How Social Cognitive Theor y can explain the benefits serious games can have on educational outcomes.
Š2012 Nicholas Iati All rights reserved.
Serious Games in the Classroom:
A Socio-Cognitive Assessment
Contents Abstract......................................................................................................................... 3 Background: Research Problem & Theory Under Review ......................................... 4 Background: Research Problem .................................................................................................... 5 Background: Theory Under Investigation.................................................................................. 6 Research Design........................................................................................................... 8 Research Design Overview.............................................................................................................. 9 Variables..........................................................................................................................................9 Experiementation..................................................................................................................... 10 Sample Size................................................................................................................................. 11 Timeline........................................................................................................................................ 12 Validity.......................................................................................................................................... 12 Mitigating Potential Problems............................................................................................. 13 Significance................................................................................................................................. 15 Sources Cited.............................................................................................................. 16 Citations...............................................................................................................................................17
Abstract
Abstract This document proposes that, when compared to traditional classroom instruction, the use of serious games as a supplemental learning aid in concert with traditional instruction can greatly enrich the learning process for students. Socio-cognitive theory, specifically Albert Bandura’s model of Behavior Production Process, is applied to define the cognitive processes serious games engage in learning environments which function to generate interest in the subject matter, opportunities for practical and abstract application, feedback and positive reinforcement through a mediated enactive experience, and rewards and incentives which increase levels of motivation for continuous learning and goals attainment. In an effort to substantiate the potential positive effects serious games can have on learning, a controlled quasi-experiment is proposed. The study draws a random probability proportionate to size sample from eleventh grade students in the San Diego Unified School District and identifies four distinct strata based on controlled variables – student proficiency levels defined by the State of California – and independent variables – traditional classroom instruction and classroom instruction with supplemental use of a serious game. The study aims to measure attentional processes through an initial structured interview of each individual subject; retentional processes, through a series of weekly post-test only experiments after each unit is completed; production processes, through a series of daily skills assessment exercises designed to measure transfer - the ability of learners to transfer knowledge acquired through rehearsal, whether in class activities or serious game-play; and motivational processes through a structured exit interview. The study anticipates to find that students in the test groups – groups in which instruction is supplemented with the use of a serious game - develop a richer understanding, both practical and abstract, of the subject matter taught in the curriculum than those who were taught in a traditional classroom setting.
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Background: Research Problem & Theory Under Review
This section introduces the nature of the research problem - serious games used as learning aids in classrooms - by defining serious games, summarizing the research plan, and explaining why the research is important. Social Cognitive Theory is also touched-upon, specifically Albert Bandura’s Behavior Production Model, as it relates to the nature of serious games within the context of the proposed research.
Background: Research Problem
I propose that serious games – video games which are classified as “purpose-driven” (DeMaria 145)
What makes video games so powerfully effective in terms of education is their entertainment value. Kids like video games because of the colors, the animation, the eye candy, as well as the interactivity and the challenge and the rewards of winning. The best way to learn is when the learner is having fun at the same time. The wide-scale development of video games with serious purposes is well underway, due in-part to the launch of the Serious Games Initiative in 2002. The Serious Game Initiative has led to other movements in which video games are the primary vehicle for initiating education and change. “Games for Health focuses on games that promote health, healing, and medical training,” and “Games for Change is devoted primarily to supporting games that promote social change, including public policy and politically oriented games” (DeMaria 148-150). The Partnership for 21st Century Skills is a group of professionals representing organizations spanning a range of industries including the automotive industry, information technology, telecommunications, broadcast communications, and education. The group was formed to develop a profile of the skills necessary to be a successful member of society in the 21st century. Just about every skill on the list, divided into four categories – Life and Career Skills, Learning and Innovation Skills, Information, Media, and Technology Skills, and Core Subjects and 21st Century Themes – can be taught through video games (see Figure 1). As a matter of fact, “gamers in business are more sociable and more loyal. They like to win, but they also have the ability to think more strategically and ‘go meta’ to gain perspective on situations” (DeMaria 121). Research on the positive effects video games have on adolescent development and behavior strongly suggests that video games may actually teach kids high-level thinking skills that they will need in the future. The growing popularity of role playing games (RPGs) has demonstrated an emphasis on the development of reading and math skills since young gamers are required to read in-game instructions and dialog as well as exercise quantitative analysis like managing resources. Since video games inherently possess internal logic, players also develop pattern recognition and estimating skills. Video games build on the fundamentals of learning by encouraging inductive reasoning and
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Background
– used as supplemental teaching aids in high school classrooms can produce marked levels of enrichment in students’ understanding, retention, and practical application of subject matter taught in the curriculum. In order to assess the effectiveness of serious games as supplemental teaching tools, I will conduct a controlled quasi-experiment in which control groups are taught subject matter from a school district approved curriculum in a traditional instructor-led classroom. Instructors will teach the same curriculum to test groups in the same classroom settings; however, a serious game will be introduced as a supplemental aid to the curriculum. Structured interviews, skills assessment exercises which require written responses to questions related to daily lessons, and post-tests will function as data collection instruments and will measure factors such as participants’ confidence, retention and understanding, practical application, Figure 1: Partnership for 21st Century Skills and motivations as these factors relate to the subject matter presented.
Background
hypothesis testing. For instance, players may need to implement a number of different strategies in order to achieve a desired outcome – if one strategy does not work, the player must modify his or her hypothesis and try the next one. The two most important and influential aspects of video games are the teamwork, or collaborative aspect, and the simulation of real world skills. Most kids are playing video games together, in either physical environments where each child is physically present, or online environments in which a great deal of communication is taking place over a gaming network. The hybridization of video games as not only entertainment media but also social media supports an environment in which real world skills are practiced and honed – concepts central to socio-cognitive theory. “Through trial and error, players can directly yet virtually experience the outcomes of their own behaviors and generate rules of behavior. It is an enactive experience because players are taking active control and experiencing the game world through their game character” (Peng, 650). Most games incorporate achievements and punishments for certain game-play behaviors. Such implicit rewards and consequences foster a mediated experience. Such a model provides students with a safe environment to learn and put the subjects being taught to practical use, simultaneously building additional skills such as problem solving and teamwork. The overall experience can have a significant impact on increasing self-efficacy as students become more confident in their abilities to grasp subject matter and apply it in practical terms.
Background: Theory Under Investigation
Social Cognitive Theory is of central interest in this study as it postulates a clear sequence when
the aim is to “transform knowledge into skilled action” through a monitored enactment (Bandura, Social Cognitive, 272-273). The experimentation in test groups will model the sequence of Albert Bandura’s Behavior Production Process. In this model, Bandura delineates four sequential sets of processes (see Figure 2): • Attentional Processes – the first set of processes engage the individual’s perceptual set, cognitive capabilities, cognitive preconceptions, arousal level, and acquired preferences. These processes correlate to the level of engagement the individual is willing to commit. • Retentional Processes – the second set of processes engage the individual’s cognitive skills and cognitive structures. These processes correlate to rehearsal. • Production Processes – the third set of processes engage the individual’s physical capabilities and component sub-skills. These processes correlate to feedback devices and corrective adjustment. • Motivational Processes – the fourth and last set of processes engage the individual’s incentive preferences, social comparison biases, and internal standards. These processes correlate to perceived self-incentives.
Figure 2: Behavior Production Process – Sequential Processes These processes correlate to the sequence of processes serious games can engage in students (see Figure 3). The teacher introduces a familiar concept which will act as a supplemental learning aid - a serious game. Game-play generates students’ emotional engagement (Ritterfeld, Cody, and Vorderer, 274). Most students will feel confident in their abilities to play the video game since it is a widely interiorized medium among youth culture, therefore generating a heightened degree of self-efficacy in what is expected of them in class (Attentional Processes). Heightened 6
Figure 3: Behavior Production Process – Modified to Model Serious Games Effects
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Background
sense of self-efficacy in playing the serious game influences students to feel more confident in exploring the concepts covered in the game and social aspects of the game reinforce the lessons learned through identification – students interact with the media while simultaneously interacting and relating with one another. At this stage, students are effectively practicing or rehearsing the subject matter (Retentional Processes). Since the serious game functions as a mediated enactive experience, the inherent rewards and consequences (i.e., achievements such as reaching the next level of game-play or consequences such as returning to the beginning of the level) provide feedback to the students so they may adjust their game-play (Production Processes). As students engage in social game-play, they can monitor one another’s strategies and progress, adjusting their own in the process. The social engagement and entertainment value of the game alter the students’ approach to learning, generating a perception that the subject matter is fun which, in turn, fosters a more intimate bond with it and a deeper understanding of it. This deeper understanding aids in transfer – the transfer of knowledge, skills, and attitudes” (Tobias and Fletcher, 161) acquired during rehearsal of conceptual lessons taught in class and/or a serious game to practical applications that engage production processes. The students experience an increase in levels of self-efficacy as they ultimately discover that they are capable of attaining academic goals and become more motivated to actively pursue those goals (Motivational Processes) - individuals with higher levels of self-efficacy welcome difficult tasks “as challenges to be mastered” (Bandura, Self-Efficacy, 38).
Research Design
This section describes the details of the proposed research study including the variables that will be tested, how experimentation will be executed, the instruments that will be used for capturing and analyzing data, sample size, study timeline, validity, potential problems and solutions, and significance of the study.
Research Design Overview
In order to accomplish the goals of my research, I am basing my study on 11th graders in the San
Diego Unified School District. The No Child Left Behind Act requires school districts to assess and report student proficiency levels based on standardized tests. Proficiency levels include: • Advanced - Students who fall in the top percentile of academic achievement based on standardized test scores. These students will not be represented in my study. • Proficient - Students who score at or above 380 on English-language arts and 422 on Mathematics standardized tests. • Basic - Students who do not score the minimum scores to qualify for proficiency on standardized tests. This information is highly relevant to my study and student proficiency levels warrant differentiation within my study. Due to the varying degree of school size (relative to overall district size), ethnicity/ race (as related to primary language spoken), and socioeconomic class, specific, relevant strata will be identified and random samples may be selected from the overall population based on probability proportionate to size for each strata established. Since a great deal of student data exists, I was able to determine there are 7,583 eleventh graders in 31 high schools in the San Diego Unified School District. The male to female ratio is fairly even, as is the ratio of Proficient to Basic students (49% and 51% respectively).
Variables Independent Variables •
Classroom instruction supplemented with use of a serious game
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Traditional classroom instruction
Dependent Variables Level of abstract understanding demonstrated over subject matter
Controlled Variables (Proficiency Levels) •
Basic Level
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Proficient Level
Extraneous Variables •
Socio-Economic Status – A series of studies on educational computer games as new opportunities for learning for students of low socioeconomic status found that “due to elements inherent in games such as active participation, story lines, role-playing, and a sense of identity as an agent for action or change, games are inherently goal directed, motivating, (Barab, et al., 2007) cognitively and affectively engaging, and boost the player’s confidence when success is achieved(Pintrich and Schunck, 1996). Moreover, computer games, particularly those played in multi-user virtual environments involving experiences that mimic real life, can offer a range of direct or vicarious experiences not otherwise available to low-SES students. Finally, because games expose players to the world of knowledge by incorporating meaningful learning, they significantly increase the likelihood that students of low SES, particularly those who perceive classroom learning as either anxiety-provoking or irrelevant, would perceive learning materials embedded in game environments as both less stressful and more meaningful (Squire, 2006)” (Tobias and Fletcher, 480-1).
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Access/Exposure to Computers/Software Applications – Tobias and Fletcher refer to a study (Hohlfeld, Ritzhaupt, Barron, and Kemker, 2008) which sought to uncover more in-depth information on the relationship of the learning gap between students of high and low socioeconomic statuses. This learning gap was coined the “digital divide,” a term used to describe “the 9
Research Design
•
discrepancy or disparity in access to and/or utilization of technology for some groups” (Tobias and Fletcher, 479). They found that, “while the number of computers in low-SES schools has increased, there is significantly less access to, less student and teacher use of, and less technological support for computers than in higer-SES schools” (Tobias and Fletcher, 479). The results suggested that the digital divide cannot be mitigated by simply placing computers in low-SES schools. Instead, the potential for the kinds of educational gains computers and serious games can provide must be realized.
Experiementation A quasi-experiment similar to Campbell and Stanley’s Post-Test Only Design will be applied (Bernard, 118), in which subjects in groups attend summer classes for four weeks. Classes proportionately represent the districts overall population of 11th graders. The classes are two hours each day, five days per week. Prior to class commencement, structured entrance interviews of each subject will be conducted. When classes begin, control groups are taught in a traditional classroom setting in which a lesson plan is followed for one hour. During the second hour, students are to complete questions on skills-assessment worksheets which cover material taught in the lecture that day. The treatment groups follow the same exact lesson plan the first hour of class; however, rather than completing skills-assessment worksheets the second part of class, the students will play ClearLab - a science game developed by Muzzy Lane, a leader in serious game development. The students in the treatment classes will complete the same skills-assessment worksheets as control groups but will do so as homework assignments each day. All students must also keep a daily journal indicating their reactions to a number of specific criteria related to the day’s class activities. At the end of each week, a unit exam designed to test subjects’ understanding of the material covered during the week will be administered. At the end of the course, students will once again go through individual structured interviews with researchers. Each of the aforementioned instruments are designed specifically to collect data related to a specific process outlined in Bandura’s Behavior Production Process: Instruments Measuring Attentional Processes
Research Design
The initial structured interview of subjects is designed to capture their individual: •
Perceptual sets – How does the subject feel about science class? (i.e. boring, fun, difficult, etc.)
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Cognitive capabilities and preconceptions (self-efficacy) – How well does the subject think he or she will do in the course?
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Arousal level/attitudes towards learning – On a scale of 1-6, how excited is the subject about learning about science in this course over the next four weeks (6 = very excited; 5 = excited; 4 = somewhat excited; 3 = somewhat apprehensive; 2 = apprehensive; 1 = very apprehensive).
Daily journal entries will require subjects to indicate their reactions to: •
Daily lectures/reading assignments – rate on a scale of 1-6 their level of interest for that day.
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Daily game-play (test group only) – rate on a scale of 1-6 their level of interest for that day.
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Which part of class activities was most helpful in terms of gaining understanding on the material covered in class that day.
The data yielded from each subject’s journal can help to identify how effectively the serious game engages attentional processes depending on the rate at which subjects explicitly state that the game is the most interesting and/or most helpful part of that day’s activities. Instruments Measuring Retentional Processes Weekly unit tests consisting of multiple choice questions which cover the concepts covered in the week’s lessons will measure the level at which subjects are able to retain the knowledge yielded during the rehearsal phase. Control groups will rely solely on the traditional lecture-independent assignment format while test groups receive the added benefit of the serious game as a means for providing valuable rehearsal time. Differences in the data yielded for each group can then be compared to determine if the test group performs significantly better on the tests. 10
Instruments Measuring Production Processes Daily skills assessment exercises will function as instruments for collecting data on production processes, particularly the cognitive processes involved in learners’ abilities to transfer the knowledge yielded from the rehearsal phase to tasks which they encounter in the production phase. Research on transfer in the context of educational video games “examines the effects games have on tasks that are quite similar to those faced in the game” (Tobias and Fletcher, 169). One particular study on transfer in the context of serious games conducted by Moreno and Mayer “found that 24 students who were addressed personally (‘I,’ ‘You’) while playing a computer game dealing with plants, showed higher retention (d = .77 effect size) and higher performance on a transfer task (d = 1.67 effect size)” (Tobias and Fletcher, 165). Moreno and Mayer measured transfer by posing questions which were similar but not specifically covered in the materials to which students responded on paper. Therefore, the concept questions posed on daily skill assessment exercise worksheets will be similar to, but not carbon copies of the examples and challenges posed in lectures, text book readings, and game challenges (for test groups). Instruments Measuring Motivational Processes Structured interviews with questions designed to probe subjects on their attitudes towards future learning in the domain of science will be conducted at the end of the course. In 2008, “Ke used a sample of 487 students to compare a series of web-based games developed by the Center for Advanced Technologies in one of the sampled districts with traditional paper-and-pencil drills in mathematics. She found that the game group had more positive attitudes towards learning in mathematics than the drill group” (Tobias and Fletcher, 179).
Sample Size Probability proportionate to size samples will be drawn to represent the population: Total (Known) Population: 7583
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Mean # of 11th Grade Students (25 Schools): 303.56
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Standard Deviation: 195.14
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Standard Error: 38.40
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Z-value: 1.96
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Precision Level: .5
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Confidence Interval: 5
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Sample Size: 366
I modeled my sample selection and experimentation somewhat after a study on the National School Lunch Program and School Breakfast Program (Ponza et. al.). The average class size in California is 30 students to one teacher (California Dept. of Education). The participants selected to represent the overall population in each of the strata will be broken down into classes conducive to the average class size in California. With a sample size of 366 students, classes will be stratified as follows (based on Post-Test Only quasi-experiment): Class* Class 1 - 3 Class 4 - 6 Class 7 - 10 Class 11 - 13
Assignment - PPS** Proficient Proficient Basic Basic
Treatment X X
Post Test O1-3 O4-6 O7-10 O11-13
* The number of classes is determined by the following formula: 366 (sample size)/4 (number of strata)/30 (average number of students per class in California) = 3 (classes per strata) **PPS = Random Probability Proportionate to Size assignment 11
Research Design
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Timeline The first step in the process is to engage the San Diego Unified School District in order to secure its cooperation in the research effort, establish the appropriate curriculum, and ensure the serious game adequately supports the curriculum. Next, the school district will be asked to associate each proficient and basic student with a number. Researchers will make selections based on a probability proportionate to size sampling and will report the numbers selected to the representative working on behalf of the school district. The school district then sends informed consent forms and confidentiality contracts to the parents of the selected students. Parents have a ten day deadline to respond. The deadline is specified on the informed consent form and states that if parents do not respond (returning signed forms to the school district) within ten days of the date printed on the forms, the school district will make the assumption that the parents do not consent to their child’s participation in the study. In cases which parents do not consent, a different student number will be selected from the appropriate zone of the school district. Once the required amount of test subjects is fulfilled, experimentation will commence shortly after the beginning of summer break, with classes running for six weeks. Data collection and some analysis will be conducted during this time. The lion-share of data analysis will be conducted once final examination (post test) scores are recorded.
Validity
Research Design
Construct Validity Socio-cognitive theory contends that “[I]n most activities, sub-skills must be improvised to suit varying circumstances. Modeling influences convey rules for generative and innovative behavior as well. This higher level learning is achieved through abstract modeling. Rule-governed judgments and actions differ in specific content and other details while embodying the same underlying rule” (Bandura, Social Cognitive, 275). Therefore, abstract images and concepts presented in media and social interaction provide a framework for individuals to extract, learn, and enact rule-based concepts and skills that can later be applied within a host of different contexts. The construct defined in this research design demonstrates construct validity: •
Video Games are a form of media
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Serious games are video games
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“Through trial and error, [Serious Game] players can directly yet virtually experience the outcomes of their own behaviors and generate rules of behavior. It is an enactive experience because players are taking active control and experiencing the game world through their game character” (Peng, 650).
•
Students who play serious games in concert with traditional classroom lessons demonstrate deeper abstract and practical understandings of subject matter than students learning in a traditional classroom.
Content Validity The study demonstrates content validity because the instruments used to measure the results of the experimentation among subject groups guage the processes which influence learning. Subject responses to structured interviews and in the form of journal entries yield insight on attentional and motivational processes, while tests and weekly skills assessment exercises measure retention and production processes by challenging subjects to demonstrate command over the subject matter represented in the curriculum. Other factors which lend to content validity include: •
Implementation of a controlled experiment provides a frame of reference via controlled variables as they compare to data yielded in test groups.
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Post-test only experimentation decreases the potential for bias while generating data from each group which can be analyzed and assumptions can be made through comparison of the data derived from testing. 12
Criterion Validity The proposed research demonstrates a high level of criterion validity, specifically concurrent validity, given that two measures are being taken at the same time on two similar and related constructs – instruction in a traditional classroom and instruction with the supplemental use of a serious game in the classroom.
Mitigating Potential Problems There are a number of potential problems which may occur throughout the course of the study. Likewise, each potential problem is associated with a potential mitigating course of action. The potential problems I have identified can be categorized as construct/content validity risks and ethical risks. Construct/Content Validity Risks Does the serious game used in the experiment adequately support the curriculum? Since ClearLab is an open development project, the game content can be tailored to the demands of the curriculum. These demands can be identified by collaborating with subject matter experts from the school or school district. Do the instruments used to collect data adequately serve the study’s goal to measure students’ command over the subject matter as it relates to Bandura’s model of Behavior Production Processes – attentional processes/level of engagement, retentional processes/rehearsal, production processes/corrective adjustment, and motivational processes/self-incentives? Simply testing knowledge through tests on the subject matter taught each week may not yield enough data to accurately assess the effects the independent variable (the serious game) has on the test groups when compared to the data yielded through testing the control groups. In order to collect data relevant to each behavior production process, instructors may apply a series of supplemental instruments (see Figure 4 - next page):
• Retentional Processes – Daily homework assignments can measure retentional processes by consistently measuring practical application of the subject matter in both control and test groups. Instructors leading test groups have the additional benefit of assessing progress related to game-play via tools built into the ClearLab game. • Production Processes – Tracking test scores as they relate to graded-homework assignments can aid in measuring production processes because as students receive feedback, they can modify behaviors related to other processes in order to achieve desired results (i.e., pay better attention in class, proactively seek additional help from the instructor, and increase the amount of time and effort dedicated to studying and completing homework assignments). The mediated enactive experience the serious game provides test group subjects lends additional support to production processes in those subjects through feedback devices built into the game (i.e., advance/repeat a level, leader boards, achievements, etc.). • Motivational Processes – Engagement of motivational processes can potentially be measured by offering an extra-credit assignment each week. The instructor should track the students who complete the assignments – those who choose to complete the assignments are essentially demonstrating increased levels of self-efficacy and more intimate bonds with the subject matter as well as marked engagement in learning through identification of reward structures – the opportunity to maximize their grades in the course). 13
Research Design
• Attentional Processes – The instructor can keep a daily log documenting empirical observations of class behaviors, reporting on each individual student’s level of class participation and perceived enthusiasm related to subject matter as well as social aspects in terms of how much students interact or discuss the subject matter among one another either in a study hall (control groups) or during social game-play (test groups).
Figure 4: Mitigating Problems Through Modeling and Instrumentation Ethical Risks Will there be resistance from parents in terms of allowing their children to participate in the study?
Research Design
To mitigate concerns parents may have with allowing their children to participate as test subjects, the parents of potential subjects will receive an informed consent form which will provide a highlevel overview of the study including: •
The nature of the study
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Why the study is being conducted
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Who may take part in the study
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How long the study will take
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What participants will be asked to do if they choose to take part in the study
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What, if any, are the risks of participating in the study
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What, if any, are the benefits of participating in the study
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Whether or not participants receive payment for participating in the study
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Policies for opting out of the study once enrolled as a participant
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Contact information for further questions/concerns
Does participation in the study pose any threats to confidentiality in terms of participants’ background information such as grades, proficiency level, socio-economic status, etc? Along with the informed consent form, a confidentiality contract will be distributed to parents of potential participants. The confidentiality agreement is comprised of two parts. The first part is a pledge by the entity conducting the study that no confidential information related to potential participants will be published, distributed, or shared in a manner which would identify the participant, including names, or grades, proficiency levels, or other data linked to the participant’s name. The second part functions as an information release form which parents must sign to allow the school district to release the participant’s academic records to the entity conducting the study. Are there any confidentiality issues which may threaten access to a sampling frame (i.e., will the school district object to providing a list of students who may be candidates for participation in the study)? The sampling plan takes student record confidentiality into serious consideration. Since the researchers leading the study will work with San Diego Unified School District during sample selection to assign non-identifying numbers to each student, students’ names will not be revealed to any other agencies besides the school district. Once parents return the necessary forms permitting their children to participate in the study, the research team will now have access to student names, transcripts, and proficiency level classifications; however, the confidentiality contract prohibits the research team to share any of the data with outside parties in a fashion which identifies students by name. 14
Significance If the study can conclusively determine that the use of a serious game as a supplemental teaching aid effectively enriches levels of student understanding, retention, practical and abstract application, and motivation, educational institutions can more seriously consider implementing such technologies to support curricula moving forward. Additionally, insight yielded by the study’s findings can be extended beyond academia to any facet of industry which implements instructional or training programs. Many organizations such as Canon and Cold Stone Creamery use games to train employees and the United States Army even funded its own serious game, “America’s Army” designed to teach soldiers important skills for success in the field during basic training (DeMaria, 145-6). Conclusive evidence supporting the efficacy of serious games in education could potentially influence their wider adoption across industries.
Research Design
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Sources Cited
A number of publications are cited in this document. This section provides the complete list of publications to which I referred during the literature review.
Citations Bandura, Albert. Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York: W.H.Freeman, 1997. Print. Bandura, Albert. “Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication.” Mediapsychology 3.3 (2001): 265-299. Communication & Mass Media Complete. EbscoHost. Web. 10 October 2011. Bernard, H. Russell. Social Research Methods: Qualitative Approaches. Sage Publications,Inc, 2000. Print ClearLab Project. Muzzy Lane Software, 2010. Web. 11 October 2011. “DataQuest.” Cde.ca.gov. California Department of Education, 23 March 2010. Web. 11 October 2011. DeMaria, Rusel. Reset: Changing the Way We Look at Video Games. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2007. Print. “Framework for 21st Century Learning.” P21.org. Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2011. Web. 17 October 2011. Peng, Wei. “The Mediational Role of Identification in the Relationship between Experience Mode and Self-Efficacy: Enactive Role-Playing versus Passive Observation.” CyberPsychology & Behavior 11.6. (2008): 649-652. Web. 11 October 2011. Ponza, Michael, Burghardt, John, Clark, Melissa, Ensor, Todd, Gleason, Philip, Hall, John, Homrighausen, John, Hulsey, Lara. “NSLP/SBP Access, Participation, Eligibility, and Certification Study: Final Study Design Plan.” Usda.gov. Mathematica Policy Research, 19 May 2006. Web. 17 October 2011. Ritterfeld, Ute, Cody, Michael, Vorderer, Peter. Serious Games: Mechanisms and Effects. Routledge, 2009. Print. Tobias, Sigmund, Fletcher, J.D. Computer Games and Instruction. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing, 2011. Print.
Sources Cited
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Š2012 Nicholas Iati All rights reser ved.