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To optimize learning, keep activities fun and game-like in nature

WIELDING A CHILD’S SENSE OF WONDER TO SPARK THE IMAGINATION

Learning to Read It’s 3 p.m. on the first day of kindergarten. The children in Mrs. Keith’s class have spent the entire day talking and listening to one another, singing and clapping, listening to silly rhymes and making up wacky rhyming words of their own. As Mrs. Keith is busily lining up the children and checking for lost lunch boxes, she feels Richie tugging on her skirt. “Mrs. Keith, I thought we’re supposed to learn how to read in kindergarten. How come you didn’t teach us that today?”

Of course, that’s exactly what Mrs. Keith spent the entire day doing - teaching the beginning steps of reading. This starts with the ability to recognize and manipulate phonemes (individual sounds in words in oral language), which is often referred to as

Professional Development Handout

2010

phonemic awareness (Manyak, 2008). This ability to segment or blend sounds is a critical part of becoming a reader. Studies have found that children who lack these skills upon entering first grade are likely to be poor readers in fourth grade and sixth grade (Connell, 2007). To avoid this type of catastrophe, teachers and parents should understand the vital role phonemic awareness plays in becoming literate and provide explicit instructional activities that are purposeful, age appropriate, stimulating and fun (Yopp & Yopp 2000). Research has proven that instruction which attends to vocal gestures (the movement of mouth) and the segmenting and blending of phonemes, combined with a focus on the corresponding letters, can be quite successful for those just learning to read and spell (Manyak, 2008).

This newsletter will provide teachers with research-based advice and activities for those two key points, along with listening, rhyming, and matching sounds. Parents will find a cache of quick, low-prep games that can be implemented at home or on-the-go.

Additionally, supplied is a list of websites and literature for further assistance in developing a strong foundation for developing readers.

more: Websites for Kids Scaffolding Tips Helping Parents

2 4 6

I have read and understand the UTA Academic Honesty clause as follows. “Academic dishonesty is a completely unacceptable mode of conduct and will not be tolerated in any form at The University of Texas at Arlington. All persons involved in academic dishonesty will be disciplined in accordance with University regulations and procedures.

Discipline may include suspension or expulsion from the University. “Academic dishonesty includes, but is not limited to, cheating, plagiarism, collusion, the submission for credit of any work or materials that are attributable in whole or in part to another person, taking an examination for another person, any act designed to give unfair advantage to a student or the attempt to commit such acts.” (Regents’ Rules and Regulations, Part One, Chapter VI, Section 3, Subsection 3.2., Subdivision 3.22).” Further, I declare that the work being submitted for this assignment is my original work (e.g., not copied from another student or copied from another source) and has not been submitted for another class. “Signature” Natalie Smith: Date: 9/16/10

Great Websites for Kids

MUSIC: Use music to help develop the aural skills of your students

Starfall.com everything your students need - from letter/sound games to reading books and poetry

Between the Lions offers a wide range of games, videos and stories for non-readers to fluent readers

1. Keep it FUN, not frustrating Rasinski and Padak stress two points for phonemic awareness instruction: there should be a fun and enjoyable feeling and the child should never feel frustrated (2008). The greatest gains can come from a child’s relaxed and open state of mind.

The phonemic awareness games should feel like play, not a stringent routine one must attend to each day.

2. I Got the Music in Me

Loosey Goosey Rhymes interactive nursery rhymes that promote beginning sound identification

We all enjoyed going to music class in elementary school, but did you know there is a strong correlation between music instruction and phonemic awareness? In Gromko’s 2005 study, students who were given explicit music instruction during kindergarten (30 minutes/week, over 4 months), out-performed their counterparts who did not receive music instruction, in the area of phoneme-segmentation fluency (ex: teacher says “hat”, student answers /h/ /a/ /t/). This music instruction included singing, accompanied by simple body percussion or kinesthetic movement, and instruments, such as rhythm sticks, woodblocks, or finger cymbals, along with a visual chart. Since both music and phonemic awareness are based on aural skills, the combination of instruction rendered significant results for students who were blending and segmenting phonemes (Gromko, 2005).

3. Sequence of Instruction Since children gain control over larger units of sound before smaller, it would behoove teachers to plan their phonemic awareness instruction accordingly (Yopp & Yopp, 2000). Begin instruction focus on rhyming. “Tell me something that rhymes with pan.” Then students can be introduced to syllable units. “Let’s clap Susan’s name.” Su (clap)-san(clap). Next, students can move to onset and rime. “Just say the first part of break.” Finally, children can focus on phonemes. “Let’s say top very slowly. /t/ (pause) /o/ (pause) /p/ (Yopp & Yopp 2000).

4. Use Your Cues

7. Where the Watermelons Grow

Some phonemic awareness instruction will be strictly oral/ aural. Students will simply listen to prompts and respond.

Another side of phonemic awareness instruction is the use of cues. In Ball & Blachman’s 1991 research, they found implementing the use of cues or a manipulative to hold great success. This allows an abstract phoneme to have a concrete representation to see, touch or move. An illustration would be a teacher asking students to clap how many syllables were in the word “motorcycle”. Teachers can also provide visual cues, like placing magnets on the chalkboard to represent each sound. Kinesthetic learners can benefit from being asked to jump for each repeated sound. Adding the use of letters to manipulate during further instruction would also contribute to the successful support of emerging readers alphabetic knowledge (Yopp & Yopp 2000).

A great song to get children geared up to rhyme is “Down by the Bay”. Children adore the silly lyrics and will sing along to its chorus. As students revel in its rhyme and repetition, challenge them to generate a rhyming sentence of their own (Yopp & Yopp, 2000). Check out this version of Raffi singing ‘Where the Watermelons Grow’, live on Broadway.

5. Mother Goose Incorporating nursery rhymes into your curriculum is a wonderful way to practice the oral language skills and rhyming that develop phonemic awareness skills. Studies have found a parallel between students’ understanding of nursery rhymes in early childhood and reaching success in later years. Encourage children to listen to, recite, and dramatize nursery rhymes. Consider adding stuffed animals and props to your library station for children to recite and act out their nursery rhymes independently (Smith & Read, 2009).

6. Schmancakes!

In Slepian and Seidler’s book, The Hungry Thing, a monster rolls into town insisting he is hungry and should be fed schmancakes. When the townspeople realize his request and feed him pancakes, a pattern begins of the monster demanding a nonsense word and the townsmen feeding him food that rhymes with what he is requesting.

Children adore this story and have no idea they are reinforcing their phonemic awareness skills through rhyming.

As an extension after reading this book, create your own lunchbox full of foods you want to be fed. Tell the children you are hungry for a slice of mizza and a bag of flips. You could even create a grab-bag full of items that go along with your unit of study. Farm animals would include meep, flickens, and pows. A unit on autumn might me tied to lumpkins, smapples and veaves (Yopp & Yopp, 2000).

8. How Many Syllables?!

In Mosel’s book, Tikki Tikki Tembo, students learn about a colorful pair of Chinese brothers. One brother has a name that is one syllable long, while the other’s name is twenty-one syllables long! Students adore hearing this story again and again. Plus, it’s a wonderful way to introduce the children to counting the syllables of their own names. As a class, practice clapping the syllables of children. For further exercise and to create a visual representation of syllables, give the children a stack of 2x2 inch pieces of construction paper. Instruct the children to glue the corresponding number of syllables to their name on a blank page. When the class is finished, allow the children to walk around the room holding their papers and discover how many syllables are in their peers’ names (Yopp & Yopp, 2000).

9. Humpty Dumpty As an addition to your nursery rhyme study, try playing this Humpty Dumpty game with your students. Give your students a few snap cubes. Tell the group that Humpty Dumpty has fallen again and is broken and you have some broken words, too. See if they can put your words back together again. Say each syllable of a word slowly and ask the children to repeat, connecting a snap cube for each syllable.

Once the pieces are snapped together, they say the entire word (Yopp & Yopp, 2000). Repeat the nursery rhyme and activity and maybe they will be able to put things back together again better than all the king’s men!

10. Mother, May I? (with a Twist) Yopp & Yopp (2000) put a spin on the traditional game of ‘Mother, May I?’ by combining kinesthetic movement to the essential skill of segmenting words into syllables. Students line up in a row, facing the teacher. The teacher tells the students “You may jump the syllables of tiger to me”. The children all say, “Teacher, may we?” After your permission, the children all jump forward two times as they say, “Ti-ger!” Of course, you can change the words to represent different amounts of syllables and/or alter the types of movements (ex: giant steps, baby steps, etc.). The first student to reach you is the winner and could play the teacher role for the next game (Yopp & Yopp, 2000).

11. Stop and Go Drawing student attention to the characteristics of each phoneme is an essential part of phonemic awareness instruction. Students must learn the features of each phoneme if they are expected to correctly apply their knowledge in the future. One way to reinforce this understanding is through the game ‘Stop and Go’. A simple game board is constructed of a row of boxes students must move their playing pieces through.

The first child to the end of the road is the winner. The teacher creates letter cards the children will use to signify how many boxes they will move through on a single turn and lays them face down. For instance, if a child picks up a card that reveals the letter d (a “stop” sound), the player moves one box forward. If another child picks up a card that reveals the letter s (a “long” letter or one that can be elongated, ssssssssss), the child will move two spaces forward.

Once students have mastered this skill, move on to words.

Create words the students must decode and move accordingly.

For instance, if a child drew the word cat, he would move four spaces (one for c, two for a, one for t). Alternately, if the students are not ready to have print introduced, the teacher can simply say each sound she wants the students to move to.

The flexibility of this game allows teachers to use one set of materials for every student in the class, customizing individual instruction (Allor, Gansle, & Denny, 2006).

12. Keep In Mind As teachers are planning and administering instruction, Allor, Gansle, and Denny recommend these guidelines for successful phonemic awareness instruction: •Begin with explicit instruction

•Model the skill you wish your students to demonstrate remember to model frequently •Provide multiple opportunities for practice. Students need more than two or three chances to practice a skill you expect them to apply daily •Provide immediate feedback •When playing a game, like ‘Stop and Go’, always allow a child to participate. If a child incorrectly segments a word, do not penalize him/her, but instead, model the correct answer, have the student answer it correctly and allow him/her to move the game piece.

•Never allow a child to struggle more than two or three seconds. If a child does not respond to a prompt, simply scaffold your instruction and ask a new question.

Extended wait times allow thoughts of failure to creep in and the environment should be kept light and fun (Allor, Gansle, & Denny, 2006).

13. Scaffolding Tips for Teaching McGee and Ukrainetz found in 2009 that although curricula being published offered engaging and researchbased activities, they lacked the proper techniques for teachers to offer support and feedback when children were not successful with tasks.

To remedy this, McGee and Ukrainetz (2009) suggests three levels of scaffolding. When looking at the skill of identifying the beginning sounds in a word, they suggest making simple tweaks in the way a teacher asks the question, “What’s the first sound in the word milk?” (see Figure 1). With this differentiated instruction, teachers can easily adjust their instruction to fit students’ needs (McGee & Ukrainetz 2009).

Figure 1 McGee & Ukrainetz 2009 - Scaffolding Phonemic Awareness for Beginning Phoneme Isolation Level of support

Information provided

Examples

Intense

Isolate and exaggerate phoneme in isolation and in the word, point to mouth and tell children to look, say the correct response, elicit response from child.

“What is the first sound in milk, /m/m/m/ milk? Watch my mouth, /m/m/m/m/ilk. The first sound is /m/. You say /m/.”

Moderate

Isolate phoneme and exaggerate, point to mouth and tell children to look, exaggerate phoneme in word (use two or more depending on need).

“What is the first sound in milk? /m/m/m/ milk? [point to mouth]

Minimal

Emphasize beginning phoneme in the word.

“What is the first sound in milk?

None

Ask the question.

“What is the first sound in milk?”

14. Special Delivery

16. Say-It And Move-It

Since phoneme segmentation and blending instruction in young preschool students have shown great rewards to future reading fluency, it is imperative to include this instruction into the imaginative play of young children.

Teachers can create a post office scene in the classroom by using a large box with a slit in the top to serve as a mailbox. Instead of envelopes to mail, students are given picture cards or objects. Be sure to use single syllable words such as cat, seat, stick, gum. The teacher will then say, as an onset and rime, the name of one of the items a child is holding (example: c-at or st-ick). The students must listen and blend together the sounds heard.

The child holding the object or card walks to the mailbox to make a deposit. For extra fun, sing this chant before each child’s turn: A package! A package!

What can it be?

A package! A package!

I hope it’s for me!

(Yopp & Yopp, 2000)

Based on the ground-breaking research

by Ball and Blachman (1991), Say-It And Move-It was created. Children use a blank tile to represent each phoneme as they segment, then blend a word together. For instance, to use the word bat, the child places three tiles (left to right) at the top of a blank paper.

Then, he moves one tile down as he says each phoneme. Lastly, he slides his finger across the bottom of the paper, under the tiles, as he blends the entire word together.

If you are studying a particular letter (let’s say the letter b), you can give the child a tile that has the letter b on it. Then ask the child to do the same activity with the word by (b tile and a blank tile). Continue making words that focus on the letter b (by, bike, rub, fib, etc.). It is essential that students practice hearing the focus phoneme at the beginning and end of words.

Use this game daily in small groups - it’s a wonderful activity to kick off guided writing instruction (Manyak 2008).

wonderful activity to include in your fastpaced daily word work.

18. No Parent Left Behind As we walk the road of preparing our students to become fluent readers, we must not forget our allies in the home - parents.

Often parents wish to support their children, but need teachers to help explicitly demonstrate how they can help away from school.

Consider hosting a parent night where teachers offer advice and activities parents can easily implement at home. Create a written or web-based guide parents can refer to with alternative materials and further information (Rasinski & Padak, 2008).

17. Slow-Motion Spelling 15. Hide and Seek with Beginning-Middle-End To build students’ awareness of the different positions of sounds within a word, try this game. It is an easy three-step game that incorporates singing, letters, sounds, and segmenting, with a whole lot of fun!

Begin with a pocket chart and letter cards for three or four phonemes/letter words. For example, fan. Create this word with the three letter cards and place them face down in the pocket chart. Then sing these words to the tune of ‘Are You Sleeping?’

Beginning, middle, end, Beginning, middle, end, Where is the sound?

Where is the sound?

Where’s the fffff in fan?

Where’s the fffff in fan?

Let’s find out. Let’s find out.

Invite a student to point to the position/card they believe to be correct. When you reveal the card, ask the entire class, ‘Does this letter say /f/?’ Encourage the students to use the terms beginning, middle, and end when they are identifying the location of sounds. Repeat for all the sound positions to finish the word.

Manyak recommends kindergarten teachers practice this activity once or twice a day, as well as first grade teachers at the beginning of the year (Manyak 2008).

When students slowly say words, elongating each sound, trying to spell words, they are building their phonemic awareness.

Manyak (2008) was inspired by this and created Scaffolded Spelling. This activity also strengthens letter-sound knowledge for young writers. Teachers should use a small group of words that include the phonemes/letters the children are familiar with or are studying. For example: if the class is working on b, j, m, s, the teacher would select the words jam, jab and sam. The teacher then asks the children to stretch the word out of their mouth, like they are stretching a piece of gum. The children then place their pinched fingers to their lips and as they are slowly saying the word, they pull the word from their mouth.

Next the teacher asks the children to stretch the word out of their mouth again, but this time, stop after the first sound. This allows the children to hear the first sound and record it on their paper. The process is repeated to the second sound, then repeated again to the third. Once the group has all the words recorded, they read their new list two times.

When students’ skills have strengthened, the teacher can add more challenging phonemes and spelling, like digraphs and consonant blends.

This activity takes only a few minutes, yet the results are powerful and multifaceted.

Students have boosted their letter/sound knowledge and rehearsed the process for invented spelling, which they will transfer to their independent writing. This would be a

Although this speaks specifically to phonemic awareness, please keep The Big 5 in mind when planning your literacy instruction.

- Phonemic Awareness - Phonics - Fluency - Vocabulary - Reading Comprehension

The following page is designed to be detached from this professional newsletter and passed along to parents.

Phonemic Awareness and your child

Phonemic awareness refers to a child’s ability to recognize and manipulate sounds in oral language. This includes your child’s ability to rhyme, break the sounds in words apart and blend sounds together to make a word.

Helping your child at home is as easy as child’s play!

Learning to read is a challenging task, but these research-based games can help build a solid foundation for your child in phonemic awareness. The following activities are oral games that are easy to play while in the car, on a walk or waiting for an appointment.

your child can match a peach with a pineapple (Neuman, 2004).

Keep in Mind

This is a variation on Sesame Street’s sketch that asks children to figure out which things belong together and what is not like the others. To play at home, tell your child three words: two that begin the same and one that does not. For instance, cat, cap, toad. When your child has mastered beginning sounds, try using this same technique with word families.

Then ask your child, “Which does not belong?

Why?” (Padak & Rasink, 2008)

Remember these are games and must be kept light-hearted. Keep the feeling fun and if your child reaches frustration, stop and try it in another way, on another day (Padak & Rasink, 2008).

Talk Like a Turtle To help your child hear that words are made up of separate sounds, practice saying a word very slowly. Your child will repeat the sounds, then blend them together and say the original word correctly. Next, ask your child to be the turtle and say a word slowly (segmenting the sounds). See if you can guess his/her word (Padak & Rasinski, 2008)!

Presto Chango Word families are groups of words that share the same ending sound; cat, bat, mat.

Think of several words within one word family.

Next you will ask your child to change the beginning sound of each word. For example, “Say the word cat. Now, say the word cat without the /c/. We’re left with /at/. Add /m/ and PRESTO CHANGO, what’s our new word”? (Padad & Rasinski, 2008)

Grocery Shopping Even when you are out and about, the opportunities for enhancing your child’s phonemic awareness skills are all around you!

The next time you are at the grocery store, help your child find items that begin with the same sound. For example, when in the produce section of your grocery store, see if

Not Like the Others

Rhyme Time The rhythm and rhyme of nursery rhymes and poems is an excellent start to your child’s phonemic awareness. Create a collection of poems, songs and nursery rhymes that your family enjoys and read from it often. As an extension, try writing a few rhyming lines about your family members (Rainski & Padak, 2008).

Clapping Words To help your child develop the ability to segment words into syllables, have your child practice giving one clap per syllable when saying a word. Start with your child saying his or her own name and then move on to other words. When this is mastered, ask your child to clap along the syllables to a short poem or song. To get moving even more, ask your child to stomp or jump to each syllable (Padak & Rasinski, 2008).

Keep in mind, you can always contact your child’s teacher for more assistance.

Remember, with parents and teachers working together, your child is on a winning team!

More Online: Between the Lions This link offers a plethora of activities and advice for all levels of readers.

Visit it to gather information or check it out with your child to play games and watch educational videos together.

Recommended Books Between the Lions also offers an excellent list of books. The list is divided into sections so after you have pinpointed a skill you would like to see your child improve upon, you can read a corresponding book. These are all well-known books that can be found at your local or school library.

Reading Rockets This website is an excellent resource for parents. Reading Rockets is a nonprofit association dedicated to helping parents and teachers build strong readers. Click the link above (title) to read an article on phonemic awareness in young children or just scroll through the many assets of the website.

Starfall.com Need an exceptional website for your child? Starfall.com offers activities for children of all ages and reading levels.

Non-readers are provided with letter introduction and letter-name activities, as well as rhyming and matching beginning sound games. They even have short films for children to watch, along with interactive books.

Webliography Starfall.com This site is quite popular among early childhood teachers. It offers multiple activities for a variety of reading levels. Resources include letter/sound identification games, interactive books, short films, matching beginning sound games and seasonal activities.

Between the Lions This site is hosted by PBS Kids and is an immeasurable asset to parents and teachers that are working to develop children’s phonemic awareness. They have games and video clips specifically geared toward rhyming, phoneme manipulation, segmenting and blending, onset and rime, along with reading and spelling. There is a division of the site that is specifically made for teachers which lists curriculum and resources.

This site should be bookmarked in every classroom computer!

Loosey Goosey Rhymes Learning and working with nursery rhymes can promotes great growth in a child’s phonemic awareness. Use this site to review and recite each nursery rhyme, then play along as Jay (the bird hosting the site) asks students to help put the beginning sound/letter back into each rhyme.

Bibliography Fitzpatrick, J. (1997). Phonemic awareness: playing with sounds to strengthen beginning reading skills. Huntington Beach, California: Creative Teaching Press This book should be on the shelf of every early childhood teacher!

Activities span from developing listening skills to rhyming to segmenting and blending. Each activity takes only a few minutes to implement with little to no prep time, yet the results are priceless. Buy it for that brand new kindergarten teacher in your building (or yourself)!

McCarthy, P.A. (2008). Using sound boxes systematically to develop phonemic awareness. The Reading Teacher, 62(4), pp. 346-349.

This is an excellent read for educators that are introducing segmenting or have students that need reinforcing activities. The author goes into great detail of how to use sound boxes to their maximum potential, as well as how to create different levels of difficulty (with a table that lists specific words to practice with students). McCarthy also lists specific instruction tips for novices.

McGee, L.M. & Ukrainetz, T.Z. (2009). Using scaffolding to teach phonemic awareness in preschool and kindergarten. The Reading Teacher, 62(7), pp. 599-603.

I would highly recommend this article for phonemic awareness instructors. It offers specific verbiage and strategies to help struggling students, along with ideas of differentiation.

Willoughby Wallaby and Down by the Bay

Padak, N. & Rasinski, T. (2008). The games children play. The Reading Teacher, 62(4), pp. 363-365.

Use these videos to inspire rhyming and phoneme manipulation.

The children will benefit from the visual aspect and enjoy the live music performance (recorded). Remember to extend this into your classroom by singing the songs and making them meaningful by including students’ names into your own verses.

This article is an excellent choice when preparing to meet with parents and inform them of how they can help at home. So many parents are under the impression that practice should involve stringent homework and frustration, but this text clearly shows parents how to enjoy working with their child on delightful and meaningful tasks.

Brandi the Teacher This is a clip of an exuberant kindergarten teacher. She clearly makes learning FUN and memorable! Watch as she connects her students phonemic awareness knowledge to print. Brandi does an excellent job of reminding children about phonemes that ‘stop and go’.

Segmenting and Blending This video shows a young child segmenting and blending sounds.

She has small toys to represent each word she segments, then blends.

You will also see her using Elkonin boxes, also known as sound boxes, to help differentiate the sounds in each word. What makes this clip quite interesting to watch is the fact that she is only two years old.

Image Sources Clip art free from internet. Photos from Apple, iWork - Pages application. Website pictures are from their respective sites.

Rasinski, T. & Padak, N. (2008). Beyond Stories. The Reading Teacher, 61(7), pp. 582-584.

A very quick read for ways parents can help take their child to the next level as a reader. Rasinski and Padak use practical applications of phonemic awareness and print that every parent can implement at home.

Yopp, H.K. & Yopp, R.H. (2000). Supporting phonemic awareness development in the classroom. The Reading Teacher, 54(2), pp.

130-143.

This text holds multiple activities for each stage in phonemic awareness. It even advises time frames, sequence of instruction and general tips for teachers working with young learners.

Zeece, P.D. (2006). Sound reading and reading sounds: The Case for phonemic awareness. Early Childhood Education Journal, 34(2), pp. 169-175.

A simple, yet comprehensive list of book recommendations. Each book is accompanied with a short paragraph describing it’s contents and organized by the phonemic awareness skill one is trying to promote.

Resources Allor, J.H., Gansle, K.A. & Denny, R.K. (2006). The Stop and go phonemic awareness game: Providing modeling, practice, and feedback. Preventing School Failure, 50(4), pp. 23-30.

Connell, D.B. (2008). Effects of rhyming, vocabulary and phonemic awareness instruction on phoneme awareness. Journal of Research in Reading, 31(2), pp. 243-256.

Gromko, J.E. (2005). The Effect of Music Instruction on Phonemic Awareness in Beginning Readers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 53(3), pp. 199-209.

Manyak, P.C. (2008). Phonemes in use: multiple activities for a critical process. The Reading Teacher, 61(8), pp. 659-662.

McGee, L.M. & Ukrainetz, T.Z. (2009). Using scaffolding to teach phonemic awareness in preschool and kindergarten. The Reading Teacher, 62(7), pp. 599-603.

Neuman, S. B. (2004, February/March). Hear, Hear!. Scholastic Parent & Child, p.22.

Padak, N. & Rasinski, T. (2008). The games children play. The Reading Teacher, 62(4), pp.

363-365.

Rasinski, T. & Padak, N. (2008). Beyond Stories. The Reading Teacher, 61(7), pp.

582-584.

Smith, J.A. & Read, S. (2008). Early Literacy Instruction: Teaching readers and writers in today’s primary classrooms (Ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson.

Yopp, H.K. & Yopp, R.H. (2000). Supporting phonemic awareness development in the classroom. The Reading Teacher, 54(2), pp. 130-143.