Nobelium Volume 10 - Winter 2021 by Noble and Greenough School

Winter 2021

Meet the Team

Editor-in-Chief

Content Manager

Jessica Zhang

Om Paithankar

Layout Head

Sparsh Verma

Copy Editors

Celia Cheng Maddie Wee Will Grimes

Biology Editors

Danielle Frankel Zia Quinn Arnav Harve

Chemistry Editors Physics Editor

Justin Power Katie Cheung Ethan Maconochie

Computer Science Editors Psychology Editor

Jeffrey Lin Will Hesp Oona Lundgren

Environmental Science Editor Web Master

Mara DuBois Alejandra Mendez

Staff Writers

Angie Feng Danielle Frankel Kaitlyn Willett Emily Zhang Jackie Zhang Mara DuBois Will Hesp Jerry Qin Skylar Stadhard Hyewon Suh Ava Kocher Delaney Benevides Joanne Lee Oona Lundgren

Ethan Anderson Alexis Nawara Jackie Zhang Om Paithankar Arnav Harve Simon Juknelis Corban Shih Zia Quinn Maddie Wee Eric Zhou Celia Cheng Josie Kelleher Owen Harrington

Angie Feng Hyewon Suh

Simon Juknelis Ashley Wang Danielle Frankel

Layout Staff

A Letter from the Editor Dear readers, The staff would like to thank all of you for taking the time to read this issue of Nobelium. Each edition is the result of months of hard work, from writing and revising to subject editing and layout work. For all of the time and effort put into this magazine from our diligent writers, subject editors, and layout team, thank you. Nobelium would also like to thank our incredible faculty advisor Ms. Tonge and the Nobles STEM department. Without her knowledgeable guidance and their unwavering support, this magazine would not be where it is today. Nobelium began six years ago with a small group of students who wanted to spread their passion for science by making it more engaging for the wider school community. Since then, the magazine has published nine successful editions, now ten, with this goal in mind during each process. Amidst our reunited community being able to enjoy in-person school once again, I’m excited to see the return of physical copies of the magazine all around the school and in the hands of curious students ready to dive into a world of science. This issue focuses on the science of genetics, with writers Angie Feng, Danielle Frankel, Kaitlyn Willett, and Emily Zhang exploring CRISPR and its ethical implications, the powers of gene-editing technology, the use of genomapping in disease heredity, and the age-old “nature vs. nurture” debate through behavioral genetics. We hope you enjoy this edition of Nobelium. Sincerely, Jessica Zhang Editor-in-Chief

CRISPR Controversy An Alternative to Gene Editing Genomapping Behavioral Genetics COVID Oral Medications Computers and Arthritis: The Scary Connection Mitochondrial Health and Aging Synesthesia: What is it? Fever-Autism: Examining a Baffling Phenomenon Vibrant Bandits Under the Sea: the Nudibranch Relative vs. Absolute Archeological Dating Self Destructing Plastic Cabinet of Forever Chemicals: PFAS in Makeup

Environmental Psychology Computer Physics Science Science

Chemistry

Biology

Feature

Table of Contents

Raptors on Mars The Black Hole Area Theorem Dark Matter and Dark Energy Racial Bias in Facial Recognition Cryptocurrency and the Move to Proofof-Stake Tajfel and Turner Identity Theory: Finding One’s Place in Society Circadian Rhythms and Their Impact on Our Health Controlling Pain with the Mind Frisson Chemical & Solar Geoengineering The Hidden Dangers Of Evolution Induced by Climate Change Physics and the Climate: the Revolutionary Modelers Who Won a Nobel Prize Bibliography

Angie Feng Danielle Frankel Kaitlyn Willett Emily Zhang

Mara DuBois Will Hesp Jerry Qin Skylar Stadhard Hyewon Suh

Ava Kocher Delaney Benevides Joanne Lee Oona Lundgren

Ethan Anderson Alexis Nawara Jackie Zhang

Arnav Harve Simon Juknelis

Corban Shih Zia Quinn Maddie Wee Eric Zhou Josie Kelleher Owen Harrington Celia Cheng

40 47 51 3

CRISPR Controversy

By Angie Feng

or decades, authors, scientists, and everyday people alike have wondered about the possibilities of genetic engineering

palindromic repeated DNA sequences found in bacteria genomes and other microorganisms (Pak, 2014). These CRISPR sequences enable

in the 1970s (Hafner, 2020). Now, with the gene-editing tool CRISPR-Cas9, much of these fantasies have been made into realities through technology that has been described as “rewriting the code of life” (Hunt, 2020). In 2020, the women scientist duo of Emmanuelle Charpentier, the director at the Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, and Jennifer A. Doudna, a biochemist at the University of California, Berkeley (Hunt, 2020), won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for a gene-editing technique known as CRISPR/Cas9 that continues to push the limits of genetic engineering. CRISPR, short for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat, refers to

of viral infections by destroying the genomes of the invading virus threatening the bacterial cell. The viral genome contains important a material necessary for replication and thus the CRISPR immune system is able to avoid repeated attack by the same virus. CRISPR/cas9 works similarly. However, it is able to target areas of

an extensive genetic sequence (Hafner, 2020). Charpentier and Doudna discovered a technique utilizing CRISPR, in which it worked similar to “a DNA sequences” (Hunt, 2020). DNA sequences can then be removed or additional DNA sequences can then be added to an existing strand of DNA. The DNA code becomes changeable, and

scientists are able to alter it in certain ways to better develop understanding and treatment of genetic diseases. This technology has been tested on countless organisms including plants, microbes, animals, and humans. To date, CRISPR’s revolutionary technology and research have been used to combat lethal illnesses and previously incurable genetic disorders, such as cancer. A clinical trial beginning in 2018 worked to use CRISPR/Cas9 to tumor cells that were resisting other treatments. The United States FDA approved this trial after careful consideration of its risks and since then, countless other trials for CRISPR-mediated cancer immunotherapy have opened. 22 patients who had experienced numerous unsuccessful treatments participated in the trial, and 17 edited T-cells for reinfusion (Liu, 2020). The trial demonstrated the safety and feasibility of CRISPR-Cas9 edited T-cell therapy and has contributed greatly to the advancements of CRISPR therapies utilizing these abilities. CRISPR has provided many people hope and opportunity for a life beyond the limits of their illness. However, some applications of this technology spark public debate regarding the ethicality of gene-editing technology. In 2018, a Chinese scientist announced the special

birth of twin girls who had received a CRISPR treatment that would make them immune to HIV. Many viewed this as unnecessary and obscene as scientists permanently altered the lives of newborns for immunity against a disease that already had However, other researchers such as Meghan Halley, a professor at Stanford University and a mother of a child with a genetic

eugenics that gene-editing raises, she also empathizes with those who threatening diseases with no cure. Furthermore, such gene-editing tools are expensive and pose several worries regarding

backgrounds. Additionally, just as with any new medical treatment, there are many concerns regarding the potential Continued advancements in genetic engineering such as CRISPR/Cas9 continue to push the bounds of science and technology through innovative techniques and discoveries, creating questions and debate around how and if new times.

RISPR-Cas9 DNA-editing technology, developed

in 2012, has already promised to

An Alternative to Gene Editing

cure multiple diseases. The fact that scientists are able to cut a that region in a relatively short amount of time, for a relatively low cost, is phenomenal and represents an amazing feat of medical development (Labiotech). However, there are limitations to the technology. For example, the technology is not always resulting in either no genome editing activity at all or even have severe consequences (The Jackson Laboratory). One known consequence of gene editing is chromothripsis, when CRISPRCas9 “generates structural defects of the nucleus, micronuclei, and chromosomal bridges, which initiate a mutational process… that can cause human congenital disease and cancer” (Nature Genetics). Fortunately, companies such as Omega Therapeutics and Chroma Medicine, where Brett Kaplan, my uncle, works, are exploring another option to genetically treat diseases using

By Danielle Frankel 6

epigenetics.

the epigenome is and how it can be used to

technology that harnesses epigenetics may have

control gene activity without actually changing the underlying DNA sequence. The epigenome

protein is being overproduced, scientists could

consists of many chemical compounds and proteins that attach to DNA, turn genes on and

underproduced, scientists could switch it on. It is clear that a few diseases could be

proteins in particular cells. Rather than altering

treated, or even cured, using this technology. For

the sequence of the DNA, epigenetic compounds

instance, Huntington’s disease is the result of

change the way that cells use the instructions

a long stretch of repeated CAG nucleotides in a

from DNA.

single gene that codes for the protein huntingtin.

One example of epigenomics in action is DNA

It is possible to shut down transcription of

methylation, which is when a protein attaches

the repeated nucleotides, leaving the normal

chemical tags called methyl groups to the

huntingtin protein to be synthesized (Nature

nitrogenous bases of DNA, thereby inhibiting

Genetics). A similar strategy could be utilized to

transcription factors and RNA polymerase from

cure familial hypercholesterolemia, which is the

transcribing the gene. Another type of epigenetic

result of a lack of protein receptors for LDL (low-

tagging involves histone acetylation, which is

density

when acetyl groups are added to histone proteins.

lipoprotein) cholesterol. Without enough of these

Histones are responsible for winding long DNA

receptors, LDL, or bad cholesterol, remains in the

molecules into neat chromosomes, but when

bloodstream, increasing the risk of heart attack

acetyl groups are introduced, the strands unwind,

and heart diseases. If scientists could manipulate

leading to increased transcription and protein

the expression of this target gene, then the

synthesis. Besides these, there are several other

disease might be treatable (NIH).

RNA-mediated processes that play a role in gene regulation.

While this science is incredibly exciting, there are scenarios when the technique would

In terms of its application to medicine, epigenomic editing represents a new tool that

produced, and the only way to remedy this would

might be safer than pure gene editing. It has an

be to cut the DNA itself; no epigenetic-related

advantage over base editors and prime editors

manipulation would help. That being said, the

because it does not cut the genome, allowing it to

possibilities for epigenetic editing are extremely

avoid any unintended consequences. At Chroma

exciting and may lead to a whole new generation

Medicine, their goal is to “[pioneer] a new class

of biotechnology.

of genomic medicines that harness epigenetics, nature’s innate mechanism for gene regulation, revolutionizing the treatment of genetically driven diseases” (Chroma Medicine). A new

Genomapping By Kaitlyn Willett

Have you ever wondered if a certain gene in

DNA and its chemical bases for unique patterns

your family was passed down to you? Or if you were going to inherit a disease that one of your

disease or trait. These characteristic patterns are

family members had? The development of easy-

called markers, and they help researchers locate a disease-causing gene. They can’t identify the gene by themselves, but they can tell researchers

that a disease has been transmitted from parent

roughly where it is on the chromosome (National

to child.

Human Genome Research Institute).

These genomaps provide clues about

There are two main types of genetic maps, physical and genetic linkage maps. When

and where that gene lies on the chromosome (National Human Genome Research Institute).

the location of a gene and its combinations along

They also determine relative distances

the chromosome (ScienceDirect). Genetic linkage

between genes and molecular markers on the chromosome (ScienceDirect). Genomaps are similar to road maps, except they traverse

regions of the same chromosome during meiosis.

across the chromosomes of an organism and the

On the other hand, physical maps look at the

genetic markers are the “landmarks” along the

distances between the known DNA sequences by

chromosome. They are produced by analyzing

determining the number of base pairs between

creating a physical map such as restriction,

location of the DNA sequences in chromosomes. The probes are then prepared and become short

sequence tagged site (STS) mapping.

sequences of single-stranded DNA that match

restriction enzymes that cut an unknown segment

the probes are mixed with chromosome DNA so that they can bind to the complementary

short sequences are called restriction sites, and the enzymes always cut DNA at the restriction

to determine the location of the DNA sequence.

site. Additionally, restriction maps show all

On the other hand, STS mapping works out the

locations of that particular restriction site and

position of the short DNA sequences, 200-500 base pairs in length, and are easily recognizable

maps along the chromosomes.

because the short sequences only occur once in the genome. The genome is broken into fragments, which are then replicated up to 10

Fingerprint mapping starts when the DNA is

times in bacterial cells to create many DNA

broken into fragments, which are then copied

clones. Primers are designed to bind to both sides

into bacteria cells. The DNA copies are cut by

of the STS to ensure that only that part of the

restriction enzymes and lengths are estimated

DNA is copied. A polymerase chain reaction then

using electrophoresis, which separates fragments

is used to determine the fragments with STS. If

of DNA according to their size. The map is

two DNA fragments are found with the same STS

constructed by comparing the patterns of

then they must represent overlapping parts of the genome (YG).

on the other hand, utilizes single molecules of stretched DNA that are held in place on a slide.

As scientists learn more about genes, all of the maps become more detailed and accurate so they

points, the fragments are stained with dye,and the gaps are examined under a microscope. The

duchenne muscular dystrophy. Furthermore,

optical map is constructed of single molecules,

the genomaps are helpful in guiding scientists to

but if multiple optical maps are combined and

genes that are responsible for the development

overlapped, they give an overview of the genome

of asthma, heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and

and help assemble the sequenced genome (YG).

psychiatric conditions (National Human Genome

The last two types of restriction maps are

Research Institute). Overall, genomapping has become an extremely important and useful

sequence tagged site (STS) mapping. FISH

tool for scientists to continue their research on

Behavioral Genetics By Emily Zhang

The “Nature vs Nurture” debate has been

is no one-to-one correlation, these variations

centered around how genetic or environmental

certain behaviors or disorders. One genomewide association analysis found that variants in twelve locations in the genomes of over 50,000

interactions between genes and human behavior have advanced the understanding of behavioral genetics. Researchers have found links between

disorder, or ADHD (Faraone et al). The genes at each location have

traits, such as alcohol

their own purpose and

misuse, that support the

do not directly increase

importance of genetics

the risk factor of ADHD;

in regulating human

for example, FOXP2 is a

behavior, but there is still a

gene in one of the twelve

struggle to understand the

locations that regulates

balance of “nature” and

dopamine levels in the

“nurture.”

brain but was found

Genes can’t simply turn

to have no association with ADHD on its own

our phenotypes, or

(Faraone et al). Rather, the

observable characteristics,

likelihood of having ADHD

are polygenic, meaning that “multiple genes – often thousands, collectively contribute to make the distinction that the variants are not

causes of ADHD, and merely act as risk factors,

while in non-exposed cells, only 7.1% of the

Although studies such as these support that genes

transcripts had the same result (Provencal). More

are closely intertwined with exhibited traits,

transcript changes mean a larger response to

genes alone are not responsible for phenotypic

stress; these results suggest that early exposure to GC exaggerates subsequent responses to GC in the cell. Since GC is a product of stress,

irrelevant to behavioral genetics, but they are

the researchers concluded that exposure to GC before birth could “change the set point of stress reactivity of adult tissues” (Provencal).

epigenetics focuses on how external factors can change gene expression in humans and has

Many exciting avenues lie ahead for behavioral genetics. The molecular mechanisms

contributed greatly to our understanding of the relationship between environment, genetics,

genetics in disorders and diseases such as

and behavior. In a study on the relationship

ADHD and cancer are still not very studied,

between trauma and alcohol misuse, early trauma

and untangling the conjunction of ‘nature’ and

in the participants were positively correlated

‘nurture’ will help progress towards treatments.

with a variation in code on the gene PRKG1. The researchers found that the variation “was positively associated with increased alcohol use disorder symptoms in trauma-exposed subjects and negatively associated in non-trauma-exposed subjects” (Hawn et al). However, the associations alcohol misuse. Another study on early exposure to stress establishes a more concrete connection. Glucocorticoids (GC) are hormones produced by the body when stressed. In order to determine after birth, a group of researchers exposed human brain cells to GCs and compared them to a control group. They noticed that in the GCexposed cells, some locations experienced many changes in DNA structure (Provencal). Cells in both groups were then exposed to GC again. In the areas of DNA structure change, 18.2%

COVID Oral Medications By Mara DuBois

he COVID-19 pandemic has been a threat to the world for almost two years. The virus has claimed the lives of millions worldwide, and has also changed daily routines for everyone. protecting individuals from hospitalizations and serious illness; in many cases, the vaccine has even prevented some people from contracting the

that require people to go to the hospital. This can medications to treat those who are actively sick this virus. Potential treatments such as Merck’s Molnupiravir show great promise, and some scientists believe that there are other possible Ivermectin. Ivermectin is a drug that is used to treat various parasitic infections, and some people COVID-19. Some clinical trials have taken place with this drug, but there is very little reliable data from the results. Although “the health authorities in the US, UK and EU have found there is Covid … thousands of supporters … have continued to vigorously campaign for its use”

(Schraer and Goodman, 2021). There is no and, if taken in the wrong doses, the medicine could be harmful. The advocates for use of this drug cite inaccurate data and spread false Ivermectin. Although the drug is FDA approved for use in treating parasitic worms and other infections in humans, the agency has said that it is not a safe or reliable treatment for COVID-19; instead they are trying to debunk the potentially dangerous rumors. The FDA has said that “you should not use Ivermectin to treat or prevent COVID-19” (Henderson, 2021). Although medications such as Ivermectin have not been proven as helpful and are often falsely advertised, treatments such as tackle the coronavirus. In early October, Merck, the company working on Molnupiravir, released data saying that the “investigational oral antiviral molnupiravir reduced the risk of hospitalization or death by approximately 50 percent compared to placebo for patients with mild or moderate COVID-19” (Merck.com, 2021). This shows the vital treatment for the virus. Because of the extremely optimistic results, Merck has pushed for the FDA to fast-track the approval for this medication. If this happens, tens of millions of doses could be released for oral treatment of

COVID-19. This drug works by interfering with SARS-CoV-2’s replication process, causing it to mutate itself to death (Graham, 2021). Also, Molnupiravir is a drug that “can be prescribed like other pills, taken at home and stored easily”(Pietsch, 2021). If this drug greatly impact treatments for COVID because it is easy to take and access. Although this oral medication shows promise, it is not yet clear how “this clinical-trial success story will translate into a global game-changer in (Willyard, 2021). Some are skeptical on how distribution worldwide would work; however, there is encouraging news from Merck. The company has said that it will “allow the drug to be manufactured and sold cheaply in the poorest nations, where vaccines for the coronavirus are in devastatingly short supply” (Nolen, 2021). This would greatly improve COVID conditions

in developing countries, and would give people access to treatment who would otherwise not have it. Although still somewhat uncertain, Molnupiravir is an encouraging step towards the Ivermectin and Molnupiravir are two of many potential oral medications that could help treat Coronavirus. If successful, these medications would have an immense impact and could provide additional protection against the harmful people are not willing to take the vaccine, so these potential medications could provide some level of treatment for those individuals. Overall, Molnupiravir seems very promising, and other similar oral medications could be a game-changer in the way the world deals with COVID.

COMPUTERS AND ARTHRITIS: The Scary Connection By Will Hesp

rthritis. A medical diagnosis that nearly twenty three percent of the

disease that can make everyday tasks seem swelling of various joints in the human body like the knees, the elbows, and the ankles. common types of arthritis, in which the swelling hands. However, osteoarthritis causes more than just joint pain and swelling. It also leads to damage of the skin, eyes, lungs, heart, and blood vessels; as such it is one of the most dangerous types of arthritis. Osteoarthritis can also lead to premature heart disease, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol (Mayo Clinic). New research shows that there is a possible connection between frequent typing on a computer keyboard and osteoarthritis. Since the age of technology, computers have

complete work, and interact with others. However, the average person spends nearly ten hours a day looking at some sort of computer screen, much of which is spent typing on a keyboard. This can have a dramatic impact on the joints in the hand, increasing the likelihood of being diagnosed with osteoarthritis. Fortunately, there are ways to prevent the development of osteoarthritis as observed in a study in which 74 people were monitored typing on a keyboard (Pubmed). Of those 74, 45 were diagnosed with arthritis, whereas 29 were not. Scientists noticed that those who had arthritis typed with more force than those without it. Additionally, the group without arthritis was found to be typing with a rest for their wrists, comfortable seat position, and constant movements of the hands to prevent joint stress from keeping the hands in a locked position. Therefore, switching up every day patterns and paying attention to how you type can prevent the development of potentially deadly osteoarthritis.

Mitochondrial Health and Aging

By Jerry Qin

he average lifespan of humans is increasing due to better common health practices and breakthrough medicines. It is estimated that by 2050, the population of United States. This is due to new research which has linked mitochondrial health to living longer. A compound called urolithin-A has received an uptick in attention from scientists, as it is associated with mitochondrial health. Urolithin-A occurs naturally in pomegranates, berries, and walnuts, but now there is a supplement being produced which contains it as well, making the

humans, and scientists are continuing to dig Biologists have discovered new connections between mitochondria and aging which relate all the way back to the origins of the mitochondria. It is thought that at some point around 1.4 billion years ago, a eukaryotic cell engulfed an oxygen-respiring bacteria, eventually integrating the bacteria into the cell; the bacteria evolved into the modern day mitochondria (Serious Science). As mitochondria age, they become less active until they fail and release mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA), which is believed to cause an immune response, leading to

published by Nature Medicine, it was found that

like improved muscle strength and endurance. being researched, but it has already been determined that it is safe for human consumption. Tests have been conducted mitochondrial health and muscle strength in

various age-related diseases. Additionally, as a person gets older, the mtDNA changes. They undergo many mutations and deletions which American). A study conducted by Johan Auwerx, a physician, biologist, and professor at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne, looked to see if there was a link between

mitochondrial function and muscle weakness. healthy and active adults, and one containing “prefrail” people, whose muscles had already been weakened, were observed to see how their mitochondria utilize ATP. It was found that the “prefrail” group had lower muscle mitochondrial activity, and a new link between mitochondrial function and muscle weakening was discovered. Because it was found that sluggish mitochondria mitochondria would rejuvenate tissue and on mice, generating healthy mitochondria eased how it happened, and if the same would apply to humans. If this is possible to accomplish within people, a major boost in human performance slow aging. According to Louise Burke and John Hawley, sports nutrition researchers at the Mary MacKillop Institute for Health Research at the Australian Catholic University, improvements in mitophagy, the cellular process of recycling faulty mitochondria, will also likely improve muscle function in younger people. They are also athletes by taking muscle biopsies to note any believed that improved mitophagy will help muscles recover quicker after strenuous exercise, and people would be able to perform at max everywhere would enjoy. While improving mitophagy by increasing intake of urolithin-A may provide way to improve muscle function, as it prompts new mitochondria to be produced. It may also be the key to slowing down aging, something that was a mere dream years ago.

Synesthesia: What is It?

By Skylar Stadhard

ave you ever tasted a rainbow? Or smelled the color purple? Like most people, the overwhelming answer to these questions would be no. However, there are a handful of people in the world that experience these sensations. Synesthesia is a neurological condition which involves an abnormal blending of senses. For example, when seeing a sunset, someone with synesthesia may smell the scent

that is the part of the brain responsible for visual stimuli. Along with the primary visual cortex, someone with synesthesia could also have their insular cortex activated, which is responsible for taste. This explains why there can be multiple senses associated with only one stimuli. Interestingly enough, many psychedelic drugs can actually cause a sort of temporary synesthesia in people. Shockingly,

variations of synesthesia. Projective synesthesia for example, is when the synesthete can experience taste, smell, sight, or sound along with another sense. How could two senses be experienced at the same time? Especially those that usually do not go together? Scientists have determined that the cause for synesthesia is the activation of multiple senses in the brain at the same time. Whenever one of your senses is stimulated, that information is relayed to your brain. Depending on what sense, that

synesthesia being a neurological condition, it usually is not clear if someone has it, which can leave a discrepancy as to how many people actually have the condition. Synesthesia is a condition that cannot be seen, and is not always easily described. It is usually

region of the brain. When looking at a tree, your primary visual cortex will be activated because

the population experiences (Brang & Ramachandran, 2011). Cases that are documented are typically self-reported due to the fact that as mentioned before, this condition may not be extremely recognizable to others. Could it be possible that more people have synesthesia than we believe? Scientists have a theory that

everyone could be born with synesthesia. When children are at a young age, their brains are not stimuli. This leaves room for senses to blend and merge, which is the premise of synesthesia. There have not been many studies conducted on children to test this, so as of now, it can really only be deemed as a theory. Although there is a lack of studies done on children, there have been many more recorded studies conducted with synesthesia tends to run in the family. 40% of synesthetes (NCBI) have reported that they have In the past, there have been studies alluding to synthesia being more prevalent in females than in males. With further research, scientists have realized that there is actually an even distribution of synthesia between both male and females, and that previous data that said otherwise was due research done on synesthesia, one would think there must be some sort of cure for this condition. There is, in fact, no cure for synesthesia. One of the main reasons for this is that synesthesia is not a disease. Many synesthetes enjoy being able have observed that some people with synesthesia have better memories than people without it. For example, being able to associate numbers or words with colors can help one remember larger quantities of information at a time. Synesthesia for many, is something that may

may seem to be an abstract thought. But for a handful of individuals, that is what they call reality. So, if you ever happen to meet someone who has synesthesia, why not ask them to give you a glimpse into their world.

Fever-Autism: Phenomenon By Hyewon Suh

utism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a diverse group of conditions, characterized by the unique behavioral and social challenges recent years, research has shifted away from begun to view neurodivergent conditions as celebrated, rather than treated and minimized; “neurotypical” and “neurodiverse,” have been adopted by a subsection of the autistic community (Brusie). Additionally, those who do not regard autism as a disorder believe that the pursuit of the “C word,” as referred to by the director of the Organization for Autism Research, is neither appropriate nor necessary (Stenson). Choosing whether or not to diminish the symptoms of a condition that one may consider an integral part of their identity seems an intensely personal decision, and it is likely that even if a cure were to be developed, some individuals would refrain from using it. However, lessen these symptoms, such options ought to be made available. With recent studies, the possibility of this future choice has drawn closer. These studies emerged from an observation

temporarily diminish the social behavior conducted in 2007, more than 80 percent of children with autism exhibited behavioral improvements while experiencing a fever (Curran). One parent observed that when her child — who was prone to outbursts, pacing, and other self-stimulatory actions — experienced a fever, he was more “social, alert, and talkative,” and “every behavioral thing was better” (Sarris).

But why? Does the general immune response release factors that inhibit certain areas of the brain, promoting functional capability? What about the fever itself — does an elevated body

systems involved in expressing social behavior? understand the mechanism behind this phenomenon, a study led by MIT graduate student Michael Reed was launched in 2019. Reed and his team began by utilizing the bacterial component lipopolysaccharide (LPS) group of mice that expressed autism-like behavioral abnormalities due to maternal immune activation at the time of fetal development (Reed). After introducing LPS, the scientists observed a temporary rescue of social due primarily to the immune response-regulated secretion of certain proteins or to the fever solely a raised body temperature by using designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs) to modulate the hypothalamus — the brain region that manages internal temperature. In doing so, they found that raising the body temperature of the mice did little to increase their sociability, which led them to infer that acute fever is not the main cause of the social behavior-rescue. Next, they attempted to change in sociability. LPS triggers the release of

rate of production increased in response to external stimulus — subsequent to the administration of LPS. Additional experiments were carried out to sociability. Reed’s team injected directly into the mice’s cerebral ventricles the antibodies that inhibit the receptors for IL-17, and the corresponding increase in sociability was no longer observable. Next, they set the gene IL-17RA — which produces the principal receptor of IL-17 — to be inoperative in a set of knockout the dependence of the main mechanism on the

Interleukin-17 cytokine IL-17; when the receptors for IL-17 were inhibited or removed entirely, the mice experienced no social behavior-rescue. Interestingly, though the LPS-driven production of IL-17 only occurs in a certain set IL-17 can be observed across several groups.

to mutations in the ASD risk genes Cntnap2, Fmr1, and Shank3. Although all mice displayed similar behavioral abnormalities, sociability was the release of IL-17 had not been triggered by the injection of LPS; consequently, these mice had not experienced a similar increase in sociability. However, when directly injected with recombinant IL-17, the non-MIA groups were able to experience the social behavior-rescue. The contribution of IL-17 in stimulating sociability in mice is clear; unfortunately, its role as a future drug to treat neurodevelopmental disorders is considerably less so. The usage of drugs that manipulate the IL-17/IL-17RA pathway has been correlated in humans with that underscores the many challenges implicit in regulating human behaviors (Hooganraad; Schmidt). Though the study cannot yet substantiate the development of related future possibilities for developing drugs that seek to lessen the symptoms associated with ASD. By understanding the complex mechanisms that govern human behavior.

Vibrant Bandits Under the Sea: the Nudibranch By Ava Kocher

n extravagant colors and brilliant patterns, the nudibranch stands out on the sea

protection. These sea slugs have given up the calcium carbonate shell of their snail relatives. Instead, they steal the stinging cells of their prey for their own protection. With 2,500 species in all the world’s oceans, ranging from the size of a grain of sand to 50 cm, nudibranchs have achieved great biological success through unconventional means (Bravendam). These sea slugs fall in the same phylum as garden snails, octopuses, and clams, characterized by a muscular foot. Nudibranchs make quite a splash with their showy colors and exposed gills along their backs, but their true distinction lies in their defense mechanism. Nudibranchs have the unique ability to digest and store nematocysts, the poisonous structures upon which they feed (Holland). All three of these are cnidaria, simple invertebrates that can sting with their nematocysts. Nematocysts are venom

cnidaria for both food and self-defense. When nudibranchs consume cnidaria tissue, they ingest the nematocyst structures. Their unique mucus chemically neutralizes mature nematocysts, which are excreted as waste (Bravendam). Underdeveloped nematocysts continue to mature, stored in digestive appendages called cerata on the nudibranch’s back (Goodheart). Packed with stolen nematocysts, the cerata are the brightest part of the body and can be severed and regenerated like a lizard’s tail (Bravendam). At the trigger of external cilia, the stolen defenses Along with their nematocyst theft system, nudibranchs have developed vivid contrasting coloration to indicate toxicity (Holland). The bright colors warn against attack and also provide hues and patterns, nudibranchs possess an alien beauty. Beyond their spectacular looks, they are a fascinating example of ingenious adaptation.

cilia (hairlike sensory organelles) called cinodicis (Goodheart). Poisonous barbed threads shoot (Bravendam). This lethal defense is enough to keep most predators at bay, but the nudibranch has evolved to monopolize on stinging

Relative vs. Absolute Archeological Dating By Delaney Benevides

archeologists date artifacts, all of these

for

and absolute dating. Relative dating is a qualitative or artifacts. Absolute dating is a quantitative method

absolute dating allows historians to be more accurate compared to relative dating. The three main types of relative dating are Stratigraphy uses the position of artifacts within certain layers of the Earth’s sediment to predict their age. Scientists implement the law of superposition (lower sediments contain older artifacts compared to higher ones) to determine approximate age compared to other items (Blakemore). However, stratigraphy can only create a timeline of certain items and as such give a timerangefor the artifact. This method cannot create a narrow, more accurate estimate of the age of individual items. Second, seriation is the organization of artifacts by style and quantity to predict their age (Blakemore). Seriation assumes that cultural style or typology replaces earlier styles over time (Yale). This method also creates an estimated timeline, so it is not accurate enough to determine bones to see how long they were underground (Yale).

crust. Therefore, none of these dating techniques can Absolute dating, however, can produce a more accurate estimate of the age of the artifact, especially radiocarbon dating. Radiocarbon dating is the most common absolute dating method. All living things absorb carbon from the air and food they consume.

help determine an atom’s radioactivity. Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope. So once the organism dies, the amount of carbon-14 starts to diminish (Jones). Scientists can measure how much carbon-14 remains, organism has been dead. What makes radiocarbon dating more accurate before was that it was assumed that carbon-14 was equally present throughout space and time. However, solar radiation), and oceans’ absorption of carbon are of carbon-14 during a particular time period. Scientists have been able to reset the scale of carbon

and how much carbon-14 was present during certain periods of time (Jones). Therefore, this makes radiocarbon dating more accurate compared to relaOther types of absolute methods can also establish a relatively accurate age for the object. First, thermoluminescence dating measures how many years have passed since after the heating of a crystalline material, like clay (Blakemore). Because this type of dating is mostly used on ceramics, it helps determine exactly when the item was made. Next, isotope like carbon-14 (but more radioactive), in many minerals and glasses (Yale). Also, potassium-argon (K-Ar) and argon-argon (Ar-Ar) is the measure of rocks from volcanoes and can be used to calculate Finally, archaeomagnetic dating means that the alignment of magnetic material in rocks and clay can

be analyzed to determine the creation of the rock during and in between shifts of the earth’s magnetic

that time (Franco). These types of dating techniques techniques to more accurately date nonorganic artifacts. In conclusion, absolute dating techniques are better to obtain accurate dates and ages of items rather than relative dating. If an archaeologist needed near-perfect results, the archeologist could turn to radiocarbon dating to determine the period of time a dead organism is from. They can also turn to other nonorganic methods like thermoluminescence dating to determine the age of ceramics. Overall, both relative and absolute methods are useful in the of chemistry provides the most accurate results.

Self Destructing Plastic By Joanne Lee

2017 study revealed that the world produces an estimated 8.3 billion metric tons of plastic

Public complaints about litter and garbage found in streets have encouraged chemists to investigate a solution that would replace glass, aluminum, (TechBriefs). Delving into the concept, a US based private company called the Environmental Polymers Group (EPG) created a plastic that is soluble in water. They selected polyvinyl alcohol, a polymer used in PVA has been explored to advance the creation of environmental plastic for years and has been a critical aspect to stem innovative approaches to this goal. These alterations helped the polyvinyl alcohol to retain similar characteristics to current plastic, such as its pliability. Eventually, EPG found that mixing the polyvinyl alcohol with water, glycerol (a sugar alcohol compound often found in foods like honey) and silica (a mineral detected in natural elements including soil, stone, or sand) would constitute a “pre-blend.” serves its purpose, it breaks down into its initial form of polymers and additives. Due to the structure of its hydrogen bonds, the pellets are ultimately consumed by microorganisms and enzymes present only in commercial composting facilities. Once the polyvinyl alcohol is fully decomposed, it can be converted into carbon dioxide, water, biomass, and contribute to other functional uses, such as hospital laundry bags, irrigation pipes, or biodegradable dustbin bags. Presently, this biodegradation process has not proven to be fully successful in marine environments, conditions and extended periods of high temperatures (DownToEarth).

Additionally, a chemist named James Guillet andhis team explored another viable option of degrading plastic, where these polymers would oxidize into highly-soluble organic molecules through the exposure to light. Although they had the right idea, results indicate that this may not work often don’t always get the necessary amount of light to degrade and decompose. These partially broken down microscopic plastics can end up in the ecosystem and endanger the safety of various animal species (ScienceNews). Other scientists continue to seek alternative compostable plastics that can be broken down by enzymes such as cutinase, lipase, and PETase. UC Berkeley professor Ting Xu and her team of former students created compostable plastics that can be degraded in warm water. Their experimentations directed the placement of polyester eating enzymes into plastic as they were created. These enzymes would be protected by a polymer wrapping, one similar to Personal Protective Equipment, so that it does not prematurely stimulate the deterioration process before its intended time. As this degradable plastic was exposed to warm water, the enzymes would become activated and break down the plastic polymer into building blocks such as lactic acid that were ultimately composted by soil microbes. timely manner without producing microplastics and other types of waste. Her discoveries led her to win the 2021 Grand Prize of Create the Future Design Contest (TechBriefs). Noting back to earlier forms of self destructing plastic with PVA, to newly advanced prevalent ambition in the science industry. While the creation of self-destructing plastic is not a complete solution to the problem, aspiring scientists continue to make huge strides towards contributing to a more sustainable and eco-friendly alternative for plastics.

Cabinet of Forever Chemicals: PFAS in Makeup By Oona Lundgren

ingredients on a food product nutrition label at some point, noticing a suspicious, unpronounceable chemical, and subsequently choosing not to eat it. Especially in the past several decades, society has become much warier of the potentially harmful chemicals we ingest through food. However, food is not the only avenue for dangerous substances to enter our bodies. Manufacturing industries around the world use dangerous chemicals in a host of everyday products and most people will hardly spare a second thought about these products. A particular class of man-made chemicals called become commonplace in all manner of production, from cookware to cosmetics. These synthetic compounds are exceptional at making products water-resistant, durable, and malleable, and thus have become very popular. PFAS can be traced back to the 1930s, when their non-stick, waterproof qualities found use in coatings on transportation technology, naval ships and aircrafts. PFAS use did not stop there, and the chemicals were implemented into the production of household goods across the board. PFAS are especially prevalent in the cosmetics industry. The chemicals are extremely hydrophobic (enabling water resistance) and increase properties of skin absorption, spreadability, and shelf-life. These traits lend well to makeup, especially waterproof and sweatproof products. In a 2021 University of Notre Dame study on cosmetic products, dangerously high of these products (Fuhlmer). Over 200 products, including products from major brands such as

Clinique, Covergirl, Maybelline, and Nars, investigated in the study were found to have the highest levels of the chemicals, surpassing thresholds of legality in European countries. Despite the increased use in manufacturing, environmental and physical health are sparse. It is fair to assume that the lack of information surrounding PFAS throughout the 20th century could be attributed to the hesitancy of corporations to stop using the chemicals. This theory gained further traction when cent years. The results of this attention were shocking. PFAS was found to be non-degradable due to nearly compounds the colloquial name of “Forever Chemicals.” As the chemicals are so common in manufacturing but do not disappear from the environment, scientists quickly discovered that traces of PFAS could be found in most natural ecosystems and in human systems. The chemicals are used in so many products and industries that they have not only found their way into homes but have disseminated into the air, traveling worldwide and building up in our bodies. PFAS manufacturing plants to isolated rural communities. are still unknown. Some recent studies link PFAS to birth defects, hormone and thyroid problems, liver for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). Due to the lack of long-term data, scientists do not have a clear picture of how increased levels of PFAS in the human though some predict sustained damage on the

immune and endocrine systems of humans. With products like makeup, the potential consequences given the proximity and absorption rate of these chemicals are alarming, to say the least. Furthermore, with a group of chemicals as stop their implementation in manufacturing, and nearly impossible to fully remove them from the environment. Corporate industries have found a valuable role for PFAS in all manner of production and are reluctant to relinquish a favorite ingredient. Spokespeople of the cosmetics industry publicly assert that PFAS must be safe because they would not poison their own market base with toxic chemicals (Fuhlmer.) Plus, the fear remains that banning individual compounds will allow industry chemists an opportunity to make more legal PFAS substitutes that However, the imminent fear of toxic chemicals, particularly in cosmetics, has brought about new legislation worldwide. European countries have stricter regulations and limits on acceptable amounts

of PFAS in makeup and other cosmetics. The United States House of Representatives recently passed the PFAS Action Act, which designated PFAS as hazardous substances and required national standards for PFAS levels in drinking water. Action is being taken, but slowly. In the meantime, the best way to protect yourself from PFAS is to research the products you buy. The ingredient labels are purposefully vague, and will likely be unhelpful (as PFAS could be labeled as anything from a dye to “perfume.”) Databases like Clearya can provide valuable information on the contents of makeup and cosmetic products, notifying online shoppers when they select a potentially harmful product. Unfortunately, the devastating reality is that the commonality of PFAS has already damaged our environment. The chemicals will simply continue to accumulate, and combating them will likely be never-ending. The future of chemical regulation requires continual vigilance to protect consumers and the environment from harm. Forever chemicals will require a forever solution.

Raptors on Mars By Ethan Anderson

can be increased either by increasing the rate of dream since the mid-20th-century. While we have been able to send a number of rovers to the Red

In order to increase the kinetic and thermal energy

Planet, the cost and risk associated with sending people to Mars has prevented any meaningful

expansion of gasses associated with this process

progress in the pursuit of interplanetary travel.

greatly increases the thrust an engine can generate,

However, with the advent of SpaceX and its

especially compared to a basic pressure-fed engine

Interplanetary Transport System (ITS), the company is looking to send people to our celestial neighbor within the coming decade (SpaceX Raptor). The

Where these engines start to get complicated is in

rocket is designed with payload capacity and rapid reusability as its highest priority, making the engines

through the system, turbopumps, or high-powered

one of the most critical points of development.

liquid pumps, are used to force fuel and oxidizer into

Rocket engines operate on the basic principle of Newton’s Third Law of Motion – every action has an

the combustion chamber quickly. In order to power these turbopumps, however, a small portion of the

equal and opposite reaction. By throwing mass out of the back end of the rocket at high speeds, the craft is able to propel itself forward. The force generated

(Dodd).

SpaceX’s Raptor is the engine slated to power the

exhaust, clogging up delicate components in a process

ITS and is unique in a number of ways. The engine

known as coking. The logical solution to this would

was designed to lift an intended payload of 450 metric

be to run an oxygen-rich preburner. However, these

tons to orbit and beyond. In order to meet the design

are largely avoided by space agencies due to the fact

requirements, the engineers opted for a complex

that the superheated oxygen in the exhaust could melt

combustion cycle and an unusual choice of fuel.

the metals used in the engine. The Russians were eventually able to pioneer an alloy strong enough to

combustion cycle, it is best to look at other, less

withstand the temperatures associated with these

complex combustion cycles. The most basic rocket engine cycle is the open cycle. The exhaust generated

unable to match the Russian metal alloy, opted to

from the preburners is simply dumped overboard (similar to the tailpipe on a car), resulting in a loss of

Because the carbon atoms in most fuels are the main

potential thrust but saving on the weight associated

culprit in coking, hydrogen fuel was used instead (SpaceX Raptor). Hydrogen as a fuel introduced a

open cycle engines tend to run fuel-rich, using more

number of new problems– the small size of the atoms

fuel in the combustion cycle than the ideal mixture

meant that great care had to be taken in preventing

ratio, in order to regulate the temperature and avoid

leaks, and the low density of the gas meant that two

melting components.

separate turbopumps had to be used to pump fuel and

A closed combustion cycle circulates the exhaust

oxidizer and the fuel tank itself had to be much larger

back into the combustion chamber itself, resulting in a

than its RP-1 counterpart (Dodd).

fuel-rich preburners, like those used in open-cycle

of the Raptor engine shares many similarities with

engines, have a lot of soot and unburnt fuel in their

the previously mentioned fuel-rich closed cycle, but

instead of both preburners being fuel-rich, only one is

methane is its production process. With the natural

fuel-rich while the other is oxygen-rich. In the closed

resources available on Mars and the right equipment,

cycle example, the liquid oxygen not used in the

methane fuel will actually be able to be produced on

preburners was pumped directly into the combustion

the red planet (SpaceX Raptor). Instead of lugging

chamber; in this new design from SpaceX, the entire

around fuel for a round trip, the ITS will be able to refuel itself on Mars, saving on weight, cost, and time, also increasing the viability of the rocket’s reusable nature.

all of the propellants through the turbines allows for

Currently, the Raptor engines have performed

a higher chamber pressure in the main combustion

(Belluscio). The second unique design feature of the Raptor

burn maneuver during SN-15’s trial (the SN series of

is the fuel itself. As mentioned before, RP-1, a time, all six Raptor engines have been mounted to a Starship frame, and all 29 engines were mounted to the industry. The designers at SpaceX, however,

the bottom of Booster 4, the lower stage of the ITS.

chose methane as their fuel source, which is unusual

The entire system has yet to undergo trial. However,

because methane is less dense than RP-1, meaning that to carry the same amount of fuel, a larger tank

on a second version of the Raptors with a more

must be built, increasing dead weight and decreasing

amount of fuel used per liter of oxygen, is higher than

in which we can regularly travel between the celestial

that of RP-1, resulting in the net tank size being about

bodies of our solar system, no longer just restricted to

the same between RP-1 and methane-fueled rockets.

low earth orbit.

thrust when compared to its kerosene counterpart, so methane is actually more advantageous (Dodd). One of the main disadvantages of methane is that it has to be superchilled to reach an appropriate density for storage in the fuel tanks. However, due to the fact that oxygen and methane can be kept in a liquid state at roughly the same temperature, they can be stored under the same dome within the rocket, somewhat mitigating the increased mass. The most compelling reason for SpaceX to choose

THE BLACK HOLE AREA THEOREM By Alexis Nawara 30

lthough much of the nature of black

current state of black holes. Isi’s team recognized

holes remains a mystery, there are a

the potential of these waves to support Hawking’s theorem.

rules, Stephen Hawking’s Area Theorem, suggests

According to the Area Theorem, the area of

that the area of a black hole within its event

the resulting black hole should be greater than

horizon can never shrink. The event horizon is

or equal to the sum of the areas of the two initial

the boundary around the black hole past which

black holes. Isi’s team devised a method to

light cannot escape.

accurately calculate the areas of the black holes

Before July 2021, there was no observed

before and after they merged using information

evidence to support Hawking’s Area Theorem

about the mass and rotation of each black hole.

other than Hawking’s own mathematical proofs

By separating the wave signal into the

from 1971. Physics researchers at Cornell, MIT,

inspiral(pre-merge) and ringdown(post-merge)

and several other institutions analyzed data from

portions of the event, the team was able to compare the areas of the black holes. They

the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (Chu). The wave originated when

that the sum of the initial areas was 235,000 km2

two black holes collided nearly one and a half

(about twice the area of New York), and the area

billion light years away from Earth, forming

a ripple in space-time that was recognized by

(a bit less than three times the area of New York)

LIGO (Why Detect Them). Physicist Maximiliano

(Glaser). This data supports the Area Theorem,

Isi and his colleagues from MIT recently realized that the new black hole created by the merging black holes could be used to directly

Hawking’s ideas about black holes. While this singular observation cannot

test Hawking’s Area Theorem (Isi). Because gravitational waves can escape from the event horizons of black holes (unlike waves that are part of the electromagnetic spectrum) they are

gravitational waves. This exciting discovery, like

the most prominent source of direct information

all new information about black holes, will be

about the inside of black holes. Gravitational

useful in all areas of astrophysics. It is also just a

waves are also far less susceptible to distortion as

small example of the value of gravitational waves

they travel through space than electromagnetic

in advancing humanity’s understanding of the

waves (Why Detect Them). The data provided by

universe.

unaltered gravitational wave signals can be used to ascertain information about the origins and

Dark Matter and Dark Energy By Jackie Zhang

Our universe is made up from only 5% of ordinary matter, 95% dark matter and dark energy. Among these 95%, scientists believe that approximately 72% of the universe is dark energy and 23% of it is dark matter. We know very little about this “dark” 95% of the universe. Scientists found dark matter and dark energy through review.ca/, n.d.) (NASA, n.d.) (Oks 2021).

Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter. It is called dark because it does not appear to Early in the 1930s, astronomer Fritz Zwicky and other pioneers discovered that the combined visible mass of all stars in the Coma cluster is less than 1% of that required to keep its galaxies from escaping the gravitational pull of the cluster (Swart, 2019). He suggested that the missing matter is actually dark matter. When using laws of gravitation to study orbital mechanics, scientists have run into trouble to explain the Law of Gravitation states that gravitation force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between two masses. Therefore stars at the edges of a spiral galaxy journey much slower than those near the galactic center which is composed of concentrated, visible matter. However, Astronomer found that the orbital velocity (the instantaneous velocity of an object

of gravity stays constant, despite the increasing distance from the center of a galaxy (NASA, n.d.)

observations of the distant universe (Goldsmith 2007).

mass, or dark matter, in a halo around the galaxy? Furthermore, because gravity deforms space time, the light travelling from a distant object to an observer can be bent by the mass of an object located between them, a phenomenon called gravitational lensing (Figure 2) (“Gravitational Lensing” 2019).

Figure 4. A horseshoe Einstein Ring. The gravity of a luminous red galaxy (LRG) has gravitationally distorted the light from a much more distant blue galaxy. Light bending results in two discernible images of the distant galaxy that the background galaxy is distorted into a horseshoe – a nearly complete ring (Ambersariya 2020).

Figure 2. Dark matter surrounding the planets was away galaxies.

Because the bending and other visual changes are so dramatic that this force is much stronger than it should be from visible mass of object in the middle, scientists then assume that gravitational lensing is caused by massive, invisible clouds of dark matter surrounded the large planets and asteroids, which distort and magnify the light from distant galaxies and makes the light to having visual changes, like rings, arc, snake or horseshoe shapes (Figure 3 and 4) (Ambersariya 2020).

Dark matter is considered “cold” (has a low velocity) and is electrically neutral. It does not interact with electromagnetic radiation but still exerts a gravitational pull. Several hypothetical particles were suggested for what construct dark Particles), axion particles, sterile neutrinos, GIMPs (Gravitationally Interacting Massive Particles), or other undiscovered particles. There might be alternative answers to the core of this big puzzle about dark matter. Because the concept of dark matter is hyposized from the fundamental understanding of gravity, when gravity can not explain what is observed in reality. However, some scientists suggested that both gravitational theory and the theory of general relativity might have mistakes, and an alternative hypothesis that proposes a galaxies do not appear to obey the currently understood laws of physics without introducing the concept of dark matter. A relativistic extension of MOND, a theory that is more general that can be applied to the universe at

Figure 3. Gravitational lensing probes the distribution of matter in galaxies and clusters of galaxies, and enables

happens on the scale of galaxies and the universe (Karlis 2021) (Schirber 2021).

In the year 1998, Hubble Space Telescope observed a very distantly located bright and rare star, supernova (“Hubble Finds Evidence for measuring a supernova’s brightness, scientists can calculate the distances of the host galaxies of the explosions and uncover how fast these galaxies are moving deeper into the cosmos (Melore 2020). When the observation was universal expansion has slowed over the last few billion years. Surprisingly, the results of the observation indicated that the universal expansion is speeding up. The expansion of today’s universe is faster than it was in the past. It also suggested that the expansion of the universe was not decelerating due to gravity, but instead to the accelerating force. Dark energy is then hypothesized to be this opposite repulsive force, acting as a stronger force than gravity to stretch space and expand the universe. Compared to dark matter, dark energy is even more mysterious in nature and origin. One explanation of dark energy comes from a version of Einstein’s gravitational theory. This version contains a “cosmological constant” and makes a second prediction that “space” can possess its energy (“WMAP- Cosmological Constant or Dark Energy” 2012) (Guida et al. 2013). Einstein suggested that more space can come into existence. Then, because energy is

a property of space itself, energy would not be diluted as space expands. As more space comes into existence, more “energy-of-space” would appear. As a result, this form of energy would cause the universe to expand faster and faster. Einstein thought the universe was static in reality, so he added the cosmological constant to correct the theoretical expansion. A Russian mathematician Fridmann realized that this universe model, the big bang theory. When the observations of nearby galaxies showed that the universe was indeed expanding and is accelerating, Einstein regretted modifying his elegant theory and viewed the cosmological constant term as his “greatest mistake”. But lately scientists have revived Einstein’s cosmological constant to explain dark energy that seems to be counteracting gravity, causing the universe to expand at an accelerating pace (Moskowitz 2010). the most precise and accurate estimate yet of its value, researchers said. The purpose of the cosmological constant term was to improve the agreement between theory and observation, in an the last few billion years. Now the cosmological constant is used to explain the observed acceleration of the expansion of the universe. The cosmological constant is the simplest realization

of dark energy, which is the more generic name given to the unknown cause of the acceleration of the universe. Its existence is also predicted by quantum physics, where it enters as a form of vacuum energy, although the magnitude predicted by quantum theory does not match that observed in cosmology. Another explanation of dark energy comes or “quintessence”, in addition to the strong and weak nuclear forces, electromagnetism

the expansion of the universe is the opposite of that of normal matter and energy. Many postulate a force roughly the strength of gravity with a range of anywhere from less than a millimeter to cosmological scales. Another proposal is a new weak force mediated by W and Z bosons. it may ultimately decide the fate of the universe. Scientists are unsure whether the accelerating expansion will continue forever or eventually stop. If it continues, this expansion will lead to the Big Rip, a hypothesized scenario in which all matter is torn apart when the acceleration of the universe’s expansion overcomes the forces of attraction in the universe. Alternatively, the accelerated expansion may cool the universe to such a level that heat ceases to exist, resulting in the Big Freeze in 100 trillion years (DARK 2004)

(Frystacki, n.d.). In summary, dark matter and dark energy matter attracts and dark energy repels (Kurtus, n.d.) (Bharadwaj 2020). Dark matter and dark Dark matter is invisible material that seems to add to the gravitation in galaxies. Dark energy is a much more powerful phenomenon, as it seems to accelerate the expansion of the Universe with an anti-gravitation force. Dark matter composes and holds together the largest structures, the universe, while dark energy pushes those individual structures away from individual galaxies, but dark energy impacts the whole universe. Projects such as Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) are designed to explore dark energy. CERN’s Large Hadron Collider is currently working to generate dark matter particles for study in the lab (Irving 2021). LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ), and SuperCDMS hope to detect WIMPs to gain a deeper insight into the nature of Dark Matter (Oks 2021)(Irving 2021). dark matter and dark energy truly exist, or do we need to modify Newtonian Dynamics? will these hypothesized particles be the answer? Dark matter and dark energy have remained as one of the great mysteries of science.

Racial Bias in Facial Recognition

By Arnav Harve

Did you know that almost half of all Americans have photos of themselves in police facial recognition of the input. This result can be used in law enforcement an integral tool in policing, helping to identify suspects and apprehend criminals. While facial recognition is known for its high accuracy, recent studies have shown that these algorithms can disproportionately misidentify people of color (Buolamini, 2018). At a time when false arrests and police violence are at a high (Tate, 2021), scrutinizing the potential harm of facial recognition is crucial to destroy the immense inequities in society. Facial recognition is a relatively recent computing innovation, but one that has rapidly taken over our world in applications as simple as opening one’s phone to identifying suspects in a crime. Although recognition seems simple, it is rooted in complex mathematical procedures. In the context of policing, facial recognition software takes in a face as an input, obtained from surveillance footage, photos, social media and more. This data is then processed in software that reads the geometry of a face and assigns distance between the eyes, for example. The software transforms the photo of a face into a facial signature, which is then compared with millions of other facial

could be (Symanovich). So, where’s the problem? The main issue is in how facial recognition algorithms are trained. The programs described above don’t work perfectly outimages, and gather more data so that they can learn how to identify and quantify photos more accurately. These training image pools may not be an accurate representation of all groups, perhaps excluding people of color. Even if they are included, photos of people of color might also be of poorer quality. Both of these factors could contribute to inaccuracy in facial recognition algorithms. There also is an element of “operational bias” as well, according to Jacqueline Cavazos, author of a study that examined the underlying recognition. She explained that those operating the facial recognition software can decide what constitutes a “match” or a “non-match”—that decision could have bias, in that operators can set less stringent or incomplete criteria for matching people of color (Fontenot, 2020).

These inherent biases have wide-reaching implications, particularly in law enforcement. According to a recent NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technologies) report, Black and Asian faces were than white faces (NIST). Other studies have found that facial recognition algorithms most inaccurately match Black females between the ages of 18-30. Women of color are consistently mismatched more often than other demographics (Burge,2012). Moreover, police often use mugshot databases to facilitate facial recognition which are often overwhelmingly composed of people of color. Some are concerned that the usage of these databases perpetuate disproportionate arrests of Black people (Najibi, 2020). How can facial recognition algorithms become more accurate and impartial? Building diverse datasets to train this software is a good place to start, especially in law enforcement, which has to handle also a huge problem, as facial recognition algorithms can learn incorrect data and consequently match faces incorrectly. “FRT (facial recognition technology) algorithms require rich, varied datasets that are double and triple-checked as a standardised priority,” says Jan Lunter, a facial recognition expert and entrepreneur. (Lunter, 2020) Others argue that more governmental oversight can also ensure that the technology works well and is not misused; one example could be implementing accuracy standards and requiring human analysis of algorithm results. A separate group is concerned about the usage of facial recognition by police at all, pointing to infringements in privacy of individuals (Castelvecchi, 2020). Within the algorithmic complexity of facial recognition software is inherent bias that results from prejudice in training sets and human bias in implementing the software. While the future of facial recognition in law enforcement is uncertain, many are

usage in law enforcement. After reaching such a

enforcement?

Cryptocurrency and the Move to Proof-of-Stake By Simon Juknelis Since the introduction of Bitcoin in 2008,

independence from banks, as well as the meteoric rise in value of many other cryptocurrencies, has drawn attention from all sides. However, recently not all of this attention has been positive, as many are becoming aware of the problems with cryptocurrency and, in particular, with the cryptographic system known as proof-of-work. Proof-of-work (often abbreviated to PoW) is used by many cryptocurrencies, most notably Bitcoin, in order to validate transactions. A network of “miners” contribute their computational resources towards solving an intensive mathematical problem linked to each transaction. The problem is randomly generated, and the answer is not used for anything. What is important about these problems, though, calculate the answer alone; instead, millions of computers across the network work on the problems of transactions they consider trustworthy. A correct answer therefore proves that the many computers who put work into the problem think the transaction is valid, and so a transaction whose problem has

A large Bitcoin mining farm.

been solved is considered approved. In exchange for their contributions, miners are paid a small amount of the cryptocurrency (“Proof of Work,” 2021). This computational work uses a massive amount of energy; it is estimated that a single Bitcoin transaction uses as much energy as a typical American household uses in 59 days. With nearly 250,000 Bitcoin transactions used for Bitcoin mining coming from non-renewable sources, major concerns are being raised regarding cryptocurrency’s impact on the environment (Feign, 2021). In response, Ethereum, the world’s secondlargest cryptocurrency after only Bitcoin, has decided to adapt. In December 2020, Ethereum announced its decision to move from PoW to a proof-of-stake (or PoS) system, and the full transition will take place in December 2021 (Sigalos, 2021). In PoS, “validators” attest to transactions they believe to be legitimate and stake a certain amount of their cryptocurrency on them. If the number of validators attesting to a transaction reaches a set threshold, it is deemed approved, and the attestors receive a reward. However, if this threshold is not met within a certain amount of time because most people on the network consider the transaction fraudulent, the validators who attested to it lose their stake (minimalsm et al., n.d.). PoS easily solves many of the problems of PoW. In comparison to the computational work done for PoW, attesting and staking use a trivial amount of electricity. This means that PoS essentially solves cryptocurrency’s climate-change problem (minimalsm

in expensive and highly specialized computer parts (“Proof of Work,” 2021). On the surface, PoS would

seem to have a similar problem, as to be a validator, one needs to have enough cryptocurrency to stake. In Ethereum, the minimum required stake will be 32 ETH, which at the time of writing, equates to over US$140,000. However, Ethereum solves this problem by allowing users to form “staking pools,” where they pool together their cryptocurrency in order to have enough to become a collective validator (minimalsm et al., n.d.). The Ethereum project believes that by allowing staking pools and not requiring costly investments in equipment, the number of validators will increase, in turn making the network more decentralized (minimalsm et al., n.d.). Decentralization is extremely important to all cryptocurrencies as their security model relies on no one person or group having enough power to say what transactions are and are not legitimate. In fact, the decentralization of PoW systems is constantly under attack, as a malicious group could unexpectedly obtain enough computational resources to overpower the rest of the network and issue whatever fraudulent transactions they wanted. This is known as a 51% attack (“Proof of Work,” 2021). 51% attacks are theoretically possible under PoS, but to carry one out, a malicious group would have to buy up 51% of the

entire cryptocurrency supply. Ethereum contends that instead of compromising the cryptocurrency, a group that owns so much of it would be more interested in helping it be as stable as possible in order to grow their massive investment (minimalsm et al., n.d.). Because of this increased decentralization and security, Ethereum claims that PoS is an inherently more secure system. Ultimately, the impact of this move by Ethereum cannot be understated. As mentioned, Ethereum is the world’s second-largest cryptocurrency by market cap, cryptocurrency but the entire Ethereum network, on As a result, in December 2021, six of the world’s top of over US$750 billion, will move to PoS (“Top 100 Ethereum,” n.d.). The stage has been set for a major technological step forward in the ever-changing world of cryptocurrency.

Tajfel and Turner Identity Theory: Finding One’s Place in Society By Corban Shih

All individuals have a distinguished and unique role in society, but how are these roles defined? Imagine it’s the day before Halloween, and you’re trying to make plans for the next night. You’ve just started at a new school, and have been invited to a number of parties, but you don’t know which one to attend. Good problem to have, right? Not so fast. One party is a group of friends from your old school; these are people you grew up with, people who you’ve known your whole life. On the other hand, you could see people from your new school, maybe make some new friends in the daunting, hostile environment you were dropped into not even two months ago. When pondering your choice, you have a revelation. Do you truly belong in either group? Will your old friends still accept you as if you didn’t leave them all behind? Do you even know these people from your new school well enough to choose them over your old friends? The fact that this decision is so hard indicates that you don’t feel that you really belong in either group. So who are you? Where do you belong? In society the mantra of “Us vs. Them” is often pushed to the extremes, simultaneously isolating and uniting individuals on the basis of identity. Tajfel and Turner’s Social Identity Theory (SIT) outlines that individuals define themselves with respect to their social groups in order to bolster their identity and sense of self, but SIT can also be utilized to relate conflict between groups to interpersonal relations on a small scale and provide critical insight into the roots of major global conflict (Hogg et al). In 1979, Tajfel and Turner conducted an experiment using a minimal group paradigm to test the effect of exaggerations made when

comparing groups. They divided subjects into two categories based on arbitrary and erratic criteria such as type of shirt or favorite color - and it was found that although trivial, even a “minimal” group identification led to cognitive exaggerations of superior qualities of the “in group,” while amplifying negative qualities of the “out group” (Islam). Tajfel further proposed that the cognitive process of stereotyping - placing individuals into categories and groups - is nothing but human nature. In doing so, exaggerations in comparison naturally form (McLeod). The differences between groups become inflated, while the similarities between individuals in a single group seem to grow. This is where the ideas of “Us vs. Them” derive from, as individuals so often compare their own “in” group to “out” groups in an attempt to enhance their own self-image (Vinney). On a larger scale, these comparisons and identifications can result in major conflict. For example, practicing Catholicism in 17th century Northern Ireland would constitute membership of an “in” group, while being Protestant would be considered part of the “out.” However, one key aspect of social identification is the sheer subjectivity of these “in” and “out” groups. To further the aforementioned analogy, practicing any religion but Protestantism in contemporary 18th century America was seen as uncivilized and horrid. Protestants believed themselves to be the one and only chosen people, elected by God himself to be a beacon of light, leading the rest of the world towards the figurative land of Canaan. Catholics and other people of non-Protestant religions were sanctioned as “less-than”; this would be the case for many centuries to come. An ironic lack of religious toleration in America led to the persecution of Quakers, Jews, and Catholics alike in the thirteen colonies. While of course the modern day is not 17th

century Ireland or colonial America, polarization on the basis of identity because of social comparison has continued to be a prominent topic all throughout world history and to this day. SIT suggests that there are three central stages to finding an individual’s place in society: Social Categorization, Social Identification, and Social Comparison (McLeod). Tajfel theorized that during Social Categorization objects (or people) are sorted into groups in an attempt to better understand them (Brown). Social categories are established to place people into groups, such as White, Black, Buddhist, Christian, student, teacher, etc., for no other purpose than being useful to our cognitive process. These groups are not always mutually exclusive, but the brain’s narrowness in thinking, especially while comparing, places these groups in stark contrast. The key detail in regards to this process of categorization is that each individual places themselves into the categories constructed by their own mind (Hogg et al). During Social Identification, the subconscious attempts to adopt the behaviors and ideas of the groups it has placed itself into (McLeod). Part of human nature is to try to conform to the typical behaviors and habits of the group. For example, if one’s brain categorizes itself as a student, it will instinctively attempt to think and act like a student would, as opposed to maybe a teacher or a school janitor. Its actions and habits will reflect that of a student - for example, writing an assigned US History paper as opposed to planning a lecture or cleaning the school bathrooms. Furthermore, individuals derive their self-esteem and confidence from the groups they identify with (McLeod). Confidence can be drawn from going to a prestigious school, being part of an honors society, or even being on a sports team. Ideas of the group members become central to each individual’s sense of self and role in society. The final stage of this process, Social Comparison, is very present in the current sociopolitical atmosphere, especially as society works to fight against discrimination on the basis of race, religion, gender, sex, and sexual orientation. Following identification with a group of people, it is part of the human condition to favorably compare the individual in their own group to other groups. More often than not, although not always purposeful and intentional, these other groups are painted in a negative light in an attempt to improve the standing of their own group (Vinney). There have been a number of subsequent studies and debates over the interpretation of Tajfel and Turner’s findings, with most if not all of them producing a similar result (Hogg et al). SIT can be viewed as individuals’ attempts to keep their social identity afloat, emphasising group membership. Using a critical identity theory such as this one to relate social constructs to subconscious cognitive processes would have extraordinary effects on mental health across the world. Some people who are more socially active may draw confidence and security from having a sense of belonging in a group, making social categorization a must.

On the flip side, it can be argued that the polarizing nature of a categorized society is the true crux of this theory. Some say that these social identities do more harm than good, working only to divide people rather than improve mental stability of

individuals. Ultimately, the true implications of the SIT theory vary significantly from person to person based on their personal beliefs. The critical debate about SIT is over the significance of each stage, and how discrepancies might affect the cognitive state of an individual. Maybe someone with a very detailed and purposeful social identification stage would be more likely to network and have a lot of friends, drawing all their affirmation from interpersonal relationships. However, someone with a social comparison oriented process would be much more critical of other individuals, or they might be more selective when they decide who is in their inner circle of friends. Moreover, they would also theoretically be more likely to commit mass genocide of an ethnic group, if they were so inclined, or maybe their scrutinous attention to the attributes of individuals would simply make them an excellent school admissions dean. Conclusively, Tajfel and Turner’s Social Identity Theory accurately supports explanations for otherwise incomprehensible social behaviors such as stereotyping and discrimination, but has so much more room to be utilized further, especially in a polarized and hostile societal climate.

Circadian Rhythms and Their Impact on Our Health By Zia Quinn

Circadian rhythms, or 24-hour cycles that are associated with the human body’s internal clock, pacemaker is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which is in a region of the brain known as the hypothalamus. The SCN is very sensitive to light, which explains why circadian rhythms and the signals sent by the SCN are closely related to the time of day and night (Suni). Exercise, social activity, and temperature also impact the body’s internal clock and the signals sent by the brain, but light has the rhythms are very important to one’s behavior because numerous bodily systems and processes are regulated by the internal clock located in the brain. One example of a process tied to circadian integral to one’s health, and irregularities in hormone release can increase the risk of various conditions, including anxiety, depression, diabetes, and obesity (Washington University in St. Louis). Recent research has revealed that the release of hormones is dependent on the activity of clocks in multiple parts of the brain. For signals to be sent out, neurons need to be active in another part of the brain besides SCN; they need to be activated in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) as well (Washington University in St. Louis). For normal hormone rhythm to be maintained, it is critical that the clocks in both of these areas are synchronized. The neurons in the SCN and PVN then send signals to other parts of the brain

that communicate with the adrenal glands and the endocrine system (which carries out many functions including regulating metabolism and blood pressure).

Furthermore, scientists have recently been utilizing mice to investigate circadian rhythms. Cortisol, a stress hormone that takes part in the fight or flight response in humans, is analogous to corticosterone in mice (Washington University in St. Louis). Humans need to have a large amount of cortisol released when they wake up so that they are prepared for the rest of the day. The hormones that help humans get through the day are the same ones that help mice stay up at night by elevating the amount of glucose in the bloodstream. The elevated levels of glucose in the blood increase the brain’s use of glucose, leading to heightened brain activity (Mayo Clinic). Scientists have also utilized mice to make conclusions about circuits in the brain that affect

circadian rhythms. Using mice, researchers at the University of Copenhagen discovered and mapped a circuit connecting the SCN and a part of the brain that controls aggression, the ventromedial hypothalamus. This may explain the increased irritation and aggression experienced by 20% of Alzheimer’s patients at the end of the day, which is referred to as sundown syndrome (University of Copenhagen). Although researchers were already aware of a connection between the SCN and the ventromedial hypothalamus, they didn’t know about the specific circuit involved. Researchers at a laboratory in Boston manipulated components of the cell circuit in mice’s brains in order to figure out which cells were involved in connecting the SCN and the ventromedial hypothalamus. Scientists were able to mutate receptors in the mice’s brains, making them especially responsive to a certain drug. When animals are given this drug, the cells that possess this receptor will be turned off. Through the use of this drug, therefore, scientists might be able to switch off the cells in the ventromedial hypothalamus that cause sundown syndrome and make people more aggressive at night. Studies done with mice have also shown that if the day/night cycle is disturbed, then one could experience weight gain, impulsivity, and slower thinking (Society for Neuroscience). Researchers exposed the mice to a day/night cycle of 20 hours, with 10 hours of light and 10 hours in the dark, instead of the 24-hour cycle that the mice’s internal clocks are typically set to.

Significant differences between these mice and the control group were already evident after just six to eight weeks (Society for Neuroscience). The mice were more impulsive and entered the light more quickly from a dark area of the cage. Additionally, they took more time to figure out alterations made to a water maze they were familiar with, showing that they weren’t as mentally flexible. Furthermore, when compared to the control group, their levels of hormones such as leptin (which controls appetite and insulin) were higher. Clearly, many aspects of both physical and mental health are negatively impacted if adjustments are made to circadian rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle. Overall, recent research has shown how critical circadian rhythms are to bodily processes. Not only could this research be helpful to scientists attempting to create medical treatments, but it also serves as an important reminder to us all. Even though it might be difficult, especially during busy weeks, it is important to get enough sleep and maintain stable circadian rhythms. Your mind and body will surely thank you.

Controlling Pain with the Mind By Maddie Wee Pain is the body’s alarm which warns the brain about dangerous conditions. A simple explanation for how pain works is that nerve cells relay the received pain message to the spinal cord, which then shoots it to the brain where it is translated and registered as an unpleasant feeling a cell, pick up signals arriving outside the cell for TrpV1 is found on nerve cells. TrpV1 can detect painful heat signals (Weir). The receptor then sends a message to the brain, making it aware of the extreme heat. TrpV1 also happens to be the receptor which detects the chemical compounds that make spicy chili peppers uncomfortably hot (Weir). Though this basic pain process happens in everyone’s body, pain is still a very subjective

likely will be. However, if you unexpectedly stub your toe, it will take some time until you realize the true intensity of the pain (Mazzoni). Similarly, illusions can trick the brain into feeling pain relief. The “rubber hand illusion” is a study which had participants put their hand under a box, on top of which rested a rubber hand. The real arm was then stimulated with a thermode, delivering intense pain. Another visible mock thermode was attached to the rubber arm at the same place as on the real arm, and was lit up during stimulation. Interestingly, participants reported experiencing pain as if it came from the rubber arm, showing how the brain was confused to believe the rubber arm was the real arm (Mazzoni). When a fake pain relieving cream, or a placebo, was put on the “painful site” of the rubber arm, after the second round of stimulation, participants reported a decrease in pain intensity (Mazzoni). This experiment showed how the brain was able to override reality by changing to accommodate the rubber hand. This concept is known as neuroplasticity, in which the brain changes as it responds to experiences. When the brain learns something new or new memories are made, its shape is altered (Mazzoni). In the same way, pain changes nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord, and these changes can last even after the initial trigger for pain disappears (Weir).

“100% of the time, pain is a construct of the brain.” -Lorimer Moseley

from person to person based on their genetics (Mazzoni). Additionally, the mind is able to manipulate the extent to which we feel pain. When pain is felt, the frontal regions of the brain activate since these areas regulate the intensity and quality of the painful experience (Mazzoni). It’s no coincidence that these areas also set expectations. Expectations play a big role in how we perceive the intensity of pain. For example, if you expect an injection to be very painful, it most

In addition, scientists theorize that pain borrows the same circuits which relay messages about non painful sensations to the brain (Weir). This was shown by the ‘thermal grill’ illusion. The alternating temperatures of the bars on the grill were achieved by pumping hot and cold water into channels in the grill’s base (Treacy). When a participant touched a bar on the grill, the singular bar felt either hot or cold. However, when they put their hand over all the hot and cold bars, or the whole grill, it felt painfully hot. This sensory illusion was able to trick the nervous system into feeling imaginary pain. It also shows how the same networks which pick up normal sensations, like temperature, also sense pain (Weir). By holding one’s hand over the actively cold and hot grill, it would be expected that only temperature would be registered. However, since pain was also felt from the interlaced warm and cold stimuli, a connection between the two sensations can be inferred. As a result, scientists theorize that confusion in the nervous system causes chronic pain, as seen with the grill.

and experience pain from a nonexistent limb (Mazzoni). Scientists have also tested drugs which interfere with the molecules that transmit messages to the brain, thus erasing pain memory

limited testing to only mice and rats for now. based cognitive functional therapy (CFT). CFT, on easing their fears and anxieties. The program emphasized how a vicious cycle of pain and disability can be reinforced by emotions and behaviors, and pushed participants to confront their fears while also educating them about pain mechanisms (Filho). In other words, the for their treatment and futures. The function component of CFT taught back pain patients to lessen excessive muscle activity in their trunks and incorporate behavioral changes related to

than manual therapy and exercises at reducing pain, as well as fear levels and mood (Ingraham). As this test shows, some of the biggest challenges with having chronic pain are mental (Ingraham). Nonetheless, everyone has the ability to harness desire.

So the real question becomes, how can pain memory be reversed so that chronic pain may be cured? The rubber hand experiment revealed the impact of multi-sensory perception treatments for people with chronic pain, such as

Frisson By Eric Zhou

Picture this. You’re listening to one of your favorite songs while doing homework on an ordinary school night. It’s a song that you really love; maybe it’s the powerful vocals, the catchy melody, the thundering drums, or how everything just comes together. Suddenly, you feel a chill run down your spine. A tingling, ticklish sensation permeates through your entire body; the music seems to vibrate within you, as if it is playing from your soul as opposed to your speaker or headphones. The experience is called frisson, a French word meaning “aesthetic chills,” and chances are that if you’ve experienced this weird yet oddly relaxing sensation, your brain might be wired uniquely. Studies have shown that the interconnectivity of the brain is behind the reaction to sound. Researchers at Harvard University and Wesleyan University selected 10 people claiming to regularly experience chills when listening to music and 10 people that claimed to have never felt frissons. They then played music ranging from Coldplay to marching band music while observing the participants’ parts of the brain are interconnected. The researchers found that those who were experiencing cortex (the part of the brain that processes sound) to their anterior insular cortex (the part of the brain that processes feelings) (Daley). The high volume of nerve the auditory cortex and anterior insular cortex and increase the size of our emotional processing centers, which creates extreme reactions to music. phenomenon, suggesting that it is fairly common (Singh). However, the phenomenon encompasses a wide range of reactions that vary in intensity and are Researchers at USC conducted a study in which 20 participants listened to some of their favorite songs.

Whenever they felt any kind of chill, they pressed a button. Of the 20 participants, 10 reported having reactions to the music; the researchers eventually concluded that around 50% of people experienced frisson after taking MRI scans of the participants’ brains (Westmaas). Matt Sachs, a doctoral candidate at USC, conducted a separate study, arriving at relatively similar conclusions pertaining to the prevalence of frisson. However, he stumbled upon a chills while listening to the backing vocals of Gimme Shelter by the Rolling Stones. He attributed this to the high, scream-like pitch, which triggers attention in case there is danger nearby (Singh). Even though the vocals are not real screams, our brains become fully engaged, enabling us to experience more intense emotional responses. Perhaps the signal sent by the high-pitched vocals was strong enough to elicit a reaction augment reactions as opposed to creating them. This raises several interesting questions that researchers have yet to answer. Is there a song or sound that makes everyone experience frisson? What genre reaction experienced? The mysteries surrounding frisson extend beyond chills and music. While frissons mainly refer to chills caused by sound, they can also be used to describe reactions to art or movies, or other things that involve our visual processing centers. Some studies show that the phenomenon is not only emotional but also intellectual, with some people experiencing frisson while predicting the melody or assigning mental imagery to the music. With how unpredictable and wide-ranging it can be, frisson seems to be a truly subjective experience. And that, in my opinion, is the way music should be.

Chemical and Solar Geoengineering By Josie Kelleher

The global climate crisis has many devastating effects on the Earth and the lives of people. The impact of these consequences is only becoming more dire as the state of the biosphere continues to decline. Global carbon emissions have risen dramatically since the industrial revolution, causing average temperatures to climb. In the past 50 years, the average annual temperature in the continental United States has increased by 2.75 degrees Fahrenheit (Statista). Global warming is changing weather patterns and worsening extreme weather, such as wildfires, heatwaves, storms, and floods. It has become clear that efforts to cut carbon emissions will not be sufficient to reverse all the damage that climate change has caused. For the past few decades, scientists have been searching for solutions for climate change and have found a potential answer in geoengineering. Geoengineering conventionally refers to two different proposed solutions to climate change: chemical and solar geoengineering. Neither of these are new ideas, but research on them was rather limited until recently. Now, they are finally gaining more attention as a critical component of climate change mitigation from scientists, researchers, and the public. Chemical geoengineering, which is also commonly known as carbon geoengineering, seeks to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, traps heat, so its removal would address the root cause of global warming. One possible method for removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is to trap the carbon dioxide as air passes through a filter and then store it deep underground. This technology to remove carbon dioxide already exists but is only used on a small scale, largely due to its high cost. With current technology, it would cost $100-300 to remove one metric ton of carbon from the atmosphere (Earth. org). In 2020 alone, global carbon emissions were about 34 billion metric tons, so removing enough carbon to have a significant impact on reversing climate change would be an expensive task (Statista). As a result, scientists have also been developing other solutions to combat climate change.

Solar geoengineering encompasses several approaches to cool the Earth by reflecting a small fraction of solar radiation back into the atmosphere. One of the most popular of these techniques is stratospheric aerosol injection. This would introduce large quantities of small reflective particles into the stratosphere, the second layer of the atmosphere, which would allow less sunlight to reach the Earth’s surface. Scientists believe that stratospheric aerosol injection could work because the effect of global dimming, a reduction in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface. Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in aerosols in the atmosphere. These particulates mainly result from pollution, but also arise naturally from volcanic eruptions and have been observed to reduce temperatures. In 1991, Mount Pinatubo erupted, injecting a 20 million ton sulfur dioxide cloud into the stratosphere, which is the largest detected in the atmosphere since the beginning of such observations by satellites (USGS). Stratospheric winds then spread these aerosols around the world, and over the 15 months following the eruption, scientists measured a drop in the average global temperature of about 0.6 degrees Celsius (NASA). With even larger quantities of these reflective particles being released into the air, the results could cause an even larger decrease in global temperatures. Stratospheric aerosol injection is estimated to cost about $18 billion per year per degree Celsius of warming avoided, which remains relatively inexpensive compared to many other proposed climate change solutions (IOPScience). However, this cost is still substantial, and is well beyond the financial reach of almost all individuals and would likely only be realistic for governments or large corporations. In addition, these technologies do not address the underlying cause of climate change and instead manipulate the environment by reducing the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth. Therefore, they cannot be a replacement for climate change mitigation, but they could supplement such efforts by limiting further damage from emissions. While stratospheric aerosol injection sounds like a promising solution despite the cost, there are still many risks associated with the implementation of this novel technology. One pressing question is whether the chemicals the aerosols are made of would have a negative impact on the environment. Substances such as sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide have been proposed for the aerosols because these forms of sulfur are in part what allow volcanic eruptions to cool the planet. However, the release of sulfur into the atmosphere from volcanic eruptions has disrupted the water cycle, causing changes such as reduced precipitation. Aerosols in the stratosphere also stimulate chemical reactions that destroy ozone, which can be depleted more quickly than it can be produced, making this potentially dangerous. Ozone absorbs some of the harmful radiation from the sun and prevents it from reaching the Earth’s surface, which is beneficial to humans and other living organisms. There is the concern of the “moral hazard” as well, or the danger that this technology will become an excuse to continue or even increase carbon emissions. As scientists continue to research solar geoengineering and move towards testing it, more information will become available about its impact on the environment and strategies to mitigate its risks. Although there are many valid concerns regarding the safety and cost of solar and chemical geoengineering, they may be the best solutions currently available to prevent climate change from progressing further and irreversibly damaging the planet.

The Hidden Dangers Of Evolution Induced by Climate Change Since the dawn of the industrial revolution, and the natural world in ways that may be beyond repair. Entire populations have died out and many A number of the organisms that have survived this change have been required to adapt to their new surroundings. A prime example of this is the white peppered moth, which was prevalent in England during the early 1800s. It would use its light coloration to blend in with its surroundings keeping it out of sight of numerous predators. As the great brick factories with their towering smoke stacks began to rise into the sky, so did thick black smog that left soot on every surface. Before long, the moth had nowhere

By Owen Harrington

have been able to adapt and evolve to survive these shifts. In the last 50 years however, the global climate has changed rapidly, making it impossible for many organisms with longer life cycles to adapt (National Geographic). This is most evident in many mammal species whose environments are being decimated by life cycles, such as bacteria who reproduce at an extremely fast rate. E. coli, for example, can reproduce

this new environment. The moth became a prime target for birds who hunted it nearly to extinction. However, there was an extremely rare variety of the creature far darker in coloration that previously had nowhere to hide and would stand out in nature. Now, with the trunks of trees and sides of buildings being turned black due to the pollution, it was hidden amongst the soot. Now protected from harm, this variant began to reproduce, becoming the most common type of peppered moth in the coming years.

been running a continuous experiment on E. coli evolution for the last 33 years, and in that time, they’ve observed over 74,500 generations. That would equate to 1.5 million years of human evolution. Over the course of this experiment, data has been collected on the E. coli’s ability to resist against antibiotics, digest things they could not before, and more recently, the reaction that the bacteria has had to changes in the climate. The researchers have increased the temperature in the experiment to mimic global warming. Like most bacteria, it thrives in the heat, and new generations have performed extraordinarily well in these warmer environments (Discover). This is not just applicable for E Coli, but thousands of other bacterias and viruses as well. The

guiding principle of evolution (BBC).

as winters get warmer. This could lead to another

Usually, these changes occur over hundreds or thousands of generations with extremely slight the impact humans have had on the environment, we are witnessing some of these changes become far more pronounced and at a far greater pace. within their ecosystems (Oxford). Throughout the history of earth, the climate has changed in massive ways and although organisms have died out as the environment has changed, many-

pandemic, like COVID-19. In addition, the rapid ice melt has the possibility of uncovering new bacteria or viruses that could make their way to humans and infect them. Mass extinction in both animals and humans caused by climate change also facilitates the spread of illness, especially in nations with the inability to safely dispose of bodies (National Geographic). The world is changing and organisms must change too if they want to survive. Unfortunately, many animals have longer life cycles, making it impossible for them to keep up with the speed at which the climate is changing. Smaller organisms, such as bacteria with short life cycles, have been able to evolve as the Earth changes, opening up many devastating possibilities. The only way to prevent this warming for both the survival of the human race and the other life that surrounds us.

Physics and the Climate: The Revolutionary Modelers Who Won a Nobel Prize By Celia Cheng

We have all seen photos of the Earth from afar which plex systems (Rose). In other words, his research made it possible to piece together seemingly disparate phenomena appear as a simple ball of blue and green floating through as part of a whole system. While his work on disorder space. However, at a closer look, the planet is encircled by clouds, jet streams, smoke from fires, and countless other nat- varies “from a tiny collection of atoms to the atmosphere ural phenomena that make up the complex system of our cli- of an entire planet” (Metz, Santora, Engelbrecht). His mate. Climate change in particular has been studied by scien- discoveries are startlingly similar across each situation. tists, professors, activists, and students alike as it becomes one By deducing average patterns from the chaotic systems of of the most pressing issues of the decade. Although countless temperature and weather, he allowed models to accurately predict future changes. discoveries and methods of study have been made, few have The combination of Manabe and Hasslemann’s been innovative enough to win a Nobel Prize for their work on climate change. However, the recent work of 2021 Physics foundational research with Parisi’s theoretical solutions Nobel Prize winners Syukuro Manabe, Klaus Hasselmann, and has resulted in highly accurate models to predict the future Giorgio Parisi in climate modeling has contributed to a greater of our climate. As National Geographic states, “in a seminal 1970 paper, the first to make a specific projection of knowledge of the world’s most complex systems. future warming, Manabe argued that Hasselmann and Manabe global temperatures would increase laid the basic foundations for our by 0.57 degrees Celsius (1.03 degrees knowledge on why the climate Fahrenheit) between 1970 and 2000. changes. Specifically, Manabe The actual recorded warming was a concluded that as we emit more remarkably close 0.54°C (0.97°F).” carbon dioxide into the atmoThough Manabe made this argusphere, the temperature of Earth ment, Hasselmann’s discoveries can rises. Although this effect of be used to trace this effect back to greenhouse gases is now widely human activity. Finally, with Parisi’s known, Manabe’s contributions to principles, we can tie everything the field truly began in the 1960s. Klaus Hasselmann and Syukuro Manabe together into new climate models. As Hasselmann, on the other hand, linked professor Katharine Hayohe expressed, the short-term changes of weather to models “simulate a world without people… we have to their long-term effects on the whole climate. In doing so, he compare an Earth with no people to the Earth we’re living answered the question of how climate models can be reliable despite day-to-day weather being rather unpredictable. Using on with humans… when we compare those two Earths, we the principles of carbon dioxide emissions studied by Manabe, can see how human-induced climate change has altered Hasselmann furthered such research to examine the influence the duration, the intensity, and even the damages associated with a specific event.” of human activity on rising global temperatures. In conclusion, while the weather and climate may Since it combined multiple fields of science, accurate climate modeling understandably required a team of multiple appear unpredictable, changes in the climate can be prescientists. According to National Geographic, “Climate mod- dicted by intricate methods of modeling. One important effect of accurate climate models is that they limit skeptielers are experts from earth or planetary science, often with experience in applied physics, mathematics, or computational cism about climate change and encourage people to take action. With highly accurate data recorded over time, the science, who take physics and chemistry to create equations, credibility of climate change research has become undenifeed them into supercomputers, and apply them to simulate able. After all, by combining award-winning research and the climate of Earth or other planets” (Mulvaney). Giorgio increased activism, we can all make an effort to prevent a Parisi, with a share of half the prize, applied many fields of climate crisis before it is too late. science in his studies of hidden patterns in disordered com-

Bibliography CRISPR Controversy

Computers and Arthritis: The Scary Connection

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Synesthesia: What is it?

Genomapping

Behavioral Genetics

Vibrant Bandits Under the Sea: the Nudibranch

Self Destructing Plastic

Cabinet of Forever Chemicals: PFAS in Makeup

Raptors on Mars

Racial Bias in Facial Recognition

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Dark Matter and Dark Energy

Frisson Cryptocurrency and the Move to Proof-of-Stake

Chemical and Solar Geoengineering

Tajfel and Turner Identity Theory: Finding One’s Place in Society

The Hidden Dangers Of Evolution Induced by Climate Change

Physics and the Climate: the Revolutionary Modelers Who Won a Nobel Prize

Controlling Pain with the Mind

“Science knows no country, because knowledge belongs to humanity, and is the torch which illuminates the world.” - Louis Pasteur