feel one argument is more compelling. Is Rosin’s argument merely well written but insupportable? Is Cohen dissecting her points unfairly? Why or why not?
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CHAPTER 12 Moral Quandaries in Medicine
APPROACHING THE TOPIC We live in an era of medicine that our great-grandparents could only have imagined. Today’s American newborn will have access to over 15 vaccines to provide protection from deadly diseases spanning diphtheria and tetanus, to meningitis, mumps and even chicken pox. Scientists are learning how to regrow heart muscle, a once inconceivable idea. Organs can be transplanted from person to person, and surgery can be performed in-utero, allowing surgeons to fix problems before the baby is born. Reproductive technology allows infertile couples to carry babies to term, and older women to have children after their childbearing years. We are living longer than ever. Sixty is the new forty, claim some members of the geriatric circuit, and Americans have an average lifespan of roughly 80 years. But with all of this advancement come ethical quandaries. Access to healthcare, the limits of healthcare, and issues of life and death raise many questions. As students read the essays in this section, encourage them to consider the following issues: • • • • • •
Who should receive organ transplants? What limits, if any should apply? Do children have a right to know who their biological parents are? Does this include sperm and egg donors? Should the very ill be allowed to die on their own terms, when they decide? Will the cost of healthcare become prohibitive for the terminally ill? Who makes the decision to provide or withhold life-saving care? What pressures could this create when making end of life decisions? How do we receive healthcare information? What responsibility does the media play in ensuring that our information is accurate?
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION THE QUAGMIRE DANIEL CALLAHAN AND SHERWIN B. NULAND 1. In 1900, a person could die from diseases spanning measles and diphtheria to influenza and mumps. In the decades following World War II, there was a vaccination boom, and by the 2000s, a child could be protected from a host of deadly diseases, as well as ones less threatening but still uncomfortable (such as chicken pox). We can use antibiotics to cure many infections, and surgery to repair hearts, brains, and a myriad of ailments. We have drastically reduced mortality in childbirth and extended our life expectancy to almost 80. With this view, however, comes the belief that medicine is unstoppable—if we only push long enough, we can cure anything. The authors argue that this view, while noble, is misguided. It has led us to believe that a human life is priceless, and financial considerations should be disregarded when considering how to extend a life. It has also led us to believe that 45
we should seek to extend our lives at any cost, even if it means that we keep very ill people alive in miserable circumstances. It has also shifted our perception of death to one of fear, rather than a consequence of life. 2. The authors argue that quality of life is more important than quantity and that “fighting” some diseases cost too much and exacts too great an emotional and physical toll on the very ill. Rather than encouraging people to fight disease, we should focus on helping these people face death more comfortably, with less fear, and with more control. Their support, however, hinges on two issues: the cost of care, and the cost of research that has not delivered the miraculous cures once promised. One could argue that the authors’ expectation that the human genome project should have already yielded miracle cures in only a decade may be unfair.asks On the other hand, how many cancer patients are told that they should fight their illness? What might patients be spared if the very ill were given support to die, rather than pressure to live? 3. In medicine, morbidity and mortality are buzzwords that determine degree of illness and death rate. Morbidity is the disease state of an individual or a population, and mortality is the incidence of death. The morbidity rate is the incidence of being diseased or unhealthy. If a population lives to 80, but with a high rate of morbidity, that means that the group, overall, is suffering from poor health. One would question the effectiveness of medical intervention if it merely extends lives, but in pain and with disability. 4. Both authors have reached 80 years of age. It is likely they have benefited from the many medical breakthroughs that have been realized during their lifetimes. (One even admits to having received life-saving heart surgery at the age of 78.) Daniel Callahan, PhD, is cofounder and president emeritus of The Hastings Center, a bioethics research institution. Sherwin Nuland, MD, is a retired clinical professor of surgery at the Yale School of Medicine. Ask students if knowing the authors’ ages and background impacts their view of the argument they posit. At its core, the authors’ argument is that medicine should focus on granting everyone a life expectancy of about 80 years, but in relative good health. Medical resources should be directed to the youngest members of society, and limited past the age of 80. Therefore, the authors are arguing against directing recourse to their own age group, which may make their argument stronger to some readers. 5. Students’ answers will vary. Open this question up for class discussion. Remind students to draw from points made in the essay, their own view, and personal experience. 6. Paragraphs 15–17 outline the authors’ view of making medicine more humane and more affordable. The key challenge, however, is nothing short of a sea change in our thinking about life, death, and medicine overall. As a society, we would need to shift our thinking away from the idea that we can conquer disease, extend life, and hold back the onset of death. We would need to agree that young lives are more worthy of medical resources than older ones, that it is more important to live well and without suffering than to live long, and embrace the idea that death is not a thing to be feared. 46
7. Students’ solutions will vary. This is another question that would be interesting to open for group or class debate. SURVIVAL OF THE WRONGEST DAVID H. FREEDMAN 1. The author takes issue with a few points reported by Parker-Pope. Foremost was that the study she used to create the article was a very small one, and thus not representative of a large population. She drew from personal experience in a science-related article (referencing the 60 pounds she was unable to lose). She also seemed to refute the many studies that indicated that people have lost weight and kept it off, studies with much larger cohorts. Freedman notes that her message, “it isn’t your fault, it is genetics” is likely to resonate with readers, and also more likely to encourage them to not try to lose weight—a decision that could have far-reaching negative health consequences. 2. People like the idea that they can take charge of their health. The availability of information on the Internet has underscored our ability to find quick health answers, as well as provided access to “get thin quick” remedies of questionable efficacy. 3. Poor journalism could lead readers to pursue ineffective weight loss strategies, or worse, no attempt to curtail obesity at all. 4. Paragraphs 22-29 explain how studies can misdirect journalists to infer conclusions that may or may not be true. As Freedman notes, “A reporter who accurately reports findings is probably transmitting wrong findings. And because the media tend to pick the most exciting findings from journals to pass on to the public, they are in essence picking the worst of the worst. Health journalism, then, is largely based on a principle of survival of the wrongest.” 5. In paragraph 15, Freedman observes, “Presented with a range of conflicting findings for almost any interesting question, reporters are free to pick those that back up their preferred thesis—typically the exciting, controversial idea that their editors are counting on. When a reporter, for whatever reasons, wants to demonstrate that a particular type of diet works better than others—or that diets never work—there is a wealth of studies that will back him or her up, never mind all those other studies that have found exactly the opposite (or the studies can be mentioned, then explained away as “flawed”).” 6. Students’ answers will vary, but Freedman’s position is “The [journalist’s] responsibility is large, and it clearly has been neglected. It’s not nearly enough to include in news reports the few mild qualifications attached to any study (“the study wasn’t large,” “the effect was modest,” “some subjects withdrew from the study partway through it”). Readers ought to be alerted, as a matter of course, to the fact that wrongness is embedded in the entire research system, and that few medical research findings ought to be considered completely reliable, regardless of the type of study, who conducted it, where it was published, or who says it’s a good study.” Ask students where they get their health information, how much credence they give to the source, and why. 47
A FATHER’S DAY PLEA TO SPERM DONORS COLTON WOOTEN 1. Wooten tells others that his father is a doctor on call, or dead. He finally comes to face the issue head on in eighth grade, when a class assignment forces him to figure out who he really is. Wooten makes up stories, including the fabrication of the paternal side of his family tree, to fill a gap he feels omnipresent in his life. 2. Wooten understands her motivations, but he also calls upon women and men to admit that there is another person (the child of their biological union) in the equation. He says mothers who use sperm donation and the men who donate sperm fail to consider the future emotional struggles their offspring are likely to grapple with. “I don’t resent my mom; she did the best thing she knew how to do at the time, and found a way to make a child under the circumstances. But babies born of the procedure in the future should have the right to know who their donors are, and even have some contact with them.” 3. Wooten faces the constant feeling of missing half of his history. This goes beyond the fact that he has grown up without a father. He has grown up without knowing his father’s personal history, and his background. This creates a bit of an identity crisis for him, and likely other children born of sperm donation. 4. Wooten says that sperm donors need to realize that they are fathers, even if they do not know their children. Wooten feels that the risk of children later showing up and creating complicated or unpleasant scenarios should not trump a child’s right to know who is the father. 5. Students’ answers will vary. Open this question for group discussion and debate. Encourage students to consider both sides of the issue. A BABY, PLEASE. BLOND, FRECKLES—HOLD THE COLIC GAUTAM NAIK 1. PGD stands for pre-implantation genetic diagnosis. PGD allows for the profiling of embryos prior to implantation. When used to screen for a specific genetic disease, the method makes it highly likely that the baby will be free of the disease under consideration. Most ethicists do not question the use of PGD to prevent a child with a deadly disease from being born. However, PGD can also be used for sex selection and certain physical traits. It is in this area that more ethical concerns arise. 2. Students’ answers will vary. One may argue that it is unethical to choose the sex of one’s child, except in the United States, where parents opt for male and female offspring fairly equally. Choosing eye color or skin tone may also be considered relatively benign. Bigger issues arise when opting to select children for intelligence and physical ability. 3. Students’ answers will vary. Cosmetic plastic surgery is used by many Americans to enhance physical features, correct imperfections, or turn back the clock. Non-medical enhancements 48
are also available. We are able to use colored contacts to change eye color, and may use dye to change our hair color. If a parent is able to choose a child’s eye color, is that different from using colored contacts? 4. Deaf parents could use PGD to select a deaf child, deliberately creating a child with a perceived disability. Open this question up for debate. If two parents have a disability, should they be able to create a child with the same disability? Is it ethical for them to do so? 5. Debate this issue in class. READING THE VISUAL: LOVING EVERY CHILD 1. Eugenics is the practice of improving the genetic quality of the human population. It also is a philosophy advocating the improvement of human genetic traits through the promotion of reproduction of people with desired traits (positive eugenics), and reduced reproduction of people with less-desired or undesired traits. The poster is advocating for accepting every person as they are born, without genetic intervention. 2. Students’ answers will vary. 3. At the core of prenatal testing is the desire to know if an unborn child carries any genetic defects, especially Down’s syndrome, diseases likely to cause cognitive problems, or diseases incompatible with survival. Parents may decide to terminate a pregnancy based on the results. Or, they may use the information to prepare ahead of time for a child likely to be born with physical or mental challenges. 4. Students’ views will vary. The poster depicts a pretty little girl who has the classic markers of Down’s syndrome. She appears to be full of life. The poster asks, is this child’s life not worth it? ENCOURAGE THE GOLDEN RULE FOR ORGAN DONATIONS, TRANSPLANT COVERAGE JOSEPH S. ROTH 1. The Gold Rule would permit health insurers in New Jersey to limit transplant coverage for people who decline to register as organ donors. It would be the first such law in the nation. No one would be denied an organ. But under the proposal, insurers could limit reimbursement for the hospital and medical costs associated with transplants of the kidney, pancreas, liver, heart, intestines and lungs. Such rules go even further in countries such as Israel, which gives first shot at organs to patients who are also on the organ donation register. 2. Students’ answers will vary. 3. The Golden Rule posits that one should treat others as one would like to be treated. This concept describes a “reciprocal” or “two-way” relationship between one’s self and others that 49
involves both sides equally, and in a mutual fashion. Applying the principles of this rule to organ donation is clear: if one is wishes to receive an organ, one must also be willing to sign up for the organ donation register. 4. Students’ answers will vary. Ask students whether they think that all patients on organ lists should also be willing to be organ donors themselves. If unwilling, should they be allowed to receive a transplant? 5. Have students share their responses in class. WHAT YOU LOSE WHEN YOU SIGN THAT DONOR CARD DICK TERESI 1. Teresi notes that serving as an organ donor allows you to be a hero, at no cost to you (you are dead). 2. Teresi believes that too many rights are rescinded when you become an organ donor. He replies with a sarcastic retort to the DMV clerk’s silence when he replies that he does not wish to check the organ donor box. 3. Teresi thinks that there are too many negative variables—doctors do not do enough to determine true death, and may even make unethical choices in their efforts to harvest organs. 4. Students may share their viewpoints in class. 5. Teresi explains that 1) organ donors give up their right to informed consent, and thus have no control over what is donated; 2) the criteria for determining brain death are inadequate; 3) current standards defining brain death may be inaccurate, such as failure to test for brainwaves; and 4) doctors may even decide to overrule current standards (such as continuing to harvest organs when a patient breaths on his or her own) in an effort to harvest organs. 6. A family member can demand that certain tests be done to determine true death and that only certain organs are harvested once a patient is declared dead. CHORUS OF VOICES GROWS STRONGER FOR “DEATH WITH DIGNITY” STEVE LOPEZ 1. Lopez clearly feels that once hope of living a meaningful, pain free life is gone, one should have the option of ending one’s life with a lethal drink or injection. Paragraphs 8 and 9, 19, 31, 42, and 51 provide insights into his viewpoint.
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2. As the author, he controls what quotes are used, and his description of the people touched by the consequences of terminal illness guides the reader to his argument: people wish to be able to end their lives on their own terms, and this desire is held by many people. The stories are touching, and at time heart-wrenching. Readers are likely to feel sympathetic to the people described in his stories and the quandaries they faced. 3. Students’ answers will vary. O’Hara feels that it is more noble to end one’s life before things get too difficult, rather than to try to extend one’s life artificially. 4. Paragraph 8 outlines the reasons people give for “death with dignity.” “People want more control in the end. They want to be in charge of one last thing. These people speak a common language, linked by a desire to have lethal, doctor-prescribed medication as a legal option, as do residents of Oregon and Washington. When they can’t feed and bathe themselves, when all privacy is lost, when they become a burden to loved ones, they want an exit. They live in fear not of death, but of languishing interminably without purpose or joy.” 5. Dr. Rulison plans to inject himself (or have someone else inject him if he is unable) with a lethal dose of methadone. Students may or may not be influenced by this position taken by a physician. 6. Students’ arguments will vary, but some include that it runs counter to their religious views (note that Larry Broman appeals to the “Lord [to] forgive him.”). Other arguments hinge on the fear that some people may feel pressured to end their lives before they are really ready— pressured by family members and caregivers, or even personal guilt. The next article in this chapter, by Ben Mattlin, gives an interesting counterview to the “right to die” argument. SUICIDE BY CHOICE? NOT SO FAST BEN MATTLIN 1. Mattlin notes that when people argue in favor of “death with dignity” laws, they fail to mention the slippery slope the law may engage. Who decides what dignity is? How long should an ill patient live? What happens when they feel coerced, depressed, or guilty for living too long, or putting a burden on loved ones or on the healthcare system? What happens when doctors start making assumptions about a patient’s desires, such as in Mattlin’s case, when they assumed he would not wish to be resuscitated? Mattlin fears that once “death with dignity” is permitted, it will be difficult to control it. 2. Right-to-die laws may be abused by caregivers and family members who may pressure elderly, ill family members to end their lives prematurely or before they are ready. 3. Mattlin fears that assisted suicide will not be restricted to people who truly need and want it, but will follow a slippery slope that includes coercion, and even healthcare insurers making decisions that only the terminally ill individual should make. Mattlin explains, “I’ve lived so close to death for so long that I know how thin and porous the border between coercion and free choice is, how easy it is for someone to inadvertently influence you to feel devalued and 51
hopeless—to pressure you ever so slightly but decidedly into being “reasonable,” to unburdening others, to “letting go.” 4. Mattlin is concerned that assisted suicide will not be restricted to those with terminal illness, but also to those who have chronic or debilitating illnesses. The pressure to “let go” rather than try to live a fulfilling life might be too much for some patients. 5. Quality of life references the general well-being of an individual. In the case of health, it refers to the ability to live a meaningful, fulfilling life, free from mental and physical impairment or pain. It can include the ability to care for oneself without assistance. It is important to the debate because how one defines quality of life can bear on decisions made as to when to suggest assisted suicide. 6. The invisible forces of coercion can come from family members, doctors, and oneself, especially if one becomes depressed or overwhelmed.
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CHAPTER 13 New Issues in Higher Education APPROACHING THE TOPIC By the time students enter the halls of their college or university of choice, they will have already spent over 20,000 hours in school, not including the time used to complete homework or participate in extracurricular activities. And while another four (or six, or even eight) more years of school may seem daunting, most people agree that a good education is the key to success later in life, and that a college education is an increasingly important factor for many career paths. Despite its many benefits, college life and a university education are often the subject of controversy. What should students be learning in college, and what is the role of the university in shaping new citizens of the world? While college offers students the opportunity to exercise the personal freedoms and responsibilities of adulthood, a college campus is not truly the “real world.” This chapter examines issues connected to the college experience: the role of the university, what a degree means, what students expect from the college experience, and how colleges prepare students for professional employment. Before teaching this chapter, it is good idea to do a little homework yourself to understand your own school’s rules, mission statement, and academic policies. Use this information to inform your discussion on questions such as: • • • • • •
Does everyone have the right to a college education? Is today’s college curriculum preparing students for the real world? Should everyone go to college? Is today’s college curriculum preparing students for the real world? Does college prepare students to compete in a new world economy and to think for themselves? Do professors matter? What about grades?
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION DIVERSITY: THE VALUE OF DISCOMFORT RONALD D. LIEBOWITZ 1. Liebowitz explains that in order to be productive citizens, students must understand that the world is comprised of different people with different backgrounds, cultures, points of view, and nations of origin. In order to be “comfortable” in the world, they must be comfortable with the idea that everyone is not the same. Diversity on campus allows students to become aware of difference in a safe environment that supports the learning of different cultures and the exchange of ideas. 2. Liebowitz observes that unpopular points of view are still points of view. A slippery slope occurs when one group begins to decide what is acceptable and what is not. It is, therefore, necessary to allow the expression of things that may be unpopular, because 53
one never knows when the tables could turn, and they could be expressing an unpopular viewpoint. Ask students to think of other examples in which one group of students or campus administrators have sought to limit expression because an idea, demonstration, or speaker was considered objectionable. 3. Students’ answers will vary, but with the Internet, it seems as if everything is local. News is almost instant, and the influence of instant access to all information impacts us all. 4. He highlights the graduates’ accomplishments, many of which were civic-driven and offcampus. Their actions make them members of a global community, points Liebowitz raises in his speech. 5. William Hubbs Rehnquist (October 1, 1924 – September 3, 2005) was an American lawyer, jurist, and a political figure who served as an Associate Justice on the Supreme Court of the United States and later as the Chief Justice of the United States. Because he was politically conservative, many students at the very liberal Middlebury College protested the establishment of an academic chair in his honor. Liebowitz himself had to deal personally with the controversy generated by his unpopular decision. However, many people observed that it was important to recognize conservative viewpoints as well as liberal ones. Noted one student in a letter to the editor of the campus newspaper: “As a fairly recent graduate, I applaud President Liebowitz for standing behind the College’s decision to establish a professorship in honor of the late Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist. Middlebury should be proud that it is an institution that is secure enough in its intellectual foundations to honor and remember public servants from a wide range of political and legal thought. Regardless of your views of constitutional interpretation, it is indisputable that those who knew and worked with Chief Justice Rehnquist respected and admired him as a dedicated and principled judge and as a man who served his country with honor.” MY STRUGGLES WITH ANTI-INTELLECTUALISM PAUL STOLLER 1. Stoller is arguing that there is a wave of anti-intellectualism sweeping the United States. While smart people are clearly the ones who keep the country moving, are key to innovation and technological advancement, good medical care, and economic improvement, as a culture we mock the intelligent -- calling them nerds, egg heads, and geeks. Moreover, we no longer value the people responsible for educating the next generation of great thinkers -- professors. The pursuit of knowledge for its own sake is an luxury, no longer important. 2. Students' answers will vary. Ask them to consider what our culture celebrates -- athletic achievement, or intellectual prowess. How do we portray smart people on television? In commercials? In high school, who is popular? What attributes do we value overall, looks, or brains?
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3. Stoller wishes to establish that he comes from a middle-class background, one that is not privileges. Thus, his view that academical is important holds more sway because he brings a balanced view to the issue. 4. Students' view will vary. Pose this question for class discussion. What is the role of college? How many students expect to remain "academics"? How many feel that courses not related to their degree, or job focus are a waste of time? 5. There is a difference between teaching students how to think and teaching them what to think. Many students simply want answers, to be told how to do something. They are less interested in acquiring the critical thinking skills necessary to solve problems on their own. Stoller points out that at one point, not so long ago in our history, we admired the thinkers -- the problem solvers. His final paragraph sums up his feelings, "In the past, “can do” pragmatism was the fuel of American prosperity. But that pragmatism was reinforced with an abiding respect for knowledge and critical thinking. In the past we knew that it was hard to do anything in a place devoid of new ideas, a place where dreamers are discouraged from dreaming. That’s why in the present it’s important to com- bat the anti-intellectualism of the public sphere and support enlightened higher education, a space where mentors, to borrow from one of my readers, don’t teach students what to think but show them how to think––a skill that prepares them for a productive life in the world, a skill that moves all of us forward." FOR-PROFIT COLLEGES—A SNEAKY SCAM OR SAVING GRACE? USA TODAY AND STEVE GUNDERSON 1. The USA Today article clearly sets up the reader with the idea that the government wastes huge sums of money on ridiculous projects. These examples are followed by the claim that for-profit universities are similar projects, money dumped into useless degrees that people are unable to use to leverage profitable work. Students should consider whether the examples are indeed parallel. 2. Federal grants and loans enable students to attend for-profit schools, and the school profits from the financial resources that these students bring: students who would be unable to attend the school by any other means. Students’ viewpoints will vary. 3. USA Today charges that for-profit colleges are more interested in collecting federal money through student grants and loans than in educating students for meaningful employment. USA Today explains, “for-profit universities are kept afloat by the fact that virtually all their money comes in the form of federal grants and loans. So long as the schools can persuade students to apply for this government financing, which they do aggressively, and so long as they can lobby Washington to ignore their sky-high dropout and loan default rates, the money will continue to flow.” 4. Gunderson argues that rather than criticizing for-profit colleges, we should be “celebrating the fact that we provide academics and schedules in ways that work for adults with real jobs, 55
real families and all the challenges of life.” He doesn’t directly address the concerns USA Today expresses regarding the poor employment rate of graduates from these colleges or the problem of the high drop-out rate. He does, however, charge that a more level college experience (standards) should be implemented. 5. This is a good exercise to open for group work or class discussion. WHAT’S WRONG WITH VOCATIONAL SCHOOL? CHARLES MURRAY 1. Murray challenges that Americans have elevated college to the point where jobs that did not need a university education now cite it as a requirement. Students feel pressure from parents and teachers to go to college because it is the respectable thing to do. The devaluation of technical school has added to the perception that college is the place to go. Murray points out, however, that many students do not have the intellectual abilities to succeed in college, and when we start accepting them en masse, the overall quality of a college education—and even what it means—suffers. 2. Open to discussion. If students feel Murray is being elitist, he admits that this may be how some people will feel about his argument. Is he telling the truth? Is he expressing an unpopular, but honest, view? Ask students: As a college student, did you consider going to a vocational school? Do you know anyone who did? Did you think less of them? Finally, could Murray be stating the obvious—not everyone is equally smart, and therefore not everyone is college material? 3. Well-educated business people generally read The Wall Street Journal. The topic is appropriate to the audience and likely to resonate with them. It also appeals to reason and logic. Moreover, WSJ readers are less likely to have “politically correct” reactions to his essay. 4. Ask students to provide examples of classes they have taken that may have been “dumbed down.” This could be a charged question. 5. The government makes college loans available and relatively easy to get. This may be a boon for intellectually gifted but economically challenged students to gain a college education. However, in making something broadly accessible, it also implies that everyone has “a right” to a college education. Should the presumption be really, “everyone who has the intellectual ability and drive” has this right? 6. Murray is respectful of craftsmen. In his attempt to elevate them, however, he may sound a little condescending. His point, however, is important. When we devalue something, fewer people will want to do it. We need to respect all fields for their individual merits.
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IS COLLEGE A LOUSY INVESTMENT? MEGAN MCARDLE 1. Student loans are exceeding the value of the degree they pay for. McArdle argues that the debt students incur to finance a college degree is becoming almost impossible to pay off, especially in today’s economy and competitive job market. 2. Students’ answers will vary. You may open this question up for discussion about what students expect from their college education, and their hopes for the future, as well as the levels of debt they are incurring in their pursuit of a degree. 3. Vedder cites climbing walls as an example of frivolous spending projects that have nothing to do with educating students and everything to do with making campus attractive playgrounds for young adults. 4. Open this question up for discussion. Ask students to discuss what amenities their own campus has and how these amenities are different from those offered 30 or 40 years ago. How much did campus amenities influence their choice of school? 5. A credential means that one is qualified to do something because they have the aptitude, potential, background, or basic training necessary to perform a task or fill a position. Thus, a BA degree no longer trains a student for a particular profession, but merely attests to his or her likely ability to fill a position. If one is able to get into a college and complete the basic requirements needed to graduate, he or she must have the necessary credentials for hire. Failure to possess this credential means the applicant need not apply. 6. Students’ answers will vary. A’s FOR EVERYONE! ALICIA C. SHEPARD 1. Students’ answers will vary. Discuss any personal opinions and experiences you have had with this issue, either as a college student yourself or as an instructor. 2. Students’ answers will vary. If you accept that class participation plays a part in a student’s final grade, explain how you quantify this and consider it in factoring the final grade.
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3. Students’ answers will vary. Online grades allow students to know immediately their grades before professors have a chance to leave campus. This allows for immediate confrontation. In the past, professors submitted grades after students had left campus, and students got their grades in the mail, well into break. Some professors may be tempted to inflate grades in order to avoid confrontations. 4. Helicopter parents “hover” over everything their children do and weigh in on grades and academic progress in a way not previously seen. They are more likely to speak to a teacher themselves about their children’s work, and more likely to encourage their kids to challenge grades. They also have a greater personal investment in their children’s performance. 5. Students’ answers will vary, but ask them if grading itself has changed. Is grade inflation a true indicator of lowered standards? Of entitled students? If effort itself is an important factor, does everyone who tries hard deserve an A? What about students who do not “try hard” but score high on tests and quizzes? Should their grade suffer? Is a student who tries hard equal to a student who is very smart and scores higher? To take this to the next level, ask students whether they would want a medical student who “tried really hard to do well” to diagnose them, or would they prefer a medical student who was intellectually gifted and grasped the material with not as much effort. 6. Students’ individual experiences will vary. READING THE VISUAL: PASSIVE ACTIVISM 1. Only a generation ago, volunteering for causes you cared about was very much a part of the college experience. Even sororities and fraternities with reputations for partying got into the community service act as part of their membership. The cartoon points out the disconnect between “supporting a cause” if it is cited on a cool bracelet, and actually taking the time to advance its mission because you truly believe in it. It is also a commentary on the shallow values held by many students today. 2. The student at the table is in sandals, wearing a plaid shirt, and carrying a shapeless book bag. She sports a simple pony-tail. The impression is that she has more important things (the cause she supports) than her image to worry about. The other student has curled hair, fashionable clothes with expensive “Ugg-style” boots, and two snappy handbags. 3. Students’ answers will vary. One might argue that without the campus experience, one might not get the whole message or the theme. 4. Students’ answers will vary. Open the question up for discussion. Is volunteering for a cause important during your college years? What is unique about this time of life that makes it the ideal time to volunteer? 5. Students’ views will vary.
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THE POST-EVERYTHING GENERATION NICHOLAS HANDLER 1. For a good definition (although one might argue that postmodernism defies definition), try http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism. Handler connects to this theory because he realizes that it fits his generation, a generation that is so… post-everything else. As a generation that resists definition, postmodernism befits them better than any other category of thought or action. 2. Students’ answers will vary. Note that Handler observes that it isn’t so much that students today don’t believe in anything, it is that they express their beliefs and participate in social movements in a different way than their parents. Handler points out that parents expect students to act the same way they did, to participate in their definition of activism. His generation, however, refuses to act like the generation before it and is condemned by the older generation as nihilistic or narcissistic. 3. Students’ individual evaluations will vary. Some strengths of this essay include 1. Handler directly confronts Perlstein’s thesis. 2. He builds a convincing case to define his generation’s new form of activism. 3. He uses specific and convincing vignettes of his own campus life experience to prove his points. For example, he carefully defines post-modernism and its impact on student thinking. 4. He demonstrates his new definition of student activism as Internet driven. 5. His use of language is concise and clear. A weakness might be Handler’s claim that “We are writing a revolution” and that “...the technological revolution, the moveon.org revolution, the revolution of the organization kid, is just as real and just as profound as the revolution of the 1960’s—it is just not as visible” is not entirely convincing. Other than stating that it is happening, he does not give convincing examples. 4. Handler is defensive of his generation without appearing combative. He tries, almost patiently, to explain that his generation appears apathetic to older generations but only because the older generation doesn’t understand the ways of the younger. Students today use the Internet, texting, and electronic communication to express themselves. They do not want to live old definitions or do things the way their parents and grandparents did. In many ways, this is the very spirit of the 1960s counter-culture. But ironically, the 1960s activists don’t understand it, and so condemn the younger generation. 5. Students’ answers will vary. This is a good question to open up for class discussion. Break the class into several groups and assign each one of the runner-up essays. Then, have each group present a summary of the essay and its strengths and weaknesses.
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CHAPTER 14 Race and Ethnicity APPROACHING THE TOPIC Most of us grow up with some knowledge of our heritage. For some, we represent first or secondgeneration immigrants. For others, our forebears came to the United States so long ago that only a last name hints at our origins. Our ethnic and racial identities can help us to connect as a community and serve as a source of pride in who we are and where we came from. However, race and ethnicity can also stereotype individuals, dismissing their unique and individual qualities, promoting prejudice and intolerance. The readings in this chapter challenge students to reflect on the ways in which diversity both divides and unites us, and to consider how we can use this diversity to enlighten and empower our futures through dialogue. As you teach the essays in this chapter, consider the following: • In what ways can racial and ethnic stereotypes limit our relationships and distort the way in which we define ourselves? • How can we find constructive ways to engage in a dialogue about race and ethnicity without hurt feelings or defensive responses? • What benefits can we derive from identifying ourselves with particular groups? What are the disadvantages of such identification? • Can America continue to exist as a unified nation if its population is fragmented into separate groups divided by language, culture, and class? Is creating a “melting pot” desirable? • Does racial profiling create a spirit of mistrust among the nation’s minority groups? Is it ever justifiable? • Why has racial profiling emerged as one of the political hot topics of the new century? Is news exposure likely to stop the practice? • Are dialogues on race in America ever likely to find a common ground?
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION WHY LATINAS AREN’T ALLOWED TO GET ANGRY SARA INÉS CALDERÓN 1. Calderón explains that when Latina women get upset, their reaction is the result of their being Latina and thus, “fiery” and “hot-headed.” Such a tidy explanation, she says, reduces their anger to a fact of their genetic makeup, and not a legitimate reaction to something that they have a right to be angry about. Moreover, rather than engaging in a dialogue about the Latina’s anger (which would occur if it were a man or a non-Latina getting upset), efforts focus on trying to calm the woman down or placate her.
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2. The stereotype of Latina anger reduces the anger to genetically programmed reactions— reactions that need to be handled with solutions that have nothing to do with what caused the anger in the first place. (Calderón cites money or sex as appropriate means of calming an angry Latina.) Such women need to be calmed down, not taken seriously. 3. The author uses examples of famous Latina actresses such as Salma Hayek and Sofia Vergara, who have played stereotypical roles in movies and television of the fiery Latina. Ask students to think about other actresses that include Latinas and how these women are scripted. Students’ answers will vary, but ask them to recall movies and music they have seen or heard that portray Latina women as fiery or sexy. Have they seen anything in the media that has not offered these images? 4. A cute stereotype may not be taken as seriously because it is not viewed as very harmful (except to the group suffering the stereotype.) Other seemingly benign stereotypes could include Asian academic excellence. 5. Stereotypes delegitimize the actions of an individual and group behaviors as a result of one’s ethnicity or genetic makeup. You cease to be an individual with legitimate actions, feelings, and responses. LEAVING RACE BEHIND AMITAI ETZIONI 1. Etzioni explains that, in his experience, divulging one’s race can lead to no good. He thinks back to the Holocaust and the Nazi’s persecution of the Jews. He notes that historically, race has been used to harm others. Why do we need to know one’s “race,” anyway?, he wonders. 2. Students’ answers will vary. In a country in which many people have many different ethnic backgrounds, it may make things even more complicated. Ask students to address Etzioni’s point that race shouldn’t even be a census question. 3. In paragraphs 8–12, Etzioni explains why Hispanic defies true racial definition. They are not just one group of immigrants. They come from all over and in many cases, represent the blending of “races.” In paragraph 12, Etzioni outlines some of the unique challenges connected to defining Hispanic as a race. Etzioni believes that “Hispanic” is not a “race.” Referring to this ethnic group as such will only cause these people to become disenfranchised, and it isolates them as different from Americans in general. 4. Beginning on page 467, Etzioni outlines the folly of the “race trap.” It really is more of a skin trap. 5. Reparations relates to the proposal that some type of economic compensation should be provided to the descendants of enslaved people in the United States, in consideration of the coerced and uncompensated labor their ancestors performed over several centuries. Etzioni explains in paragraph 35 that rather than providing individual compensation to the descendents of slaves, an infusion of financial support to schools, housing, and job training is 61
called for. He points out that once this infusion of funding happens and the playing field is leveled, so to speak, African Americans should not be able to “claim special entitlements” based on the lack of privileges stemming from inequalities caused by slavery. One might argue whether such an infusion of funding is possible, whether it would actually go to the right people, and whether a culture and identity of disenfranchisement that is so part of the social fabric can be disassembled once a payment is made. 6. The 2008 U.S. presidential election brought the issue of race to the forefront. Some people wondered why, if President Barack Obama had a white mother and a black father, he was considered black and not white. The U.S. government may consider anyone with Latino or African blood to be Hispanic or Black. Or maybe not. Is it what you consider yourself? The article gives the example, “…if you had one drop of African blood you were a Negro, disregarding all other facts and considerations, including how you saw yourself.” Something similar can be said of Jews during the Spanish Inquisition and the Holocaust. 7. Students’ answers will vary. READING THE VISUAL: CHIEF WAHOO 1. The blogger, known as “PA lady” feels that using Native Americans as mascots mocks them as people. No other group of people is used as a mascot and called by words that are recognized ethnic slurs. As a person who claims Native American ancestry, she also objects to the idea that such mascots honor native peoples. 2. The blogger notes that you wouldn’t call a Native American a “redskin” to his face, but yet we seem to feel it is acceptable to shout “Go Redskins!” at an athletic event. She also points out that there are no teams called “the Wops” or “the Kikes” because we know these words to be insulting. Why then, she wonders, is it ok to use “Redskins”? 3. Chief Wahoo is currently depicted as a grinning, toothy guy with a big nose. Although his picture in the book is in black and white, the character appears bright red when presented in color. It is interesting that the 1915 and 1928 images are highly impersonal, icon-like depictions of Indians. In 1947, the image became more cartoon-like. This may be in response to the popularity of cartoons during this time and a changing social and political climate in the United States. Only the 1928 image appears to be an actual Midwestern “chief” with full headdress. The other mascots look more like braves. 4. The blogger points out that other groups could not, and will not ever be used as mascots, because we recognize culturally that to do so would not be socially acceptable. 5. Student’s answers will vary.
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WHY IS THE N.Y.P.D. AFTER ME? NICHOLAS PEART 1. This question is excellent for group discussion. Students are likely to hope that the legal system will be fair, but some may have experienced incidents similar to Peart’s, in which they were stopped for no reason they can explain beyond the color of their skin or the neighborhood they lived in. 2. Students are likely to be surprised by this action, especially because Peart’s identifying information would reveal his home address. It is not legal for police to open your apartment without a warrant or permission to do so, except in emergency situations (such as gaining access during a medical emergency.) 3. Students are likely to sympathize with Peart’s experience and understand how it has changed his view of police in general. They don’t seem to be out to protect the population—they seem out to look for trouble and terrorize young people of color. 4. Peart realizes that until something changes, he will have to give young people of color the same advice his mother gave him. They must put up with an unfair system that targets them because they have brown skin. By joining in an organized challenge, there is strength in numbers and they may be able to change the system. Peart feels that his belief that the legal system is there to protect the innocent has been violated. Four times he was innocent, and four times he was maltreated solely because he is a person of color. By sharing his emotional state following each encounter, Peart connects with his readers’ sense of justice and humanity. Open this question for discussion about how one approaches changing the system. 5. Student responses will vary. ARIZONA’S IMMIGRATION LAW IS NOT RACIST BRUCE MAIMAN 1. Maiman admits that the illegal immigrants in Arizona are almost 100% from Mexico. He argues that if most illegals were from Sweden, then the law would be aimed at them. But one must beg the question—if the illegals were Swedes, would police stop people who looked like Swedes, or people who looked like Mexicans? 2. Maiman notes that almost all illegal immigrants come from Mexico, by virtue of Arizona’s location as a border state with Mexico. Racial profiling maintains that people of certain races are more likely to be the individuals targeted by the law. As such, it is inherently racist in its assumptions and in its practice. However, all races are subject to profiling. A white man walking around in a prominently black neighborhood may be profiled by the police as out of place and more likely to commit a crime. A woman acting suspiciously in a department store may be watched more closely for possible shoplifting than a man would be. The question arises, if everyone is subject to some form of profiling, is it still racist? 63
3. Paragraph 18 explains “In the normal course of their day, they’ll keep a weather eye out for specific red flags—a van packed with individuals that has telltale signs of a coyote situation; a motorist pulled over for running a stop sign who speaks no English, seems to have no license, doesn’t seem to comprehend what’s going on—that might be a tip off that someone is illegal.” 4. Students’ answers will vary. 5. Students’ answers will vary. This is a good question to open for group or class discussion before students formulate their individual responses. WELCOME TO THE DOLLHOUSE FRANCIE LATOUR 1. In her introduction, Latour uses the words “course, bushy, difficult” which all have somewhat negative connotations, and “nappy, picaninny, and slave-girl,” which have historically negative connotations steeped in slavery. 2. Students’ answers will vary but open this question up for either class discussion or free writing exploration. 3. Latour notes that most black women of power have straightened hair. Famous faces like Oprah, Condoleezza Rice, Michelle Obama, Beyonce, and Tyra Banks usually sport straightened (or “white”) hair. Even the author admits to straightening her hair. 4. Students’ answers will vary. Latour does point out that for many years, having a more “white” appearance translated to benefits for many blacks. Therefore, white hair may have social benefits that black hair does not. However, the very idea that having hair connected to a particular race and its privileges is fundamentally disturbing. 5. Latour relates her own memories of being blissfully unaware of hair differences until the day she was indoctrinated into the torture that many African American women subject themselves to in the name of beauty. She notes that even when we, as a nation, try to be more inclusive (hence, the ethnically diverse Barbies), we still have issues with black hair. IS HE ONE OF US? REFLECTIONS ON IDENTITY AND AUTHENTICITY GLENN LOURY 1. Loury explains that there are certain elements that contribute to one’s identity: gender, age, one’s racial heritage, family background, and sexual orientation. There are also socially influenced elements, including a group’s perceived identity, history, and shared experience. Students will have other elements to add to their list. Ask students to consider carefully the internal and external forces that shape their personal identities.
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2. Loury references the Obama campaign’s second run at the White House for re-election. When Obama was elected, many felt it was a turning point in racial politics. Many whites viewed it as “the end of racism.” Obama’s reelection proved that race had less of a role in his campaign and that the issues were paramount. 3. Loury’s story shares a moment when he was the age of many of the students he addresses. It is a moment when distinctions of race, and the concept of belonging because of one’s race, were painfully clear. Woody desperately wishes to align himself with the black historical narrative of struggle and injustice. Loury finds himself questioning how deeply Woody can experience this narrative if he lacks the physical markers that comprise much of the onus of racism. Loury then rejects Woody’s claim to the black experience in a public forum, primarily because he fears the ramifications of aligning himself with someone who is “white.” He fears that if he stands up for his friend, he too will be viewed as less black, and thus excluded from the group. 4. Identity politics are political arguments that focus upon the self-interest and perspectives of self-identified social interest groups and ways in which people’s politics may be shaped by aspects of their identity through race, class, religion, gender, ethnicity, ideology, nationality, sexual orientation, culture, medical condition, profession, and educational experience. It can most notably be found in class movements, feminist movements, gay and lesbian movements, disability movements, ethnic movements, and post-colonial movements. Minority influence is key—the shared belief that the smaller or less powerful group’s experience is threatened or negatively impacted by the larger or more powerful group’s actions or beliefs. In university life, identity politics can influence who you choose as friends, what groups you decide to join, what classes you take, what activist organizations you participate in, and what social experience you have. Loury warns that identity politics can limit the college experience, and thus the social trajectory one may have after college. They can limit the way one views the world and interacts with others. 5. By carefully identifying his ancestor’s continent of origin, Loury eschews the trap of identity politics. He may claim all identity factors that may come with having ancestors from Africa, or none of them. 6. Loury quotes Mill to warn students to allow different opinions and points of view from their own. When we only align ourselves with like-minded, like-opinionated people, we narrow our world. He adds that one must create one’s own commitments and recognize the goals which one as an individual thinks are most worth striving for. “Wearing one’s racial identity too heavily can work similarly to hold back young souls from flight into the open skies of American society.” 7. This is an excellent project for class or group work. Have groups of students work together to review the speech, its appeal, techniques, and tone. Ask students to consider how they would have reacted to Loury’s words if he had given the welcoming address to them upon their first year of college. 65
CHAPTER 15 Riding the Economic Roller Coaster APPROACHING THE TOPIC The United States remains in a time of economic upheaval, with no end in sight. Despite indications that the economy is improving and personal spending is up, we have far to go. This topic matters to students because economists agree that today’s graduates face challenges more difficult than the struggles faced by their parents at the same time in their lives. College tuition rates are at their highest, the job market is at a historic low, and a credit crisis threatens to bankrupt a nation. The economic situation many “twixters” face is in itself controversial. Many young people seemingly cannot afford to make it on their own. But some argue that they represent a coddled generation who are unwilling to struggle and sacrifice. In other words, they are not used to doing without, and are unwilling to do so now. It’s a classic generational argument, but statistics seem to be pointing to a disturbing fact—that today’s twenty-somethings may be the first generation to be less successful than their parents. This chapter explores economic crisis, how we got to where we are, and how we might envision the future. It also addresses the challenges college students and new grads are likely to face in the decade ahead. As you teach this chapter, be sensitive to the economic situations of your students. Some may be paying their own way working several jobs or facing large student loan debts. Others may be getting “free rides” from their parents, and may feel entitled to the tuition their parents are shouldering. All are likely to be aware of the employment rate. Balance the warnings given in this chapter with encouragement and optimism. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION GENERATION DEBT ANYA KAMENETZ 1. Kamenetz notes that childhood as a life stage has a relatively short history. While we now understand that children mature in both body and mind over the span of 18 to 24 years, the idea is fairly new. Over the last 100 years, the period of life known as adolescence became widely accepted as the economy drove more teens to remain in school, which, in turn, expanded the educational options open to young people. Now, with a large population of young adults pursuing some sort of college education, it appears that another life stage, “emerging adulthood,” is taking root in our social consciousness. Her overall point is that as childhood is extended, the financial expectations we place upon young people should be reduced to accommodate this shift. 2. In paragraph 5, Kamenetz notes factors that mark young adulthood. College has pushed the age of maturity back as well, so that the average age of both the first marriage and the first child—two markers of adulthood—occur later. 66
3. Penn researchers note five “milestones” of maturity: leaving home, completing schooling (this could be high school or college); becoming financially independent of one’s parents; getting married; having a child. Students’ own expectations may differ as to whether they agree that these milestones are indeed indicators of adulthood. Some may think setting up a household with a significant other rather than marriage is a marker. Others may disagree that having a child is a fair marker when some people opt to not have children. 4. Foremost, Kamenetz believes that rising college debt and reduced government assistance to alleviate college debt are to blame. Huge debt, coupled with a shrinking job market that pays smaller salaries to more highly educated young adults are additional reasons. Young people are carrying student loan debt as well as credit card debt incurred while trying to leave the parental nest. 5. Young people are the forgotten majority. Baby Boomers have a louder voice politically, and have more economic clout. Kamenetz notes that young people must have a larger role in policy making if they are to make any changes that will help them. 6. In paragraphs 14 and 15, Kamenetz implies that low-wage workers without college degrees are unlikely to ever “make it.” She neglects to consider the role these workers play in the economy, or the number of business entrepreneurs who do not hold degrees who do pull themselves up. But in writing for her audience (college twenty-somethings) she appeals to their shared viewpoint. READING THE VISUAL: FOOD BANK LINE 1. The woman refers to the fact that only a year ago, she was in an economic position to give money or food to the food pantry. Her situation has changed so that she is now a “client” and thus, in circumstances desperate enough for her to stand in line to receive food. 2. The cartoonist points out that life can change very quickly during an economic downturn. 3. The people in the line represent everyone—the former yuppy, the cowboy, the hick, the aged, the street-wise, and the young parent. The people in the line show that everyone can be touched by poverty and hunger. MILLENNIALS’ HEADS UNDER A ROCK ED SCHIPUL 1. Schipul asserts that the Baby Boomers, with their sense of entitlement and lack of thrift, are creating an economic climate that is bankrupting their grandchildren. He also seems to think that as a group, they really aren’t all that concerned about it.
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2. Schipul uses Hair as the quintessential musical defining the baby boomers’ attitudes of selfinterest, self-gratification, and overall entitlement. He punctuates his essay with lines from this musical for both levity and to reinforce his points. 3. Schipul has a low opinion of the Baby Boomers. He defines himself as a Generation-Xer. Generation X, in general, enjoyed economic prosperity in their twenties and thirties, but had to work for their success. Generation Y came of age in a time of prosperity—unemployment was at an all-time low, and companies were coming up with creative ways to keep even low performers from jumping ship. All this changed with the economic downturn. His view of Millenials is one of sympathy and a bit of “duh” indignation. 4. When he quotes Scott’s piece, he is quick to point out Millenials shouldn’t whine that older workers are kept on because they know more and have a better work ethic. It is the way it should be, he reminds them. He also hopes they will wake up to the political antics of the Boomers. He is patronizing in tone, but if his audience is also Generation X, they are likely to agree with both his tone and his points. 5. On the surface, it may appear he wants Millenials to take action, or at least be more politically aware. He may also wish to highlight Scott’s essay for the view it presents—that Millenials are confused and indignant that they cannot find jobs and that older workers with knowledge and a better work ethic get to keep jobs first. In a youth-driven culture, this is perplexing to them. IT’S CONSUMER SPENDING, STUPID JAMES LIVINGSTON 1. By stating his credentials, Livingston hopes to convince readers that he knows what he is talking about. This may be especially important when one is about to embark on an argument that runs counter to a popularly held belief. Students’ responses as to whether this makes them trust him more will vary. 2. A good explanation on consumer debt and the economy can be found at http://money.howstuffworks.com/personal-finance/debt-management/debt3.htm. 3. In paragraph 2, Livingston observes, “Economists will tell you that private business investment causes growth because it pays for the new plant or equipment that creates jobs, improves labor productivity and increases workers’ incomes. As a result, you’ll hear politicians insisting that more incentives for private investors—lower taxes on corporate profits—will lead to faster and better-balanced growth.” Paragraphs 4-7 then explain why he feels this belief is unfounded. 4. Morally, we feel that rampant spending is inherently wrong, that giving into our desire to spend runs counter to the more commonly held ideals of thrift, sacrifice, and saving. But Livingston fails to address the toll consumer debt levels on the individual. Stress, bankruptcy, etc. cannot be good things. Who benefits from consumer debt? 68
5. “It’s the economy, stupid” is a slight variation of the phrase “The economy, stupid” coined by Clinton campaign strategist James Carville in the 1992 presidential campaign. Clinton’s campaign was leveraging the recession situation in the U.S. as means to successfully unseat George H. W. Bush. 6. Students’ assessments will vary. THRIFT: THE REBIRTH OF A FORGOTTEN VIRTUE DANIEL AKST 1. Akst first assumes that his readers are highly educated. This can be ascertained through his references to social theorists (he even goes as far as to say, “First, the one you know about. . . “), his application of literary characters as analogies, and his use of sophisticated vocabulary. Furthermore, Akst assumes that his readers are of an older generation due to his mentioning that Jack Benny is someone that his readers would remember. Students’ answers will vary. 2. Thrift specifically refers to restrained or disciplined spending habits. Once considered a virtue, thrift morphed into a synonym for cheap or stingy. Even the government has officially advised that spending is more virtuous than saving, because spending “helps the economy.” When stimulus checks were sent to Americans, they were advised to use the money to buy something, not to pay down bills or increase their savings account. When such cultural and social messages are sent from the federal level, is it any wonder that thrift seems to be alien to modern vocabulary? 3. Synonyms of the root word “thrift” from the essay include: cheapness, cheapskate, skinflints, penny-pinching, niggardliness, hoard, greed, miserly, money-grubbing, monied, tightfisted, frugality, self-control, deferring gratification, pecuniary restraint, and money-storing. Ask students to explore the meaning of the word and the concept of thrift in general as part of class discussion. 4. Akst mentions shopping Craigslist for consumer goods, eating less red meat, driving a fuelefficient car, and flying less. But Akst’s green model may be a bit flawed. While many people would not hesitate to recycle a plastic water bottle by placing it in a bin, few would actually save the bottle to reuse again and again with tap water, which is truly thrifty and green. 5. Students’ answers will vary. 6. While students’ responses will vary, ask them to free-write on this question, encouraging them to explore what it means to be thrifty and what it means to be financially reckless. Remember that Scrooge was condemned by society for being stingy, but loved once he opened his purse-strings. Would he still be as loved if he spent so much that he became financially ruined?
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ARE STUDENT LOANS DESTROYING THE ECONOMY? DEREK THOMPSON 1. Thompson argues that the economy was already in a pickle. Student spending didn’t bring it there. That they are buying fewer cars and houses is the result of a bad economy, not the cause of it. Moreover, student debt is actually lower than it was when spending was up. Direct students to review the graphs and the information they provide in supporting Thompson’s argument. 2. This is a good exercise to do as a class. When reviewing the graphs, note how visuals can support an argument, or, conversely, confuse a reader. Do Thompson’s graphs help or hinder his essay? 3. Students’ experiences will vary. Ask them to consider what “markers” for adulthood they strive for. Have them explain why they feel certain items or achievements are markers. (One may argue that cell phones are given as gifts to many children over the age of 10—hardly adults.) 4. Thompson explains that an education will improve your overall earning power, allowing you to purchase a car later on. Without a college education, your earning potential (and prospects for finding a job) are much lower. READING THE VISUAL: SCENES FROM THE DEPRESSION 1. Students’ responses will vary, but most would agree that the photos show how a crosssection of America has been affected by the economic downturn—permanent loss of jobs, suspended growth, and even ads for foreclosure tours. 2. Students’ summaries will vary. 3. Almost every sector of the economy has been impacted by the recession, from corporate bigwigs and financial hotshots, to factory workers and service jobs that have been cut because of local budget cuts. WHY WON’T ANYONE GIVE ME A CREDIT CARD? KEVIN O’DONNELL 1. Students’ answers will vary but in many cases, parents own the credit card, not the student. Moreover, what constitutes an “emergency” to a parent may not be the same thing to a student.
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2. O’Donnell wants (needs) a credit card because he wishes to establish a credit rating. One’s credit score is connected to one’s ability to later secure car loans, mortgages, and other lines of credit. He can’t get a credit card because he doesn’t have any credit rating. He can’t get a credit rating until he gets a credit card. Ask students to discuss the role of credit in today’s economy and how essential it is to have a credit card and a credit rating. Can one survive without credit? Or is this an invalid argument? 3. Students’ answers will vary. One may wonder why a student without a job is a better credit risk than a recent college grad with a job. 4. As noted in question 2, credit is necessary to create a credit profile so that one may later apply for mortgages and car loans. REGRETS OF A STAY-AT-HOME MOM KATY READ 1. Read believes that the older you are, the harder you are to employ, even if you are only in your thirties or forties. She notes that she is both overqualified and under-qualified. Her work history reveals that she has been employed, but not recently, and her experience may make employers feel that she will quickly become bored with jobs for which she is qualified but which usually go to much younger applicants. 2. Students’ impressions will vary. It seems more that while Read doesn’t regret having children, she does regret leaving her full time job. She would warn other women to not do it. She also believes that the pressures placed on women to be perfect mothers (and this usually means mothers who stay home to raise their children) are not founded in reality. Moreover, it places women at risk, as she knows first hand. 3. Students’ views will vary. Ask them what personal bias they may harbor themselves. Some employers may feel that mothers are fragmented—they are more likely to have to stay home at the last minute to care for a sick child, or wish to leave to attend a school function. They may be the primary caregiver (more mothers have full custody of children than do fathers). They may also be viewed as less committed to their jobs, less likely to want to put in overtime, and less likely to be willing to travel. Competence may be confused with ability to commit. 4. Read is warning young women and employed women embarking on motherhood to not leave their jobs. She warns them to not depend on a man for their financial survival, and to remember that taking yourself out of the workforce creates a gap from which you are unlikely to recover, should you later choose to return to full-time employment. 5. Read uses a lot of self-deprecating humor, and many references to the parenting experience. When considering the consequences of not completely engaging with her children all of the time, she notes “I got the impression I might as well have gone through pregnancy throwing back shots of tequila.”
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6. Read felt social pressure to “opt out.” She also missed her children, and feared the warnings that she would “miss” her children’s childhoods. Further, she felt that if she did not leave work and spend most of her time with her children, they would be damaged. Finally, she felt that society was sending her the message that because she was married to a man with a successful career, remaining employed was selfish and self-absorbed. 7. As noted in the answer to question 6, many of the reasons Read cites remain current. More troubling than the arguments aimed at convincing women to “opt out,” however, is the slant many magazines make when reporting on women who do. They fail to report the troubles women face when things go wrong.
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CHAPTER 16 Our Lives Online APPROACHING THE TOPIC There is no question that the Internet has changed our lives, society, and culture. While individuals may use the Internet to keep in touch, find information, shop and pay bills, entire corporations are now run online. The world of commerce—including the investment and banking industries—is deeply, some may argue, inextricably, entwined with the Internet. Today, you can earn your degree online. Most banking is done online. And of course, social networking has influenced how we communicate, connect, and interact on a daily basis. While few people would dispute that the Internet has made a profound impact, many wonder whether this impact could be harmful. This chapter explores how technology, the Internet, and especially social networking influence our relationships with each other and how we relate to the world around us. As you teach this chapter, think about the multifaceted issues connected to our lives online: • • • • • • •
Is the Internet redefining friendships and what it means to be a “friend”? Is it changing the way we think and speak? Is it rewiring our brains? And if so, should we be worried? As more people chose to interact online, are we becoming more antisocial in our real life relationships? Are tweeting and texting changing our language? Are they making the younger generation sound uneducated? Is the enormous breadth of information on the Internet overwhelming us? Are social networking sites taking up too much of our time and making it too easy for people to find us?
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION IS GOOGLE MAKING US STUPID? NICOLAS CARR 1. In the introduction, the author gets his readers’ attention by quoting from a famous movie about a supercomputer that needs to be shut down. He uses this quote to show how he feels his own brain is being “shut down” due to computers. The author concludes with a revisit to this reference of 2001: A Space Odyssey to demonstrate how the computer in the movie was more “human” than the humans themselves, linking this analogy to how our own use of computer technology may lead to our own intelligence becoming “artificial.” Students’ answers may vary, but the full-circle approach usually leaves the readers with a feeling of satisfaction and closure. 2. Wolf means that we demonstrate our intelligence by what we choose to read. How we absorb and understand what we read leads to our ability to think critically: deep reading equals deep thinking. However, since we are now merely becoming decoders of information rather than 73
critical thinkers, our ability to read deeply without distractions has become somewhat arrested. While students’ views will vary, some may conjecture that the reading of literature will become a more difficult and tedious enterprise for future generations, as it requires deep reading, a connection with the text, and minimal distraction from external sources—all of which are taken away when reading text on the Internet. 3. When the time piece was invented, we lost the ability to listen to our senses and instincts according to “when to eat, to work, to sleep, to rise.” When the development of writing overcame oral tradition, we lost our ability to carry knowledge inside our heads—thus having underdeveloped memory. When the printing press was invented, we lost the totality of religious authority. The author asserts that what we’ve gained outweighs what we’ve lost; however, he is skeptical if this will be the case with the Internet. This question may be good for group discussion. 4. Carr sees this as unsettling and as the possible end to contemplation, ambiguity, and insight, a price to pay that may end up being too high. Students’ views and answers will vary. 5. Students’ answers will vary. 6. Students’ summaries will vary. Make sure that the summaries are not too similar to the original, that they contain the main point, and that none of the summaries contain the student’s opinions. The quoted text is as follows: “The faster we surf across the Web—the more links we click and pages we view—the more opportunities Google and other companies gain to collect information about us and to feed us advertisements. Most of the proprietors of the commercial Internet have a financial stake in collecting the crumbs of data we leave behind as we flit from link to link—the more crumbs, the better. The last thing these companies want is to encourage leisurely reading or slow, concentrated thought. It’s in their economic interest to drive us to distraction.” Student commentary of business ethics will vary. I TWEET, THEREFORE I AM: LIFE IN THE HALL OF MIRRORS ANDREW LAM 1. A hall of mirrors (sometimes called a “house of mirrors”) is a traditional attraction at carnivals and amusement parks. Mirrors are arranged in a maze or corridor. Sometimes the mirrors may be distorted because of different curves, convex or concave, in the glass, to give the participants unusual and confusing reflections of themselves, some humorous and others frightening. The reference dovetails nicely with Lam’s point that what we are posting online isn’t all good-looking selfies. 2. Students’ responses will vary. Ask students to consider what they post, what motivates their posts, and how much thought they give before posting online. How much of life is “real” and how much is staged? How do we perceive our lives and those of others if we are gauging each other by what we view online?
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3. Open this question up for class discussion. When information is reduced to sound bites and summaries of summaries, key information is often left out, information that enables us to evaluate others and make sound informed judgments. Does an image-saturated culture distort our ability to separate the virtual world from the physical world? Are they essentially the same? Or do we, as some critics maintain, stage “pseudo-events” that elevate ourselves to be more interesting than we really are? Ask students if they themselves participate in creating “pseudo events” to present an image to others. 4. Empathy is the capacity to recognize emotions experienced by others. Empathy allows us to experience sympathy and compassion. Lam believes that the “disinhibitive effect” on the Internet is reducing our ability to feel empathy for others. It also allows us to act more impulsively. “Road rage is quickly giving into Net wrath. Like actors who are trained to lose their reservations on stage, many now take daring risks for the virtual world—never mind that they might have repercussions in the real one. They show all, or do something enormously bizarre or violent to garner lots of hits, lots of eyeballs.” 5. When you tweet, post, or use Foursquare, you are recording yourself, something that you want others to know or see or hear. Everyone with a cell phone or computer can assume the role of actor or filmmaker, deciding what is seen and how it is seen. We are also able to filter news and events through our own lens. 6. Students’ responses will vary. THE FLIGHT FROM CONVERSATION SHERRY TURKLE 1. Our devices allow us to be more “connected” than ever before. We can connect with old classmates, casual acquaintances, and complete strangers. We talk “at” people, not “with” people. In so doing, we are losing our ability to have conversations with each other. More disturbing, perhaps, is that when we are engaged in conversation, we may also be diverting our attention in order to write or check a text. When we lose our ability to converse, we lose our ability to make true, meaningful connections with each other. 2. Students’ answers will vary. 3. This may be an interesting question to open up for discussion in class. How much effort, if any, goes into a post? Does anyone just post a picture without checking it first? Does anyone write about things that make him or her seem unattractive, look stupid, foolish, or arrogant? 4. Conversation is an interactive form of communication between two or more people, usually involving one person speaking and another person reacting to what was said. It involves “give and take” and involvement in the subject discussed. Conversations usually have a spontaneous element because a conversation cannot be predicted. Rather, it is an organic unfolding of words based on what is said. Most conversations follow some rules of etiquette. Interruption is considered bad form. Conversations are best when time permits each 75
participant to involve and respond somewhat equally in the exchange. While pseudoconversations may occur online, because they lack the pure spontaneity and inability to edit, they lack the true essence of conversation. One is also not able to discern nuances of tone, inflections of voice, and facial expression when tweeting or posting online. 5. “Speaking” out on line is not the same as being heard. One may post a comment on Facebook and have no responses. Or it may garner a few “likes” but that isn’t the same as a comment in return. 6. Turkle clearly laments the conversational silence online interaction seems to create. She creates “device free” zones in her home, and recommends others to do the same. She hopes her audience will take time to think about the consequences electronic connection has on our personal, social, and professional lives. MY FACEBOOK, MY SELF JESSICA HELFAND 1. Students’ answers will vary. The author makes a strong case, calling the readers’ attention to the example of “some random party where there’s someone brandishing a mobile phone,” and highlighting such features as the “chat” and how friends of friends can comment on postings. 2. Students’ answers will vary. In some ways, Facebook has redefined the term “friend” into someone who knows all of your business but doesn’t really know you (and perhaps has never even met you). 3. There is no proof that scrapbooks are intended for an audience; however, Facebook is only intended for an audience. Both scrapbooks and Facebook are autobiographical efforts; however, Facebook is validated by external approvals. Both are “willfully-constructed fiction” and both have visual cues that often speak louder than the words that accompany them. Both contain diverse content and are made through an individual process of selection. Both posture, proselytize, have bad grammar and bizarre juxtapositions with a little snark. Both have a devotion to stuff. According to Helfand, the biggest difference is that the scrapbook is diary-driven and Facebook is network-driven. 4. Students’ answers will vary. 5. Students’ answers will vary. 6. The author seems to have accepted that Facebook is the modern day scrapbook; however, she warns her readers to be more cognizant of how they are portraying themselves: not to be “stupid” by posting “self-destructive” images on the screen that go “way beyond who and what we are.” Helfand also warns her readers not to be naïve enough to believe that Facebook is in any way private: “the degree to which pictures are deployed takes the projected self and splinters it into millions of tiny satellite identities leading who knows where.” 76
READING THE VISUAL: STRICTLY PRIVATE 1. Students answers will vary. 2. Viewers need to understand the dynamics of social networking, the types of things people reveal on these sites, and the lack of editing many of us use when posting. Viewers must also realize that true privacy online is improbable. 3. Ten years ago, social networking was just beginning to hit its stride. It is likely that few people would have some inkling of what was to come. However, with the boom in registered Facebook users and Twitter feeds, the cartoon may make more sense now to a wider group of people. 4. Students’ responses will vary. 5. Nothing is private on a social network. And you are a fool if you think otherwise. FACEBOOK, THE MEAN GIRLS, AND ME TAFFY BRODESSER-AKNER 1. While the author states that she no longer needs her former friends to tell her that she is worthy of their friendship, her actions seem to indicate otherwise. On the one hand, she takes pains to explain that she no longer has anything in common with these women and that their lives are not perfect. However, on the other hand, she spends countless time on Facebook giving advice, waiting for details on their lives, and playing games with them. She admits to checking “their updates and statuses with eagerness each day.” She still fantasizes that these same friends will tell her “that they know they were wrong, that they were just being cruel.” Furthermore, she states that she is now a “popular seventh-grader,” and to top it off, she wrote and published this article, which in itself can be a form of soliciting validation. 2. Students’ answers will vary. One may wonder if true popularity is gained from having a lot of “friends” on Facebook, or if popularity is connected to admiration. Do these friends admire her? Wish to spend more time, especially offline, with her? Do they speak highly of her offline, and to others? 3. Brodesser-Akner begins in the present time on Facebook with her form “harassers.” She then flashes back to the fifth and sixth grades when times were good at school. Next she jumps to late in the sixth grade when the situation started to get bad, mostly by being ignored. Things take a turn for the worse when she begins to be bullied in the seventh grade. Then, she flashes forward to the present time when she is using Facebook to find these same “friends.” She then continues on to give commentary on her “story.” Students’ answers will vary. 4. Students’ answers may vary. One possible answer is that Brodesser-Akner’s essay’s purpose is therapeutic: for her to finally come to grips with what happened to her in middle school and to convince herself that it doesn’t affect her anymore. She claims that by taking the initiative and contacting these women online, she is put back in control of a situation that was 77
out of her hands for most of her teen years. She has the power to “unfriend” them at a moment’s notice. One wonders if they would actually notice. 5. Students’ answers will vary. 6. Brodesser-Akner is making this analogy to show how language can be used as an effective means to desensitize our pain. She is explaining that if she starts to see these women as her friends and to see them having their own troubles and problems, it will lessen the sting of her past humiliations. By acknowledging the insults and why they were directed at her, she then has the power to control how they affect her. YOU’VE GOT TO HAVE (150) FRIENDS ROBIN DUNBAR 1. Student answers may vary. Have students brainstorm everyone in their current lives who would be considered the most important to them. Then have the students determine how much time per week would be considered “social time” and how much of that time they spend with the people closest to them. Did the amount of time come close to 40%? If not, have them explain their own personal situations. 2. Dunbar’s number is 150, which is how many friendships most people can handle, given the emotional and psychological toll that friendships take. Have students explain, if their number of friends equals around 150. If not, do they feel that Dunbar’s number is accurate? 3. Dunbar indicates that true friendships take an emotional and psychological toll. Arguments, achievements, deaths, births, marriages, betrayals, and the like, require the investment of emotional capital in our friendships—perhaps our ability to feel sympathy, empathy, sensitivity, and tolerance etc. can only go so far. Have students brainstorm or discuss times when they had to handle emotional situations with their friends. 4. Dunbar’s final line, “Welcome to the electronic village” indicates that Dunbar believes that Facebook and other social networking sites are actually bringing us back to the olden days of an interconnected community. He ends the article by comparing Facebook to the old way of friendship, when a group of 150 friends all knew one another in a village community. 5. Students’ answers will vary. 6. Have students brainstorm or freewrite on how many long-distance relationships they have had or currently have; then have them determine if these relationships have deteriorated over time without face-to-face contact. Most students will know of close grade-school friends who moved away or with whom they’ve lost contact.
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STREAMS OF CONTENT, LIMITED ATTENTION DANAH BOYD
1. Boyd’s introduction explains what she means by “flow.” “Consider what it means to be ‘in flow’ in an information landscape defined by networked media, and you will see where Web 2.0 is taking us. The goal is not to be a passive consumer of information or to simply tune in when the time is right, but rather to live in a world where information is everywhere. To be peripherally aware of information as it flows by, grabbing it at the right moment when it is most relevant, valuable, entertaining, or insightful. Living with, in, and around information. Most of that information is social information, but some of it is entertainment information or news information or productive information. Being in flow with information is different than Csikszentmihalyi’s sense, as it’s not about perfect attention, but it is about a sense of alignment, of being aligned with information.” 2. The stream is the constant flow of information, our digestion of this information, and our contributions to it. 3. “To be relevant today requires understanding context, popularity, and reputation. In the broadcast era, we assumed the disseminator organized information because they were a destination. In a networked era, there will be no destination, but rather a network of content and people. We cannot assume that content will be organized around topics or that people will want to consume content organized as such. We’re already seeing this in streams-based media consumption. When consuming information through social media tools, people consume social gossip alongside productive content, news alongside status updates. Right now, it’s one big mess.” 4. No longer is information and content controlled by single, powerful, broadcasting companies. The power lies now with the consumer of content. It may be useful to create an example. In the past, if there was a car accident on Route 95, you were either a witness (you were present) or you heard about it much later on the news, or from someone who witnessed it. Today, that same accident may be tweeted by witnesses, who pass on the information, complete with photos, almost the moment it happened (and in some cases, as it is happening). Different viewpoints as to who is to blame may be pushed out. Later, commentary about the crash may appear on blogs, news sites, Facebook posts, and in e-mails. All this happens hours before the next scheduled news broadcast, at which point, the crash may be considered “old news.” How much attention the crash receives is dependent on the consumers of content—is it relevant? Was it a horrific accident? Did it have emotional appeal? Who was involved? 5. Open this exercise for group work—identify boyd’s key points, the concept of “flow” the difference between broadcast and networked information, and the four issues she identifies: democratization, stimulation, homophily, and power. This is a very interesting analogy. Are we getting too much content? And is the excess harmful? Boyd conjectures that our consumption of content from so many different channels 79
will be psychologically overwhelming—glutting our brains. By extension, an obese consumer cannot be nimble, and will end up falling out of flow. 6. Boyd observes, “Advertising is based on capturing attention, typically by interrupting the broadcast message or by being inserted into the content itself. Trying to reach information flow is not about being interrupted. Advertising does work when it’s part of the flow itself. Ads are great when they provide a desirable answer to a search query or when they appear at the moment of purchase. But when the information being shared is social in nature, advertising is fundamentally a disruption.”
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CHAPTER 17 Family Values APPROACHING THE TOPIC The concept of the American family is constantly changing—forcing us to redefine and reform our definitions of what it means to be a family. Few people realize that our cultural concept of the “traditional family”—the nuclear unit of father, mother, and children living in one dwelling—represents a minority of American households. Marriage itself is facing closer scrutiny as men and women consider alternative ways of establishing households, and same-sex couples continue an uphill battle for the right to marry legally. Today, families are often headed by single parents or have mixed groupings of children from remarriage. The social and political structures that influence our concept of marriage and family are deeply entrenched notions based on cultural nostalgia. We often base our vision of the perfect family structure on a media ideal. Many of the readings in this chapter explore the origins and misconceptions of this ideal, and challenge it as we redefine the institutions of marriage and family. They also explore the changing face of the American family and the social and cultural forces that influence our concepts of family and marriage. To prepare for the readings in this section, encourage students to consider their past, present and future expectations of family structures. • • • • •
Is the “nuclear family” the best structure to raise children? What other structures form good networks for families? Why does marriage seem to be on the decline? Should gay couples be granted the legal right to marry? Why do more than half of births to American women younger than 30 occur outside of marriage? What accounts for this trend? What are our expectations of family, marriage, and relationships?
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION FAMILY: IDEA, INSTITUTION, AND CONTROVERSY BETTY G. FARRELL 1. Students’ answers will vary, but ask them to delve more deeply into what this fact reveals about our perceptions of others and ourselves. Ask them to answer this question themselves. 2. The humor draws in the reader and sets up the concept that the family is always in a state of transition. See the answer to question 1 for more detail on the transitional nature of family structures.
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3. This yearning is problematic because these Americans (those “stakeholders in the status quo”) want it all. They want flexibility but not the unpredictable changes that must go along with it. 4. Farrell’s essay speaks of challenging authority and assumptions, as well as the fear of change that accompanies such challenges. She states that there is an anxiety about social change. Her introductory paragraph supports her use of this joke well before segueing into an academic exploration of the institution of the American family. Scapegoating places generalized anxiety onto a conveniently visible and available target, and Farrell refers to how family decline is often blamed on “feminists, gays and lesbians, single parent mothers, absent fathers, pregnant teenagers and gang-oriented youth.” Students can add other examples mindful of Farrell’s definition of scapegoats. 5. By metaphor, Farrell means a basis of comparison. Since her belief is that “a family is defined not so much by a particular set of people as by the quality of relationships that bind them together,” her comparison here is of the status quo to those other family structures that deviate from it and thereby threaten to “decay” the concept of family. 6. There is the assumption by sociologists that cultures “need” families in order to successfully continue, yet this ignores the range of variation in, or the expectations of, this institution. There is also the assumption that family harmony and stability constitute the basis for order and control in the larger society, which is rarely challenged. 7. Family life, and the social pressures that direct it, often prescribe roles for men, women, and children. Yet this requirement can exact a toll on certain members of society because what promotes social harmony and order to the advantage of some can produce severe constraints on others. Students can discuss whether or not they agree or disagree with this assessment. 8. Students’ answers will vary. FIVE MYTHS ABOUT MARRIAGE STEPHANIE COONTZ 1. Students’ views on marriage will vary. Coontz points out that in the past, most people believed that stable families were paramount, divorce was bad for children, and women should remain in unhappy marriages for the sake of family stability. Today, more women than men initiate divorce. Fidelity within marriage is paramount. And many of the behavioral problems attributed to divorce actually happen before, not after, the separation. 2. Students’ viewpoints will vary. As a class, evaluate Coontz’s proof. How much can be substantiated? How much is clearly her opinion? How can you tell the difference? 3. Gender inequality tends to happen in the workforce, where the brunt of child-related issues are borne by women, including care, sick time, and school related activities. If a woman removes herself from full-time work to care for children, her earning gap widens and places her at peril, should her partner leave her or die. 82
4. Students’ responses will vary. 5. Coontz claims that contrary to popular belief, families contribute less to the community, choosing to focus more on themselves rather than on outsiders. Ask students to consider her evidence for this. Does the fact that unmarried fathers are more likely to call their parents prove the families are less involved in the community? 6. Students’ viewpoints will vary. READING THE VISUAL: BURGERS DONE? 1. Marriage and relationships have at their foundation a solid core of communication. For this couple, communication was primarily through texting. After marriage, it remains the primary, and apparently most effective, way for this couple to communicate. 2. The spoken word (and spoken nag) has been replaced by the electronic text, even from only a few feet away. 3. The men are in the foreground, grilling (stereotype that men grill) while the women sit in the background, looking at their phones. A moment in time is conveyed with these clichés that most people will recognize as hallmarks of suburban married life. IN DEFENSE OF SINGLE MOTHERHOOD KATIE ROPHIE 1. Rophie clearly states that her family structure falls outside of the “traditional” one embraced by the media and sometimes society at large. With the exception of her considerable education, Rophie fits a pattern of childbearing usually attributed to women of lowereconomic levels: two children, two different fathers, single mother. She wants to make clear that her situation is as normal for her as it is for anyone else. 2. A “typical mother” is a woman who marries, and has children within wedlock and with one man. Rophie first admits that there is a “typical mother” stereotype, and then counters that there is no such thing. And if there is a “typical mother,” she doesn’t fit the profile. 3. Rophie feels that studies fail to consider the nuances of individual situations. Ask students to consider this position carefully. What is the purpose of a study? Are there benefits to researching broad-scale data for trends? If a family structure falls outside the data’s mean, does it mean that the study lacks merit? Does she represent the typical woman raising children out of wedlock? 4. Students’ views will vary. One may argue that the stigma associated with bearing children out of wedlock has largely disappeared, if more than half of births to American women younger than 30 occur outside of marriage.
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5. The real menace to children is poverty and the problems that come with it. WHY GAY MARRIAGE IS GOOD FOR STRAIGHT AMERICA ANDREW SULLIVAN 1. Sullivan argues that as Americans, we should be allowed the “pursuit of happiness.” In this pursuit, gays should be allowed to marry and enjoy the same respect and privileges heterosexual couples do. Sullivan uses his own life to demonstrate the marginalization many gays feel when they are made to feel second-class and are denied the rights afforded even to criminals. Sullivan also argues that gay marriage—as a commitment of two people— reinforces marriage itself, an institution that has been weakening over the past few decades. 2. Arguments against gay marriage often cite the fear that it will also sanction polygamy. The argument is that if we start allowing people to marry whomever they wish because “it makes them happy,” then men should be allowed to marry more than one woman, if it makes them happy, women can marry their dogs, etc. Sullivan calls this argument a “red herring” or a misleading statement that distracts from the real issue. 3. Students’ opinions will vary. 4. Open this question up for class discussion. Gays are not asking for the right to a religious union, but the right to a civil one. “We were talking about civil marriage—and in that respect, religious tradition had long since ceased to apply. Civil divorce changed marriage far more drastically for far more people than allowing the small percentage that were excluded to be included. And no one doubted an atheist’s right to marry, outside of any church or any religion, just as no one doubted the marriages of childless couples, or infertile ones.” 5. Sullivan references his own emotional experience of feeling like an outsider, being marginalized by society and not given the same rights that were given to others, even people in prison. 6. Students’ views will vary, but Sullivan’s personal account and struggle is convincing. So is his argument that he is not challenging anyone’s religious views on marriage, just asserting his right as an American citizen to marry the person he wishes, regardless of that person’s gender, under civil law. TIE THE KNOT W. BRADFORD WILCOX 1. College educated adults view marriage as the capstone of adult life. It follows earning a good education, establishing a solid career, and creating a solid financial foundation. This allows them to focus on meaningful and trusting relationships. Marriage is the culmination of this journey, which then allows them to embark on a new phase focused on family. 2. One may argue that marriage costs a lot less than raising a child. When two people marry, they presumably can share expenses, pool finances, and have a better financial outlook. They are also in a better position to shoulder the responsibilities of child-rearing. When a woman 84
has a child outside a solid family structure, she must assume more responsibility for childcare, may suffer employment penalties, and may encounter higher stresses on her personal life. The capstone, therefore, should be marriage first, children second. 3. Until recently, most people planned children. It was something that a man and a woman decided was a good idea to pursue. (This does not include “unplanned” pregnancies; they were clearly viewed as a problem.) Today, with the stigma of bearing children out of wedlock removed, there is less worry when one finds oneself pregnant and unmarried. It may even be viewed as a good idea, especially if it is a pattern followed by one’s peer group. 4. The problems faced by teen moms—lack of emotional and social support, lack of financial stability, lack of meaningful employment—are now issues faced by many twenty-something unwed mothers. Wilcox argues that just as teens were told not to have children before they could provide for them, twenty-somethings should be told the same thing. 5. Wilcox notes that young adults have their logic mixed up. It is easier to raise a child in marriage than outside of it. Therefore, they should not be stressing about marriage, they should be stressing about having children outside a strong family unit. 6. Wilcox argues that cohabitation is less stable than a remarriage, and children thrive on stable routines and relationships with caretakers. Further, cohabitation doesn’t enjoy the host of social and legal benefits that lend marriage direction, stability and status. He also states that there is an ethical imperative here: “Young adults owe it to their children to try to bring them into a home with two loving parents who are ready to support them and one another in the exhausting, exhilarating, and quotidian adventure that is parenthood. And, at least in the United States, that’s most likely to happen within marriage.” WHO ARE YOU CALLING A “MAMA’S BOY?” KATE STONE LOMBARDI 1. Lombardi’s description of her relationship with her daughter seems typical of many motherdaughter connections. The twist is when she attributes a similar connection with her son. Why is one normal and one alien? Why are close mother-son bonds viewed as abnormal? 2. The cultural and social pressure to produce “strong men” still prevails today. In the U.S., men are socially discouraged from even having physical contact (this is not the case in many European communities.) There is pressure to be tough, strong, stoic, and unemotional. The reasons for this ideal are unclear, as Lombardi suggests. Some research into gender roles and expectations may help facilitate this question. 3. Open this question for group discussion on gender construction. Why are strong girls who forge close bonds with their fathers viewed in a positive light, but sensitive boys who forge strong bonds with their mothers viewed as sissies? 4. Socially constructed expectations of men and women can influence how we speak to our children, how we respond to their hopes and fears, their injuries, their fashion choices, and 85
even their careers. For example, from infancy, we may call a baby boy “big and strong,” or affectionately call him “buddy.” But after a certain age, we are unlikely to call him “pretty” or refer to him as “honey,” words used more traditionally with girls. (Are toddler girls ever called “buddy”?) We may be more likely to redirect a boy’s desires to become a dancer or a nurse. But a girl who pursues a more “masculine” discipline is usually encouraged. Ask students to think of other ways in which cultural pressure influences how we relate to boys and girls. 5. Lombardi explains, “With all of the concern—some even call it a “crisis”—about boys falling behind girls academically, getting lower grades, exhibiting more behavior problems and going to college in falling numbers, you would think that this research about the benefits of mother-son closeness would warrant some consideration.” She feels that stronger bonds will help create more emotionally stable, confident men, better fathers, and better people overall. BEING A DAD IS FUN, BUT NOTHING LIKE A MOM RICHARD FABRIZIO 1. Fabrizio describes his children in fairly equal terms (except pointing out that his daughter is a “fashionista.”) He does worry about his daughter’s “big personality” sense of humor, something that he is either not worried his son will have, or not worried about if he does. His son is described as active, jumping on the couch, and with a less than ideal vocabulary (bad words). Both are viewed as just fine behaviors by his father, but ones that must be reined in for the sensibilities of the mother. 2. Mother’s Day is a celebration honoring mothers and motherhood. The celebration of Mother’s Day began in the United States in 1908, when Anna Jarvis held a memorial for her mother in Grafton, West Virginia. Jarvis began a campaign to make “Mother’s Day” a recognized holiday in the United States. By the 1920s the day was already a decidedly commercial event, with cards and candy being the traditional expression of gratitude. Father’s Day was soon created to honor fathers in a similar manner, sometime around 1910. 3. Fabrizio seems to feel that being a father is easier—he gets to play, be the good guy, and sleep more than mothers. Mothers need to tend the sick, respond to children in the middle of the night, and organize the nuances of life from feeding to dressing and bathing. They are responsible for creating civilized, well-mannered humans who can match their clothes. 4. Students’ viewpoints will vary. One may argue that Fabrizio’s wife has made it easy for him to be the less involved parent. If she were not in the picture, Fabrizio would quickly learn what medicines to use when his children were sick, and how to feed them in the morning. 5. This might be a fun exercise to try as an editorial writing assignment. 6. Fabrizio’s editorial appeals to both men and women. He seems to be reaching out more to men (who he hopes will relate to his winks toward the jumping child on the couch), but carefully couches his language as a tribute to mothers. 86
INSTRUCTOR MANUAL to accompany
Goshgarian / Krueger
DIALOGUES An Argument Rhetoric and Reader Eighth Edition
Kathryn A. Goodfellow