Scandinavian Design and its Philosophical Underpinnings to a Social Democracy

Æ Ä Ø ÅØ Æ Ö Ä Å Æ Ö Ä Ø Æ Ö Ä Å Ø Å Æ Ö ÄÖ Ø Å Æ Ä Ä Ø Å Æ Ö Ø Å Æ Ä SCANDINAVIAN DESIGN and its Philosophical Underpinnings to a Social Democracy

NICHOLAS TAM

SCANDINAVIAN DESIGN and its Philosophical Underpinnings to a Social Democracy

NICHOLAS TAM

Above: Rosenborg Slot drawn in situ on 27/06/2016.

Cover Illustration: Icons of the three lions, standing lion, and three crowns are featured prominently on the Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish coat of arms, respectively.

Copyright Š 2016 by Nicholas Tam All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the publisher except for the use of brief quotations in a book review or scholarly journal.

Drawings, photographs, and illustrations Š Nicholas Tam First Printing: 2016 ISBN 978-1-365-24111-6

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE NUMBER 0

PREFACE

00 01

20

40

60

1

SCANDINAVIA

5

02

SOCIAL DEMOCRACY

13

03

ETHNIC HOMOGENEITY

21

04

LINGUISTIC HOMOGENEITY

27

05 06 07 08 33

SOCIAL TRUST

37

SOCIAL COHESION

41

BLANDNESS DESIGN

0

20

40 PAGE NUMBER

45

60

VM HOUSES Bjarke Ingels Group

00

Modernism and principles of Functionalism came to prominence in Scandinavia during the early 20th century, becoming influential in shaping the distinct character of Scandinavian Design as we recognize today; simplistic, quality products which are mass produced and can be affordable by all. An understanding of the contextual forces reveals the relevance of culture in shaping design priorities and methodologies of any particular society during any particular era.

The following pages are the product of a month-long sabbatical in Copenhagen accompanied by travel around the Scandinavian region, academic research, and observations in an effort to understand the cultural subtleties of what makes Scandinavian Design ‘Scandinavian’. By examining the unique historical and political phenomena of Scandinavia, we gain a broader understanding of the rise of social democracy in the region and its pertinence to the philosophical underpinnings of a national design identity.

PREFACE

1|2

“All art is drawn towards, and finds its perfection in, the depiction of Mankind and all things human.�

Julius Lang Danish Art Historian

TURNING TORSO Santiago Calatrava Malmรถ, SE The tallest building in Scandinavia is based on the sculpture of a twisting human torso also by Calatrava.

PREFACE

3|4

MARMORBYEN Vilhelm Lauritzen Architects

01

Scandinavia is a region located in northern Europe which refers to the monarchist countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Finland and Iceland are often colloquially grouped amongst Scandinavia based on similar cultural characteristics and distinctiveness from the rest of continental Europe, though the most appropriate term to categorize all five countries would be ‘Nordic’. Strictly speaking, Scandinavians are of North Germanic heritage and Viking ancestry; historically referred to as Norsemen and were speakers of Old Norse, the root of modern day Scandinavian languages.

SCANDINAVIA

5|6

‘NORDIC’ COUNTRIES SHARE SIMILAR CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS AND A DISTINCTIVENESS FROM THE REST OF EUROPE. ICELAND

GREENLAND (Denmark)

NORWAY

SVALBARD (Norway) SWEDEN

FAROE ISLANDS (Denmark)

FINLAND

ÅLAND ISLANDS (Finland) DENMARK

‘SCANDINAVIA’ REFERS TO THE MONARCHIST NATIONS OF NORTH GERMANIC HERITAGE AND VIKING ANCESTRY.

NORWAY Cap.: Oslo Pop.: 5.0+ million Area: 385,178 km²

SWEDEN Cap.: Stockholm Pop.: 9.5+ million Area: 450,295 km²

DENMARK Cap.: Copenhagen Pop.: 5.6+ million Area: 42,925 km² SCANDINAVIA

7|8

The Viking Age (c. 800-c. 1050 AD) was characterized by the seafaring exploration and conquest of northern Europe by Norsemen. Violent raids were often carried out to expand land and bring back valuable resources, though some were reconnaissance missions in advance of territorial encroachment by southern empires. Viking expansion founded towns throughout Britannia and the Baltic coast which flourished in trade and craft. Indicators of their territorial presence were discovered through the locations of Rune stones: large stones engraved with the Viking alphabet, declaring continuity of the clan or family unity.

They were placed in areas of high visibility and often marked graves, providing us evidence of early Scandinavian social structures and values.

In the late 1800s, Danish folk culture heavily romanticized the Viking Age through literature and everyday objects to create a new source of national pride after the territorial loss of Norway and Southern Jutland (a continental region bordering Germany). As a result, the image of Vikings that we have today is a product of heavy marketing and satire.

JELLING MONUMENTS Jelling, DK Site of a historic Viking palisade containing a rune stone with the first written mention of ‘Denmark’.

SCANDINAVIA

9 | 10

“One indication of [Norwegians’ strong connection] to their landscape has been the remarkable success of two stupefyingly boring TV shows that aired in recent years. The first tracked the progress of a train from Oslo to Bergen through the mountains in real time for seven hours, with just a fixed camera mounted on the front of the train. […] The unprecedented viewing figures for this show encouraged the national broadcaster, NRK, to go a step further and broadcast a six-day, nonstop live transmission from a camera mounted on MS Nordnorge, one of Norway’s Hurtigruten “express” ferries, as it sailed from Bergen in the south, to Kirkenes, on the Russian border, in the north. […] The program became a massive viewing and cultural phenomenon, with half the population tuning in to watch. The Hurtigruten program was also streamed online and picked up 200,000 viewers in Denmark, as well as viewers in other countries around the world. It ended up being one of the most popular Norwegian television programs of all time, and all it was, was scenery…”

Michael Booth

Author of ‘The Almost Nearly Perfect People’

OSLO OPERAEN Snøhetta Oslo, NO The first opera house in the world where visitors can walk on the roof; it becomes public property and landscape linking the fjord to the city.

SCANDINAVIA

11 | 12

THE CRYSTAL Schmidt Hammer Lassen Architects

02

Social Democracy is the ruling governmental system currently in place throughout the Scandinavian countries; a political and economic system which implements socialist theories through democratic means. Socialism is primarily an economic system which aspires towards minimal class structure with equal access to social systems for all and the collective (or state) ownership of public property. It is a less extreme form of (though often confused with) Communism which strives to be classless, stateless, and abolishes all ownership of property.

The aim of a social democracy is to establish systems which allow citizens the freedom to choose their desired career in life without economic impedance being a factor or an outcome. Swedish historians Henrik Berggren and Lars Trägårdh write in their book ‘Är svensken människa?’ (Is The Swede a Human?) that the real aim of the Swedish state is to liberate their citizens from dependence on one another. The state intervenes only to embolden individuals towards autonomy and self-sufficiency; spouses need not rely on each other for financial support, nor should students rely on parents’ income to determine their quality of education.

SOCIAL DEMOCRACY

13 | 14

Scandinavian countries consistently rank atop indexes of happiness and quality of life, and are often praised for their relatively high income equality, large tax-financed welfare programs, low unemployment rates, and gender equality.

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) ‘Better Life’ index assesses comprehensive factors deemed essential to the quality of life. Norway claimed top ranking in 2016, though her Scandinavian neighbors aren’t far behind. According to the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA) in Great Britain, successful attributes of Scandinavian societies existed well before the implementation of social democracy.

BETTER LIFE INDEX OECD 2016

1 NORWAY

81.8

46.9% RENEWABLE ENERGY SATISFACTION WITH WATER QUALITY

FEELING SAFE WALKING ALONE AT NIGHT

LIFE EXPECTANCY

7.6

3.0% LONG WORK HOURS

LIFE SATISFACTION

1.02 COMMUNITY GENDER EQUALITY

1

QUALITY OF SUPPORT NETWORK

WORLD RANK

2 AUSTRALIA 3 DENMARK

80.4

24.4% RENEWABLE ENERGY SATISFACTION WITH WATER QUALITY

FEELING SAFE WALKING ALONE AT NIGHT

LIFE EXPECTANCY

7.5

2.2% LONG WORK HOURS

LIFE SATISFACTION

1.01 COMMUNITY GENDER EQUALITY

3

QUALITY OF SUPPORT NETWORK

WORLD RANK

4 SWITZERLAND 5 CANADA 6 SWEDEN

82.0

35.6% RENEWABLE ENERGY SATISFACTION WITH WATER QUALITY

FEELING SAFE WALKING ALONE AT NIGHT

LIFE EXPECTANCY

1.1% LONG WORK HOURS

1.02 COMMUNITY GENDER EQUALITY

7.3

LIFE SATISFACTION

6

QUALITY OF SUPPORT NETWORK

WORLD RANK

SOCIAL DEMOCRACY

15 | 16

Historically, Scandinavia had been relatively free of the feudal system which dominated the rest of Europe; society was egalitarian and land was largely owned by independent farmers (this meant that there was no need for labour or goods to be furnished to a lord). Individual responsibility and strong work ethic were necessary in the harsh agricultural conditions of the north, which was further incentivized with the prospect of fully owning the yields produced on private land. Conventional laws of economics suggest that higher taxes result in a lower incentive to produce. However, historic Nordic work ethic crucially explains the resistance of their economies against failure amid increasing taxation in the advent of a welfare state.

The 1930s marked the introduction of a large number of welfare reforms. By the 1960s, which economists view as the beginning of contemporary Scandinavian social democracy, welfare provision was made available for the entire population.

Policies were continually developed through the 1970s to increase taxes and fund large social programs during a period of industrial productivity (this also coincided with the introduction of women in the workforce). Vitally, the rise in taxation did not erode the traditionally strong Nordic work ethic and social capital. Instead, national programs lessened the effects of inequality (socioeconomic, gender, or otherwise) and the standard of living continued to rise. IEA studies today argue that increased tax burdens have stymied the growth of businesses since the first half of the 1900s, and caution the dangerous reliance of Nordic economies on a few large companies that were formed then (Maersk, Ikea, Volvo, Nokia, etc.). However, this effect is largely hidden from employment figures which have simply shifted from the private sector to the large public sector.

LEGEND:

DEVELOPMENT OF TAX TAKE SCANDINAVIA

PERCENT

YEAR

TITLE

YEAR 1955

1965

1975

1985

1995

2005

2015

TAX TAKE (% OF GDP)

50

25

DENMARK

0

YEAR 1955

1965

1975

1985

1995

2005

2015

TAX TAKE (% OF GDP)

50

25

NORWAY

0

YEAR 1955

1965

1975

1985

1995

2005

2015

TAX TAKE (% OF GDP)

50

25

0

SWEDEN SOCIAL DEMOCRACY

17 | 18

LEGEND:

TAX REVENUE GLOBAL RANKING

PERCENT

# TITLE

%

TAX REVENUE (% OF GDP) 0

50

1 DENMARK 2 SWEDEN 3 BELGIUM 4 CUBA 5 FRANCE 6 FINLAND 7 NORWAY 8 ITALY 9 AUSTRIA

0

100

49.0 45.8 45.4 44.8 44.6 43.6 43.6 43.5 43.4 50 TAX REVENUE (% OF GDP)

100

LEGEND:

PUBLIC SECTOR EMPLOYMENT GLOBAL RANKING

PERCENT

# TITLE

%

PUBLIC SECTOR EMPLOYMENT (% OF TOTAL EMPLOYMENT) 0

1 DENMARK 2 NORWAY

50

100

50

100

34.9 34.6 34.0 31.2 30.6 28.1 27.2 26.8 26.1

3 CZECH REPUBLIC 4 LATVIA 5 RUSSIA 6 SWEDEN 7 SLOVAKIA 8 HUNGARY 9 ESTONIA

0

PUBLIC SECTOR EMPLOYMENT (% OF TOTAL EMPLOYMENT)

SOCIAL DEMOCRACY

19 | 20

OSLO OPERAEN Snøhetta

03

Many observers attribute the success of the Nordic Model to ‘white homogeneity’ – a largely ethnically homogenous and white population; citing protectionist immigration policies and high levels of nationalism. Economists and social scientists from the Harvard Institute of Economic Research (HIER) aggregated data from multiple sources (censuses, encyclopaedias, studies, etc.) as a means of measuring ethnic fractionalization, or diversity. They found that Japan and the Koreas are the most homogenous countries in the world, perhaps as a result of aggressive racial politics. European countries follow closely, with Scandinavia towards the ‘more ethnically homogenous’ end of the European spectrum. The Americas are often diverse as these ‘New World’ countries have been historically open to immigration and with cases of intermingling between natives and nonnatives. African countries are the most diverse with Uganda at the top, followed

by Liberia. Part of this reason might be the continent’s colonial past; European powers engineering ethnic distinctions with little respect for the people who lived there.

While it may be presumptuous to describe Scandinavia as particularly exceptional towards issues of racism or nationalism, statistics confirm the high level of ethnic homogeneity which exists in the region. When ethnic homogeneity is taken into account with a relatively low national population, the ensuing sense of communal cooperation becomes a contributing factor to the success of social democracy in Scandinavia.

ETHNIC HOMOGENEITY

21 | 22

LEGEND:

ETHNIC HOMOGENEITY GLOBAL CONTEXT

LESS ETHNICALLY DIVERSE

MORE ETHNICALLY DIVERSE

JAPAN

KOREA

DENMARK

NORWAY

SWEDEN

USA

CANADA

LIBERIA

UGANDA

LEGEND:

ETHNIC HOMOGENEITY EUROPEAN CONTEXT

LESS ETHNICALLY DIVERSE

MORE ETHNICALLY DIVERSE

DENMARK

NORWAY

SWEDEN

FRANCE

ITALY

GERMANY

SPAIN

SWITZERLAND

BELGIUM

ETHNIC HOMOGENEITY

23 | 24

LEGEND:

POPULATION GLOBAL CONTEXT

TOP BAR REFERS TO TOP SCALE

TITLE

BOTTOM BAR REFERS TO BOTTOM SCALE

0

100

TOTAL POPULATION (MILLIONS)

200

300

USA

JAPAN

KOREA

UGANDA

CANADA

SWEDEN

DENMARK

NORWAY

LIBERIA

0

100

200 300 POPULATION DENSITY (PEOPLE PER SQUARE KM)

400

500

LEGEND:

POPULATION EUROPEAN CONTEXT

TOP BAR REFERS TO TOP SCALE

TITLE

BOTTOM BAR REFERS TO BOTTOM SCALE

0

100

TOTAL POPULATION (MILLIONS)

200

300

GERMANY

FRANCE

ITALY

SPAIN

BELGIUM

SWEDEN

SWITZERLAND

DENMARK

NORWAY

0

100

200 300 POPULATION DENSITY (PEOPLE PER SQUARE KM)

400

500

ETHNIC HOMOGENEITY

25 | 26

HORTEN HQ 3XN

04

If we compare the linguistic diversity index (the population of each language as a proportion of the total population) of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden with the previous benchmark countries, we find a low level of linguistic diversity, even amongst European counterparts. This means that the probability of two randomly chosen people sharing the same mother tongue is high, and that the total number of distinct languages is low. The HIER study concludes that variables of ethnic and linguistic homogeneity (and interestingly, not religion) are the most important determinants of political and economic success. Historical statistics show that ethnic and linguistic homogeneity is inversely proportional to ethnic conflict, exemplifying these forces as correlative to the social cohesion and political stability of Scandinavia.

LINGUISTIC HOMOGENEITY

27 | 28

LEGEND: HIGHEST DIVERSITY

0.0

LOWEST DIVERSITY

LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY INDEX

LINGUISTIC HOMOGENEITY GLOBAL CONTEXT

1.0

UGANDA 1.0

LIBERIA

0.927 0.898

CANADA

0.604

SWEDEN

0.5

DENMARK 0.346

NORWAY 0.226

JAPAN 0.089 0.073

KOREA

0.035 0.010

0.0

LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY INDEX

USA

LEGEND: HIGHEST DIVERSITY

0.0

LOWEST DIVERSITY

LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY INDEX

LINGUISTIC HOMOGENEITY EUROPEAN CONTEXT

1.0

BELGIUM

1.0

SWITZERLAND

ITALY

0.701

GERMANY

LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY INDEX

0.650

SPAIN

0.5

0.472

FRANCE

SWEDEN 0.310 0.276 0.242 0.226

DENMARK

0.089 0.073

NORWAY

0.0

LINGUISTIC HOMOGENEITY

29 | 30

An Irish historian by the name of James Beddy wrote a research paper in 1943 to explain how Denmark’s national income per capita had grown more than Ireland by almost 50%. At that particular time, social democrat policies were still in development so it couldn’t have explained all the differences. Natural factors vital to agricultural output such as average temperature, hours of sunshine, rainfall, quality of soil, and abundance of natural resources (coal/iron/water) all favoured Ireland. By all accounts, Ireland had every reason to succeed. However, Denmark boasted “…greater agricultural output, a more extensive industrial system, a larger foreign trade, a lower national debt, a higher national income and a better standard of living”. Beddy reached the conclusion that while Ireland was in a period rife with cultural and political division, stability allowed Denmark to implement different economic systems and benefit from current market forces.

While any economist would be hard pressed to find a definitive, singular sociological attribute that explains the success of Scandinavian political and economic policies, political stability fosters the implementation of stronger institutions and allows co-operative economic practices to flourish.

NYHAVN Copenhagen, DK A former commercial port which has become a popular destination for relaxing over food and beers outdoor.

LINGUISTIC HOMOGENEITY

31 | 32

MARITIME YOUTH HOUSE Bjarke Ingels Group

05

Social trust, a measurement of ‘how much do you think other people in your country can be trusted’ is a matrix which Scandinavian nations score particularly well in (this also extends to trust in their politicians). Reasons for this are multifold, with some harkening back to their Viking ancestry where the sense of community, social cohesion, cooperation, and a code of honour were vital in surviving the northern harshness.

Within a welfare state, the economic gap between the top and bottom of society is narrower; your neighbor has similar advantages as you, and has access to the same social programs or schools. The Gini coefficient measures income distribution within a nation and results show that similar incomes are earned between people of similar cultural backgrounds (hence the correlation with ethnic and linguistic homogeneity). When an entire nation views each other as neighbors whether literally or socio-economically, a greater sense of cultural cohesion is formed. In an OECD survey, Denmark expressed the highest level of trust in others, with Norway, Finland, and Sweden following closely behind in that order.

Mandag Morgen, a Danish think-tank, carried out a study and found that Danes also formed the largest social networks out of any nationality, where on average every citizen belonged to three (3) national associations or societies. Perhaps it is the willingness to establish community which fosters social trust, or that it is simpler to meet fellow countrymen in a low populated country; it is rumoured that Danes are separated by no more than three degrees of separation.

SOCIAL TRUST

33 | 34

“If you had to be reborn anywhere in the world as a person with average talents and income, you would want to be a Viking.�

The Economist Newspaper

SOCIAL TRUST “HOW MUCH DO YOU THINK OTHER PEOPLE IN YOUR COUNTRY CAN BE TRUSTED?”

1 DENMARK

88 PERCENT OF DANES EXPRESSING A HIGH LEVEL OF TRUST IN OTHERS

1

WORLD RANK

2 NORWAY 3 FINLAND 4 SWEDEN

SOCIAL TRUST

35 | 36

DEN BLÃ… PLANET 3XN

06

Aksel Sandemose was an author from the Danish town of Nykøbing who had been a fugitive throughout his life; escaping personal strife and the perils of World War II. Though he had written various works during journeys through Canada, Norway, and Sweden, they are seldom read these days. However, one book in particular titled ‘A Fugitive Crosses His Tracks’ (1933) came to prominence within Scandinavia. The novel is a portrayal of life in a small town named Jante, which is understood to be modelled after his hometown of Nykøbing. In this town, residents must abide by ten social rules so as not to be distinct from the collective; rules which came to be known as the ‘Law of Jante’.

Even though ‘A Fugitive Crosses His Tracks’ is satirical in nature, the social attitudes and behaviours in the fictional town of Jante resonated with Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes alike. Readers viewed this mentality of emphasizing social equality and collective success over celebrating individual achievement as quintessentially Scandinavian; attributes of a culture which illustrate why socialist policies work in Scandinavia. Fundamentals of Nordic culture such as a strong work ethic, cultural homogeneity, high levels of social trust, and social cohesion are integral to the political and economic success of social democracy. The government system alone does not beget success.

SOCIAL COHESION

37 | 38

AMALIENBORG Copenhagen, DK Changing of the guard at the royal palaces.

“You shall not believe that you are someone. You shall not believe that you are as good as we are.

You shall not believe that you are any wiser than we are. You shall never indulge in the conceit of imagining that you are better than we are. You shall not believe that you know more than we do. You shall not believe that you are more important than we are. You shall not believe that you are going to amount to anything. You shall not laugh at us. You shall not believe that anyone cares about you. You shall not believe that you can teach us anything.”

The Law of Jante

Excerpt from ‘A Fugitive Crosses His Tracks’

SOCIAL COHESION

39 | 40

UN CITY 3XN

07

A high-context culture describes one wherein people share similar experiences, expectations, backgrounds, and genetics as each other. In such cases, verbal communication requires fewer words as the understanding of similar situations and cultural context can be assumed. In low-context cultures, people from various ethnicities and nationalities with a multitude of backgrounds exist, so verbal communication requires more words to ensure that one is understood properly. Nordic countries are all relatively homogeneous, high-context cultures, so it is typical that one can more readily predict and interpret what another might be thinking or how they will react in a conversation. This leads to the tendency for fewer spoken words in conversation (the Finnish language, for example, doesn’t even contain prepositions, definite/indefinite articles, or gender nouns) which may be misconstrued for overt bluntness if in dialogue with a native English speaker.

BLANDNESS

41 | 42

The cultural uniformity throughout Scandinavia is not without popular criticism for its ‘blandness’. Most notably, the integration of new immigrants into the workforce has become problematic. Successful social programs for citizens lacked the structure to integrate those unaccustomed to the language or culture. This has resulted in rising levels of income inequality over the last few decades as increasing inflow of immigrants have become more dependent on the government for financial support. Even amongst native Scandinavians, signs of adaptation to generous welfare programs have been reflected in increased sick leave and disability insurance among the younger workforce. The IEA claims that twenty percent more of the younger generation take a sick leave day compared with those born twenty years before, which is resulting in political pressure to reform policies.

CENTRAL CITY Copenhagen, DK A view over the city from the Rundetaarn.

BLANDNESS

43 | 44

MOUNTAIN DWELLINGS Bjarke Ingels Group

08

Scandinavia is particularly scarce in expensive resources, but wood had always been abundant from nearby forests. Its use shaped a national tradition, becoming the most important building material for homes and furniture, as well as for heating. With the introduction of Modernism in the 1920s, design aesthetics leaned towards an industrial appeal and favoured the expression of steel. However, Danish architect and furniture designer Kaare Klint (1888-1954) strongly denounced abandoning previous experience and cabinet making tradition contrary to many modernists in Central Europe. As the first professor of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts Furniture School in Copenhagen, his pronounced attitude and educational methods in continuing traditional craftsmanship and cabinet making influenced a whole generation of Danish furniture designers.

DESIGN

45 | 46

In the period between the two World Wars, Danish architect Poul Henningsen (1894-1967) became a key figure as co-editor of the journal “Kritisk Revy”, where he would discuss how architecture and design could create a more ideal society.

Through this journal, Henningsen often attacked the application of ornamentation and luxurious materials in design, advocating instead for products that united beauty with practical usability. Norwegian architect Lars Backer (18761914), in his departure from Neoclassicism, had also been writing about the need for a new type of architecture. The designs of his latter buildings often credit him with introducing the International Style of architecture to Norway. Lars’ father Herman Major Backer, who was also an architect, was also an important figure in mediating Scandinavian tradition with Modernism as he sought to draw on historical styles while exploring possible ways of simplifying traditional Norwegian wooden architecture.

In 1930, a major exhibition in Stockholm presented a new vision of architecture to the public that was received with great enthusiasm; it was nicknamed ‘Funkis’, for Functionalism. With the rise of Functionalism coinciding with the mass introduction of government welfare reforms, the Danish cooperative chain of supermarkets Fællesforeningen for Danmarks Brugsforeninger (FDB) collaborated with modern architects and furniture designers to produce a range of inexpensive and quality furniture known as the ‘People’s Furniture’. These simple yet robust designs were sold at great success locally and exported abroad, spreading a breed of Functionalism which featured current modernist trends steeped in the Scandinavian tradition of wood craft.

ROYAL HOTEL Arne Jacobsen Copenhagen, DK The first ‘International Style’ skyscraper in the city and conceived as ‘Gesamtkunstwerk’ where all furnishings and gardens were also by Jacobsen.

DESIGN

47 | 48

PLYWOOD CHAIR Grete Jalk Laminated bent wood armchair produced by P. Jeppesen Furniture in 1963.

CYLINDA-LINE Arne Jacobsen A series of stainless steel tableware products characterized by the simplicity of cylindrical shapes.

DESIGN

49 | 50

With post-war industrialism and a rise in consumerism intensifying through the 1950s, increasing emphasis was placed on designing product packaging that stood out from the shelves. FDB’s marketing department partnered with graphic designers and artists in a large-scale campaign to create new visuals for products which reflected the realistic trends of local and international art, and eventually abstract ideas of Modernism. Whereas advertisements of past decades focused on presenting factual information, these new designs visualized a narrative about ‘quality utilitarian objects that anyone can afford’ with colour, symbols, and humour. The aesthetic appeal of FDB’s posters made its way into the homes and public institutions across Denmark, becoming the democratic alternative to hanging paintings.

The 1960s saw rise in tax driven policies to fund ever increasingly large social programs; an era which economists observe as the beginning of contemporary social democracy in Scandinavia. Existing cultural priorities such as equality, communal cooperation, and social cohesion were now further ingrained through formal policy. Architecture reflected these principles with the use of limited material palettes and the lack of building ornamentation; focusing instead on simple geometry to create functional spaces that integrate with communal outdoor areas. Principles of ‘Jante’s Law’ are also apparent in residential complexes as each home, whether located on the lowest or highest floor, are generally the same size and cost, receive the same architectural treatment, and have the same access to outdoor space (the concept of the ‘oversized penthouse suite’ is nonprevalent). Since displays of opulence within a socialist society are inherently perceived as gauche, the commercial success of industry became driven by functional design which focused on products of exquisite craftsmanship (for instance, the careful selection and preparation of wood), high perfection, and longevity. By the end of the decade, the concept of ‘Scandinavian Design’ had become a global success embodying lifestyle and welfare values in equal measure; characterized by the use of natural materials, simplicity, and uniformity in design.

DEN BLĂ… PLANET 3XN Copenhagen, DK This simple building form reveals intricacies of its construction upon approach of the cladding details.

DESIGN

51 | 52

M/S MARITIME MUSEUM Bjarke Ingels Group Helsingør, DK The importance of public spaces which support exhibitions are celebrated through the use of wood.

M/S MARITIME MUSEUM Bjarke Ingels Group Helsingør, DK The former dry dock is a communal space that is bound by the museum but freely accessible without.

DESIGN

53 | 54

OSLO OPERAEN Snøhetta Oslo, NO The embossed aluminum sheets are derived from old Norwegian weaving patterns.

OSLO OPERAEN Snøhetta Oslo, NO An oak wall follows the old Bjørvika shoreline and separates the art from public spaces.

DESIGN

55 | 56

MOUNTAIN DWELLINGS Bjarke Ingels Group Copenhagen, DK Each of the terraced homes are the same size and with a private garden and backyard; true Scandinavian socialist uniformity.

MOUNTAIN DWELLINGS Bjarke Ingels Group Copenhagen, DK Homes are afforded a view by being situated over an open air parking structure below.

DESIGN

57 | 58

8 TALLET Bjarke Ingels Group Copenhagen, DK A public path winds from the outside of the housing block through the interior courtyards, bringing communal life to the front gardens of terraced homes.

8 TALLET Bjarke Ingels Group Copenhagen, DK The unencumbered path connecting the street with front doors of upper-level homes embodies Scandinavian social cohesion and trust.

DESIGN

59 | 60

PRINT REFERENCES Alberto Alesina, Arnaud Devleeschauwer, William Easterly, Sergio Kurlat and Romain Wacziarg.

“Fractionalization.” Harvard Institute of Economic Research. Discussion Paper Number 1959, Harvard University, 2002.

BIG A/S. Yes is More. An Archicomic on Architectural Evolution. Köln: Evergreen GmbH, 2009.

Booth, Michael. The Almost Nearly Perfect People: Behind the Myth of the Scandinavian Utopia. New York: Picador, 2016.

The Department of Marketing and Communication. Operaen: The Opera House. Oslo: The Norwegian National Opera & Ballet, 2010.

Fisher, Max. “A Revealing Map of the World’s Most and Least Ethnically Diverse Countries.” The Washington Post, May 16, 2013.

Heller, Nathan. “Northern Lights.” New Yorker, February 16, 2015.

Sanandaji, Nima. Scandinavian Unexceptionalism. London: The Institute of Economic Affairs, 2015.

Stahl, Rune Møller & Andreas Møller Mulvad. “What Makes Scandinavia Different?” Jacobin, August 4, 2015.

WEB REFERENCES Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Scandinavia.” Last Modified 2016. http://www.britannica.com/place/Scandinavia.

Ethnologue: Languages of the World. “Summary by Country.” Last Modified 2016. http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/country.

OECD Better Life Index. “How’s Life?” Last Modified 2016. http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/.

OECD Government at a Glance 2015. “Employment in the Public Sector” Last Modified 2015. http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/.

The World Bank. “Data.” Last Modified 2016. http://data.worldbank.org.

MUSEUM REFERENCES Wall texts, Danish Prehistory 13,000BC-1050AD, The National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Wall texts, Stories of Denmark 1660-2000, The National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Wall texts and object labels, Home of the Viking Kings, Kongernes Jelling, Jelling, Denmark.

Wall texts and object labels, Learning from Japan, Design Museum Danmark, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Wall texts and object labels, Design and Crafts of the 20th Century, Design Museum Danmark, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Wall texts and object labels, Building Ideas, The National Museum - Architecture, Oslo, Norway.

Wall text, Architect Lars Backer, The National Museum - Architecture, Oslo, Norway.

Nicholas Tam spent much of his childhood drawing cross sections of imaginative machines, scale comparisons of animals, or assembling cityscapes out of tissue boxes and paper towel tubes. This penchant for drawing and craft led to a Bachelor of Architecture from the University of Southern California, where he was awarded multiple design studio commendations and the opportunity to study at the Politecnico di Milano; immersing himself in classical Roman architecture, Italian literature, and field studies throughout Italy, Switzerland, and France. He developed a keen interest in traveling to experience architecture around the world and a passion for field sketching; broadening his understanding of cultures and the pertinence of societal context to design philosophy. Nicholas is a Registered Architect with the Alberta Association of Architects and a member of the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada. He currently lives and practices in Canada.

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ISBN 978-1-365-24111-6

90000

9 781365 241116