Geo Test Review Alfred Wegener was a German scientist invented the continental drift theory. When all land masses collide they form a super continent called Pangaea. A Canadian scientist named J. Tuzo Wilson developed his theory in 1968.
Precambrian Era Ø Precambrian shields such as the Canadian shield Palaeozoic Era Ø Periods when large parts of North America are covered by shallow seas Ø Appalachians formed Mesozoic Era Ø Formation of Rocky Mountains begins Ø Intuition Mountains formed Ø Shallow seas in the interior of North America at various times. Cenozoic Era Ø Ice sheets cover much of North America Ø Continents take on their present shape Ø Formation of Rocky Mountains completed
Plate Tectonics
Ø New crust is formed when oceanic plates separate called a “mid ocean ridge” Ø Volcanoes are formed when melting occurs in the mantle above the sub ducting oceanic plate
Crust – the rigid, rocky outer surface of the Earth composed mostly of basalt and granite. The rust is thinner under the oceans. Mantle – a rocky layer located under the crust it is composed of silicon, oxygen, magnesium, iron, aluminum and calcium. Convection (heat) currents carry heat to the cooler outer mantle Outer core – liquid iron and nickel spinning with great speed and pressure Inner core – solid iron and nickel in center of the Earth that is very hot and is under great pressure
Divergent boundaries -‐ where new crust is generated as the plates pull away from each other Transform boundaries -‐ where crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past each other. Convergent boundary -‐ is an actively deforming region where two (or more) tectonic plates or fragments of lithosphere move toward one another and collide
The Ring of Fire is an area where large numbers of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur in the edge of the Pacific Plate.
Rock Cycle -‐-‐-‐ Igneous rock is created when hot, melted magma rises from deep under the earth’s
crust, then cools and hardens. Igneous rock can either be changed directly into metamorphic rock or break down into particles or sediments that harden into sedimentary rock. When pressure and heat melt the sedimentary rock, the result is metamorphic rock.
Igneous Rock -‐ Latin word “ignis”, meaning "fire". Super-‐hot magma cools, it solidifies to form an igneous rock.
Extrusive Igneous Rocks -‐ cooled rapidly outside the Earth
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Intrusive Igneous Rocks-‐ cooled very slowly inside the Earth
Igneous rocks examples -‐ Granite – course grained, formed deeper in the ground and slowly Basalt – fine grained (can’t see crystals, formed above ground) Obsidian – glass lava, fine grained, formed on the surface Pumice – ash from volcanoes, no grains, many holes, white and light
Sedimentary Rock -‐ Sedimentary rocks are made of materials called sediments (sand slit). Those sediment deposits then become cemented or compacted together over time, forming a solid rock. This process is known as sedimentation.
Lithification is the process by which sediments become compacted and cemented together into a sedimentary rock. Detrital sediments are formed form broken pieces of rock. Organic sediments are formed from the remains of plants and animals. Chemical sediments are formed when a solid chemical comes out of a solution of water. ***Sedimentary rocks or sediments travel with wind, water or gravity*** Sedimentary rocks examples -‐ Shale – silt and clay, formed of mud or clay under pressure Sandstone – sand Conglomerate – mixture of different sized particles (pebbles, sand, silt, and clay) Limestone –organic (sediments like shells or calcite) precipitated from ocean water Coal – organic deposits Quartz – a mineral or found in rocks
Metamorphic rock -‐ Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed within the Earth. Metamorphic rocks develop in environments where heat and pressure are intense and extreme. These extreme conditions are only present deep inside the Earth.
Contact metamorphism occurs when a rock is exposed to hot magma inside the Earth this often causes the minerals to recrystallize. Regional metamorphism occurs as tectonic plates collide and converge. The lava/magma is actually in contact with the rock. Regional is when the area is being moved by plate tectonics like when it is folded so there is extreme pressure.
Metaphoric rocks examples -‐ Gneiss – granite is parent rock Marble – limestone is parent rock Slate – made from shale
Landform regions Canadian Shield Ø Mostly flat with rounded hills Ø Formed with igneous and metaphoric rocks Ø Magma rise upwards and created mountains, then eroded Ø Glaciers created lakes (meltwater)
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Ø Used for mining and tourists Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Lowlands Ø Lowlands have bedrock from sedimentary rocks Ø Glaciation created rolling landscape Ø Flat plains and deep river valleys Ø Large number of lakes Ø Used for agriculture and urbanization Appalachians Ø Mountains tops are flat Ø Formed when North America collided with Europe and vice versa Ø Layers of sedimentary rocks, with igneous and metaphoric in a few areas Ø Few river valleys and harbours Interior Plains Ø Shallow inland seas Ø Rolling hills, deep and wider river valleys Ø Layers of sedimentary rocks from Shield and Rocky Ø Used for mining, oil and gas, growing wheat Western Cordillera Ø Range of mountains with glaciers Ø Collision of North American Plate with the Pacific Plate Ø Sharp peeks Ø Used for tourism Innuitian Mountains Ø Mountains covered with ice and snow (permafrost) Ø Contains igneous and metaphoric Ø Formed when Not American plate moved northward Ø Few people and little development Hudson Bay and Artic Lowlands Ø Flat covered by swampy forests Ø Sedimentary rocks form Canadian Shield Ø Harsh climate and permafrost
Climate and Weather
Weather describes atmospheric conditions over a few days, or it can change hour by hour. Weather is localized Climate describes conditions over many years (usually 20 years is the standard). Climate is regionalized
Precipitation – any form of water (rain, ice, snow) Average Annual Temperature – Add the average temperature of months and then divide by 12 Temperature Range – difference between highest and lowest (Highest temperature minus lowest temperature) Total Precipitation – yearly precipitation (add the precipitation of all 12 months)
Summer – April, May, June, July, August and September Winter – October, November, December, January, February, March Continental Climates
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Far away from the ocean are generally very cold and dry in the winter and very hot and dry in the summer. 1. Large temperature range (more than 25ºC) 2. Low total precipitation (less than 1000 mm yearly) 3. Receive more precipitation in the summer months than the winter months. Maritime Climates Large bodies of water have a moderating effect on the land nearby because the water takes a long time to heat up in the summer and a long time to cool off in the winter. The temperature of the water affects the temperature of the land. 1. Low temperature range (less than 25ºc) 2. High total precipitation (more than 1000 mm) 3. More precipitation in the winter months than the summer months. Great Lakes Climate Areas near the Great Lakes are partially "Continental" and partially "Maritime" because they have cold, moist winters and hot, moist summers. 1. Temperature Range high 2. Medium total precipitation 3. Precipitation year round LOWER Near Water Ø L for Latitude Ø for Ocean Currents Ø W for Winds and air masses Ø E for Elevation Ø R for Relief Ø Near Water Latitude v The earth's curvature causes the sun's energy to be less concentrated at the poles than near the equator. v Places closer to the equator are warmer than places further north or south v Warmer air can hold more moisture than colder air; therefore, areas further away from the equator are drier than areas closer to the equator.
Ocean Currents v An ocean current (like a river within the ocean water) can be warmer or cooler than the water around it. v Air above the water is affected by the temperature of the water as it passes over.
The west coast current called the North Pacific Current, brings warm, moist air to the Pacific coastal areas. | Submitted By: Jae Park
The cold Labrador Current flows from the north along the coast of Labrador The warm Gulf Stream flows from the south along Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, when they meet, fog is created.
Winds and Air Masses An air mass is a large volume of air that has the temperature and humidity of the location where it was formed. If it formed over an ocean, it's wet. If it formed over land, it's dry. If it formed in the north, it's cold. If it formed in the south, it's warm. v Winds blow these air masses from one location to another. v In Canada, most of our winds (the prevailing winds) come from the west. They are called the "Westerlies". v The Westerlies are controlled by the jet stream (a current of fast-‐moving air high in the atmosphere). North of the jet stream it is colder than south of it. In the summer, the jet stream moves northward, so we get warmer weather. In the winter, the jet stream moves further south and we get colder weather
Elevation v Elevation is the height the land is above sea level. v As air rises, it expands due to the decrease in air pressure. v As air expands, it cools. v Since colder air cannot hold as much moisture (water vapour) as warmer air, when the air cools, the water vapour condenses into liquid water droplets. v Once the droplets are big enough, they will fall as rain or snow, depending on the temperature. v Summary: Areas lower in elevation tend to be warmer than areas higher in elevation. v This factor is not dependent on how the land is shaped. An area of flat land at a higher elevation is colder than an area of flat land at lower elevation.
Relief v As air is forced over mountain barriers, it cools and creates precipitation. The windward side (facing the sea) is wetter that the leeward side (facing the land).
Near Water v Areas that are close to water have their climate moderated by the water so that the summer temperature is not as hot and the winter temperatures are not as cold. v Creates maritime climates near water and continental climates away from water "Lower near water"
Soil
Minerals – Minerals in the soil come from the rock, known as parent material. The minerals become part of the soil when rocks are broken down by weathering such as sand, salt and clay. Many minerals like calcium, phosphorus are nutrients needed for plants to grow. Bacteria and Organic Materials – When plants and animals die they are decomposed by bacteria in the soil. Nutrients are released when bacteria break down organic matter. Decaying organic matter forms humus which provides nutrients and moisture for plants. Humus gives the soil its dark colour.
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Air – Plants need air around their roots. A high humus level helps produce air in the soil because the decaying matter allows many air pockets. Air pockets can also be created by worms and insects, which tunnel through the soil. Moisture – Water dissolves nutrients in the soil and is taken up by plants through their roots. Water is also necessary in chemical and physical processes that weather rock and decay organic materials. Leaching is the first process that contributes in soil formation. In areas where there is a great deal of precipitation, there is a continual downward movement of water through the soil. As the water moves down, it dissolves the chemical nutrients in the soil and carries them away. This downward movement is called leaching. Calcification occurs in areas with drier climates. As water in the topsoil evaporates, water from below is drawn up to replace it. This process is called capillary action. As the water reaches the surface, it evaporates leaving the minerals in the top soil. This process is called calcification because calcium’s the main mineral deposited near the surface.
Vegetation Regions
Vegetation Region Types of Natural Vegetation Tundra shrubs, mosses, lichens, small flowers Boreal and Taiga Coniferous trees, Forest Deciduous trees
Temperature Precipitation Soil Characteristics Characteristics Characteristics cold, short growing season very little precipitation; thin soils, most areas <400 mm permafrost
Not too cold from trees, More precipitation than the tundra Acidic soil, few towards the south more but cold for many deciduous trees minerals in the top trees grow, longer to grow soil growing seasons
Mixed Forest
Coniferous and Warm climate for trees Abundant Humus created from leaves creates a deciduous trees to grow, warm summers precipitation deep grey-‐brown rich in minerals topsoil Maple, beech, ash, and cool winters oak and birch
Deciduous Forest
Deciduous trees such as maple, beech, hickory ash and black walnut Trembling aspen, willow and spruce. Short grass – sagebrush and cactus Parkland – coniferous trees in the north wind deciduous in the south
Grassland — short grass — long grass — parkland
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Summers are long and Plenty hot, winters relatively precipitation mild
Rich in humus and are less acidic because many trees. Rich topsoil making dark brown soil
Too dry, little Limited rainfall and high Limited humus, clarified soil, not moisture, long evaporation suitable for crops, grass cool Long grass – enough Long grass ideal for crops and oil summer ideal rainfall for minerals to seeds, large amount of humus for crops keep within reach when long grass die and produce dark black soil
Cordilleran Vegetation
Grasses and cactus in the Warm in the High rainfall in the west Soil similar to the prairie east side, coniferous valleys, east side than east side, grasslands, soil types vary trees on lower slopes, side is hot and irrigation required for depending on the height high slopes are similar to dry agriculture, high up ice the tundra, above tree and snow line only flowers and shrubs West Coast Forest Lush of forests like Might climate Heavy rainfall Lush vegetation provides high Douglas fir, Sitka, spruce, change of humus but rainfall sends minerals red cedar and western coastal deep into the soil, leeching hemlock(temperate regions forests), coniferous Coniferous Coniferous trees or evergreen trees grow in cold climate regions. Coniferous trees have sharp needle like leaves to hold droplets of water. These needles are acidic making the soil grey in colour. Examples: White and black spruce, balsam fir, pine Deciduous Deciduous means falling off and is typically used in reference to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally. In a more specific sense deciduous means the dropping of a part that is no longer needed or falling away after its purpose is finished. In plants it is the result of natural processes. Deciduous trees require enough rainfall, minerals and warm climate to grow. Examples: Poplar, white birch, maple, beech, black walnut, hickory ash Softwood The term softwood is used to describe wood from conifers. It may also be used to describe these trees, which tend to be evergreen, notable exceptions being bald cypress and the larches. Softwoods are not necessarily softer than hardwoods. Hardwood Hardwood is wood from deciduous or other trees usually broad-‐leaved; in temperate and boreal latitudes. Are all hardwoods actually hard? If not, give an example of one that isn’t. No, not all hardwoods are hard. For example Red Maple is a Soft Hardwood Vegetation changes as precipitation changes.
Semi desert – Scrubs and cactus
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Grassland – Short grass Parkland – Long grass with very few trees Forest – Both deciduous and coniferous trees Rain Forest – Dense Forest Tundra – grasses, mosses and shrubs Taiga Forest – Spruce, pines, hemlock, cedar etc. (coniferous trees) Boreal Forest – Spruce, pines, hemlock, cedar etc. (WETTER) Mixed forest – both deciduous and coniferous trees Deciduous forest – Maple, oak, beech, elm etc. Canadian Ecozones (15 ecozones)
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