ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to thank my faculties mam Suhasini Taneja, Harroop Grang and Mr. Narendra Rughunath whose knowledge and continuous support has helped me learn and understand art in all ages and thus accomplish my portfolio cum project report successfully.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Art appreciation is all about evolution and understanding of art from the prehistoric era up till now. It acknowledges us how art developed from communication language to art work that we appreciate now. Painters, sculptors and makers have expressed their thoughts and feelings in their works. It’s a journey that human being have made from cave paintings. Human beings started exploring different techniques, media and material in paintings, sculpture and architecture. The study of art history and the movement help us know why the art, architecture, sculpture, paintings and interiors were that way and the meaning behind it. The art movements keep coming up as trends with new touch and style added to it so it helps us maintain the pace with present time.
1.
1.1 Venus figurine of Altamira. (1926)
1.2 (bottom left) Cave painting at Chauvet. (2014) 1.3 Cave painting at Lascaux. (2014)
1.4 Dolmen and Barrows. (2014) 1
Development of manual techniques began in east-central Africa, when pebbles were first made into rudimentary tools like hand axes. Awareness of form and function and the relation between them. Man copied the form of his hunting and industrial tools from beaks, teeth and claws from the fruits his first pots and his awls and needles were thorns and fish bones for joints of coarse garment of skins. From the first work of arts in figures it seemed that sex and art were closely allied from the very beginning. Upper Paleolithic also called East Gravettian flourished from France (present day) to southern Russia. Their makers settled in communities near the springs.
1.4 Dolni Vestonice
1.4 Dolni Vestonice, a Venus figurine is identified as representing earliest 1.5 Flint tool , early known ceramic technology. 350,000 years. (2014) 1.6 Stone tool Progression. (2012) 2
Discovered in southwest France, this figurine is possibly the earliest prehistoric carving of a human face. Carved in mammoth ivory 1.7 Figurine at Brassempouy, in southwest France (1892) http://prehistoricmasterpieces.com/humanportraits/brassempouyretab.jpg
1.8 Carving on reindeer’s foot bone, 183334 1.9 The shaft of the dead man (2009)
http://www.donsmaps.com/images28/assessm.jpg
Drawing of two deer, incised on reindeer foot-bone. Found in chaffaud cave about 13,000 years old
Art in beginning was a thing of immediate utility and language of first stammering of speech, something to show which surrounded man and modify or imitate objects for their use. They discovered the system of dwellings built on piles. 3
2.MESOPOTAMIA Mesopotamia from Greek meaning ‘ between two rivers’ (the Tigris and the Euphrates) was a region in the eastern Mediterranean. Around 3500 BCE the Sumerian civilization settled based on agriculture and making use of irrigation. This was a phase when system of picture writing came in practice. Traces of pottery, clay tablets and building materials like sun baked mud brick were found in Mesopotamian region. Archaeologists have found layers of remains of successive cities built in sequence, with excavation 4000 year old neighborhood of houses were found, each having rectangular rooms around an open central court. This 2.1 Mesopotamia house type remained in map (2014) use for many warm 2.2 Schematic reconstruction climate region. drawing of a section of Level VI, Catal Huyuk, Turkey (2014) 4
Access to the outside was provided by a ladder to the roof hatch that also served as a smoke vent. The development of civilization was divided into these periods: - Stone Age/ Pre pottery Neolithic Age - Pottery Neolithic Age - Copper Age - Bronze Age - Iron Age & - Classical Antiquity.
2.3 Ziggurat of Ur. (2014) 1.12 The great Ziggurat is a massive step pyramid located in most important Sumerian city Ur.
2.4 Stone wheel. (2014)
The world’s first columns, arched, vaulted roofs and first wheels were created by Mesopotamians. 2.5 Arches and Vaulted roofs of Ur. (2014) 5
3.EGYPT (4000 B.C. ) Western civilization developed highly in two valleys: Nile valley - EGYPT and the region near East between Tigris and Euphrates – MESOPOTAMIA. ( mentioned in above pages.). Egypt was the only nation then, who had access to northern or Mediterranean sea and Arabian sea which benefited them to have outlets and inlets for their own production and for foreign nation. 3.2 Three pyramids : Menkaure, Khafre, Khufu. Granite (2014) Sandstone Syenite, A hard and lasting building material influenced largely the architecture of the country. One of the greatest characteristics of Egyptian architecture was mystery which is seen in their temples and tombs. Limestone Dwelling or houses held mere importance, the tomb being their permanent structure. Dense population was employed in labour which resulted in great 3.1 Map of ancient Egypt (2014) public works. 6
The Egyptian wall paintings, sculptures, bronze implements, utensils, jewelry show that they had attained high degree in art. The Pyramids were built out of astrological reasons and religious beliefs (life after death), while the characteristics of temples had decrease in height from front to back. The tombs had mysterious planning of chambers, corridors covered with paintings and hieroglyphics produced gloomy effect on spectator.
3.3 The main Pyramid.(2014)
3.4 Cross section of the main Pyramid.(2014)
They showcased their knowledge of geometric planning and proportion in their works and discovered Golden ratio. 7
Lintel
3.5 Post and lintel at temple of Karnak.(2014) Post 3.6 Hypostyle hall of Karnak temple.(2011)
3.6 Hypostyle hall is a large space filled with columns. 3.7 Lotus topped columns.(2014)
They used strong pigments of primary colors and green with black and white. They were also highly skilled weavers and colorists of woven cloths. Their purpose behind their grand and hugeness in work was to show their power and to be remembered by public for long periods. 8
4.GREEK Minoan, derived from the name of king Minos is a community developed on the island of Crete, Greece. Excavations found layers and layers of Minoan cities leaving traces of mudbricks and stones as their primary building materials.
4.1(left) Northern view of Knossos on Crete, Greece.(2014)
4.2 Knossos on Crete, Greece.(2013) 4.3 Megaron palace of Mycenae, Greece.(2014)
The term Mycenaean was used for the ruined palaces found at Mycenae and Tiryns on Greek mainland. Stone was their primary material for construction, giant rough cut stones were laid without mortar and stones were tilted inwards to form stone rolling towards ceiling. 4.4 Corbelled vault, laying of stone. (2014) 9
Greece was surrounded by sea from three sides and had range of mountains so their principle mineral production was marble. It was the monumental building material in existence and favored purity of line and refinement in details. Proportion played a crucial role for their construction of buildings and there was no mixture of principles, Thus we observe simplicity, harmony, rhythmic repetition and unity in their buildings. They had columnar and trabeated (beam) style which had lintel of same material as column. 4.5 Greek temple, architectural elements.(2014)
4.6 Orders of architecture. (2014) 10
An ‚order‛ in Greek & Roman architecture= column including base & capital, the lowest portion and the uppermost portion of entablature. The three orders of architecture seen in Greek were as follows according to periods: Doric - Archaic period It is the most oldest, simplest and sturdy style which uses no base for columns.
4.7 Kourus, Dorian sculpture. (2014)
4.8 Parthenon- Temple of Athena Parthenos (Virgin). (2014) 11
4.9 Kritios boy, Classical period.(2014)
4.10 Discus thrower, by Classical master Myron.(2014)
Ionic – Classical period It uses a column taller and thinner in proportion than the Doric, adds a base detail, and is most clearly identified by its capital with its twin scrollform Volutes. (in its capital).It featured to be more gentle and feminine than Doric.
4.11 Erechtheum temple of Athenian Acropolis.(2014) 12
Corinthian – Hellenistic period It was rich, detailed and inspired from nature. Its base is surrounded by water leaves (Acanthus), rosettes are placed between each of the eight acanthus leaves. The abacus is moulded and curved in plan. Exaggeration of human postures and physique.
4.12Laocoon and his sons, Greek Hellenistic period.
4.13 The temple of Zeus Olympia, Athens.(2014) 13
5. ROME Roman architecture nearly lasted from 1st to 4th century A.D. Besides marble, stone, brick and terra cotta were largely used in Italy for important buildings. Arch and beam is the style Romans adopted from Greek’ s columnar and trabeated style and joined to the Arch, the Vault or the Dome. The Romans followed simplified Doric columns with Ionic base of Greeks which they executed in stone and was known as Tuscan order. The Romans constructed several storey buildings with columns piled one upon the other.
5.2 Roman vaults. (2014)
5.1 Tuscan order
Romans largely used arches and vaults extensively , experimenting with its height and spans. 14
The Colosseum, an amphitheater is a great example of 4 storeyed public building with first storey Doric, second Ionic and third Corinthian. It was used for naval fights, animal shows, and other shows so it had a proper plumbing system, drainage pipes and natural air conditioning.
5.3 The Colosseum(2012)
5.4 The Colosseum, Roman amphitheater(2012) 15
The Pantheon is a circular building, with natural lighting from one circular unglazed opening of diameter 27 feet, placed in the crown of the dome.
5.5 Pantheon at Rome.(2014)
5.6 Irwin polis Pantheon at Rome.(2014)
The Romans also developed concrete, a mix of cement or mortar (the Romans used a volcanic ash called (pozzolana) with stones or gravel and water. Roman architecture show characteristics of powerful and energetic race. Their designs in public buildings, aqueducts, bridges bear vastness and magnificent impression. 16
6. BYZANTINE The separation of eastern and western Roman empire gave birth to new center of development in Byzantine. Byzantine architecture developed in east and went back to Italy to mingle with Early Christian architecture. The byzantine mosaics had brilliant bright colour which were used in churches to show history of early Christians to those unable to read. 6.2 Hagia Sophia cathedral, Istanbul, Turkey. (2014)
6.1 Hagia Sophia interior, Istanbul, Turkey. (2012)
In its 1,400 year life-span it has served as a cathedral, mosque and now a museum. When it was first constructed, Constantinople was the capital of the Byzantine Empire. This state, officially Christian, originally formed the eastern half of the Roman Empire and carried on after the fall of Rome. 17
7. INDIAN The non western developments could be seen in geographical regions like Africa, Asia and pre-Columbian America mainly. Asiatic civilizations of India, China, Korea & Japan have a rich history in development of design but Islamic is different with its religious concerns being considered in its art and architecture.
7.1 Bhimbetka rock painting.(2014)
7.2 Pashupanti seal proto Shiva.(2014)
The history of art in ancient India begins with prehistoric rock paintings such as the Bhimbetaka paintings. 7.2 The seal from Indus civilization shows prevalence of Shiva- cult in his personalized pashupanti form. .
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Thereafter, an advanced town planning is seen in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, with their centrally planned cities indicating a highly developed architecture. Another remarkable example of sculpture from Harappan civilization comes in the form of the dancing girl from Mohenjo-Daro represents a stylistically poised female figure performing a dance.
7.3 Bust of priest, Mohenjo daro.(2014)
7.4 Town planning at Mohenjo daro, Pakistan. (2014)
Wood was the primary building material and was mainly used for floors and roofs where as other masonry materials were used for monumental buildings.
7.5 Dancing girl Mohejo daro. (2014) 19
Indian Manuscripts are the richest collection of written documents, texts and scripts. Indian Manuscripts were written in various languages and the scripts form the historical records. The leaves of the palm tree were used after being dried out and were used by tying the leaves together. Buddhist and Jainism manuscripts were the oldest among Indian manuscripts. 7.6 Jain Kalpasutra 19th c. A.D. (2014)
The format here is equally divided for folio of devotees and script.
Different scriptures have different format and composition of illustrations and write up. The usage of colors also differed according to religion.
7.7 Astasahahasrika Prajnaparamita Sanskrit palm-leaf manuscript (2014) 20
The earliest spaces for Buddhists were preaching hall which was solid rock cut. Without any corresponding exteriors. In their interiors there also used to be a domed solid cut structure known as Stupa, to put religious stuff inside. Cave structures also started coming up for Hindus and Jains for worship. 7.9 Dilwara Jain temple. (2014)
7.8 Interior of Elephanta caves, Mumbai, Hindu temples.(2014)
There is temple of Lord Shiva at Elephanta island near Mumbai for Hindus having flat ceilings. 7.10 Buddhist Chaitya hall, Karle. (2014) 21
The art and architecture of the Mauryan Empire was marked by mature use of stone & production of masterpieces. It can be classified into Stupas, Pillars, Caves, Palaces and Pottery. The special point of stupa architecture was the dome. Inside the stupa, in the central hall was preserved some relics of Buddha in a casket. The inner wall of the Stupas was built either by terracotta bricks or by sun-burnt bricks The period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are primary written records of the Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of 7.11 Sanchi Stupa. (2014) Ashoka at Sarnath, is the national emblem of India. 7.12 Ashok pillar. (2014) 22
Art of Mathura & Gandhara art, named after the region of Gandhara now in Pakistan, presents some of the earliest images of the Buddha. The Gandhara style was profoundly influenced by Hellenistic art. Contemporary Mathura, created a wholly Indian sculptural art with reddish limestone. 7.14 Vision of Buddha paradise, Gandhara school of art.(2014)
7.13 Ajanta- Ellora caves.(2014)
The period of the Imperial Gupta has often been described as the golden age of the ancient Indian history. The Gupta period was characterized by all round peace, prosperity and intellectual development. Since it was fascinated by Greek and Buddhist it is also known Greco-Buddhist art. 23
By 1206 Mughal rule was established in India at Delhi which brought mosques, tombs and palaces of different kind. The great Mughals had left an indelible mark on architecture of Indo-Persian school of art. The use of pure white marble, inlay work of gold, silver and precious metals, cut and polished stones, gardens around tombs, minarets in the mosques and palace halls were some of the chief features of the art. Akbar’s reign: Jama Masjid in Delhi remains India's largest mosque and a classic example of the Mughal style by Akbar.
7.15 Jama Masjid by Akbar.(2014)
Mir Sayyed Ali and Abdus Samad were two master artists during his time.
7.16 Akbarnama painting(2014) 24
Jahangir’s reign: Jahangir devoted more time to miniature painting and his architectural contributions are poorer than that of Akbar. Itimad-ud-Daula’s tomb at Agra and Akbar’s mausoleum at Sikandra are the two buildings made by him.
7.17 Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula, Agra
7.18 Hasan, A., From the St. Petersburg Album Mughal, Reign of Jahangir, (1618). 25
The Rajputs weakened each other by constant fighting, allowing the Turks to embark on victorious campaigns against the empire.
7.20 Khajuraho Temple.(2014)
7.19 Sculptures on Khajuraho Temple.(2014) Khajuraho temple famous for its graceful carving and erotic sculptures. The mere presences of these erotic sculptures illustrate that during those times, there were no taboos against sex as we have in present times.
Rajput paintings depict a number of themes, events of epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Krishna's life, beautiful landscapes, and humans. The colours extracted from certain minerals, plant sources, conch shells, and were even derived by processing precious stones, gold and silver were used. 7.21 Chand, N. Rajput painting (2014) 26
Bani Thani is a famous painting by artist Nihal Chand.
7.22 Chand, N. Bani thani.(2014)
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LIMITATION It had been very interesting doing research for art and architecture in each era but searching the content related to art was a difficulty. To understand and put the content in our own words was definitely time consuming and even finding relevant picture to the content.
BIBLIOGRAPHY REFERRED WEBSITES • prehistoricmasterpieces.com/catalogue • http://www.ancient.eu/Mesopotamia/ • http://www.culturalindia.net/indian-history/ancient-india/ • http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/entertainment/indian-artarchitecture.html • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India • http://www.visittnt.com/
REFERRED BOOKS Pile, J. (Ed.) & Gura, J. (Ed.). (2000) A History Of Interior Design. United States of America: John Wiley.
BIBLIOGRAPHY REFERRED eBooks Faure, E. (1921) History Of Art – Ancient Art. Available at https://archive.org/details/historyofart04fauruoft [Downloaded: 15 November 2014] Faure, E. (1924) History Of Art – Modern Art. Available at https://ia902706.us.archive.org/7/items/historyofart04fauruoft/historyofart04fau ruoft [Downloaded: 15 November 2014]
IMAGE REFERENCES 1.1 Venus figurine of Altamira.(1926). Available at: http://www.theslideprojector.com/images/prehistoric/venusfigures/venuswillendorf3.jpg [Accessed 17 November 2014]
1.2 Cave painting at Chauvet.(2014). Available at: http://timelifeblog.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/111142669.jpg [Accessed 17 November 2014] 1.3 Cave painting at Lascaux.(2014). Available at: http://s3.amazonaws.com/presspublisherdo/upload/2697/horses2.jpg [Accessed 17 November 2014] 1.4 Dolni Vestonice. (2014). Available at: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Vestonicka_venuse_edit.jpg [Accessed 20 November 2014] 1.5 Flint tool , early 350,000 years.(2014) Available at: http://media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/fe/f1/5f/fef15f422d44a85abeec24fb53016534.jpg [Accessed 20 November 2014] 1.6 Stone tool Progression.(2014). Available at: http://evoanth.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/mode.jpg [Accessed 20 November 2014]
IMAGE REFERENCES 1.7 Figurine at Brassempouy, in southwest France.(1892). Available at: http://prehistoricmasterpieces.com/humanportraits/brassempouyretab.jpg [Accessed 20 November 2014]
1.8 Carving on reindeer’s foot bone.(1833-34). Available at: http://www.donsmaps.com/images28/assessm.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 1.9 The shaft of the dead man. (2009). Available at: http://tnsatelier.files.wordpress.com/2009/03/lascaux-reinterpreted.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 2.1 Mesopotamia map. (2014).Available at: http://fanack.com/uploads/pics/Iraq_mesopotamia_map_04.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 2.2 Schematic reconstruction drawing of a section of Level VI, Catal Huyuk, Turkey.(2014). Available at: http://apah.lakegeneva.badger.groupfusion.net/modules/groups/homepagefiles/49961-8753758421-16.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 2.3 Ziggurat of Ur. (2014). Available at: http://static.panoramio.com/photos/original/11195558.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014]
IMAGE REFERENCES 2.4 Stone wheel. (2014). Available at: http://www.tempudada.in/wpcontent/uploads/2014/05/wheel-of-stone-p.com-78486995.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 2.5 Arches and Vaulted roofs.(2014). Available at: http://static.panoramio.com/photos/original/11195558.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 3.1 Map of ancient Egypt. (2014). Available at: http://www.fofweb.com/Electronic_Images/Maps/AK40AncientEgypt.gif [Accessed 4 December 2014] 3.2 Three pyramids : Menkaure, Khafre, Khufu. (2014). Available at: http://www.soulsofdistortion.nl/images/picture%2062.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 3.3 The main Pyramid.(2014). Available at: http://travelworldpopular.com/wpcontent/uploads/2014/06/great-pyramid-of-giza-history.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 3.4 Cross section of the main Pyramid.(2014). Available at: http://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/707/flashcards/1080707/jpg/section_20of_20the_20great _20pyramid_20of_20khufu_20%28giza%291338956662072.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014]
IMAGE REFERENCES 3.5 Post and lintel at temple of Karnak.(2014). Available at: http://mediacdn.tripadvisor.com/media/photo-s/03/7f/fb/7a/temple-of-karnak.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 3.6 Hypostyle hall of Karnak temple.(2011). Available at: https://pristinepondering.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/p1040118.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 3.7 Lotus topped columns.(2014). Available at: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/owWgkHGFh9g/T3WrwjYEzfI/AAAAAAAACqU/wZOXV4zZ1gU/s1600/Egypt+460.JPG [Accessed 4 December 2014] 4.1Northern view of Knossos on Crete, Greece.(2014). Available at: http://travel-west-europe.ru/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Knossos-Palace.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 4.2 Knossos on Crete, Greece.(2013). Available at: http://michaelraupach.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/img_1078.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 4.3 Megaron palace of Mycenae, Greece.(2014). Available at: https://www.utexas.edu/courses/cc302k/Greece/Mycimages/PY%20meg.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014]
IMAGE REFERENCES 4.4 Corbelled vault, laying of stone. (2014). Available at: https://www.utexas.edu/courses/cc302k/Greece/02.Myc.htm [Accessed 4 December 2014] 4.5 Greek temple, architectural elements.(2014). Available at: https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/50/flashcards/4422050/jpg/diagram_of_greek_temple142D477703C1498F773.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 4.6 Orders of architecture. (2014). Available at: http://cdn.designhomes.pics/design/cdm.reed.edu/cdm4/studyguides/images/temples/temple_styleshover.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 4.7 Kourus, Dorian sculpture. (2014).Available at: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Kouros_anavissos.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 4.8 Parthenon- Temple of Athena Parthenos (Virgin). (2014). Available at: http://www.viza.md/sites/default/files/images/akropolis.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 4.9 Kritios boy, early Classical period.(2014). Available at: https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/940/flashcards/1371940/png/kritios_boy14156F2EB490928E231.png [Accessed 4 December 2014]
IMAGE REFERENCES 4.10 Discus thrower, by Classical master Myron.(2014). Available at: http://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/789/flashcards/2212789/jpg/12diskobolosromancopy14147739E7041C0F190.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014]
4.11 Erechtheum temple of Athenian Acropolis.(2014). Available at: http://www.ancient.eu/uploads/images/974.jpg/ [Accessed 4 December 2014] 4.12 Laocoon and his sons, Greek Hellenistic period.(2014). Available at: http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/109images/4thc_Hellenistic/Laocoon.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014]
4.13 Erechtheum temple of Athenian Acropolis.(2014). Available at: http://www.ablejourneys.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/temple-of-zeus-in-olympia_961391600x1200.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 5.1 Tuscan order. (2014). Available at: http://www.fine-woodworking-for-yourhome.com/images/tuscancolumn1.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 5.2 Roman vaults.(2014). Available at: http://depts.washington.edu/arch350/Assets/Slides/Lecture23.gallery/source/image/construction_vau lts.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014]
IMAGE REFERENCES 5.3 The Colosseum(2012). Available at: http://www.goodwp.com/images/201210/goodwp.com_25354.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 5.4 The Colosseum, Roman amphitheater(2012). Available at: http://architectureandbranding.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/rome-colosseum.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 5.5 Pantheon at Rome.(2014). Available at: http://static.thousandwonders.net/Pantheon.Rome.original.1785.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 5.6 Irwin polis Pantheon at Rome.(2014). Available at: http://irwinmiller.com/blog/wpcontent/gallery/rome-pantheon/irwinopolis-pantheon-rome-9.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 6.1 Hagia Sophia interior, Istanbul, Turkey. (2012). Available at: http://www.our-year.co.uk/wpcontent/uploads/2012/12/Istanbul-Hagia-sophia-interior-638.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 6.2 Hagia Sophia cathedral, Istanbul, Turkey. (2014). Available at: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Hagia_Sophia_Cathedral.jpg [Accessed 4 December 2014] 7.1 Bhimbetka rock painting.(2014). Available at: http://www.holidayiq.com/destreviewimages/Bhimbetka-10775_45.JPG [Accessed 4 December 2014]
IMAGE REFERENCES 7.2 Pashupanti seal proto Shiva.(2014). Available at: http://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/1670/flashcards/660926/png/proto.png [Accessed 6 December 2014]
7.3 Bust of priest, Mohenjo daro.(2014). Available at: https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/289/flashcards/644289/jpg/14_pk.mdh1313717547222 .jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 7.4 Town planning at Mohenjo daro, Pakistan. (2014). Available at: http://risensources.com/wpcontent/uploads/2011/04/mohenjo-daro.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014]
7.5 Dancing girl Mohejo daro. (2014) ). Available at: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/58iD5AcuMtE/T3zdnbgFdkI/AAAAAAAAFfw/1Y2-dkGYQ4w/s1600/Dancing_Girl_of_Mohenjodaro.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 7.6 Jain Kalpasutra 19th c. A.D. (2014). Available at: http://nationalmuseumindia.gov.in/images/products/Jain-Kalpasutra-big.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 7.7 Astasahahasrika Prajnaparamita Sanskrit palm-leaf manuscript.(2014). Available at: https://c2.staticflickr.com/8/7096/7224907120_d45d0300a3_b.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014]
IMAGE REFERENCES 7.8 Interior of Elephanta caves, Mumbai, Hindu temples.(2014). Available at: http://www.wondermondo.com/Images/Asia/India/Maharashtra/ElephantaCol.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014]
7.9 Dilwara Jain temple.(2014). Available at: http://www.indiantravels.com/admin/uploads/City_photos/634913598711966708_dilwara_temple_i nside1309723556457.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 7.10 Buddhist Chaitya hall, Karle.(2014). Available at: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/0001_0099/karle/interior/photomod2.jp g [Accessed 6 December 2014] 7.11 Sanchi Stupa. (2014). Available at: http://images.mapsofindia.com/my-india/sanchi-stupa.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 7.12 Ashok pillar. (2014). Available at: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Ashok_pillar.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 7.13 Ajanta- Ellora caves.(2014). Available at: http://realindiatrips.com/img/Ajanta%20Ellora29.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014]
IMAGE REFERENCES 7.14 Vision of Buddha paradise, Gandhara school of art.(2014). Available at: http://asiasociety.org/files/01.15.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 7.15 Jama Masjid by Akbar.(2014). Available at: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Jama_Masjid_Panorama.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 7.16 Akbarnama painting(2014) Available at: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Akbar_Hunting_Black_Buck-Akbarnama.jpg [Accessed 9 December 2014] 7.17 Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula,(2014) Available at: Agra http://flashpackatforty.com/wpcontent/gallery/taj-mahal/tomb-of-itimad-ud-daulah-marble-building.jpg [Accessed 9 December 2014] 7.18 Hasan, A., From the St. Petersburg Album Mughal, Reign of Jahangir, (1618). Available at:
7.19 Sculptures on Khajuraho Temple.(2014). Available at: http://sacalatorim.ro/wpcontent/uploads/2014/08/khajuraho-temple.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014] 7.20 Khajuraho Temple.(2014). Available at: http://www.thehummingnotes.com/wpcontent/uploads/2014/11/Khajuraho-temple-1.jpg [Accessed 6 December 2014]
IMAGE REFERENCES 7.21 Chand, N. Rajput painting (2014). Available at: http://rajasthaniminiaturepainting.blogspot.in/2013/08/miniature-paintings.html [Accessed 9 December 2014]