Skyscrapers! With 25 Science Projects for Kids

SKYSCRAPERS! WITH 25 SCIENCE PROJECTS FOR KIDS

Elizabeth Schmermund Illustrated by Mike Crosier

Titles in the Explore Engineering Set

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CONTENTS Timeline . . . iv Introduction . . . 1 Let’s Explore Skyscrapers Chapter 1 . . . 12 Why Do We Need Skyscrapers?

Chapter 2 . . . 23 Engineering and Design Chapter 3 . . . 43 Types of Skyscrapers Chapter 4 . . . 59 Let the Building Begin!

Chapter 5 . . . 71 Famous Skyscrapers Glossary * Metric Conversions Resources * Essential Questions * Index

Interested in primary sources? Look for this icon. Use a smartphone or tablet app to scan the QR code and explore more! Photos are also primary sources because a photograph takes a picture at the moment something happens.

If the QR code doesn’t work, there’s a list of URLs on the Resources page. Or, try searching the internet with the Keyword Prompts to find other helpful sources.

KE YW OR D PR OM PTS skyscrapers

TIMELINE 1853:

American inventor Elisha Graves Otis develops an elevator with a safety device that keeps an elevator from falling down the shaft if the elevator cable breaks.

APRIL 22, 1931:

The Empire State Building is completed in New York City. At 1,250 feet, it will hold the title of world’s tallest building for 40 years.

LATE 1800s:

Steel, instead of iron, starts to be used in buildings.

The lower-weight steel allows much taller structures to be built.

MARCH 12, 1930:

The Chrysler Building in New York City is completed, becoming the new world’s tallest building for a short time.

JANUARY 4, 1885:

The world’s first skyscraper is completed—the Home Insurance Building in Chicago, a 10-story, steel-framed building.

AUGUST 15, 1895:

1889:

George A. Fuller builds the Tacoma Building using Bessemer steel beams. It is the first structure ever built in which the steel skeleton carries the load of the building, instead of the outside walls doing the job.

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The American Surety Building is completed in New York City, becoming the world’s tallest building. Architects begin to compete to build taller and grander buildings.

TIMELINE FEBRUARY 26, 1932:

The 285-foot-tall Flatiron Building in New York City is completed. It is one of the tallest buildings in the city and is one of the first buildings to use a steel framework.

2014:

Architect Stefano Boeri builds vertical forest skyscrapers in Milan, Italy.

APRIL 1973:

The World Trade Center towers are completed in New York, making them the world’s tallest buildings.

1 World Trade Center is 1,355 feet tall and 2 World Trade Center is 1,348 feet tall.

SEPTEMBER 1973:

The Sears Tower (now called the Willis Tower) is completed in Chicago, surpassing the World Trade Center towers as the tallest building in the world. The tower is 1,450 feet tall, and is the first building to use the bundled tube construction method that soon becomes widely used in skyscraper design.

JANUARY 2010:

The Burj Khalifa officially becomes the tallest building in the world at 2,722 feet and 160 stories.

DECEMBER 31, 2004:

Taipei 101 in Taiwan becomes the tallest building in the world at 1,670 feet and 101 stories.

APRIL 13, 1998:

At 1,483 feet, the Petronas Towers in Malaysia officially become the tallest buildings in the world.

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INTRODUCTION

LET’S EXPLORE SKYSCRAPERS Have you ever traveled to a big city and seen its impressive skyline? Have you ever taken an elevator up, up, up to the top of a building that towers above the rest? Then you know how inspiring skyscrapers can be!

Skyscrapers are very tall buildings. They are so tall they seem to scrape at the sky. They are normally found in mediumsized to large cities around the world. Skyscrapers are used for offices, apartments, libraries, stores, restaurants, WORDS TO KNOW and much more. skyline: an outline of land and buildings against the sky.

skyscraper: an extremely

tall building.

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SKYSCRAPERS! technology: the tools,

methods, and systems used to solve a problem or do work.

engineer: a person who uses science, math, and creativity to design and build things such as roads, bridges, and buildings.

architect: a person who

designs buildings.

engineering: the work an

engineer does, using science and math to design and build things.

structure: something that

is built, such as a building, bridge, tunnel, tower, or dam.

Our definition of what a skyscraper is has changed during the past 100 years.

This has happened as buildings have been built higher than ever before. Technology has helped engineers and architects construct taller and taller buildings.

During the nineteenth century, a skyscraper was WORDS TO KNOW any building that was 10 stories high or taller. But we wouldn’t consider that to be a skyscraper today. Because of modern engineering , a skyscraper today typically reaches at least 40 to 50 stories tall, or around 550 feet in the air. That’s about the size of 55 elephants stacked on top of one another!

EARLY SKYSCRAPERS

2

While the term skyscraper was first used in the year 1880, humankind has always enjoyed building tall structures .

LET’S EXPLORE SKYSCRAPERS dominance: power and influence over others.

Even in the ancient world, architects often sought to build higher and higher into the sky. They thought it showed their dominance over nature and would impress others with their engineering knowhow! And it was impressive.

HOW C U P TH E O M SI D E

ED R? E

NT APE C GIA L E E SK YSC IMB TH F TH RA O P E

coordination: the organization of different parts working together. stable: firmly established

and not likely to change or move.

physics: the science of how matter and energy work together. Matter is what an object is made of. Energy is the ability to perform work.

engineering design: the

process engineers use to identify problems and come up with solutions.

ok en !

predecessor: people,

The

as e l e v at o r w

br

events, or things that came before.

WORDS

TO

KNOW

It requires a lot of work, knowledge, and coordination to build a tall building that is stable. Tall buildings are built with many minds that know and use mathematics, the laws of physics, and engineering design methods.

Of course, we wouldn’t call these ancient structures skyscrapers today. But they were the predecessors to the modern skyscrapers we see in cities today. Experiments done by early builders taught future architects and engineers how to build taller and stronger structures.

3

SKYSCRAPERS! BCE: put after a date,

BCE stands for Before Common Era and counts years down to zero. CE stands for Common Era and counts years up from zero. This book was published in 2018 CE.

The town of Shibam in Yemen has been in existence for nearly 2,000 years.

It has been called the “Manhattan of the Desert” and the “Ancient City of Skyscrapers.” This is because Shibam’s pyramid : a large stone residents live in clay buildings that stand structure with a square from 5 to 10 stories high. Evidence of base and triangular sides. construction on these ancient buildings has been dated to approximately 300 WORDS TO KNOW BCE , although most of the buildings were likely built after 1532 CE. They survive today as proof of the power of ancient engineering!

THE ANCIENT TOWN OF SHIBAM

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But these were not the tallest buildings of the ancient world.

That honor belongs to the Great Pyramid of Giza, which was built in ancient Egypt around 2500 BCE. This ancient pyramid stands nearly 480 feet tall.

LET’S EXPLORE SKYSCRAPERS innovation: a new creation While the pyramid is not exactly a skyscraper, its builders used many important architectural innovations .

Some of these continue to boggle the minds of modern engineers today!

or a unique solution to a problem.

surpass: to be greater

than something that came before.

WORDS

TO

In fact, it is said that it took us thousands more years to be able to develop the technology to surpass this structure in height. The Lincoln Cathedral in England, built in the fourteenth century, was DID YOU KNOW? the first The Great Pyramid once had a swivel structure built door as an entrance. It was easy to push from the inside, but very hard to find from that was taller the outside, because it blended right in! than the Great Pyramid.

KNOW

5

SKYSCRAPERS! frame: a rigid structure

that supports something.

column: a vertical support structure.

GOING UP

beam: a rigid, horizontal

Of course, despite these early attempts at building tall structures, real skyscrapers began to be built only about 150 years ago. This was for two reasons.

structure that carries the load, or the weight.

vertical: up and down. horizontal: going straight

across from side to side.

skeleton: a supporting frame.

Industrial Revolution: a period of time beginning in the late 1700s when people started using machines to make things in large factories. steel: a hard, strong material made of iron combined with carbon and other elements.

WORDS

TO

First, to build a modern skyscraper, the frame of the building needs to be very strong. In engineering, the frame of a building is made of columns and beams .

The columns are vertical and the beams are horizontal .

COLUMN

KNOW BEAM

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Together, the columns and beams are like the skeleton of a building—they are what holds up the entire structure. But, during the early nineteenth century, humans did not yet have the technology to use very strong metal to build above about five stories. This would only come with the Industrial Revolution and the development of steel .

LET’S EXPLORE SKYSCRAPERS tomb: a room or place where a dead person is buried.

Also, to build higher structures, accessible: able to be engineers needed to figure out how entered. to get people all the way to the top of these buildings. How many stairs WORDS TO KNOW do you want to climb each time you go to your office or your apartment?

Without a way to transport people to the top stories, the skyscrapers wouldn’t be very useful.

Some ancient structures, such as the pyramids, were used as tombs for kings. People did not actually spend much time in them. Modern skyscrapers are different—they need to be accessible to be used as homes and offices.

The invention of the elevator in 1852 meant people could easily travel higher in taller buildings. Steel and elevators, two new technologies developed by engineers, made it possible to build taller and taller buildings.

7

SKYSCRAPERS! prototype: a model of

something that allows engineers to test their ideas.

WORDS

TO

KNOW

GOOD ENGINEERING PRACTICES

Engineers and scientists keep their ideas organized in notebooks. Engineers use the engineering design process to keep track of their inventions, and scientists use the scientific method to keep track of experiments.

As you read through this book and do the activities, record your observations, data, and designs in an engineering design worksheet or a scientific method worksheet. When doing an activity, remember that there is no right answer or right way to approach a project. Be creative and have fun!

Engineering Design Worksheet Problem: What problem are we trying to solve?

Research: Has anything been invented to help solve the problem? What can we learn?

Question: Are there any special requirements for the device? What is it supposed to do?

Brainstorm: Draw lots of designs for your device and list the materials you are using!

Prototype: Build the design you drew during brainstorming. This is your prototype.

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Scientific Method Worksheet Question: What problem are we trying to solve?

Research: What information is already known?

Hypothesis/Prediction: What do I think the answer will be?

Equipment: What supplies do I need?

Results: Test your prototype and record your observations.

Method: What steps will I follow?

Evaluate: Analyze your test results. Do you need to make adjustments? Do you need to try a different prototype?

Results: What happened and why?

LET’S EXPLORE SKYSCRAPERS This book is about skyscrapers and how they are made possible by teams of engineers and architects. It is also about the laws of nature. Physics determines whether a skyscraper will stand for hundreds—if not thousands—of years, or if it will never get off the ground.

earthquake: a sudden movement in the outer layer of the earth. gravity: a force that pulls all objects toward the earth.

force: a push or pull

applied to an object.

WORDS

TO

KNOW

In this book, you will learn how engineers and architects build skyscrapers so they are stable and safe. Tall buildings must be able to withstand wind, earthquakes, and the constant pull of the earth’s gravity.

In order to understand how skyscrapers can stand so tall, you will build models and experiment with different materials and the forces that act on structures. You will examine how engineers follow the physical laws when building huge structures such as skyscrapers and how they experiment with the very limits of physics to build even higher. Sounds exciting, right? Let’s dive in!

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS Each chapter of this book begins with an essential question to help guide your exploration of skyscrapers. Keep the question in your mind as you read the chapter. At the end of each chapter, use your engineering notebook to record your thoughts and INVESTIGATE! answers.

Why are skyscrapers useful in big cities where there are lots of people?

?

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PROJECT! POWER PAPER!

SUPPLIES **engineering notebook and pencil **paper **tape **heavy books

Think about some words you might associate with paper, such as thin or rip, and then think of the words you might associate with a textbook, such as heavy. Do you think that sheets of paper could support the weight of one of your textbooks? Why or why not?

1

Start an engineering design worksheet in your engineering notebook. Your first step is to state the problem: How can you shape the paper in a way to make it strong enough to hold up a heavy book?

2

Consider different ways of folding, rolling, and taping your paper. Brainstorm and sketch your ideas. Choose a design to try. Make your paper and tape it to keep it in the shape you made. This is your prototype!

3

Test the strength of the shape by placing a heavy book on top of it. What happens? Do you need to change the way your paper is shaped? What can you do to the paper to make it stronger?

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PROJECT! 4

Change your design to make your paper stronger. Evaluate your new prototype. What shape is strongest? How much weight can you get your paper to hold?

EXPLORE MORE: What can you add to your paper structures to make

them stronger? How does adding straws, popsicle sticks, or other material to your paper structures keep them from crumpling under the weight of the books?

THE GRANDFATHER OF SKYSCRAPERS In England, you can still find the first building to be built with an iron frame, which was later developed into the technique of using steel frames to make taller buildings possible! In 1797, engineer Charles Bage (1751–1822) designed the Ditherington Flax Mill with an iron frame to help prevent fire. Flax dust was famous for going up in flames. The mill still stands. It is being renovated into offices and shops, while keeping the historic iron frame.

You can watch a short documentary about the building here.

KE YW OR D PR OM PTS eo Ditherington Flax Mill vid

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