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Elizabeth Schmermund Illustrated by Lena Chandhok
CONTENTS INTRODUCTION
Building Our World 1 CHAPTER 1
A History of Architecture 5 CHAPTER 2
Patricia Galván 29 CHAPTER 3
Farida Abu-Bakare 51 CHAPTER 4
Maia Small 71 Timeline • Essential Questions Glossary • Resources • Index
CHAPTER 1
A History of Architecture What are some things that separate human beings from animals? For one, humans have developed advanced language to communicate. Equally important, we have also been able to build and to create. Our most important creations, especially in our early history, were functional and allowed us to survive against the odds. Before we even created art, humans designed simple structures to protect themselves against the elements.
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The first buildings were basic tents that could easily be built up and taken down. When people began to turn to farming and settled down about 8,000 years ago, they created the first permanent buildings and villages and towns. One of the earliest towns that we know of is called Jericho, which is located near the Jordan River in Palestine. Here, early architects built circular homes made of dried mud and straw. These were small huts, typically with just one room and a hearth, an area to build a fire for cooking and heat. Gradually, 70 of these circular huts were built around Jericho. If you go visit the ancient town today, you can still see the foundations of some of these buildings. They have certainly stood the test of time! As time went on, during thousands of years, different societies built up more towns like Jericho. The houses became more and more complex. People began to construct paved roads as these towns grew larger and larger. Just as importantly, these ancient architects built temples. These are structures in which people could worship their gods. We do not fully understand the purpose of these temples or religious structures today. But we do know that structures were no longer just for protection— they were for spiritual guidance.
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Stonehenge in Wiltshire, England
This marked an important turning point in both the history of architecture and in the history of human civilization. The most famous of these early structures used for spiritual purposes is called Stonehenge. It looks like a ring of large rocks, with stones placed perpendicular to the standing stones to create archways. Archaeologists believe that Stonehenge was built around 3000 BCE. That’s more than 5,000 years ago! It might have been used for burials and religious ceremonies. Today, much of Stonehenge still stands— proof that these earliest architects used surprisingly advanced methods to ensure the stability of their structures. Many other ancient monuments still stand today. We can visit them and marvel at how ancient architects— who did not have computers, modern tools, or a full understanding of physics—could build such impressive structures.
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Perhaps the most awe-inspiring of these ancient structures are the pyramids of Egypt. First built around 2500 BCE, these pyramids were enormous burial structures for beloved rulers. The largest, the Great Pyramid of Giza, stands nearly 500 feet tall and was built during a period of 20 years. For nearly 4,000 years, it was the tallest manmade structure in the world! Archaeologists and historians still don’t know exactly how ancient Egyptian architects, builders, and workers managed to create such a large and perfectly symmetrical structure. The ancient Egyptians only had tools made of softer metal and stone, ropes, and pulleys to help them build. They didn’t have access to construction trucks or any kind of electrical equipment! How in the world could they have built such large and perfect structures that would stand for thousands of years?
Ask & Answer Why do you think the ancient Egyptians decided to construct pyramids, instead of another shape?
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As you can see, by the time the pyramids were built in Egypt, architecture had completely changed. No longer were buildings small and simple. Now, great temples were being planned and created, requiring the use of teams of architects, builders, and laborers all working together. The pyramids are another example of how the function of buildings had also changed. Far from Stonehenge, people were building for spiritual practices as well. The Egyptian pharaohs believed that if their bodies were kept safe in the pyramids, they would cross into another world upon their deaths.
THE GREEKS AND ROMANS Without early architects, the ancient cities of Greece and Rome would not have been built. In particular, the architecture of ancient Greece became an important model for later civilizations. Even today, buildings are being built that are inspired by ancient Greek architecture. Around the first century BCE, Greek architects developed their own architectural style. Greek architecture was later organized into three separate categories, or orders: the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. These orders are just different styles of architecture, with the Doric being the earliest and simplest design and the Corinthian being the most recent and most elaborate.
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What the Greeks did with this formal structure was to show that different styles of architecture could have different functions. Mathematical proportion and perspective was also an important part of Greek architecture. The Greeks wanted to model their architecture after the beauty of the natural world. They mimicked a special number, or ratio, called the golden mean. The golden mean is found in many living things. The ancient Greeks understood that sometimes the human eye distorts what it sees. This can make something that is perfectly straight seem curved. For this reason, ancient Greek architects calculated how human eyes would view the structures they built. They adjusted their structures to make them look perfectly straight even though they were not. These new architectural models became important for the Romans and for later civilizations as they modeled their own architecture on that of the Greeks. While we might not know much about many individual architects in the ancient world, we do know about one—Marcus Vitruvius Pollio. Known as Vitruvius, he was born around 80 BCE. All we know about the life of Vitruvius is that he lived in the Roman Empire. We know far more about his work, though, because his books survive even today.
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The Golden Mean The golden mean, also called the golden ratio, became a very important mathematical rule to follow in ancient Greek architecture. This number is approximately 1.618 and is found all around the natural world. The golden mean is the number you get if you take a line and divide it in two, so that the whole line divided by the longest part of the line is equal to the longest part of the line divided by the smallest part of the line. Sound A visualization of the golden mean complicated? We actually see the golden mean everywhere, from the way in which sunflower seeds grow to the proportions of spiral shells. The ancient Greeks thought that this number was the most beautiful and perfect proportion, which is why they used it in their buildings! You can learn more about the golden mean, as well as how to calculate it, at the Math Is Fun website. golden ratio
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In particular, Vitruvius wrote an important book in Latin called De Architectura, which is known today as The Ten Books on Architecture. Vitruvius knew about and was inspired by Greek architecture. He wrote about the purposes and forms of this architecture. In fact, it was Vitruvius who first categorized Greek architecture into the three orders of Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. His book also stated that the point of architecture is to imitate nature by using natural materials to shield people from the elements. Perhaps Vitruvius is best known for his statement that good architecture must have three qualities. It must be solid, it must be useful, and it must be beautiful. These rules became an important part of architecture. Many later architects followed Vitruvius in creating buildings that exhibited these properties.
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Consequently, since such a wide discipline should be enriched, and overflow with many different kinds of expertise, I do not think that people can justifiably profess themselves architects at the drop of a hat. —Vitruvius, from De Architectura
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RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTS Later architects included Filippo Brunelleschi and Leon Battista Alberti. Brunelleschi was the first modern engineer and a founding father of the Renaissance. He lived between 1377 and 1446. Battista Alberti was an Italian Renaissance architect who lived from 1404 until 1472. Filippo Brunelleschi was inspired by earlier Greek and Roman architects. He rediscovered a system of construction, called linear perspective, that was used by ancient architects but had been forgotten. Filippo Brunelleschi used these ancient techniques—as well as machines that he built himself—to complete some important architectural projects. These include the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, known as the Duomo, in Florence, Italy. In turn, he went on to inspire another important architect, Leon Battista Alberti. Throughout his lifetime, Leon Battista Alberti helped design many famous buildings, including Rucellai Palace in Florence, Italy. He also worked on several projects at the Vatican, which is the seat of the Catholic Church. Inspired by Vitruvius and Brunelleschi, he designed his buildings according to the three qualities of good architecture—solid, useful, and beautiful.
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Battista Alberti elevated architecture to Renaissance ideals. He also wrote a treatise on architecture inspired by Vitruvius’s De Architectura. Titled De Re Aedificatoria, or On the Art of Building, this was the first printed book on architecture when it came out in 1485. Because it brought greater attention to Vitruvius’s work, De Architectura was published for the first time in 1486.
Linear Perspective Linear perspective is a system that creates an illusion of depth when drawing on paper. While Greek and Roman artists had been using linear perspective for many years, this art technique was lost in the Middle Ages. Then, around 1420, Brunelleschi rediscovered this ancient technique. According to tradition, Brunelleschi studied ancient Greek and Roman art and was able to reconstruct how classical artists created depth in paintings. This was through the use of a vanishing point, or a point on the horizon of a piece of artwork where parallel lines (called orthogonals) drawn on the paper will meet. As an artist draws objects closer to the vanishing point, they become proportionally smaller and smaller. This gives the illusion of depth in the painting—and was the answer to how the ancient Greeks and Romans had created such convincingly real artwork!
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His book remained the most important book on architecture until the eighteenth century. It was the first time someone had written an organized account of architecture as an art that was necessary for the well-being of people and the preservation of the government. Drawing on the Greeks, he also showed that perfect harmony and proportion were necessary for architectural beauty and function. From that point on, architecture played a role of social importance— it was a science and an art form, and needed to be structurally perfect as well as beautiful. As architecture gained importance in Renaissance society, beautiful and ornate buildings became symbols of power and wealth. From the fifteenth through the eighteenth century, architects designed important palaces throughout Europe. One of the most magnificent of these constructions is the Palace of Versailles in France. The palace was originally designed by the famous French architect Louis Le Vau (1612–1670). Eventually, after being expanded during a period of more than 100 years, the palace itself reached a size of more than 700,000 square feet and contained more than 700 rooms and 67 staircases. Today’s average home size is approximately 2,500 square feet—more than 280 times smaller than Versailles! Historians believe that the palace cost the equivalent of more than $2 billion in today’s money.
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Palace of Versailles in France
This luxurious style grew somewhat outdated throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. But European architects continued to look at classical Latin and Greek architecture for inspiration throughout the 1800s. There are different names for different movements in architectural style inspired from ancient Greece and ancient Rome. These include Baroque, the Palladian movement, Greek Revival, and Gothic. Architects who followed these popular styles, however, all turned toward the past for inspiration.
NEW ARCHITECTURAL FORMS In the nineteenth century, architectural styles began to change even more. In European architecture, architects were exposed to different kinds of designs from Egypt and India, among other countries.
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Architectural Styles During certain historical periods, particular styles of building have become popular among top architects, who have reproduced them again and again in their works. These groupings of architectural styles make it easy to date certain constructions based on the architectural details used. Gothic is a dramatic style of architecture used in cathedrals between the thirteenth through sixteenth centuries. Baroque, from the sixteenth century, represented both a return to Roman techniques and Catholic iconography. Palladian, used in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, was based on the work of architect Andrea Palladio (1508–1580). Greek Revival was used in Europe and the United States at the end of the eighteenth century and was modeled after ancient Greek architecture. Explore many different architectural styles— including those from the ancient world—on this website. architectural styles kids
They also learned to use different materials in construction. Some of these included materials such as iron and glass.
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Glossary abusive: offensive, insulting, or cruel. accreditation: the process of showing that a person or organization is qualified to offer a particular service. adequate: satisfactory or acceptable. advisor: someone who gives advice. advocate: to speak out for. aggression: violent or overly bold behavior to another person. archaeologist: a scientist who studies ancient people and their cultures by looking at what they left behind. archaeology: the study of ancient people through the objects they left behind. architect: an artist who designs buildings. architecture: the style or look of a building. Art Nouveau: a style of architecture, which focused on linear designs and natural forms, that became popular in the United States and Europe in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. artifact: an object made by humans for a purpose. Baroque: the design and architecture of the seventeenth and eighteen century in Europe, characterized by many ornate details.
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BCE: put after a date, BCE stands for Before Common Era and counts down to zero. CE stands for Common Era and counts up from zero. These nonreligious terms correspond to BC and AD. This book was printed in 2017 CE. biodegradable: anything that can be decomposed by organisms. biophysicist: someone who studies how physical laws affect living things. ceremony: an event to celebrate or honor something, such as a god or a holiday. chaos: complete disorder. citizenship: legally belonging to a country and having the rights and protection of that country. civil engineering: the branch of engineering that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of public projects such as bridges, tunnels, and roads, and public buildings or spaces. civilization: a complex form of culture that includes cities, specialized workers, government and religious institutions, and advanced technology.
Glossary coding: using a computer-
based language to write or build programs. collaboration: working together with someone else. colleague: a person with whom one works. columns: pillars that hold up part of a building. commercial: relating to the buying and selling of goods or services, with the purpose of making money. compass: a tool used by architects to draw circles or arcs. complex: complicated. consultant: someone who provides advice professionally. contemporary: modern, existing now, belonging to the current moment. contractor: a person or company that undertakes a contract to provide materials or labor to perform a service or do a job. coveted: something that is desired by many people. conviction: a firmly held belief. culture: the beliefs and way of life of a group of people, which can include religion, language, art, clothing, food, holidays, and more.
dedication: in architecture,
a ceremony for a building once it is completed. design: planning how a building or other object, such as clothing, will look before it is built. developer: in architecture and real estate, those who buy, renovate, and sell or rent properties. dictation: saying words aloud to be typed or written down. discrimination: the unjust treatment of some groups of people based on their race, religion, or sex. disparity: a big difference; inequality. distinctive: unique in appearance or function. distort: to change or to give a misleading account of something. diversity: a range of different people or things. drafting: to draw or sketch out in architecture. durable: something that lasts for a long time. elements: the weather and other aspects of nature. embark: to begin something. endocrinologist: a medical doctor who treats the endocrine system of the body (the pancreas, thyroid gland, and other glands) and its diseases.
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Glossary energy efficient: something
that reduces the total amount of energy used. engineer: someone who uses science and math to design and build structures such as buildings, bridges, and tunnels. engineering: the use of science and math in the design and construction of things. engrave: to cut or carve into a hard surface. entomologist: a scientist who studies insects. environment: the area in which something lives. equitable: fair and equal. estimate: to roughly calculate or a rough calculation. excel: to be very good at a particular activity. expertise: skill or knowledge in a particular area. extracurricular: activities pursued outside of study. force: a push or pull applied to an object. formative: something that has had a profound and lasting affect on someone. formwork: molds typically made of wood into which concrete is poured during construction. foundation: the underlying base of something. functional: practical and useful.
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golden mean: the division
of a line so that the ratio between the whole to the larger section is the same as the larger section to the smaller section. This proportion was thought of by the Greeks as being the most beautiful. Gothic: a style of architecture used in Europe from the twelfth through sixteenth centuries. gravity: a force that pulls all objects to the earth. Greek Revival: a style of architecture that incorporates Greek influences that was popular in the early nineteenth century. harmony: peace and agreement. hearth: an area in a house where fire was made for heat and cooking. human resources: the people of a business or organization. hunter-gatherer: a person who hunts or gathers their food. iconic: something that is characteristic of an icon, an emblem, or a hero. immerse: to become absorbed by something. infinite: limitless or endless, and impossible to measure or calculate.
Glossary influential: having a strong effect on another person. innovative: new and creative ideas or methods. intangible: something that is not physical. intern architect: an architect who has not yet passed their licensing exams. intuition: an instinctual feeling rather than rational thought. licensed: having passed the necessary requirements to participate in a certain field, such as architecture. linear perspective:
a perspective used by architects that involves imagining all lines coming together at a point on the horizon. load: an applied force or weight. marvels: wonderful people or things.
mechanical engineering:
an area of engineering that deals with the design and construction of machines. mentor: a more experienced person who guides a younger or more inexperienced person. milestone: a moment or event that marks an important change.
minority: a group of people, such as African Americans, that is smaller than or different from the larger group. model: a three-dimensional representation of a person, thing, or proposed structure, typically on a smaller scale than the original. Modernism: a style of architecture in the twentieth century that focused on simple design and the function of buildings. nomadic: moving from place to place to find food. organic architecture: a philosophy of architecture that promotes harmony between humans and the natural world. organism: a living thing. ornamentation: in architecture, decoration used to embellish a building. ornate: a building, for example, that has many intricate designs. orthogonals: parallel lines drawn diagonally, used in the technique of linear perspective. paleontologist: a scientist who studies fossils. Palladian movement: a European style of architecture established by the architect Andrew Palladio in the sixteenth century.
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Glossary perpendicular: when an
object forms a right angle with another object. perspective: drawing objects on paper so that they appear properly sized in relation to one another. pharaoh: a ruler of ancient Egypt. pharmaceutical: anything that relates to medical drugs. physics: the study of physical forces, including matter, energy, and motion, and how these forces interact with each other. plane: a flat surface. predator: an animal that eats other animals by hunting them. preservation: to keep something protected for future generations. principal: in architecture, the owner of a firm.
product designer:
someone who creates and designs new products. proportion: a part that is compared in relation to the whole. proposal: a plan that is presented to others. proprietary: relating to an owner or ownership. pulley: a wheel through which a cord passes, used to lift heavy objects.
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pyramid: a monument
in the shape of a triangle with a square base. recruit: to enlist or enroll someone to do something. Renaissance: a cultural movement or “rebirth” that took place in Europe from the fourteenth through the seventeenth centuries. representation: the description or portrayal of a person or thing. right angle: the intersection of two perpendicular lines. Roman Empire: the large empire centered in Rome, in present-day Italy, that was founded in 753 BCE, according to legend. schematic design: a beginning design in architecture that plans out the general scope of a project, largely without details. scholarship: funds that are used to pay for a student’s education, usually based on a student’s academic merit. science: the study of the physical and natural world. settlement: a place where a group of people moves to start a new community. skyscraper: a very tall building that appears to touch the sky.
Glossary slide ruler: a ruler with a sliding strip that is used to make calculations. society: an organized community of people with shared laws, traditions, and values. spatial composition: using available space to create an image or other composition. specialization: becoming an expert in a particular subject. species: a group of living things that are closely related and produce young. spiritual: religious. stability: the ability of an object to maintain a certain position without collapsing. stress: pressure or tension. structural engineering:
a kind of civil engineering that focuses on building large structures. structure: something that is built, such as a building, bridge, tunnel, tower, or dam. sustainable: something that is able to be used without being completely used up. symbol: an image or character that stands for something else. symmetrical: a property of a shape that looks the same if you rotate it or look at it in a mirror.
technology: the use of science to invent needed things or to solve problems. temple: a building in which people worship gods and practice religious observances. tenacity: persistence or determination. thesis: a long essay or paper involving research, usually required for graduation from an academic program. tracing paper: a transparent paper used by architects to trace and transfer drawings and designs. transformation: a dramatic or extreme change. treatise: a philosophical or scientific exploration in writing of a particular subject. tsunami: a very large ocean wave, usually caused by an earthquake. tutor: a private teacher. urban planning: planning for the development of cities and large towns. vanishing point: a point on the horizon line used in linear perspective through which all parallel lines (orthogonals) meet. work ethic: a set of values that promotes hard work.
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Children’s Education Resource
focus on science
What style building do you live in? Is it a skyscraper, a Victorian home, or a modern building? Who designed it? Why did they choose that design?
Architecture: Cool Women Who Design Structures examines the history of architecture and the careers of three women who are working as architects today. Patricia Galván works in commercial and interior architecture and is the chairwoman for the American Institute of Architects’ Women in Architecture committee. Farida Abu-Bakare is an architect who designs science labs for universities and other institutions. Maia Small works as an architect and urban designer at the City of San Francisco Planning Department. All of these women work hard in their chosen field and show an active interest in encouraging kids to strive toward their career goals in architecture! Nomad Press books in the Girls in Science series supply a bridge between girls’ interests and their potential futures by investigating science careers and introducing women who have succeeded in science and engineering.
Praise for other books in the Girls in Science series “ This book is very well-written, organized, and researched. It has a glossary to allow readers to find primary sources. It engages readers by using colorful images and cartoons effectively. This is a wonderful book to introduce girls to engineering!” —Science Books and Films 2016 Best Books list
“ A worthy addition to STEM collections.” —Booklist
AGES 9–12 GUIDED READING LEVEL X