AUR 55 01 by NTEU

vol. 55, no. 1, 2013 Published by NTEU

ISSN 0818–8068

AUR

Australian Universities’Review

AUR Editor Dr Ian R Dobson, University of Ballarat/Monash University

AUR Editorial Board Jeannie Rea, NTEU National President Professor Timo Aarrevaara, University of Helsinki Professor Walter Bloom, Murdoch University Dr Anita Devos, Monash University Dr Jamie Doughney, Victoria University Professor Leo Goedegebuure, University of Melbourne Professor Ralph Hall, University of New South Wales Professor Dr Simon Marginson, University of Melbourne Mr Grahame McCulloch, NTEU General Secretary Dr Alex Millmow, University of Ballarat Dr Neil Mudford, UNSW@ADFA Professor Paul Rodan, Swinburne University of Technology Dr Leesa Wheelahan, University of Melbourne

Production Design & layout: Paul Clifton Editorial support: Anastasia Kotaidis, Adrienne Bradley

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Book Reviews

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Markwell, D. (2007). The challenge of student engagement. http://www.catl.uwa.edu.au/__data/page/95565/Student_ engagement_-_Don_Markwell_-_30_Jan_2007.pdf For URLs, do not include retrieval dates unless the source material may change over time (e.g. wikis). Sub-headings should be typed in lower case, ranged left, with relative importance indicated by A, B etc.

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Gall, M., Gall, J. & Borg, W. (2003). Education Research: An introduction (7th ed.). Allyn and Bacon, New York For a journal reference: King, D.A. (2004). What different countries get for their research spending. Nature 430, pp. 311-316. For a reference to a chapter in a collection: McCollow, J. & Knight, J. (2005). Higher Education in Australia: An Historical Overview, in M. Bella, J. McCollow & J. Knight (eds), Higher Education in Transition, University of Queensland, Brisbane.

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vol. 55, no. 1, 2013 Published by NTEU

ISSN 0818–8068

Australian Universities’ Review 3

Letter from the editor Ian R. Dobson

Letters to the editor

ARTICLES 7

Professional staff contributions to positive student outcomes: a case study

51 Crossing the line: Collusion or collaboration in university group work? Wendy Sutherland-Smith

Collusion is a perplexing area of academic integrity. This paper discusses the tension between ‘collaboration’ and ‘collusion’ in group-work and the consequences for crossing the line. 59 Strategic Avoidance: Can universities learn from other sectors?

Carroll Graham

Greg Kerr & Peter Hosie

Although professional staff comprise more than half the Australian higher education workforce, typically research has concentrated on the work of academic staff. This paper explores the work of professional staff in relation to student outcomes.

In an environment of increasing uncertainty, sound strategic planning is important. Universities can learn from mistakes made in other sectors – ‘strategic avoidance’. To defend this approach, potential lessons which could be learnt are provided.

17 Combining academia and activism: common obstacles and useful tools Michael Flood, Brian Martin & Tanja Dreher

Academics who engage in activism face a series of challenges and obstacles, including attacks, threats to security and advancement, output expectations, disciplinary pressures, epistemological expectations and peer influences. Practical means – a toolkit of strategies – can be used to overcome or mitigate these obstacles. 27 Australian higher education and the Course Experience Questionnaire: insights, implications and recommendations. Joy Talukdar, Tania Aspland & Poulomee Datta

The Course Experience Questionnaire provides a valuable source of data about student satisfaction regarding the courses that they study at Australian universities. The data have become increasingly important in institutional performance evaluation, however, not without controversies. 36 International physics research internships in an Australian university Serene Hyun-Jin Choi, Timo A. Nieminen, G. Maucort, Y. X. Gong, C. Bartylla & M. Persson

This article explores international physics research internships in Australia, focusing on the academic learning experiences, by interviewing four international research interns in a research-driven Australian university. 44 Australian higher education: regional universities under a Coalition Government Dominic O’Sullivan

The Liberal Party has outlined a vision for Australian higher education which contemplates the closure of some regional universities and the diminution in status of others to teachingonly institutions. However, these policy proposals are likely to be countered by political and economic considerations that make them unlikely to succeed.

OPINION 66 Dear Grant Applicant Karina Luzia

A letter of support and advice from your grant application reader and committee member. 69 Unhinged university Andee Jones

The higher echelons of higher education are talking Newspeak. The late Hazel Rowley (1996), eminent biographer and academic, put it another way: ‘Never has there been so much talk of “excellence” and “quality assurance” and never before ... so little concern for either’. 72 Grants are not research outputs Lee Naish

One particular criticism of the ERA was that inputs to research (namely, grants) are counted as outputs of research (in the same class as journal publications). Some of the negative consequences of this are examined in more detail and a solution is proposed. 74 Response to Petersen on ‘Staying or going?’ – Australian early career researchers’ narratives William Boyd & Louise Horstmanshof

A response to Eva Bendix Petersen’s commentary on ‘Australian early career researchers’ narratives of academic work, exit options and coping strategies’, published in AUR 53(2). 80 Maintaining a ‘Digital Profile’ under Web 2.0 Martin Davies, Mark Eggins & Mark King

Academia is having to adapt to the digital publishing environment. This involves a subtle, but inexorable, shift from ivory tower to public scholarship, third to first person perspectives, Harvard to hyperlink referencing. 83 Onward to a new era of excellence Richard Hil

A New Year message to all at Crumblefast University by ViceChancellor Professor James Duckmore.

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REVIEWS 85 It’s time! Gough Whitlam His Time, The Biography Volume II by Jenny Hocking Review by Paul Rodan

87 Allons enfants… Franco-British Academic Partnerships: The Next Chapter by Maurice Fraser & Philippe Lane (eds.) Review by Richard Winter

88 Back to the future IV? Managing the Future: A guide to forecasting and strategic planning in the 21st century by Stephen M. Millett Review by Maree Conway

91 A-one, a-two, a-one, two, three, four… Managing Effective Relationships in Education by Carol Cardno Review by Andrys Onsman

92 The law and the profits? Privatising the Public University; The Case of Law by Margaret Thornton Review by Jeffrey Goldsworthy

95 Elementary thought The 5 Elements of Effective Thinking by Edward B. Burger & Michael Starbird Review by Andrys Onsman

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Letter from the editor Ian R. Dobson

Welcome to 2013 from the AUR editorial board and pro-

the Opposition spokesperson on higher education. The

duction team. This issue presents several scholarly offer-

vision of Australian higher education outlined includes

ings, some opinion (also scholarly, but you know what

contemplation of the closure of some regional universi-

I mean), a couple of letters to the editor, and reviews

ties and the diminution in status of others to teaching-

of several recently-published books. Please let me whet

only institutions. However, O’Sullivan believes that the

your appetite.

spokesperson’s views ‘are likely to be countered by politi-

Carroll Graham is undertaking doctoral studies, and in fact has nearly finished them. She is one of an increasing

cal and economic considerations that make them unlikely to succeed’.

number of what some university and bureaucratic phil-

Wendy Sutherland-Smith writes about the potentially

istines still refer to as ‘non-academic’ staff to do so. She

fine line differentiating collusion from collaboration in

is one of those professional staff increasingly involved in

university group work. As she notes, most people strug-

researching the working lives of professional staff. In this

gle to identify where collaboration stops and where col-

paper she adds to the understanding of the work of the

lusion begins.Through interviews with students accused

contributions of professional staff, specifically in relation

of collusion, Sutherland-Smith finds that the main lesson

to student outcomes.

learnt by students is a negative attitude towards collabo-

Michael Flood and his colleagues examine the other side of the university staff binary divide by looking at

rative tasks.This sounds like a problem universities need to fix.

academic work and activism. They outline many of the

What can universities learn from other sectors of the

common obstacles and suggest useful tools for combat-

economy and society? Greg Kerr and Peter Hosie ponder

ting these obstacles.

this question, and provide us suggestions relating to cross-

Universities are predominantly about students (or at

sector comparisons.This paper might be the first to intro-

least they should be!), and Joy Talukdar, Tania Aspland

duce you to ‘strategic pursuit’ and ‘strategic avoidance’,

and Poulomee Datta provide a detailed consideration of

two approaches that might assist universities.

aspects of the Australian Course Experience Question-

And so onto our highly opinionated readership! We

naire (CEQ). This is how students rate their teachers, but

start with a letter of sorts to that hardy breed: the grant

you all knew that. Here the authors provide insights into

applicant. Karina Luzia appreciates your efforts, even if

the CEQ, and discuss its implications.

many don’t. Then, following on from her ‘Uncapped Uni-

Serene Hyun-Jin Choi and colleagues present a case in

versity’ in AUR, 54(2), Andee Jones’ piece in this issue is

support of international physics research internships as

‘Unhinged University.’ Where could this lead? Madding

providing one way for students to gain ‘a broad range of

University? In any case, this piece produced more words

research experience in a variety of research environments,

not admired by Microsoft Word, and squiggly red lines,

and develop international contacts’.They examine explore

than most text does, but it is with a purpose. Is Orwell

international physics research internships through inter-

coming to town?

views with former incumbents, and come up with practical suggestions on how better to support students.

Perhaps Andee Jones responded to herself, but other authors in this issue wrote following papers published

Dominic O’Sullivan works for a regional university, and

last year. Lee Naish reminds us of something that escaped

presents a case in their defence, in light of comments by

the attention of the Australian Research Council and

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Letter from the editor, Ian R. Dobson

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various other tape measure-totin’ Canberra bureaucrats:

Ever-ready social commentator Richard Hil is back on

grants are not research outputs. In this, he builds on Brian

the job. So well-connected is Dr Hil, that he has been able

Martin’s paper in 2011, and suggests that research activ-

to provide us with the New Year inspirational message

ity should be measured directly rather than indirectly. Bill

from Professor James Duckmore, VC of Crumblefast Uni-

Boyd and Louise Horstmanshof respond to another paper

versity. Apart from the book reviews, these Hil-considered

run last year, on early career researchers (Petersen, AUR

comments provide us with the last word for this issue of

53(2), 2011). It’s all in the mentoring, they tell us!

Australian Universities’ Review.

Martin Davies, Mark Eggins & Mark King explain how

Finally, could I acknowledge the hard work of many

we can establish and maintain a ‘Digital Profile’ in the

people that goes into getting AUR onto the street and

brave new world of Australian academia. Digitally speak-

internet. Without the editorial board, the production

ing, this paper takes us beyond the traditional two-fin-

team, the authors, the paper referees and book reviewers,

gered digital salute presented to Canberra and elsewhere

it would not be possible to get AUR to press. My thanks

and instead takes us along the path of ‘modern’ tech-

to you all.

nology. Am I the last person in Australia not to have a Facebook account, or that understands tweeting and

Ian Dobson is an Honorary Senior Research Fellow at Uni-

twittering as something heard at dawn and dusk from

versity of Ballarat and Adjunct Professional Staff Member at

our feathered friends?

Monash University, VIC, Australia, and editor of AUR.

Letter from the editor, Ian R. Dobson

vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

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Letters to the editor Dear Editor,

academics serving as honorary staff with two important

Jim McGrath’s review of the Monash University history

qualities: deep factual knowledge in their discipline area

‘University Unlimited’ (AUR, 54:2) raises interesting ques-

and (importantly) time to read manuscripts. They might

tions about accuracy and attention to detail in contempo-

just do a better job than ‘expert’ panels of people who are

rary scholarly work.

just too busy with their ‘real’ work. And, unless I am badly

McGrath highlights the case of confusion over the name

mistaken, most would enjoy the task and undertake it for

of a general staff appraisal scheme, the authors wrongly

nothing more than a copy of the book and/or a bottle of

concluding that the ‘Hay’ in question was the local deputy

drinkable red!

vice-chancellor instead of a US-based management firm.

Over to you, authors and publishers.

Unfortunately, the authors had gathered this impression from sole reliance on an uninformed member of a faculty

Paul Rodan

where the scheme was especially unpopular. Elsewhere, a

Swinburne University of Technology

dean is alleged to have left the country permanently when

Member, Editorial Board, AUR

in fact he subsequently returned to a deputy vice-chancellor role at another Australian university. Outdated administrative titles are employed and some staff members with doctorates are accorded their honorifics; others are not.

Dear Editor,

No-one pretends that authors can know everything nor

I found Tony Aspromourgos’ contribution ‘The manage-

be across every point of detail in producing this sort of

rialist university: an economic interpretation’ (AUR 54(2),

work. Given this, the process of reading, vetting, checking

44-49) both perceptive and valuable. However, I think it

and editing becomes critical, and it is here that it seems to

comes to an overly ‘optimistic’ conclusion about the lack

me that authors are being poorly served–possibly by their

of competition between Australian universities facilitating

own doing; possibly by that of the publisher. In the case of

a continuing decline in standards.

the Monash history, the authors had access to a manage-

This is due to a premise I consider to be one of the

ment committee which seemed superficially to provide

symptoms of managerialism, the assumption that univer-

sufficient breadth to be able to correct errors, but clearly

sity students are ‘consumers’ of a ‘product’ provided by

no-one in the group knew their Hay from their Chaff.

universities.

Problems of factual accuracy now occur in too many of

While this is one basis from which to make an eco-

the books I read and review. Invariably, claims are made

nomic analysis of the higher education market, an alterna-

that manuscripts have been read by discipline experts,

tive economic conception is one in which students are

but erring on the side of charity, I can only conclude that

not the consumers, but are themselves the product. It

these ‘experts’ must have more expertise at ‘big picture’

then becomes evident that the majority of Australian uni-

level than they do at the level of factual detail. And, what

versities are overwhelmingly dependent on a single cus-

can excuse a surname being spelt two different ways

tomer, the Commonwealth Government, which funds the

in the same paragraph–something I have encountered

sector in order to produce skilled citizens for the nation’s

recently in two books by the same publisher. The only

requirements.

reasonable conclusion is that proofing must be close to non-existent.

Ultimately the actions of this dominant customer will depend on all of us, acting collectively through our

There is an easy and inexpensive partial solution. Our

elected representatives. In aggregate we are relatively

universities now contain a growing number of retired

well-informed and cost conscious. Just as if we were

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buying beer, we taxpayers will seek to buy the best product at the best price for each application of higher education for which we see a collective need. If the Australian product becomes uncompetitive in terms of cost or quality, this means we will buy the imported product. A hundred years ago, we imported most of our professionals, and sent most of our bright researchers overseas to carry out their research. We still do this to a large extent today.As a relatively small country remote from the world’s main centres of economic and intellectual activity, this was (and is) a perfectly rational course of action. As a nation we might well decide that it would be cheaper to train our professionals overseas; that we would be better off just using the results of research carried out overseas rather than funding it ourselves; and that we could achieve mass tertiary education most efficiently through overseas-based online institutions. I think a costbenefit analysis based purely on economic arguments would support this decision. And if the behaviour of universities has for a generation actively undercut the noneconomic arguments for their existence, this decision will be nigh-impossible to challenge. Australian universities do not form a closed system which can gracefully decline until graduates see no relative benefit in obtaining a degree. The services we provide to the nation are part of a competitive globalised economy.They can be sourced elsewhere.Thus, if we continue along our current path, it is entirely possible that the managerialist mind-set will see the entire Australian higher education sector ‘managed’ into irrelevance. Yours sincerely, Dr Chris Fellows School of Science and Technology The University of New England NSW 2351

Letters to the editor are gratefully accepted. Please send your letters via email to editor@aur.org.au

Letters to the editor

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Professional staff contributions to positive student outcomes A case study Carroll Graham University of Technology, Sydney

Although professional staff comprise more than half the Australian higher education workforce, typically research has concentrated on the work of academic staff. Professional staff are increasingly researching the working lives of professional staff, adding to the understanding of the work of professional staff and the contributions they make towards the strategic goals of their institutions. This paper explores the work of professional staff in relation to student outcomes and is part of on-going doctoral research into the work of professional staff at an Australian university. Following a preliminary framing study, a case study was undertaken using semi-structured interviews with a range of professional staff. Emerging from these interviews is a conceptualisation of the work of professional staff in relation to student outcomes, from the perspectives of professional staff themselves. This paper concludes with proposals to improve the outcomes for students, and improve the working lives of both professional and academic staff.

Introduction

2000; Anderson, Johnson & Saha, 2002; Macfarlane, 2010), academics have written little about the work of profes-

What I love is that the work you do in universities just has such profound impact for the rest of the students’ lives (Participant 3).

sional staff. This lack of research by academics into the

For more than two decades, professional staff – variously

the most’ (Pitman, 2000, p. 166). In counterbalance to this

known as general staff, administrative staff, non-academic

proclivity, over the past decade there has been a growing

staff, among other labels (Graham, 2012) – have com-

body of literature written by professional staff, and former

prised over half the workforce in Australian universities

professional staff, about the work and changing identi-

(aggregated data from Department of Education, Employ-

ties of professional staff in universities, both in Australia

ment and Workplace Relations [DEEWR], 2012b), and

and overseas (for example: Conway, 2000; Szekeres, 2004;

the responsibilities undertaken by this group of staff

Dobson, 2005; Whitchurch, 2006, 2010; Small, 2008; Szek-

are diverse, comprehensive and considerable. Although

eres, 2011). Nevertheless, gaps in this research persist, and

significant research has been undertaken by academ-

a full understanding of the work and identities of profes-

ics into the changing nature of universities, academic

sional staff is yet to be elicited.

work and identities of professional staff is not surprising, since academics ‘focus on the areas that concern them

work and academic identities (for example: Adams, 1998;

Given the large proportion of university staff com-

Henkel, 2000; Marginson, 2000; Marginson & Considine,

prised by professional staff, understanding the contribu-

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Professional staff contributions to positive student outcomes, Carroll Graham

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tions of these staff to the strategic goals of universities is

Building on the earlier study (Graham, 2010), it was rec-

vital to the effectiveness of these institutions. Although

ognised that there would be value in interviewing expe-

universities have developed a broader agenda over the

rienced professional staff, and purposive and snowball

last decade, with increasing focus on external engage-

sampling were used to identify participants who had at

ment, education (learning and teaching) and research

least three years’ experience in higher education. Four-

remain as two key components of core business for uni-

teen interviews were conducted, which is consistent with

versities (Shattock, 2010), and are fundamental to the

achieving theoretical saturation for a relatively homoge-

strategic goals of their institutions. While the contribu-

neous purposive sample (Guest, Bunce & Johnson, 2006).

tions of professional staff to research, through research

The gender distribution among the participants was simi-

management and administration, have been studied

lar to the overall gender distribution across UTS, as was

(Allen-Collinson, 2004, 2006, 2007; Sebalj & Holbrook,

the length of service at UTS. The participants’ experience

2006, 2009), there has been little research into the con-

in higher education ranged from 3 to 24 years, with an

tributions that professional staff make to learning and

average of 10 years. Participants were drawn from 12 work

teaching. Aiming to help fill this gap, this paper arises

units: nine were various central services, while three were

from a case study that is investigating the work of profes-

different faculty or school units. Participants worked in

sional staff in the context of learning and teaching (see

positions ranging from Higher Education Worker (HEW)

also: Graham, 2012, 2013).

Level 5 to above Level 10, with the median being Level 7. The HEW levels refer to the classification structure for

Methodology

professional staff in Australian universities ranging from HEW 1, which is the lowest level and is rarely used, to

As part of on-going doctoral research, this case study aims

HEW10+, which includes directors and managers. Six of

to investigate how professional staff contribute to stu-

the 14 participants had completed a postgraduate course-

dent outcomes, from the perspectives of the staff them-

work programme, four at Master’s degree level, and four

selves. This research used, as a starting point, a review of

staff were currently studying.

146 international studies that derived 13 propositions

Semi-structured interviews were conducted over a sev-

for behaviours of student support that were found to

enteen-month period between April 2010 and September

enhance student outcomes in terms of ‘retention, persis-

2011.Analysis of the data was informed by earlier findings

tence and achievement’ (Prebble et al., 2004, p. ix). The

(Graham, 2010) and used first cycle descriptive coding

Prebble Propositions and findings from a preliminary

as well as structural coding (Saldaña, 2009) based on the

study (Graham, 2010) provided a framework for the case

13 Prebble Propositions for student support (Prebble et

study, which aims to elicit a thick description of the work

al., 2004). This allowed identification of key themes, for

of professional staff in relation to student outcomes.

comparison with the earlier study, and subsequent second

Using a single site, chosen for both logistical (Daymon

cycle coding provided elaboration of these themes.

& Holloway, 2002) and representative reasons (Yin, 2009), this study focuses on a single Australian university, the

Key findings and discussion

University of Technology, Sydney (UTS). This approach is particularly apposite as this study is part of a professional

Applying the Prebble Propositions framework across

doctorate with three main audiences – the academe,

the case study, the contributions of professional staff to

the profession and the workplace (Lee, Green & Bren-

student outcomes were found to be most significant in

nan, 2000) – and as such it is appropriate to locate the

ensuring ‘behaviours, environments and processes are

research within the context of one workplace, thereby

welcoming and efficient’ (Prebble et al., 2004, pp. 56-58),

being an intrinsic case study (Stake, 1995). In addition, its

which was consistent with the results from the earlier

characteristics of provenance, location, size and student

study (Graham, 2010). There is a wide range of factors,

diversity makes UTS representative of Australian univer-

with positive or negative effects on student outcomes,

sities. Nevertheless, it is not intended to generalise from

which are reflected in these behaviours, environments

these findings. Rather, this case study is descriptive as it

and processes (Prebble et al., 2004).These factors include

identifies and describes (Yin, 2009) behaviours exhibited

aspects such as enrolment and general administration pro-

by professional staff that contribute to student outcomes.

cesses, course selection and timetabling, and provision of

Being both descriptive and intrinsic, this study may pro-

advice that is timely and appropriate. In exploring this

vide insights into situations in other institutions.

theme in the data, four key sub-themes emerged, which

Professional staff contributions to positive student outcomes, Carroll Graham

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elaborate the proposition: technology; knowledge (that

without adequate training or support. Other participants

of the participant and colleagues); helpful colleagues and

found ways around limitations imposed by technology,

supportive supervisors or managers; and the associated

while nevertheless feeling frustrated with this situation.

job satisfaction.These sub-themes are discussed below.

Many of the participants articulated the fact that new technologies change the ways that work is completed

Technology

and some technologies, such as email, are now ubiquitous.

‘Technology is here to stay – it leaves a lasting impact on each of our lives and is a core requirement in today’s working world’ (Wilen-Daugenti, 2009, p. 2). Wilen-Daugenti (2009) describes three aspects of the impacts of technology on higher education: the continual development of new technologies; the increased use of technology; and changes to learning environments that are facilitated by technology.This case study found indicators for all three aspects in the participants’ interviews. This paper considers the first two aspects, describing changes to technology and the increased use of technology that are supported by professional staff, while the substantial and significant contributions by professional staff to learning environments found in this study was the subject of an earlier paper (Graham, 2012).

When I came, computers still had floppy disks, so that’s obviously changed a lot. Everything has removable hard drives now and USB keys. Laptops, you needed a trolley to drag them around when I first came, but now they’re so small and light (Participant 9). We help people fix wireless problems, which can take a couple of hours each time, sometimes. We’re not supposed to; when the wireless network was rolled out, about three or four years ago, we weren’t given any extra staff to handle that, or even much training, or really any training (Participant 4). In terms of tools and things, it’s just the usual – we live via email now, and that’s the way it works. I remember before email, but only just (Participant 3). Perhaps even more than the changes in operational technology, changes in technology that support student

Participants in this study described changes to technol-

learning have impacted on the work of professional staff.

ogy, and their use of this technology, which can be framed

Changes in general learning technology, such as the intro-

in two different contexts: operational activities; and sup-

duction of or changes to learning management systems,

port for student learning. In both contexts, participants

affect the whole student population, while specialised

described considerable changes in the use and functional-

technology, including some course-related technology,

ity of technology-based systems, which have direct impacts

affects specific groups of students. Whether for particu-

on their working lives and on student outcomes. For exam-

lar groups or whole student populations, the knowledge

ple, one participant described changes in operational tech-

and skills of professional staff in relation to learning tech-

nology that had occurred during a period of parental leave:

nologies have become essential to effective teaching and

I used to have access and do things with Curriculum And Student System, which I can’t do at the moment because I haven’t been to training and been refreshed. I’m finding [the changes relate] mainly [to] technology – it’s obvious it changes (Participant 5).

learning within universities. This is of growing importance due to the increasing number of students and the widening diversity of the student population. With the massification of Australian higher education over the last 25 years, have come large increases in both

This participant had returned to part-time work, after

the numbers and diversity of students enrolled in Austral-

two years’ parental leave. As a result of changes in tech-

ian universities (Graham, 2012).This trend is likely to con-

nology, the participant was prevented from using systems

tinue, due to the widening participation targets for a wide

that had previously been accessible, as training for the

range of disadvantaged groups. These changes will have

new systems was required before access would be made

a direct and considerable impact on the work of profes-

available. As a part-time employee, it was particularly dif-

sional staff. For example, the number of students with spe-

ficult to schedule training between other responsibilities.

cial needs has increased significantly over the last decade,

While the length of absence and the return to less than

more than doubling in Australia between 2000 and 2010,

full-time work exacerbated the impact on this participant,

and increasing in proportion from three per cent of the

this account exemplifies the experiences of other partici-

domestic student population to 4.5 per cent (aggregated

pants who also described significant changes in technol-

data from Department of Education, Employment and

ogy that had consequences for their work activities.

Workplace Relations [DEEWR], 2012a). Learning out-

Participants in the study acknowledged that changes

comes for these students are supported by professional

in operational technology had impacted on their work-

staff who use assistive and adaptive technology to facili-

ing practices. For some, new activities were undertaken

tate the students’ learning. Furthermore, while the propor-

vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

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tion of students with special needs in Australian higher

now extensive digital collections of peer-reviewed jour-

education is small, and seems under-reported compared

nals available through university libraries, as well as course

with rates in North America (Heiman & Shemesh, 2012),

material that may be either open access or accessible via

assistive and adaptive technology primarily intended for

restricted-access learning management systems (Wilen,

students with special needs can be used as learning tools

2009). Yet while the current generation of students has

for the general student population (Ash, 2011).

grown up with a wide range of ever-changing technology,

Technology changes for students [with special needs], and so we’ve had to do a lot of groundwork, and working with other areas of the uni, to make sure materials are accessible for students. For example, students who have a print disability . . . we get their materials put into electronic format so they can access them with technology . . . It’s quite a big service and system now, rather than us just running around trying to do things in a non-systematic way. We have also had a lot of student growth over that time, so all of our services have had to develop to cater for larger numbers of students, so just setting up those kind of processes and things has been interesting (Participant 8). Online systems have become key tools in learning, for both content distribution and to address different learning needs (Lin, 2009; Wilen-Daugenti, 2009; Petreski et al., 2011). As new technologies are introduced into

and have been characterised as ‘digital natives’ (for example, Prensky, 2001, p. 1), more recent critical reviews question the technology and information literacy abilities of these students (Bennett, Maton & Kervin, 2008; Kennedy, Krause, Judd, Churchward & Gray, 2008). Indeed, in order to address the perceived gap in information literacy skills, professional staff are engaged in supporting and developing these skills in students. I guess at the research help desk [in the library] the technology is extremely important. A lot of the times, the students [are] coming for the resources. We have a department here called information resources and we liaise with them, saying ‘the law students are looking for books in this area’, or ‘they need more statistics for business’, and we find a database that matches with that need (Participant 10).

the learning environment of higher education, profes-

And finally, changes in technology have changed the

sional staff are needed to develop and maintain these

way professional staff interact with students (Berg, Ber-

systems. For example, learning management systems

quam & Christoph, 2007). Experience from the United

have become ubiquitous (Machado & Tao, 2007), yet the

Kingdom suggests that these changes in technology, and

role of professional staff in developing and maintaining

associated new ways of communication, have led students

the infrastructure that underpins learning management

to expect that support will be continually available (Rams-

systems appears to be overlooked in the literature. In

den, 2008).These changes were recognised by the staff in

addition, new roles, such as educational designer and

this study, as illustrated below.

curriculum support officer, have arisen, which occupy the ‘third space’ that spans between academic and professional staff and require skills and knowledge from both sides of this space (Whitchurch, 2008). I think the computer systems at UTS are pretty much absolutely integral for everybody’s studies now . . . So students have to at least forward that [official UTS email], and they might have to use UTSOnline [the learning management system] to get their lectures, which is probably about 75 to 80 per cent of the time . . . And they have to use the [online] enrolment system. So there’s a few [IT] systems they pretty much have to use (Participant 4). The curriculum mapping system, that we’re using . . . it’s a crucial piece of infrastructure for us because of the way we want to make sure, [and] we want to make it very apparent to all of our students, how everything they do relates to later practice [in their profession] . . . And we’ve promised the external stakeholders that we will be able to do that (Participant 14).

[Helping students by] trying to transpose yourself into the current student environment, because we didn’t have mobile phones, we didn’t have email, we didn’t really know much about the Internet. It’s changed a lot since I was an undergraduate (Participant 3). Of course, the week that the assignment’s actually due, I had several emails from students desperately seeking help . . . Some students came back to the desk and I helped them right there and then, and that’s the most effective way because you can speak to them face-to-face. Others couldn’t come in, so I used email instead . . . I also did some telephone calls when they weren’t understanding what was described [in the email] (Participant 10).

Staff knowledge Staff knowledge has been recognised as a key factor for positive relationships between staff and customers (Bitner, Booms & Tetreault, 1990; Johnston, 1995). In this

In addition to the increasing use of hardware and soft-

study, professional staff identified the importance of staff

ware in higher education, the amount and credibility of

knowledge from two key perspectives: their own knowl-

information on the web has grown. For example, there are

edge and knowledge held by other professional staff.

Professional staff contributions to positive student outcomes, Carroll Graham

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Several of the participants discussed the importance of

‘Maintaining a stable workforce is a key element in

such knowledge in relation to being able to meet the

effective talent management strategy’ (Deery, 2008, p.

needs of students effectively, which, in some instances,

792), and while there is an increasing understanding of

was outside the remit of their job descriptions, with staff

the link between institutional performance and the abil-

expanding their roles in line with their interests and the

ity to attract and retain the right staff, the importance of

needs of students.

retaining knowledgeable and experienced professional

staff is often overlooked (Gordon & Whitchurch, 2007). I need to know about the processes in place and the Nevertheless, in this study, participants associated staff changes that happen, so just a lot of communication and finding out the exact processes for things. The knowledge, and the ability to effectively and efficiently student will often use us support student needs, with as their first port of call. retention of experienced It might be about late Yet while the current generation of staff. withdrawal or enrolment issues . . . we need to students has grown up with a wide range But to retain staff that have be able to have key conbeen here a while, that of ever-changing technology, and have tacts in there [the student know about the whole unibeen characterised as ‘digital natives’..., centre]. We have key conversity, [means] we can tacts in the student centre more recent critical reviews question provide a more in depth but then each faculty will support for students. Not the technology and information literacy have a different system for just fix the technical proborganising the same thing, abilities of these students lem... Whereas, someone so there is a lot of detailed who’s only been here six information, and then months can fix the email it can change . . . That’s problem, but might not know what the ramifications important to be able to keep up with the changes (Parare, or what to do to make things okay (Participant 4). ticipant 8). One of our very busy librarians here, he works in the science and technology team, and we rely heavily on him because he is our EndNote [software] expert. EndNote is . . . an extremely tricky thing because the referencing now, there are so many diverse kinds of information resources, it’s not just a book or an article. They’re now referencing YouTube and blogs and forums and it’s not quite clear exactly how to do that. So he is fantastic . . . he can literally spend a few hours every week just trying to troubleshoot students through the different issues they may have (Participant 10).

These quotes illustrate the need to attract and retain good professional staff, and to provide relevant professional development for these staff, so that students’ learning needs may be met in the most effective and efficient manner possible. While emphasis and resources have for some time been given to attracting, retaining and developing academic staff (for example: Zuber-Skerritt, 1992; Main, 1993; Darwin & Palmer, 2009; Cumming, 2010; Edwards, 2010), the quotes above suggest that the attrac-

Appropriate training for staff has been identified as nec-

tion, retention and development of professional staff are

essary for high quality service (Schneider, White & Paul,

also highly important for positive student outcomes. Far

1998; Chen, 2012). This link was identified by several of

from being interchangeable extras from Universal Casting,

the participants in this study.

highly knowledgeable professional staff are an asset to

[The] Security [Unit] is responsible for the security not only of staff and students but [also] the two or three billion dollars’ worth of buildings that we have. We are charged with maintaining a safe and secure working place, for all those reasons, all those pieces. Nobody notices until there is a crisis and then we just swing into action because we’ve practised and we know [what to do] (Participant 1). Sometimes students come to the counter and they say they want to withdraw from their course but when you talk to them they’re having some difficulty. Really what they need is a leave of absence. So they might mix up the terminology. So it’s really important to have the conversation, to make sure that you’ve got a handle on what they really want and I think that’s an area that I’d like to focus on with training [for staff] (Participant 7). vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

the core business of teaching and learning, and these staff provide relief to busy academics by dealing with a wide range of student learning issues.

Colleagues and supervisors The key resource for universities is their academic and general [professional] staff. In particular, it is the knowledge, skills, attitudes and performance of staff which directly affect the quality of academic teaching, research, consulting and community service, as well as how effectively our universities work in performing those activities (Hoare et al., 1995, p. 69). Participants associated positive relationships with their colleagues, and with their supervisors or managers, with

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being able to provide effective services to students. It was important to the participants to know who, of their colleagues, would be helpful and, in addition, that their supervisors and managers were supportive of them and their work. It’s very much an open door, [we’re] always in each other’s office. I am always in my boss’s office, checking or asking, and also with the other people that are doing my job – we’re kind of checking in with each other – it’s important that we’re consistent (Participant 8). In contrast, a lack of time to appropriately deal with

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It’s frustrating when you see people treat them as a student number and dismiss their enquiries that come through (Participant 2). One of the issues that I see in universities is that there’s Student Admin and they’re doing all this student stuff, but they can’t have individual relationships with students. So I think they lose the sense of students being an individual person and often the people they have to deal with a lot are really the ones [students] who are being annoying, or trying to do something that’s impossible or really demanding or whatever it is (Participant 3).

student enquiries, caused by competing work priorities,

Again, these quotes show the importance of recruiting

was identified as a hindrance to meeting the needs of

and retaining helpful and skilled professional staff – staff

students, as shown in the quotes below. In these quotes,

and managers who understand the needs of students,

staff recognise that workflow structures and disparate

and who support those needs through their own direct

work activities can impede the provision of service to

interactions with students and through the interactions

students. This supports the contention that back office

with other staff. This requires recruiting for the right atti-

activities are inherently different from front office opera-

tude, so that both students and other staff (academic and

tions, and co-location and co-staffing of these operations

professional) are viewed as customers requiring service

needs to be considered carefully to ensure maximum

at a level that satisfies the required outcomes rather than

organisational contributions of these activities, both

at a level that just answers the presenting problem. This

individually and jointly (Chase, 1978). In addition, the

study also highlights the importance of having effective

compulsion to ‘measure everything that moves’ (Marx,

and efficient work structures and processes so that staff

1999, p. 165) can result in a proliferation of data that is

are empowered to provide the service that students need.

difficult to separate into the meaningful and meaningless

Once such staff are recruited, it becomes crucial to retain

and, as illustrated below, the collection of these data can

those staff, developing their skills and knowledge, so

impact negatively on doing work that meets the needs

that they can provide a resource to other staff, as well as

of students.

directly to students.

Because we do back office stuff and student facing stuff, I want to get the back office stuff as slick as possible to enable the student facing stuff to be more streamlined and easy and people not having a focus on, ‘I wish I wasn’t here [in the student facing office] because I should be doing this [back office work] (Participant 7). We need to log every job that we get, every phone call that we get needs to be logged, every student that comes up to the counter needs to be logged. Initially . . . the system for doing it was really bulky . . . [and it] could take a minute to log each one, and there are times, especially in the first few weeks of first semester that are the busiest, where we can deal with 1000 students a day each . . . they [the managers] were saying we have to log every one of those, so that they would know how much work we’re doing. I said, ‘well, you’re going to know how much work I’m doing because all I’m doing is logging jobs’ [participant laughs ironically] (Participant 4).

Job satisfaction Job satisfaction may be defined as a generally favourable job attitude (Grant, 2008) that is a global attitude relating to a work role (Harrison, Newman & Roth, 2006). Importantly, job satisfaction has been strongly linked with customer satisfaction (Nebeker et al., 2001). As described above, having technology and systems that work well, being knowledgeable and having knowledgeable colleagues, and having supportive colleagues and supervisors, all contribute to the job satisfaction for these staff. In addition, the intrinsic motivation of being able to assist students effectively, supporting their learning outcomes from admission through to graduation, provides a high level of job satisfaction for the participants in this study. Intrinsic motivators have been related to job satisfaction in a number of studies (for example, Herzberg 1987; Coster 1992). The Self-Determination Theory of motiva-

Staff attitude is also a key indicator of service quality

tion proposes three basic needs that, when satisfied, give

(Chase, 1978; Chen, 2012). A lack of customer focus was

enhanced self-motivation and positive mental health:

identified by participants as being an obstacle to meeting

autonomy, competence and relatedness (Ryan & Deci

the needs of students.

2000b). Autonomy refers to the freedom to make choices

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and to have self-regulation in the pursuit of self-selected

concerned with process and control than outcomes can

goals; competence is the need to feel effective in interac-

dampen staff motivation, as shown below:

tions with the social and physical environment; and relatedness refers to the need to feel a sense of belonging with others (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000a; Skinner & Edge, 2009). These three needs are innate psychological needs and satisfaction of these needs is conducive to the development of intrinsic motivation (Petri & Govern, 2012). In addition, it is recognised that satisfaction is also associated with engaging in intrinsically interesting activities (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). Several participants expressed the need for competence and autonomy, through being able to use their own judgement to make decisions and solving problems for students, which resulted in job satisfaction.

I think back to the management side of things for the way that people operate, the staff operate . . . [it’s important] to give them the autonomy to do their own thing, to assist the students and to think ‘okay what needs to be done for this particular student? how can we work around it?’, and not have management saying ‘no you can’t do this, you can’t do that, you’ve got to follow this strict rule’ (Participant 2). We used to have a policy where we weren’t allowed to cover for each other if you had to take a break, such as to go to the toilet . . . because they [management] figured if you’re taking a break . . . you’re bludging (Participant 4). Some of the participants expressed pro-social motivation

I guess it’s challenging. Mostly my role, currently and probably for the last several years, has been with admissions. So I actually process and assess . . . applications. I find that satisfying because . . . there is an element of my own judgement and I enjoy that. Obviously you get a wide variety of applications from varying students and I find that interesting as well (Participant 6).

– the desire to benefit other people – in addition to intrin-

The last quote demonstrates intrinsic motivation in

explicitly recognised the workload issues for academics,

doing a job well. Extrinsic motivators include receiving

and were motivated by being able to support students and

thanks from students (client satisfaction), and having

thereby providing some time relief to academics.

supervisors and managers who support their staff and create a positive culture, as illustrated by the quotes below: I love how the library administrators [managers] here are very open to trying new ideas and also trying to encourage fun. We still do our jobs, we do them well, but we do it also in a way that’s fun . . . Yesterday we had an edible book competition, so staff made little cakes based on a book theme . . . So [the managers are] trying to inject a bit of fun and creativity into what we do, to keep staff motivated and interested as well. I love that about UTS library, it’s quite different from where I have worked before (Participant 10). Eventually he [the supervisor] did go to the people who were responsible for the system, asking for it to be automated, and put the project to them. They said, ‘sorry, that’s not important enough. We’re not doing it’. He told me and I said, ‘look at least you tried. I mean, that means you’re on our side. You’ve done everything you can, so we’re happy’ (Participant 4). The second quote indicates that staff do not expect

sic motivation. The combination of pro-social and intrinsic motivation is a good predictor of higher levels of persistence, performance and productivity (Grant 2008), which benefits both the individual and the organisation. As well as expressing satisfaction from helping students and contributing to the wider community, a number of participants

She [a student] came in tears and went away very happy, feeling confident that she could handle it [the assignment], and find the things she needed to answer those questions. That for me is a real win, where she had no-one else to go to – the lecturers and tutors are all really busy, they [the students] don’t feel they can go to them [the academics] for help or to just ask every little question they have. I feel that for a lot of students we are one of the only places they can go to just ask little questions or just clarify things (Participant 11). I really am very passionate about people getting home safely at the end of the day, it really drives me, and that’s how I think I get it [the OH&S work] done (Participant 13). The University in my opinion, apart from the invaluable facilities that are available to educate youngsters, or not so young people, I believe offers a far more extensive service to the greater community and I believe that should be supported (Participant 12).

Concluding comments

their supervisors to always be able to implement changes if it is not within their power to do so. The fact that a

While there is a growing body of broad literature writ-

supervisor makes a genuine attempt to implement a

ten by professional staff about professional staff (for

change suggested by a staff member is sufficient for the

example: Dobson & Conway, 2003; Szekeres, 2004; Small,

staff to feel supported and thereby motivated.

2008; Graham, 2009; Sebalj & Holbrook, 2009; Szekeres,

In contrast, supervisors and managers who are more vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

2011), this study fills a gap in identifying and describ-

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ing the contributions that professional staff make to stu-

and that all staff need to work together, supportively, and

dent outcomes from the perspective of professional staff

valuing the work of their colleagues, ‘to serve The Uni-

themselves (Graham, 2012; 2013). The domain focused

versity and its students’ (Sharafizad, Paull & Omari, 2011,

on in this paper – relating to ‘behaviours, environments

p. 47). This is contingent on recruiting and retaining the

and processes are welcoming and efficient’– was found

right staff, be they professional or academic.

in the case study to be most significant for the participants in this study, which was consistent with findings

Acknowledgements

from the earlier study (Graham, 2010). Participants in the case study recognised their role in supporting the core

The author gratefully acknowledges the support and

business of universities through providing direct services

advice of Dr Tony Holland. This paper forms part of the

to students and by supporting other professional staff.

author’s doctoral research, which is being supervised by

Consistent with other research (Sharafizad, Paull & Omari,

Dr Holland. The author would also like to thank Neridah

2011), participants in this study recognised that workload

Baker and Damien Giurco for reading an early draft of this

is an issue for academics. In addition, they identified activi-

paper, and for their supportive comments. The author

ties that could be performed well and with satisfaction

would particularly like to thank the professional staff at

by professional staff, thereby relieving academic staff of

UTS who participated in this study for making their time

some workload. Participants in this study demonstrated

and expertise so generously available.

that they are cognisant of the importance of their work in relation to student outcomes, which provided these staff

Carroll Graham is Executive Manager at the Institute for

with pro-social and intrinsic motivation, leading to signifi-

Sustainable Futures, University of Technology, Sydney (UTS),

cant job satisfaction for these staff.

NSW, Australia, and is currently completing a Doctor of Edu-

There are several implications that may be of signifi-

cation in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, UTS.

cance beyond the context of this case. First, participants in this study were intrinsically motivated, suggesting that university management, managers and supervisors should foster intrinsic motivators of professional staff in order to retain experienced staff, and to keep them engaged with their work and the strategic goals of their institutions. This involves providing staff with opportunities to develop competence to succeed at relevant and challenging tasks; providing autonomy for choice and initiation of such activities; and for supporting the development of mutual respect and reliance with colleagues, both professional and academic. Second, this study indicates a need for university management to recognise the contributions of professional staff to the core business of learning and teaching, and to explicitly value these contributions. This would allow both individuals and the institution to benefit from the capacity of these staff, and would recognise that universities are run by partnerships of academic and professional staff (Dobson & Conway, 2003). And finally, the blurring of roles and work between traditional academic and professional staff found by this and other studies (Sharafizad, Paull & Omari, 2011; Whitchurch, 2011) signals that higher education should re-examine the structural binary divide between professional and academic staff, allowing a more flexible approach to workload distribution and career progression, to the benefit of staff and students.This study indicates that the work of all staff is essential to students achieving their learning outcomes,

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Combining academia and activism Common obstacles and useful tools Michael Flood, Brian Martin & Tanja Dreher University of Wollongong

Introduction

Academia can be a site for activism in at least four ways (Downs & Manion, 2004; Zerai, 2002): (1) as a means to pro-

Academics can engage in and contribute to activism in

duce knowledge to inform progressive social change; (2)

various ways. Some are involved in action groups on

as a means for conducting research which itself involves

issues such as climate change and treatment of asylum

social change; (3) as a site for progressive strategies of

seekers. Some undertake research and speak to the media

teaching and learning; and finally (4) as an institution

about indigenous, environmental, gender and other issues.

whose power relations themselves may be challenged and

Others campaign on matters of concern within univer-

reconstructed. (See Ward (2007) for another framework of

sities, including through unions and professional asso-

approaches to academia and activism, highlighting activ-

ciations. Other possibilities include undertaking research

ist, participatory and policy geographies. These share an

that informs or supports activism, and advising and sup-

ideological commitment to social and personal change

porting activist students.

but differ in terms of whether they see themselves as

These and other forms of academic activism can be

working as, with, or for particular publics respectively.)

risky. Academics who seek to combine activism with

We briefly review the nexus of academia and activism

work in the university can be subject to threats, abuse,

before offering strategies for combining them.

silencing tactics, and peer pressure and scholarly expec-

First, academics may produce knowledge that, inten-

tations to shift away from activism. In this paper we

tionally or not, informs progressive social change. Aca-

explore these obstacles with an emphasis on strategies

demic research may be taken up by activist and advocacy

for avoiding the pitfalls and maintaining commitment as

organisations for their own campaign work. Academics

an activist-oriented academic. Drawing on our diverse

may contribute to policy debates and political change by

experiences of activism, academia and community-

participating in public debate or by direct submissions to

engaged research, we suggest possible responses to the

policymakers.

many pressures on activist academic work, paying par-

Second, academics’ conduct of research itself may

ticular attention to the challenges faced by early career

involve social change.The term ‘action research’ describes

academics.

a family of research methodologies that involve simulta-

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neously pursuing social change (‘action’) and scholarly

example) can be seen as a kind of ‘activism’, we focus on

understanding (‘research’). Action research typically is

forms of activism which are more challenging for univer-

participatory, with all relevant parties in a particular com-

sities and dominant political interests.

munity or organisation involved in examining current

Before highlighting the challenges of activism, it is

practice in order to change and improve it (Herr & Ander-

worth noting their rewards. Many academics engaged in

son, 2005; McIntyre, 2007; Smith,Willms & Johnson, 1997).

social change work experience powerful personal and

Thus, academics may conduct activism as academic work,

professional benefits. Activist academics can find mean-

validating (particular forms of) activism in the name of

ing and comfort in the sense that their work contributes

their intellectual value.

to the greater good, nourishing a sense of personal and

Teaching and learning are the bread and butter of uni-

collective purpose. Many of them find pleasures in friend-

versity business, and pedagogy – the practice and philoso-

ships and alliances with like-minded others and in partici-

phy of teaching – itself is an important site of activism.

pating in collective activist networks and communities.

Some teachers seek to use and rework teaching and

Their personal and political investments in ‘making a dif-

learning practices in university classrooms to foster criti-

ference’ can give impetus to their professional work, moti-

cal self-reflection, political empowerment and collective

vating both intensified research and public engagement.

mobilisation (Curle, 1973; hooks, 1994; Newman, 2006;

In turn, academia can be a valuable base for activism.

Shor, 1980). Some conduct conventional academic work in

Scholarship fosters useful skills in writing, argument,

novel contexts in conjunction with activism, such as run-

public speaking and critical reflection. Universities can

ning academic seminars simultaneously with blockades

provide resources for activism, including print and elec-

of nuclear weapons bases (Vinthagen, Kenrick & Mason,

tronic dissemination of activist materials, public credibil-

2012). Marking activism off as a domain removed from

ity, and authoritative speaking positions.

academia negates the potential for an activist engagement in reworking academics’ teaching practices themselves.

Our discussion of obstacles to using academia as a site for activism is organised into sections on attacks, secu-

Finally, universities can be criticised for their inflexible

rity and advancement, output expectations, disciplinary

bureaucratic systems and for their subordination to state

expectations, epistemological expectations and peer

and corporate agendas, for example via military and cor-

influence, including a number of vignettes drawn from

porate funding (Hil 2012; Newson & Buchbinder, 1988;

our own experiences or, in disguised form, experiences

Slaughter & Leslie, 1997; Smith, 1974; Veblen, 1918). Chal-

of others we know. Although abuse and campaigns of

lenging these agendas, for example by pushing for greater

reprisal may not be the most commonly faced of these

student-staff participation in university decision-making,

challenges, attacks can include significant threats to per-

is the fourth sense in which academia is a site of activism.

sonal safety and employment security, and we begin with

Some academics engage in activism not directly related

a discussion of these challenges.

to their paid work, outside working hours and off campus. For example, a zoologist might be involved in the peace

Attacks

movement or a computer scientist involved with homelessness. In such cases, academic employment can provide

Academics who engage in activism may face reprisals,

an income and security that can help sustain activism.

both externally from political opponents and internally

To complicate the discussion, in some fields, for exam-

from those within the university who perceive their

ple in feminist studies (Eschle & Maiguashca, 2007) and

involvement as nonconformist (Martin, Baker, Manwell &

human geography (Ward 2007), there has been a critique

Pugh, 1986; Meranto, Meranto & Lippman, 1985; Nocella II,

of the dichotomy between ‘academia’ and ‘activism’ itself.

Best & McLaren, 2010). Attacks by external opponents are

However, rather than discussing the theoretical framing

often politically motivated, intended to silence academics

of these terms, we focus on practical strategies to sustain

and thwart their political impact. Some methods of attack

one’s activism as an academic (Cancian, 1993; Hale, 2008;

by outsiders include sending hate mail, making threats of

Smith, 2007; Zerai, 2002).

violence, sending complaints to employers seeking rep-

We look particularly at the situation of academics who

rimands or dismissal and complaints to funding agencies

also practise activism, rather than activists who also do

seeking termination of funding, and vilification on web-

academic work. While we acknowledge that academics’

sites and in e-newsletters. Internally, both academic peers

work may contribute to repressive political agendas and

and students may perceive activist academics as violating

that serving authoritarian state power or militarism (for

their appropriate roles, with students for example com-

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plaining that their lecturers teach ‘propaganda’ or that

and collegial – are more likely to be supported by their

campus diversity initiatives are ‘biased’ (Vaccaro, 2010).

peers and by university officials, and to receive support

When academics come under attack, it is valuable to build and maintain the support of peers and superiors. One useful technique is to keep colleagues informed of political activities. Taking the initiative in this way allows activist academics to frame the issues in their terms, casting their engagement in public debate as an understandable and indeed desirable extension of their scholarly work. The developing discourse of ‘community engagement’ offers one way to frame activist activities as part of the university’s core values. Students sometimes hinder progressive activism, but they also can sustain it. Another strategy is for academics to enlist or mobilise student activism in support of their efforts.Where academics approach their teaching as a site

when under attack. Michael has received a range of hostile and abusive correspondence, including e-mails, phone calls and web postings, in response to his public critiques of anti-feminist men’s and fathers’ groups and his participation in online debates on their websites. On one occasion Michael was called into his university employer’s office, after the employer and a number of others received a letter alleging that Michael had behaved dishonestly and unethically in his research and public commentary. Michael was able to explain the political context for this correspondence and to reassure his employer. Michael also learned that similar letters from anti-feminist advocates calling for the termination of his funding and employment had been sent to his funding body and to the Minister for Education.

of activism, student engagement and increased student interest in social change issues or campaigns can provide

Security and advancement

an important source of inspiration and positive reinforcement for the activist academic.

Concerns about job security and advancement are per-

Academics who make controversial public statements

vasive in most occupations. Two trends have heightened

or support causes perceived to be ‘radical’ may be criti-

such concerns in higher education, and thus intensified

cised as politically biased, dangerously subversive, or

the tensions between academia and activism. First, the

tarnishing the name of their institutions. Such criticisms

higher education sector is characterised by the growing

may be particularly troubling when they come from an

casualisation of the labour force (DeSantis, 2011). Junior

individual’s university peers or employers. In this context,

academics strive for tenure – an ongoing appointment – as

another useful strategy is to draw upon discourses of free

opposed to the common forms of employment in short-

speech and debate, inviting one’s colleagues to adopt the

term contracts or teaching paid by the hour. Second, uni-

spirit of ‘I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to

versity life is characterised by an increasing emphasis on

the death your right to say it’ (Evelyn Beatrice Hall, biog-

research productivity and the quantification of research

rapher of Voltaire: see Kinne, 1943). Academics may call

output. This is embodied by national exercises focused

on their universities to defend their academic freedom to

on research output such as Britain’s Research Assessment

offer public commentary and to resist efforts to silence

Exercise, and expressed also in shifts in the criteria used

them, whether through public statements or legal defence.

in universities regarding hiring, departmental funding,

It is worthwhile carefully documenting one’s own per-

PhD scholarships and a host of other matters.

formance and benchmarking it against that of colleagues.

A third factor underlying academics’ job-related con-

Internal attacks are commonly justified by referring to the

cerns is the investment in career associated with middle-

allegedly poor performance of the target, when actually

class and white-collar professions in general. University

the target’s performance is equal to or better than that of

lecturers and researchers historically have held significant

colleagues who are not subject to attack. Exposing such

class privilege, and university education itself has consti-

double standards can discredit the attackers.

tuted an important form of cultural and material capital

Whether interacting or corresponding with one’s col-

(Bourdieu, 1988; Collins, 1979; Kosut, 2008). Possession of

leagues or one’s political opponents, behaving courte-

class privilege is associated with a greater investment in

ously is a sensible strategy. It is valid for academics to

securing and advancing in one’s career. Individuals from

engage in robust, passionate and deeply critical text and

privileged social backgrounds are more likely to take as

talk. On the other hand, engaging in personal attacks,

given their involvement in socially and materially reward-

hostile threats and other disrespectful behaviours can

ing work, to actively cultivate career trajectories, and

damage your credibility, and it is far better to be able to

indeed to realise them. Academics who risk their job secu-

point to them among your detractors. More generally, aca-

rity and advancement by engaging in activism may there-

demics who are ‘good colleagues’ – friendly, respectful

fore do so in a context in which their employment is more

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vulnerable than before, their scholarly outputs are subject

Academic unions and professional associations can pro-

to increasingly explicit quantitative evaluation, and careers

vide important support for activist academics, particularly

per se have substantial symbolic and personal value.

where job security or career advancement is threatened

One solution here is to postpone activism until you

due to institutional concerns about activist work. Main-

have obtained tenure. In many countries, tenure is not

taining an active membership and working relationships

a guarantee of job security, but it can reduce the risk

with organisers and officers enables scholars to access

from articulating and involving yourself in radical poli-

advice that is independent of their institution, and draw

tics. The danger with this approach is that activism is

on the backing of the union or association if faced with

postponed indefinitely. Once an aspiring academic has

disciplinary action or dismissal.

passed through the ritual hurdles of obtaining a PhD and established a series of practical and intellectual routines

Output expectations

that marginalise activism, these gain a certain material and habitual weight, making it increasingly difficult then

The expectation to ‘publish or perish’ can create sig-

to put activism back in (Schmidt, 2000). In foregoing

nificant challenges for activist academics, particularly as

activism, the academic may also lose the interpersonal

universities increasingly value refereed publications in

networks and habits of mind that accompany activism,

prestigious international journals. While refereed papers

in a sense becoming ‘rusty’ at activism and increasingly

may hold the key to career progression and grants suc-

comfortable in a working life without it. On the other

cess, the most prestigious journals are often not interested

hand, it may be more feasible for academics to decide to

in activist scholarship, due to peer influence and disci-

forego some activist involvements, especially those that

plinary expectations (discussed below). In addition, these

employers are likely to see as highly threatening, until

sorts of publications are seldom the best way to reach

they have greater employment security.

relevant audiences for activist-oriented research, such as

Another way academics may seek to protect their

other activists, non-government organisation (NGO) or

careers and career advancement while engaged in activism

advocacy groups, community organisations and policy-

is to maintain academia and activism as separate domains.

makers. For example, social movement scholarship has

Here, activism becomes something one does after hours.

been criticised as being of little use to activists (Croteau,

Activism then can be framed as akin to a private pursuit

Hoynes & Ryan, 2005).

or hobby. It may be peculiar, even frowned upon, but tol-

There are a number of strategies to address this

erated as long as it does not intrude on regular academic

dilemma. A common tactic is to simply work harder, pro-

work. If concerns are raised, academics can reassure their

ducing both refereed publications to satisfy the demands

employers that their activism is an independent activity

of the institution or discipline and, quite separately, activ-

that does not compromise the successful completion of

ist-oriented publications designed to contribute directly

their duties. This ‘separate worlds’ strategy is compatible

to social change campaigns.

with substantial involvements in activism, particularly for

Perhaps more common is the strategy of publishing

individuals whose paid work is either part-time or flex-

multiple versions of a single piece of research for differ-

ible. It is more likely to be successful when the activism

ent outlets and audiences. As an example, research into a

seems unrelated to work roles, such as an engineer being

social problem might be published in a refereed journal

involved with an anti-racism group.

article, as well as a more accessible report for an NGO, and

This strategy limits the threat to academics’ job security

also disseminated via an open-access website. In each case

and advancement. And it may be the only practical strat-

the research is described and analysed in slightly different

egy for those academics whose scholarly work is tightly

ways, and communicated in the forms most appropriate

controlled or highly circumscribed because of political

to the different audiences and uses.

and institutional environments, funding constraints, or other limits. However, this ‘separate worlds’ strategy is less valuable for academics for whom academia itself is a potential site of activism, as discussed above. A ‘separate worlds’ strategy abandons the challenge of working to change the power relations of academia as an institution and to construct alternatives to the hierarchies of value embedded in universities.

In the course of his research on anti-feminist fathers’ groups in Australia, Michael published a journal article for an international journal and made available on his own activist website shorter and more accessible summaries of the research and ‘fact sheets’ on key issues such as false allegations of violence and abuse in family law proceedings. The latter (Flood, 2010), rather than the academic article, was cited in a recent government report on family law. In develop-

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ing a model of tactics against injustice, Brian published articles in a variety of academic journals, and prepared a four-page introductory leaflet, an annotated slide show and a manual for activists, all available on his website (Martin, 2012).

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The increasing emphasis on ‘community engagement’ or ‘outreach’ across the university sector provides a valuable means to legitimate activist work, as well as opportunities to shift institutional expectations. Contemporary universities stress community engagement as

Strategies for publishing in both refereed and non-

‘core business’ and academics are increasingly expected

refereed outlets require hard work and also expertise in

to demonstrate the relevance of their research and public

diverse modes of research and communication.The effort

engagement beyond the ivory tower. Activist work such

and skills involved are not always recognised or rewarded

as participating in public debates, media interviews,

within academic institutions. This approach may be dif-

organising events and collaborating with community or

ficult to sustain in the long term, particularly if the activist academic is also faced with peer pressure, attacks or institutional expectations to pursue only peer-reviewed

NGO partners can often be

One solution here is to postpone activism until you have obtained tenure... The danger with this approach is that activism is postponed indefinitely.

publications.

successfully positioned as ‘outreach’ work which fulfils the university’s community engagement mission. Legitimising

activism

terms of institutional priori-

Another strategy involves

ties also raises the possibility

developing publications that satisfy both institutional and

of being co-opted or depoliticised. When universities pro-

activist demands. In this case, community-engaged aca-

mote their commitment to ‘community engagement’, this

demics can work to expand what counts as scholarship

can in practice refer to a wide range of activities, many of

within the academy.

which serve to entrench rather than to challenge vested

A community engagement programme at an Australian university developed a research report series and e-journal in order to publish community-engaged research. The publications are fully refereed in order to meet institutional requirements, and to encourage rigorous research. Contributors and referees are clearly reminded that the publications are intended to address an interested public rather than only academics. The resulting publications are accessible and relevant to advocates and activists working outside the university, but also count towards the recognised research output of individual researchers and their institutions (UTS 2012).

interests. For example, many universities have stretched the definition of community engagement to include, or even prioritise, partnerships with industry. Here activist academics may need to argue for the significance of working with social change advocates, and may need to resist pressures for ‘community engaged’ work to provide positive publicity for the institution, or to bring in research funding via private partnerships. In contrast to the strategy of working within institutions to develop processes for supporting activist-oriented scholarship, it is also possible to ignore institutional expectations

This example suggests several possibilities for shifting

and set your own standards. Instead of attempting to work

the conventional criteria for academic publications, while

with the institutional preference for prestige publications

also striving to publish community-engaged research.

in refereed journals, you can set your own priorities for

The publications have expanded the definition of ‘peer

outputs, such as interest from the community or usefulness

review’ to include experts working for NGOs, key govern-

to social change workers.The ability to ignore institutional

ment bodies and community groups as reviewers. The

expectations may be dependent on achieving a measure of

editors have also reworked conventional peer reviewing

employment security first – or retiring!

guidelines in order to clarify the focus on community relevance in the publications – so that reviewers are asked to

Disciplinary expectations

evaluate not only the academic merit of the papers under consideration, but also their value and accessibility for an

Most scholars receive training in one or more disciplines

informed wider public. In this way, the publications work

such as philosophy and physics. The dominance of dis-

both to extend the reach of peer-reviewed research and

ciplines has declined; there have been innumerable dis-

to generate formal recognition for community-engaged

cussions about multidisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity and

research, thereby challenging the conventions of aca-

approaches to practical problems not based in disciplines.

demia as an institution and developing alternative modes

Nevertheless, disciplines can be a powerful influence on

of value.

academic behaviour (Becher, 1989).

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Many jobs require an advanced degree in a particular discipline or equivalent – but having a degree in the dis-

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(Feagin & Vera, 2008), than in others, such as mathematics (Powell & Frankenstein, 1997).

cipline rather than some other field can be an advantage.

In disciplines whose content has no obvious or immedi-

Many top journals are discipline-based; interdisciplinary

ate connection to current social issues – for example geol-

journals seldom have the same prestige. Within univer-

ogy or civil engineering – one strategy is to do activism

sities, struggles over jobs and promotions are regularly

that is quite separate from one’s academic work. Anyone

waged using claims about rigour, originality and rele-

can do anti-poverty work. This ‘separate worlds’ strategy,

vance, often implicitly judged in relation to disciplinary

discussed above, is sometimes the safest way to combine

expectations.

academic and activist efforts, namely so they don’t seem

Disciplinary expectations can be exerted bluntly, as in

to be combined. The most famous practitioner using this

the rejection of applicants outside a domain, or subtly

strategy is Noam Chomsky, whose political engagements

though casual comments that assume the superiority of

are largely separate from his academic work in linguistics.

certain approaches and the lower status of others, for

It is important to note a common phenomenon: when

example the greater value of abstract theory or the lesser

scholars enter the public arena, peers – especially in one’s

value of local case studies. These expectations can be

discipline – may think this lowers their standing (Ali &

conveyed through appointment committees, journal ref-

Barsky 2006). When a scientist writes a popular article on

erees, thesis supervisors, conference organisers and peers.

a current topic, this might be seen as a negative in terms

Because so many academic units are organised around

of academic standing. Serious scholars, so the thinking

disciplines, and because scholars tend to congregate with

goes, do not debase the currency of academic standing by

those having similar orientations, disciplinary expecta-

becoming popularisers. As an astute commentator noted

tions often overlap with peer influence.

over a century ago,

None of this would matter if disciplines were oriented to public engagement, but very few are. Indeed, disciplines build their status by claiming exclusive ability to judge contributions within the field.This means that there is an ongoing pressure to orient work to others in the discipline. In other words, disciplines are inward-looking

The Principle of Sound Learning is that the noise of vulgar fame should never trouble the cloistered calm of academic existence. Hence, learning is called sound when no one has ever heard of it; and ‘sound scholar’ is a term of praise applied to one another by learned men who have no reputation outside the University, and a rather queer one inside it (Cornford, 1908, p. 11).

and give greater status to theory over applications. They are not havens for community engagement but more com-

This problem is aggravated when media misrepresent,

monly vessels for building frameworks that are obscure

often inadvertently, an academic’s views, such as when

to outsiders.

a television station broadcasts just 30 seconds from a

Jeannette, a peace activist, was doing a PhD in peace research, working in a unit in which political science was the dominant perspective. Jeannette was not overtly told that her work was lower status, but she picked up vibes from corridor conversations, seminars and conferences. Those who worked on mainstream politics projects were given more attention and credibility; their publications were treated as more significant. Jeannette submitted a couple of papers to politics journals but was discouraged by condescending comments from reviewers.

30-minute recorded interview. Colleagues unfamiliar with media processes may mistake media portrayals for a scholar’s considered views. It is also possible for activists to use research work or invoke the names of academics in ways that damage their reputations among peers. On the other hand, in disciplines such as sociology, there is greater discussion of engagement in public debate and its impact on the standing of scholars and the discipline, including well-developed articulations for example of a ‘public sociology’ (Burawoy, 2005; Calhoun,

Acquiescing to disciplinary pressures means accepting,

2005; Clawson, 2007).

at some level, the value of using the language, acknowl-

Another way to deal with disciplinary pressures is to

edging contributions in the field, publishing in suitable

get a job in a studies area, such as environmental stud-

journals, attending relevant conferences and interacting

ies or Asian studies. In these sorts of areas, the influence

with people in the field. It is possible to do all this but to

of disciplines is moderated. Making a contribution to

put oneself in the activist corner of the discipline, which

the area doesn’t require aiming for disciplinary journals.

means, for example, publishing activist-oriented articles

The greater openness often gives more freedom to be

and making connections with like-minded scholars in

involved in activism. Furthermore, a few studies areas,

the field. This is easier in some fields, such as sociology

in some places, are havens for activism, especially when

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undergraduate students are involved, for example peace

on terror’ (Dreher, 2003, 2010). Activist academics can

studies units in which student engagement in campaigns

address and further these cross-cutting influences in their

is encouraged.

teaching and research.

Yet another way to deal with disciplinary pressures

Another strategy is to build in opportunities for feed-

is to try to ignore them and carry on regardless. This is

back from community members, such as working with

fine if you have a permanent position and are not seeking

a community reference group, or expanding the pool of

advancement, but can be hard for junior scholars trying to

peer reviewers as described above. Here community and

obtain a niche in the field.

activist expertise is recognised and collaborative processes are encouraged. Community input can mitigate

Epistemological expectations

peer pressures and institutional expectations, as well as contributing original insights and innovative possibili-

Academics whose research or teaching is oriented

ties. Activist academics may also seek out opportunities

towards activism will often experience expectations,

to co-author publications with activists or community

among their peers and within institutions, to use academic

workers.

frameworks in their work. Scientists are expected to ‘stick

Innovative publication formats are another way to nego-

to the science’ (and avoid policy and ethical dimensions

tiate between epistemological expectations and the exper-

of issues) and social scientists are expected to study struc-

tise and priorities of activists working outside the academy.

tures and explanations but not strategies (Jasper, 2006, pp.

A collaborative research team developed a number of publications from in-depth interviews with community workers and activists, which were published in refereed academic journals. Interviews were transcribed, edited and then published as ‘practitioner profiles’, engaging non-academic workers and activists as coauthors rather than as only the subjects of commentary by an authoritative academic voice (Chidiac & Lloyd, 2009; el-Gawley & O’Donnell, 2009).

xii-xiii). Using an activist-friendly framework can be seen as being unscholarly. During her doctoral research, Tanja received negative feedback about her focus on activist activities and her use of activists as informants in the research. A supervisor told her she should not use quotes from an activist as these were not a scholarly source. Interview comments from activists were described as ‘crude’, ‘predictable’ and ‘too political’, and assumed to be unrepresentative of ‘ordinary’ people. Activist perspectives were seen as out of touch or extreme. Tanja employed a form of discourse analysis that highlighted the key frameworks and concepts used by activists, and analysed the ways these reflected and contributed to debates in academic theory (Dreher, 2006).

Public forums, conferences and other events also offer opportunities to include non-academic activists as presenters, discussants and participants. Finally, the ‘scholarship of engagement’ seeks to develop an epistemological framework for community-engaged research (Barker, 2004; Boyer, 1996). While not all work

In this example,Tanja attempted to put community con-

developed under this rubric is activist oriented, a key fea-

cerns into academic frameworks, a key strategy for com-

ture is the over-arching social-good orientation of commu-

munity-engaged research and some academic activism.

nity-engaged work. This scholarship advocates research

Academic frameworks can be used to analyse activist and

that specifically addresses community-identified needs

social change projects – although this runs the risk of pro-

rather than being driven primarily by academic curiosity.

ducing outcomes that satisfy academic requirements but are not relevant to the projects being analysed. Academic

Peer influence

research of this type can lend visibility and legitimacy to activist work.

The people around us can have a big influence on what

A more mutually beneficial approach is to develop

we think is worthwhile to do. Consumerism is driven, in

work that maximises the productive exchanges between

part, by peer influence, commonly known as ‘keeping up

academia and activism. There is a long history of social

with the Joneses’.What others, through their behaviour as

movements influencing academic work, such as in the

well as their talk, put as priorities can influence one’s own

development of women’s studies and environmental stud-

priorities. It can be difficult to maintain a commitment to

ies. Conversely, movements for progressive social change

an endeavour when others never show any interest in it.

have been influenced by academic debates and theories,

This sort of influence works in the academic world

such as the wide-ranging impact of Edward Said’s ‘Orien-

much the same as elsewhere. Most academics prefer to

talism’ on cultural interventions that challenge misrepre-

get on well with their immediate colleagues, including

sentations of Arab and Muslim Australians during the ‘war

ones in nearby offices, ones most commonly seen through

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Table 1: A Toolkit of Strategies and Tips Obstacles to activism or community engagement by academics

Possible response strategies

Practical tips / guidelines

Attacks

• Build a network of support. • Maintain courteous interactions and respectful relationships

• Keep peers and superiors informed to maintain their support • Draw on student activism • Draw upon discourses of free speech and academic freedom • Carefully document performance • Be a good colleague

Threats to security and advancement

• Postpone activism • Consciously weigh up the demands of career • Activism and academia as separate domains and activist orientations • Draw on support from a union or professional • Pursue activism unrelated to work roles for a association successful ‘separate worlds’ strategy • Join a union or professional association • Maintain relationships with union or professional association organisers and officers

Output expectations

• Work harder! • Produce different publications for different audiences and purposes • Produce publications that satisfy institutional and activist demands • Ignore institutional demands

• Maintain a website for publications aimed at an activist audience or the wider public • Work to shift the conventional criteria for what ‘counts’ in academia • Set your own standards

Disciplinary expectations

• Work in the activist-oriented corner of the discipline • Maintain ‘separate worlds’ • Ignore expectations

• Get a job in a studies area • Go your own way

Epistemological expectations

• Put community concerns into academic frameworks • Develop productive exchanges between activism and academia

• Obtain feedback from community members, e.g. reference group • Push the boundaries with innovative or collaborative publication formats

Peer influence

• Use willpower to resist • Interact with different peers • Maintain relationships with activists

• Develop joint projects such as community engagement • Collaborate with like-minded peers • Find non-academic reference points

local responsibilities, and ones at a distance in profes-

you’re changing, the influence is all the more difficult

sional contexts.

to resist.

If none of your colleagues is involved in activism, your

To counter peer influence that is taking you where you

own involvement can seem unusual: you receive no rein-

don’t want to go, one response is to become aware of the

forcement. If colleagues are tolerant or vaguely interested,

influence and actively resist it. You can continue to inter-

you may be able to continue your activism without hin-

act with the same peers but resolve to also continue with

drance, but even so you might be unconsciously influ-

your activist activities. This is certainly possible but it can

enced to spend more time and effort on the sorts of things

take a toll on your willpower that, according to research

your colleagues value. If they think activism is unscholarly

(Baumeister & Tierney, 2011), can be readily depleted.

or misguided, and respond negatively to your activities, the pressure can be all the stronger.

To conserve willpower, another option is to interact with different peers, specifically those who are more sym-

Peer influence is powerful because the character of

pathetic to your endeavours. Considerable effort may be

casual interactions often makes the difference between

needed to locate others with similar outside concerns,

satisfying and unsatisfying daily life. Even when peers

especially if they are keeping a low profile in order to fit

make no effort to change your priorities, you may gradu-

in. To cement connections with like-minded peers, a joint

ally go through a process of modifying your interests,

project can be valuable, for example research collabora-

your style or your priorities. When you don’t notice that

tion or a community engagement project.

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Sometimes, there are no readily available peers with a

second is to set up plans and personal systems to main-

similar activist orientation. You might be able to connect

tain desired activities. What to do depends a great deal on

with activist scholars in other cities or countries, but

one’s circumstances: there is no single course of action

there may be no one to discuss the local issues that inter-

suitable to everyone or every field. In Table 1 we list some

est you. One option in this circumstance is to build up

of the options covered in this article.

a reference group of non-academics. These are friends or

Perhaps the most important general lesson is not to rely

fellow campaigners who think what you are trying to do

entirely on individual willpower in isolation from others.

is worthwhile and who are willing to give feedback on

Talking to others facing the same dilemmas, and building

your activities, whether research or activism. If you are

friendships and support groups, can be immensely valu-

using an interactive research method such as participa-

able. So can learning from senior academics who have

tory action research, you may have a ready-made refer-

maintained their social involvement; senior academics

ence group.

can in turn be inspired by the energy and commitment

More generally, keeping in touch with activists, espe-

of students and younger colleagues. Although combining

cially in relation to research, is a powerful way of counter-

activism and an academic career is challenging, it can be

ing the influence of academic peers. Activists can provide

immensely rewarding. The greatest resources for those

outside perspectives on your activities and priorities,

with this goal are others in the same situation, and the

helping to maintain your critical perspective and outward

many activists outside the academy.

orientation. Fred was committed to public engagement, especially on environmental issues. However, his colleagues’ keen interest in scholarly conundrums rubbed off on him: he undertook some collaborations on environment politics, but with an academic orientation. By taking a regular spot on a community radio station and interviewing activists week after week, Fred kept in touch with community concerns and retained a portion of his time and energy for community-oriented efforts.

Acknowledgements For many valuable comments on drafts, we thank Erica Chenoweth, Sean Leneghan, Jason MacLeod, Bob Pease, Majken Sørensen, Stellan Vinthagen and two anonymous reviewers. Michael Flood, Brian Martin and Tanja Dreher are in the School of Social Sciences, Media and Communication, Faculty of Arts, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia.

Conclusion References Quite a number of undergraduate students become inspired to make a difference in society, some of them learning about social issues in their classes and others being introduced to them by their friends. They start a PhD thinking this is a way for them to contribute, imagining an academic career as an ideal way to combine satisfying work with social commitment. But traps lie ahead.

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marily because of pressures within the scholarly world

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Dreher, T. (2006). From Indifference to Working in Difference: New Media and Cultural Diversity in Sydney’s Western Suburbs. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Western Sydney. Dreher, T. (2010). Speaking up or being heard? Community media interventions and the politics of listening. Media, Culture and Society, 32, 1–19. El-Gawley, N. & O’Donnell, P. (2009). Listening, journalism and community voices – Nadyat El-Gawley in conversation with Penny O’Donnell. Continuum: Journal of Cultural and Media Studies, 23, 519–523. Eschle, C. & Maiguashca, B. (2007). Rethinking global resistance: feminist activism and critical theorising in international relations. British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 9, 284–301. Feagin, J.R. & Vera, H. (2008). Liberation Sociology (2d ed.), Paradigm, Boulder, CO. Flood, M. (ed.) (2010). Fact Sheet #2: The myth of women’s false accusations of domestic violence and rape and misuse of protection orders. Retrieved from http://www.xyonline.net/content/fact-sheet-2-myth-women%E2%80%99s-falseaccusations-domestic-violence-and-misuse-protection-orders Hale, C.R. (ed.) (2008). Engaging Contradictions: Theory, Politics, and Methods of Activist Scholarship, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Herr, K. & Anderson, G.L. (2005). The Action Research Dissertation: A Guide for Students and Faculty, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. Hil, R. (2012). Wackademia: An Insider’s Account of the Troubled University, NewSouth, Sydney. hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom, Routledge, New York. Jasper, J.M. (2006). Getting Your Way: Strategic Dilemmas in the Real World, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Kinne, B. (1943). Voltaire never said it! Modern Language Notes, 58, 534–535.

Schmidt, J. (2000). Disciplined Minds: A Critical Look at Salaried Professionals and the Soul-battering System that Shapes their Lives, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD. Shor, I. (1980). Critical Teaching and Everyday Life, Black Rose Books, Montreal. Slaughter, S. & Leslie, L.L. (1997). Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies, and the Entrepreneurial University, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. Smith, A. (2007). Social-justice activism in the academic industrial-complex. Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, 23, 140–145. Smith, D.N. (1974). Who Rules the Universities? An Essay in Class Analysis, Monthly Review Press, New York. Smith, S.E., Willms, D.G., with Johnson, N.A. (eds) (1997). Nurtured by Knowledge: Learning to do Participatory Action-Research, Apex, New York. UTS (University of Technology, Sydney). (2012). UTS Shopfront publications. Retrieved from http://www.shopfront.uts.edu.au/research/publications/. Vaccaro, A. (2010). What lies beneath seemingly positive campus climate results: institutional sexism, racism, and male hostility toward equity initiatives and liberal bias. Equity & Excellence in Education, 43(2), 202–215. Veblen, T. (1918). The Higher Learning in America: A Memorandum on the Conduct of Universities by Business, B. W. Huebsch, New York. Vinthagen, S., Kenrick, J. & Mason, K. (eds) (2012). Tackling Trident: Academics in Action through ‘Academic Conference Blockades’, Irene Publishing, Sparsnäs, Sweden. Ward, K. (2007). Geography and public policy: activist, participatory and policy geographies. Progress in Human Geography, 31, 695–705. Zerai, A. (2002). Models for unity between scholarship and grassroots activism. Critical Sociology, 28, 201–216.

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Australian higher education and the Course Experience Questionnaire Insights, implications and recommendations Joy Talukdar, Tania Aspland & Poulomee Datta University of Adelaide

Australian universities are faced with increased pressure from the government and other stakeholder groups to demonstrate the quality of their activities. The Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ) provides a valuable source of data about student satisfaction regarding the courses that they study at Australian universities. It provides a body of data which is collected systematically at the national level, and has been shown to be a stable, reliable and meaningful measure of course satisfaction. The CEQ data have become increasingly important in institutional performance evaluation, however, not without controversies. The current review provides valuable insights into the CEQ methodology, comments on its significance and usage and highlights some of its major limitations. It also suggests possible means of improvement of the CEQ, imperative towards quality teaching, learning and evaluation in the Australian higher education system.

The need for teaching evaluation

ation and raised concerns against the careless practices prevalent. However, Johnson & Ryan (2000) believed that

It was over thirty years ago in 1981 that Michael Scriven

it was difficult to obtain complete objectivity as the pro-

raised numerous concerns regarding teacher evaluation.

cess of evaluation seemed quite complex in its own right.

He claimed that ‘teacher evaluation is a disaster’ because

Cannon (2001) reported that in the past two decades, due

‘the practices are shoddy and the principles are unclear’

to an increasing demand, there has been an improvement

(Scriven, 1981, p. 244). He further substantiated that the

and progress in teaching. He further argued that state

application of it was not a true representation of contem-

governments are participating and showing greater inter-

porary knowledge and that the need to amend teacher

est in higher education and are employing performance-

evaluation was mainly raised by agencies external to the

based funding as a means to achieve success. A number

university sector. Cannon (2001) also highlighted the

of research studies (Barr & Tagg, 1995; Norris & Malloch,

importance of transparency and lucidity in teacher evalu-

1997) indicated that a change or shift in the policies and

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practices in the direction of learning as opposed to teach-

Gaither et al. (1994) asserted that performance indica-

ing has brought in some connotations for evaluation prac-

tors are powerful evaluation tools enabling comparisons

tices (Cannon, 2001).

against competitors or measuring achievements against

According to Cannon (2001), the role of the educators

intended goals. Cannon (2001) added that indicators not

in influencing the teaching-learning process in universi-

only characterise attributes of teaching and learning but

ties has gained importance with its impact on student

also measure teaching itself in terms of student and faculty

learning and achieving outcomes. Biggs (1996, 1999) fur-

characteristics and the availability of teaching resources.

ther articulated that evaluation policy and practices goes

According to Cave et al. (1997), there are essentially

hand in hand with institutional goals to achieve positive

three kinds of indicators. Simple indicators are intended

outcomes. Cannon (2001) indicated that the teacher-

to provide an objective representation of a situation and

centric system was never a practice in all teaching in

as assessing other indicators. Performance indicators, on

higher education. In recent times, with the introduc-

the other hand, serve as a relative measure of achieve-

tion of diverse and varied teaching learning techniques,

ment against a set criterion, goal, or standard. The third

this system does not hold true (Centra, 2000). A change

type, more general in nature, constitutes peer reviews,

in the positive direction has been the introduction of

surveys, accreditation panel reports, and the like (Cave

many assessment and quality guarantee tools, such as

et al., 1997).

benchmarking and appraisals that have their origins

Whatsoever the type of indicator may be, it facilitates

in the business world (Alstete, 1996; Holmes & Brown,

the evaluation and review of institutional operations in

2000). Cannon (2001) emphasised the fact that teaching

terms of the latter’s teaching and learning quality objec-

involves group effort and therefore, a reliable and appro-

tives being met (Bruwer, 1998; Romainville, 1999; Rowe

priate assessment of teaching should focus more on how

& Lievesley, 2002). Cannon (2001) highlighted the broad

students perceive their experiences as a whole about the

usage of performance indicators. While the government

course as opposed to individual instructors. Nonetheless,

uses them to inform policy and to allocate resources, the

Saroyan and Amundsen (2001) concluded that the only

media considers it as an effective means to ranking uni-

way to improve teaching is through its evaluation.

versities (Cannon, 2001). Dobson (2000) reviewed how The Times, Financial Times, U.S. News and World Report,

Theoretical framework

and Asiaweek constructed their rankings using a wide range of indicators.

Linke (1991) pointed out that higher education faces con-

The CEQ was developed by Professor Paul Ramsden

siderable pressure towards performance and accountabil-

(Ramsden, 1991; Wilson et al., 1997). Chalmers (2007)

ity. Performance indicators are widely used in evaluating

noted that it was primarily developed as a teaching per-

the performance of higher educational institutions and

formance indicator focusing on aspects of the classroom

some of these as outlined by Cannon (2001, Table 9.1, p.

teaching environment. Chalmers (2007) further argued

89) are highlighted in Table 1.

that this development stemmed from previous research

Table 1. Levels of Evaluation Focus of Evaluation

enumerating aspects of deep and surface approaches to learning and higher quality learning.The author also high-

Indicators of Teaching Performance

lighted that the scales of the CEQ include Good Teaching,

Individual instructor or teacher

Student evaluation

Appropriate Workload (Chalmers, 2007). The CEQ also

Teaching items

Peer evaluation

Satisfaction with Course Quality item (Chalmers, 2007).

Course, unit, or programme of study

Course Experience Questionnaire

Griffin et al. (2003, p. 260) in arguing that the original

Academic department

Portfolios Audits Benchmarking

sises the primary forces in the undergraduate experience

Portfolios Benchmarking Ranking

aspects of a higher education beyond the classroom and

Institution

includes an outcome scale, Generic Skills, and an Overall

Source: Cannon, 2001, Table 9.1, p. 89

Clear Goals and Standards, Appropriate Assessment and

CEQ was ‘based on a theory of learning which emphaas located within the classroom setting’, developed an expanded range of the CEQ scales. These incorporated hence focused on Student Support, Learning Resources, Course Organisation, Learning Community, Graduate Qualities and Intellectual Motivation (Chalmers, 2007).

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tutional comparisons over time. Ramsden (1999, p. 25) in this regard depicted the CEQ as:

Education databases, namely Academic Onefile, Australian Education Index, A+ Education, Education Research Complete, ERIC, Factiva, Google Scholar, JSTOR and Scopus, were searched with the keywords ‘australian higher education’ and ‘course experience questionnaire’. The websites of individual Australian universities were also explored for the purpose of the current review.

…a proxy measure for the quantity and quality of student learning outcomes, having been constructed from first principles to examine course and teaching attributes associated in students’ experiences with more effective learning. Scott (2005) maintained that numerous researches have been undertaken towards examining the use of the CEQ. While some like Webb (1997) have provided a cri-

Review of related literature

tique of the measure, others have investigated aspects of association between student learning and experience

Davies et al. (2005) asserted that surveys intended to

(Scott, 2005). The Approaches and Study Skills Inventory

evaluate student perceptions of teaching and learning

for Students (ASSIST) survey and the CEQ were used by

are themselves subject to scrutiny.The author in substan-

Kreber (2003) in his research to investigating relation-

tiating his claim highlighted numerous pieces of research

ships between students’ approaches to learning and their

conducted on the student ratings of teaching. Research

perceptions of the learning environment. The findings of

in this perspective has been conducted in the United

Kreber’s (2003) research identified associations between

States (Marsh, 1987; Cashin, 1995), Australia (Marsh,

heavy workload, inappropriate assessment and surface

1987; Marsh & Bailey, 1993; Bedggood & Pollard, 1999; Wagner,

1999;

Neumann,

2000; Haynes, 2002; Worthington, 2002) and Europe (Husbands & Fosh, 1993; Husbands, 1996, 1997; Shevlin et al., 2000). Nevertheless, according to Marsh & Hocevar

(1991), Marsh &

Bailey (1993), Ting (2000), and Haynes (2002), most of

approaches to learning, and

The findings of Kreber’s (2003) research identified associations between heavy workload, inappropriate assessment and surface approaches to learning, and between generic skills and deep approaches. Vieira (2002, pp. 260268), on the other hand, found a strong relationship between ‘students’ views, teachers’ views, and pedagogic quality’.

between generic skills and deep

approaches.

Vieira

(2002, pp. 260-268), on the other hand, found a strong relationship between ‘students’ views, teachers’ views, and pedagogic quality’. Scott (2005), therefore, in citing Ramsden (1991, p. 93) who disapproved the ‘technicist ideology’, argued that stu-

these studies have been of

dents’ ratings of teaching

a short duration. Moreover,

quality cannot be productive

Davies et al. (2005) raised concern regarding these sur-

without taking into account the context in which teach-

veys as purporting to what it is intended to measure as

ing and learning takes place.

evident from the support and recommendations of dis-

In a like manner, other researchers like Ramsden (1991,

continuation emanating from these researchers. Several

1999) and Wilson et al. (1997) sought to confirm the psy-

other authors also pointed out the limitations associated

chometric qualities of the CEQ. Richardson (2005) in his

with these surveys (McKeachie & Lin, 1979; Hepworth

comprehensive review article addressing CEQ related

& Oviatt, 1985; Abrami et al., 1990; Solas, 1990; Cashin,

research mentioned several others. Scott (2005) in refer-

1995; Dwinell & Higbee, 1993; Greenwald, 1997; McK-

ring to these in his own work, also mentioned the work of

eachie, 1997; Smith, 2004).

Byrne and Flood (2003) in accounting education, Broom-

Scott (2005) pointed out that the development of Aus-

field and Bligh (1998) and Lyon and Hendry (2002) in

tralia’s CEQ was based on educational research. Prior to

medical education, and Eley (2001), who concluded that

its present form, it was Ramsden and Entwistle’s (1981)

varying the question format would improve the psycho-

Course Perceptions Questionnaire (CPQ) which solic-

metric properties of the CEQ scales.

ited to identify factors in the learning environment that

Scott (2005) also pointed the issue of the interpretation

impacted students’ learning. Scott (2005) further high-

of the CEQ results besides the psychometric evaluation

lighted that the CEQ, intended to measure the perceived

as noted in the above studies. Koder (1999, p. 159) too, in

quality of teaching at a whole course level, permits insti-

acknowledging that the content validity of the instrument

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emanates from a rigid theory, argued that political pro-

Queensland University of Technology

cesses have ‘led to a multiplication of stakeholders who

The Queensland University of Technology also provides

are now trying to load on to the CEQ additional purposes,

the CEQ results to academic departments. In conjunction

that is generating goal displacement’. Koder (1999) was

with a Course Performance Enquiry Database, the CEQ

also sceptical of the survey’s new scales as purporting to

data gathers information relating to enrolment and per-

the intention to which it was devised.

formance.

Scott (2005) in justifying the additional scales maintained that these were developed partly in response

The University of Queensland

to the growing recognition that there are many factors

In a like manner as reported by Hand et al .(1998), the

beyond the classroom or the teacher that can have an

University of Queensland utilises CEQ data to measure

effect on learning e.g. include university’s student sup-

performance across academic departments.

port and administrative systems, the quality of its learning resources and infrastructure, and the important role

Australian higher education and the CEQ

played by the formal and informal social contexts in which learning takes place. McInnis (2001), too, stressed

Chalmers (2007) stressed that the CEQ has been admin-

that the scale extension of the CEQ was contingent largely

istered Australia-wide since 1993. He further pointed out

upon the ideology that external factors also impact teach-

that the original survey was extended with additional

ing and learning. McInnis et al. (2001) contended that the

scales in 2001 and is now administered with a Gradu-

extended CEQ demonstrates internal validity.

ate Destinations Survey (GDS). The latter has been sent

According to Hand et al. (1998), the CEQ is most

to all graduating students since 1972 (Chalmers, 2007).

widely used by those universities that do not have inter-

The Australian Vice-Chancellors’ Committee (AVCC) and

nal teaching and subject evaluation processes of their

Government Skills Australia (GSA) have jointly released

own towards the provision of a data for monitoring

Code of Practice and Guidelines for the administration

the quality of teaching within their academic units and

of the CEQ, the Postgraduate Research Experience Ques-

for their institution as a whole. The following are brief

tionnaire (PREQ) and the GDS (AVCC, 2006). Ramsden

details of how the participant universities use CEQ data

(1991) and Johnson (1999) posited in this regard that the

for monitoring the quality of courses, and teaching and

CEQ has been developed in Australia to gather feedback

learning (Hand et al., 1998).

from recent graduates about their experience of their

The University of Melbourne

program in terms of the quality of teaching, clarity of goals, workload, assessment methods, and development

In a similar manner, the University of Melbourne provides

of generic skills. The development of the CEQ, therefore,

the CEQ results to academic departments which focus

has been a cumulative process based on the research

on teaching and learning outcomes. Hand et al. (1998)

by Ramsden and Entwistle (1981) in the United King-

report that the results are often used in the annual Plan-

dom on factors that promote deeper learning. Wilson et

ning Group meetings with deans.

al. (1997) and Johnson (1999), however, noted that the

Swinburne University of Technology

instrument has undergone several changes to render it in its present form.

The Swinburne University of Technology utilises the CEQ

Cannon (2001) highlighted that the instrument typically

Good Teaching scale and the Overall Satisfaction Rating as

pertains to a whole program of study rather than an indi-

an indicator of the quality of teaching.This in conjunction

vidual evaluation of instructors. Linke (1991) added that

with the Swinburne Quality Management System, com-

in Australia, the CEQ came into effect after trialling other

prise the Performance Management System.

indicators and at present as Cannon (2001) stressed, the

Curtin University of Technology

instrument is a reliable data towards evaluation of teaching. Hand et al. (1998) also confirmed that the instrument

For the Curtin University of Technology, the CEQ results

provides deep insights into student experiences of their

are primarily used by the academic units as a performance

educational programs. The instrument consists of twenty-

measure. According to Hand et al. (1998), the CEQ scales

four items that survey the five areas (stated earlier), in

serve as one of the four performance indicators towards

addition to one global item measuring overall satisfaction

effective teaching and learning.

with the student’s program of study (Cannon, 2001).

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evoke detect important nuances of the educational environment in specific contexts. There have been concerns

The CEQ data are not only used towards the internal

that the CEQ is not an appropriate instrument for measur-

evaluation of the functioning of organisational units such

ing the quality of problem-based or enquiry-based learn-

as faculties or departments but also imperative towards

ing environments (Harris & James, 2006).

assisting prospective students regarding program choices (Cannon, 2001). Cannon (2001) further asserted that the

CEQ limitations

instrument’s role in serving as a performance indicator has been successful as evident from a positive national

Cannon (2001) stressed that indicators of the evaluation

trend in improved teaching quality. Johnson (1999) also

of higher education teaching and learning has been suc-

reiterated that the CEQ has been instrumental towards

cessful in terms of its goals of development. Neverthe-

improving teaching quality and services to students.

less, Mullins and Cannon (1992) argued that there is a

Moreover, as forwarded by Cannon (2001), the CEQ ena-

dearth of research and evidence regarding the outcomes

bles effective comparisons within field of study both

of these indicators as fulfilling its intended measure.

over time and across institutions. Nevertheless, according

Johnson (1999) too, was apprehensive that the infor-

to Hand et al. (1998), the scores as derived from the CEQ

mation generated through surveys and the like is rarely

should be interpreted against individual institutional

used in practice.

goals and circumstances.

Chalmers (2007) pointed out that the Australian Gradu-

However, with no systematic research into the influences on institutional policies and practices of the GDS and CEQ, Harris and James (2006) analyse the pros and cons of the CEQ as higher education researchers. The authors contend that the GDS and CEQ primarily serve

ate Survey (AGS) and the

...the CEQ results have an impact on the institutional management intervention in the evaluation of the quality of teaching and learning within units, subjects and courses. This, in turn, according to Harris and James (2006) impact the academic community in terms of the management’s decisions as binding.

as a teaching and learning

CEQ are now used to making decisions on performancebased funding of institutions, and discipline-specific Learning and Teaching Performance Fund (LTPF). However, the lack of uniformity in survey administration and response rates of institutions has raised concerns within

indicator rather than focus-

the Australian higher educa-

ing on an institution’s inputs or processes. This, accord-

tion sector regarding the use of the AGS/CEQ (Chalm-

ing to them places an institution’s performance on a field

ers, 2007). To address these concerns, the Department of

of study under question. Moreover, that the CEQ results

Education, Science and Training (DEST) commissioned

have been effective towards prospective students’ deci-

the Graduate Destination Survey Enhancement Project

sion making has not been researched neither uncovered.

(Graduate Careers Australia, 2006). The broad goals of

Student choices of particular institutions, therefore, vests

this project were to ‘…design and develop the processes,

solely on the market value of institutions rather than its

resources, and ideas needed to generate a new era of

performance. Further, the CEQ results have an impact on

research into Australian student experiences and gradu-

the institutional management intervention in the evalua-

ate outcomes’ (Graduate Careers Australia, 2006, p. xxi), in

tion of the quality of teaching and learning within units,

order to improve the quality of responses to the surveys

subjects and courses.This, in turn, according to Harris and

and confidence in their findings and usage (particularly

James (2006) has an impact on the academic community

with regards to the LTPF) (Chalmers, 2007).

in terms of the management’s decisions as binding. Finally,

Harris and James (2006) highlighted that the CEQ in

on account of its pertaining to an effective indicator of

particular has suffered the most criticism. This is attrib-

learning and teaching, the CEQ viewed by the manage-

uted to the fact that the CEQ is heavily drawn from theory

ment as the dominant paradigm.This, however, tends to be

as opposed to the GDS. Moreover, from a methodologi-

positive since the CEQ contains items that are inarguably

cal point of view, the conception of good teaching is

related to good teaching practices (Harris & James, 2006).

too narrow as expressed in the CEQ items and scales to

Nevertheless, Harris and James (2006) pointed that the

enable students to judge a program critically. This can

CEQ may be subject to criticism in terms of its failing to

hinder the effectiveness of the instrument as to what it

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has been intended to measure (Harris & James, 2006). The

shown to have an impact on ratings:

DEST (2001) also expressed concern regarding variations

• Time of day the course is taught, in that, early morning

in the CEQ’s administration and response rates which

classes or after lunch classes do not automatically get

render it difficult to making effective comparisons across institutions. Borden and Owens (2001) reviewed quality measurement tools employed in the USA. They reflected that the representativeness of the sample, and reliability and validity of the instrument were the issues that were addressed most often in the instruments employed. Regarding the CEQ, the most significant limitations and problems are well documented in reviews as in Hand and Trembath

lower ratings. • Popularity, in the sense of student ratings as merely representing a ‘popularity contest’. • Giving disproportionally high (or low) grades, in that one cannot ‘buy’ good ratings. • Class size, where, large classes do not automatically get lower ratings. • Gender of the instructor, where, women do not get consistently lower ratings than men (Arreola, 2007).

(1999). Hand and Trembath (1999) reported that the

Based on the limitations of the CEQ as outlined earlier,

CEQ not only had lower and generalised response rates

the following recommendations are listed as a means to

but also out of date results, and most importantly multi-

effectively improve the credibility and the intended out-

ple responses in terms of follow up mail outs.They added

come of the CEQ:

that the instrument is exhaustive suffering from repeti-

1. Monitoring students’ experiences central to examina-

tions, and difficult towards an interpretation both in the context of the results and for graduates from non-English speaking backgrounds.

tions and assessment procedures. 2. Tapping their feedback towards modules/course units and different subject areas.

To conclude, the volume of data involved and the time

3. Combining questionnaires with other methods e.g.

taken for analysis are factors hindering the purpose of

focus group interviews and online forums/virtual

the indicator as assisting the quality improvement pro-

learning environments.

cess. Therefore, the changes that might be implemented with respect to a course actually takes longer time than

4. Prioritising when to take the feedback, mid-semester or end-of-course so that changes can be incorporated.

expected (Hand & Trembath, 1999).

5. Making the instrument concise and avoiding repeti-

CEQ improvement strategies

6. Focusing on areas of known student concern for better

According to the research by Arreola (2007) which

7. Taking into account non-native respondents for better

tions to prevent survey fatigue. response rates. assumes a valid and reliable instrument, the following have been shown to have an impact on ratings:

response rates. 8. Easy availability and interpretability of results.

• Level of the course, where, students in the first and second year do tend to rate instructors lower than stu-

Conclusion

dents in upper level classes. This is important because it used to be thought that it was class size that mattered

According to Cannon (2001), the scope and context of

(that larger classes rated lower than smaller ones). It is

evaluation has widened. There has been a shift in evalua-

now established that this is not the case, and it is the

tion from the individual educator to the evaluation of the

level of the course (which of course is often conflated

pedagogy as a whole (Cannon, 2001).The author stressed

with class size) that counts.

that a more sound approach would be to align and inte-

• Required courses, in the sense that, students in required

grate evaluation in commensurate with the educational

courses tend to rate instructors lower than students in

aims and objectives of universities across a range of con-

non-required ones.

texts and levels.

• Faculty, whereby, mathematics and science courses

Most of the evaluation in higher education has been

generally receive lower ratings than those in social sci-

closely aligned to the expectations of external bodies with

ences or humanities. It should be noted that this is not

little value placed on the internal parameters within the

because the former have poorer teachers but rather

universities most likely to impact institutional performance

that there is a faculty effect.

(Chalmers, 2007). It is these internal factors within the uni-

Again, according to the research on assessing a valid

versity that can seriously influence the teaching learning

and reliable instrument, the following have not been

process and in its turn impact student experiences.

Australian higher education and the CEQ, Joy Talukdar, Tania Aspland & Poulomee Datta

vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

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In view of the growing demands for evaluation in the higher education sector, the CEQ has evolved as one of the most powerful tools. It has found its applicability for a long time now, but is not without limitations and controversies. The present review highlights some of the tremendous potential of the CEQ and also enumerates some of its major drawbacks and underlying controversies. The review also suggests effective means and scopes of improvement in fortifying the instrument further. Joy Talukdar, Tania Aspland & Poulomee Datta are from the University of Adelaide, South Australia, Australia.

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International physics research internships in an Australian university Serene Hyun-Jin Choi, Timo A. Nieminen, G. Maucort, Y. X. Gong, C. Bartylla & M. Persson University of Queensland

Research student internships in physics is one way that students can gain a broad range of research experience in a variety of research environments, and develop international contacts. We explore international physics research internships, focusing on the academic learning experiences, by interviewing four international research interns in a research-driven Australian university. Based on the students’ internship experiences, we provide practical information regarding internships. We discuss facilitating successful learning outcomes, support of students, the choice of an Australian internship, arranging internships, and life aspects to be considered for potential internship students. This would assist students who are interested in overseas internships, and host institutions, to maximise the success of such visits.

Introduction

– for example, Universitas 21 (http://www.universitas21. com), and the Bologna Process and the Lisbon Strategy

Part of the trend towards increasing globalisation of

(Keeling, 2006) – encouraging such international or inter-

higher education (Lefrere, 2007) is that students increas-

continental exchanges of undergraduate and postgradu-

ingly seek internships in foreign countries (international

ate students, and young scientists.

internship). In addition to benefits such as exposure to

Accordingly, issues of student mobility motivation

different languages and cultures, and real work experi-

(Papatsiba, 2005), the correlation between study abroad

ence in the field (Lacey, 2006; Rubin, 2009), it is also an

and professional mobility after graduation (Teichler & Jahr,

opportunity to explore future career fields and build

2001), and supervision skills for international postgradu-

social networks for future employment (e.g. Berkeley Uni-

ate students (Wisker, Robinson, & Shacham 2007) are

versity of California Career Centre, 2011-2012).

receiving increased attention, along with issues such as

In the research-focused disciplines such as physics, indi-

the mutual recognition of degrees or other qualifications,

vidual physicists visiting other research groups (research

and the development of joint degree programmes. How-

visits) is a common academic activity to share knowledge

ever, we know little about internship in research driven

and scientific methods. There is a long-standing tradition

disciplines such as physics. Most literature on science

of scientific knowledge exchange between countries and

internship is on undergraduate exchange programmes

within a country (Benka, 2006). Apart from the traditional

in science, including physics (e.g. Guest, 2006), or under-

mobility in physics, and other branches of science, there

graduate science teacher internship programmes (e.g.

are now important trends towards increased interna-

Akerson & Volrich, 2006), or non-research informational

tional cooperation and globalisation in higher education

articles in the industry literature (Anonymous, 2008).

International physics research internships in an Australian university, Serene Hyun-Jin Choi et al.

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In this study, we explore international research intern-

had previous internship experiences, one having spent

ships in physics in Australia. In Australia, international

nine months in the current host university in the previ-

research internship programmes, typically for postgradu-

ous year. For the other two, this was the first internship.

ates or advanced undergraduate students, can be found in

• Intern 1: In 2nd year of degree, 21 years old, French,

physics in the forms of visiting research students, occupa-

internship duration of 2.5 months, funded by a small

tional trainees and interns. They typically hold an occupa-

scholarship paid by the laboratory, and further sup-

tional trainee visa, rather than a student visa, and they are

ported by parents, and had 1 month previous intern-

not counted as students at a government level. Records are

ship experience at a research centre in France.

usually kept by individual faculties or schools, rather than at

• Intern 2: In PhD, 25 years old, Chinese, internship dura-

a university level.As a result of this diversity of classification

tion of 6 months, funded by a PhD scholarship from

and recording, there appears to be no reliable statistical

government and PhD supervisor, with no previous

data on the number of international interns (Rubin, 2009).

internship experience.

Our study aims to provide an overview of international

• Intern 3: In 3rd year of degree, 24 years old, German,

research internship experiences in physics. In addition,

internship duration of 5 months, funded by scholarship

we suggest some practical advice for students considering

from government for study outside Europe (BAFoG),

such internship programmes and researchers, and faculties or schools, planning to supervise or host interns.

with no previous internship experience. • Intern 4: In 4th year of degree, 28 years old, Swedish, internship duration of 3 months, self-supported, with

Methodology and participants

some limited paid work as a research assistant, and with 9 months previous internship experience at the same

Four international students, from France, China, Germany,

host university.

and Sweden, participated in this study, sharing their personal opinions and experiences. All four were interns in

Procedure

the same host institute. Thus, this is a case study with a sample limited in both number and scope, and results

A three-stage procedure was used for data collection. In

should not be over-generalised.

stage one, the four international visiting students were

Their ages were from 24 to 28 when the interviews

asked to fill out a questionnaire. Focusing on individual

were conducted. One of them was in a PhD programme

motivations for overseas internship and learning expe-

in his home country university, two were studying at an

riences in the Australian university, the questionnaire

honours/masters equivalent level, and the last was an

consisted of four areas: (1) reasons to choose the host

undergraduate student. These students were active par-

university in Australia, (2) academic learning experiences,

ticipants as co-researchers (Boylorn, 2008, pp. 599–601)

(3) related life-experiences in Australia, and (4) self-assess-

and co-authors in this pilot study, providing a genuine and

ment of their own internship experience. The questions

creative voice (e.g. positive and negative experiences, and

were open-ended.

advice and suggestions) rather than being passive inter-

In stage two, each student was interviewed for approxi-

view subjects. This was important since the interns’ stays

mately two hours. As co-researchers and co-authors, the

in the host university were very short (2.5 months for the

students were also asked to add any other related ques-

majority of them), providing co-ownership that facilitated

tions to discuss and share together. If needed, the students

effective data collection including follow-up interviews

provided further explanations on a second, augmented,

a year after the original interviews, analysis, and writing.

version of the questionnaire. Discussion was also contin-

Thus, the questionnaires and interviews were a starting

ued by email.

point for their participation as active agents, rather than

In the third stage, approximately one year after their

the entirety of the data collection. None of them was in

internship in the host university, short individual follow-

a supervision relationship with either of the other two

up interviews were conducted with three of the stu-

researchers (a social scientist and a physicist).

dents (the last one was not contactable) through email.

Financial support for their overseas internship varied

The follow-up interviews focused on perceived benefits

(e.g. scholarships from the home country or home super-

or advantages resulting from the physics research intern-

visor, support by parents, and research assistant work).

ships in Australia that may have affected their academic

None of them were required to pay a tuition fee to the

learning and life, and any useful resources for other poten-

host university in Australia. Half of them (two students)

tial interns who might consider overseas internships.

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The questionnaires and interviews were analysed using

(the only exception in our study here was China), some

thematic analysis (Julien, 2008, pp. 120–121). We focused

particular physics research centres or groups were well

on five main themes: (1) internships being either required,

known to the internship students. The research perfor-

recommended, or supported by home institutes, (2) fac-

mance of these groups or centres was even regarded as

tors affecting the choice of internship hosts in Australia,

excellent at the world-level, as evidenced by high-profile

(3) arranging the internship, (4) positive academic learn-

research publications. Since three Federation Fellows (the

ing experiences, and (5) life aspects to be considered

most prestigious Australian research fellowship scheme),

for internships in Australia. On the basis of these themes,

one State Fellow (highly selective state-level research fel-

practical advice for students considering such internship

lowship scheme), and many other research fellows have

programmes, as well as for researchers and faculties plan-

been working in physics at the host institute, the high

ning to supervise interns, were drawn out.

recognition of some groups or centres and their research

Results and discussions Internships being either required, recommended, or supported by home institutes For some of the interns, an internship was a compulsory part of their degree studies, while for others it was optional. In either case, undertaking an international

productivity might be a reasonable result. It is thought excellence in my country. There are many famous professors here and their group are excellence in their research field...I got the information for the internet and their papers...published many famous papers...I wanted to come to [the host university] because it is a famous university and excellent in [my research field]. (intern 2)

internship was entirely optional For intern 2, a PhD student, the goal was to bring back

Apart from the reputation of the particular physics

expertise in accomplishing a specific task, learned from

research groups,Australia is viewed as an attractive tourist

an eminent theorist in the field at the host university.

destination; this was a major factor affecting the choice of

Thus, there was an overall mission on behalf of intern

host country for the European interns. Moreover, with the

2’s research group, which provided financial support.

de facto dominance of English as the current international

In cases like this, selection for international internship

language of science, internships in English-speaking coun-

can be very competitive (e.g. 4 selected for such intern-

tries were attractive to the interns who are non-native

ships from 70 PhD students in the home institute), with

English speakers.

academic excellence often being the major criterion. The selection procedure for interns in either research or industry can vary greatly. In industry internships, the employers usually choose the interns by assessing applicants’ CVs, motivation letters, and phone interviews. Some

It [Australia] is in an English speaking country. Moreover it is a very attractive country, tourism, kangaroos, surf, Sydney, the Great Barrier Reef, the weather... English and find solutions by myself, I spent three month speaking only English and that’s what made me improve my level. (intern 1)

industrial internships are well-paid (e.g. similar level to a beginning employee per month, with accommodation

As English-speaking countries with world-famous

provided), and can lead to future employment with the

universities and a strong reputation in research, many

host company on completion of the degree, and can be

students consider the USA and UK as host countries. How-

very competitive.

ever, from a European perspective, the UK hardly offers

Three factors for choice of internship hosts in Australia

an exotic foreign experience, or has already been visited. Individual students can have many reasons to rule out various potential host countries, from having already studied

The combination of three main factors – the presence of

there, or planning to visit or study there in the future, the

groups working in a particular research field, the Austral-

typical weather, and others.

ian natural environment, and Australia being an Englishhosts in Australia. The first of these was a major factor

Improved English and some strategies for obtaining it

affecting the choice of host institution within Australia,

Improving English skills is one of the main aims, like learn-

while the latter two were reasons to choose Australia

ing research, for these interns, especially those who are

rather than other countries.

non-native English speakers. Although they must have

speaking country – influenced the choice of internship

Despite Australian universities and degrees being

mastered a certain academic level of English skill to be

largely unknown or unrecognised in most of the world

accepted by the host university, it is still not a simple

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matter to apply English in a research context and real

the home institute was requested. This process was very

life. In particular, at the beginning of internship, it typi-

quick, with, for example, three email communications

cally requires a great deal of attention and concentration

leading to an invitation from the host research group.Also,

to follow and participate in the flow of the conversation

previous links or contacts between researchers in the

with others.

countries involved, and previous positive experience with

The interns commented on two elements of their English improvement during their internship. First, the interns have felt that their English skills, especially related to speaking and listening, improved. In their home country, they often had experience with reading English (e.g. English textbooks and journal articles) and writing, but less experience in conversation. Second, they felt their confidence increased in the use of English as well as decreased fear of making mistakes – this did not mean that they did not make mistakes, but they did feel more comfortable and willing to risk mistakes. Since the interns had only short-term internships,

interns from the home country or university, appeared to contribute to such speed. After a little inquest in the Internet I figured B out as one of the leading heads in this school. I wrote him an email with my [study] intentions and asked if there is a chance to realise them. He forwarded me to C with whom I managed some further stuff. C just said that B forwarded my email to him and he offered me so fields where I could do some projects...a very interesting event for me. (intern 3)

Research learning experiences by supports from supervisors and colleagues

some strategies to enhance rapid improvement of English

As Vygotsky indicated, more and better academic learning

skills were used. One of the interns commented that he

would occur in supportive social contexts (Jarvis, 2004).

chose not to go together with friends for this internship,

This is shown in Walsh’s study (2010), where international

choosing to be located in a different city. He believed that

research students experienced positive learning in socially

being apart from them maximised the opportunity to use

cohesive and inclusive research groups with supportive

English (and this was a successfully strategy). Another

supervisors compared to socially isolated or less support-

intern strongly recommended for international students

ive groups in science and engineering disciplines. Similar

to seek accommodation with Australians or others from

opinions were expressed by the interns in our study. The

countries other than their own. Similarly, making friends,

benefits of support from supervisors, postdocs and col-

with English as the common language, and spending time

leagues were evident – all the interns reported that they

with them forces one to speak English and understand it.

felt that discussion with them was an important contribu-

At work, frequent discussions with supervisors and col-

tion to their learning about research.The interns’ research

leagues are highly desirable.

learning occurred not only through formal meetings (e.g.

Interns can also take opportunities for formal presenta-

supervision meeting) but also through informal sessions

tions. Apart from regular discussions within the research

(e.g. discussions in lunch together). Supervisors’ open

group, the opportunity to give a formal presentation

door policies allowed the interns frequent impromptu

of research results, such as at a regular meeting of the

meetings to ask questions, seek advice, etc.

research group or department, or perhaps even at a conference, can be a valuable learning experience.

Overall, the interns pointed out that positive social and collaborative relationships with supervisors and colleagues helped their research learning.Three out of the four intern-

Arranging the internship

ship students felt well integrated within their research

Internships are sometimes arranged through various

groups and comfortable from the beginning of their intern-

agencies or organisations (Rubin, 2009), but none of the

ship. They were surrounded by other PhD students and

interns here had used an agency. For Intern 2 (as a del-

other researchers such as postdocs in their laboratory or

egate of the home institution research group), the home

office.They felt hands-on help was almost always available.

group leader arranged the international internship. The

Their official meetings with supervisors ranged from daily,

other three interns used Internet search of university

to once or twice a week, or once per fortnight, depend-

websites, investigating research publications, and asking

ing on issues needing discussion and work circumstances.

academic staff in their home institutes as initial methods

They lasted from ten minutes to one hour per meeting.The

to find internship places. After choosing a potential host,

doors of supervisors were open for possible extra meetings

the internship students emailed the leading researcher

if the interns had research problems to solve.

of the research group they were interested in. In reply,

Compared to the other three interns, the last student

sometimes, an academic record or reference letter from

reported that he felt more or less integrated socially over-

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all, but less so at the beginning of his internship. This was

On the other hand, personal assistance (e.g. helping to

due to no other PhD students, technicians, or postdocs

find accommodation and local tours) by group members

in physics working in the same laboratory, and much of

was voluntary. The interns appreciated social activities

his interaction was with the engineers involved in the

and personal courtesy. In the host university, the Student

cross-disciplinary project. Due to the shortage of hands-

Union provides services and information for study-related

on help available for him, he had to spend more time to

skills, student welfare, transport information, and legal

become familiar with the new laboratory environment at

advice. However, these services and information need to

the host university. In his home academic culture, supervi-

be found and accessed by individual students. The short-

sor’s did not usually have open door policies – it was usual

term interns were not systematically told about such

for appointments to be required – and before establishing

services. No separate official or formal processes were

rapport with his supervisor and becoming familiar with

available to help the interns settle down or socialise at

the system of the host university, the intern hesitated to

the host university.

use the supervisor’s open door policy.

For the short-term internship, an information package

In relation to experimental work in the laboratory,

containing accommodation, transport, study skills, etc.

all the interns pointed out the importance of hands-on

would be useful. In general, these are available for interna-

help or immediate availability of help. If the supervisor

tional students at the beginning of the year or semester at

was busy and no other people such as postdocs, techni-

the host university. For international interns, this could be

cians, and PhD students were readily available, especially

made available by the host faculty or department as a book-

at the beginning of the internship, the students could be

let or ebook, before they leave their home country, or a ded-

frustrated and their progress delayed. As Doing (2004)

icated website with frequent updates. Intern 3 found that

indicated, physics laboratory work is an epistemic orches-

the orientation session for international students run by the

tration of technical skills to deal with tools and equipment

host university at the beginning of the year was very useful.

(‘lab hands’, a primary skill for technicians) and knowl-

University services for providing international students

edge of the field to make decisions (often possessed by

with information on accommodation can be useful because

scientists). This requires a supervisor, technician, or other

they can provide information about rights and duties of ten-

sufficiently skilled or experienced person to be available

ants and whom to contact if any problem occurs.

and able to communicate skills with interns (Grey, 2002). or colleagues should spend an appropriate (not exces-

Positive internship impacts on the future study or career: one year follow-up

sive) amount of time and avoid unnecessary help to pro-

In the follow-up interviews, the three interns answered that

mote the interns’ independent learning over time.

their research internships in Australia had significant posi-

However, the interns also mentioned that the supervisors

I’m to a high degree responsible for my own project but still have great support from my supervisors and colleagues...my lack of experimental experience... since I worked mainly autonomously in the lab...For me, hands-on help in the lab would probably have saved me some time. (intern 4)

tive impacts for their further studies or work – they did not think that the internship was merely a nice trip overseas. For intern 1, physics internship in Australia was an opportunity to see the work conditions for his PhD study. One year after the internship, he chose to return and began his PhD study in the same research group in the host university in

With guidance by the supervisor, the research experi-

Australia. Intern 4 commenced his PhD study in his home

ence itself is also a vital part of learning about research.The

country. As Shaw, Holbrook, and Bourke (2011) found, this

interns’ learning widens through solving more problems in

indicates that undergraduate research experience obtain-

a range of fields of physics.The possibility of a research pub-

ing insights about research environment and self-motiva-

lication based or partly based on their work was regarded

tion towards research can be an excellent opportunity to

as the best tangible outcome of the research internship and

prepare for further research study. Intern 2 considered it an

it was often encouraged by their supervisors.

invaluable learning experience helping to achieve the tasks

Some life aspects

given by his research group in his home institute, and beneficial for his future research career. According to intern 3,

Often, in the research groups in the host university, social

with a substantial trend of internship programme in higher

activities (e.g. welcome BBQ parties) to welcome an

education curricular at home (Klein & Weiss, 2011), the

international intern were organised by the leader of the

one-year study abroad experience including the research

individual research group to which the intern belonged.

internship in an English speaking country was very posi-

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tively perceived by a company interviewer in a European

nician for somebody else’s project. In practice, the role of

country.After the study abroad, including the physics intern-

research interns in physics can be considered as a combi-

ship in Australia, he has also maintained fluency in English

nation of both learner and research labourer, in terms of a

by watching English language news, television, and movies

research apprenticeship. As learners, they practice hands-

and reading English books. Overall, the interns perceived a

on skills and receive ‘higher’ knowledge from seniors (e.g.

positive impact of their physics research internships in an

PhD students and postdocs).As research labourers, interns

English speaking country as a tool to widen their learning

provide their time and effort to contribute to the research

and their career choices, similar to the findings by Norris

of their research groups. While we cannot generalise from

and Gillespie (2009).

such a small exploratory sample with certainty, it may well be that a medium sized group is best, with perhaps two or

Advice and consideration for students, advisors and supervisors

three postgraduate students or postdocs readily available for assistance or advice in the laboratory. Otherwise, the supervisor must be prepared to, and able to, spend enough

Given that there are diverse reasons for undertaking

time in the laboratory to provide such assistance. Apart

international internships, students would do well to con-

from assistance – such as where to find a particular piece

sciously consider exactly what their aims are. It is impor-

of equipment, how to obtain needed materials, and so on –

tant to note that a student having diverse aims will not

interaction with other members of the group is important to learn about the aspects of

necessary find them all compatible. However, students can

successfully

For the short-term internship, an information package containing accommodation, transport, study skills, etc. would be useful. In general, these are available for international students at the beginning of the year or semester at the host university.

combine

positive

and

educational

research

experience

learning, improvement

and in

English, and tourism. Of these goals, tourism is perhaps the most straightfor-

research that transcend technical skills (Campbell, 2003; Walsh, 2010). Apart from skills learned, another possible outcome that can benefit students, especially if they are interested in a career in research

ward – if a country of inter-

or academia, is authorship

est, perhaps one that the

on research publications or

student has not visited before, and would be unlikely to

conference presentations. Research publication, espe-

visit in the near future otherwise, is English-speaking and

cially in peer-reviewed journals in the physics discipline,

has suitable research facilities for the internship, all that is

during an undergraduate or masters degree can increase

required is to plan sufficient time for the desired tourist

the chances of obtaining competitive scholarships or

activities. We do not intend to overemphasise tourism as

being accepted into a PhD programme. As authorship

a motivation – for many interns, the primary motivation is

can be a difficult issue (Louis, Holdsworth, Anderson,

to work with a particular research group in physics – but

& Campbell, 2008), it might be useful to discuss the

it is important for some interns.

group’s policies on authorship early during the intern-

To maximise the improvement of English, the prospec-

ship, or even before.

tive intern can avoid working with or living with, and

These are also important considerations for the host.

perhaps travelling with fellow speakers of their native lan-

As Tremblay (2005) noted, from a host perspective, inter-

guage, especially if the internship is short. Depending on

national research internship, especially in science and

the initial level of English-language ability, this may well

technology, can be regarded as a highly skilled temporary

make adjustment to the host country more difficult.

migration (i.e. involved in research productivities) that

The requirements of, and consequent achievement of

may lead to either subsequent recruitment for further

a positive and educational research experience are much

degrees (for example, intern 1 in our study) or further

more complex.The working environment is clearly impor-

migration for employment at host country. Therefore, it

tant, and the availability of ready assistance in the labora-

might be useful for the host to discuss these issues with

tory can facilitate progress, and help avoid frustration.Thus,

potential interns, asking about the degree of autonomy

it might be best to avoid potentially empty laboratories. On

expected in a project, and the skills that the potential

the other hand, working with a large group can lead to

intern wishes to acquire. To facilitate learning, the host

work with a very narrow focus, essentially acting as a tech-

institute and supervisors need to provide effective intern-

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ship programmes, with achievable short-term projects

(in this study, mostly 2.5 months), and they try to take

and tasks, in advance. When interns were left without

as much as they can during the visit. They are extremely

tasks, it cannot maximise their research learning.

busy during the period for their research work during the

I only followed my supervisor doing his experiments. So when he did not do experiments (because of meetings or writing…) I had nothing special to do and I only spent my time reading papers and books about [a field] which is good if it’s not during a too long time (intern 1).

week, and, often, tourist activities during weekends. Considering that individual disciplines have different academic culture and tradition (Smerek, 2010) towards internationalisation (Stohl, 2007), it would be interesting to compare international internships in different disciplines in a future study, and would be beneficial for our

Since the Internet is a standard tool used by prospec-

understanding of research internships in the future.

tive interns to find information about potential hosts, institutions or research groups wishing to attract interns

Conclusion

should ensure that suitable information is provided, and can be found readily by those searching. Web pages of

In summary, the status (compulsory or optional), dura-

individual academics and their groups can include lists of

tions (2.5–6 months), and usages (combined with inter-

projects – perhaps clearly labelled as suitable for interns

national degree, carrying out group tasks during PhD

or short-term research visitors – and links to information

research training, or individual learning opportunity

about internships and who to contact and how.

about research work) of research internship in phys-

As for contacting potential hosts, email appears to be a

ics vary, partly depending on the course of study in the

good option. Based on the interns’ experiences, we sug-

home countries. A specific advantage of international

gest that if you have decided that you would like to be

research internships in physics in Australia is learning by

hosted by a particular group for an internship, emailing

interaction in their research groups or collaborating with

the group leader is usually a successful strategy. While it

foreigners in an English-speaking research culture. This

is nice to receive a prompt response, keep in mind that

involves and enhances not only proficiency in social and

group leaders are often senior academic staff, and may well

technical English but also forming social networks with

have heavy administrative or teaching demands on their

possible future research colleagues.

time. Therefore, if you do not receive a quick response,

In general, Australian science is not well known.

follow up your original email, or perhaps contact another

However, some research fields in physics are viewed as

member of the group. It would be useful to note in the

competitive with the rest of the developed world, and

email that you would like to undertake an internship spe-

international interns can have productive and positive

cifically with that group, and perhaps briefly explain why,

research internships. Along with learning research, they

and what kind of project you are interested in. You could

can obtain benefits such as improved English-language

also mention how you came to know about the group.

skills and easy access to tourist attractions.These strengths

Finally, we recommend that prospective interns do not

in Australian internship training should be known in rela-

hesitate to ask about practical matters of living in the

tion to the development of internationalisation of Austral-

host country, such as accommodation and travel. Your

ian higher education.

host group might be able to assist with short-term accom-

Based on our finding, we claimed that learning in an

modation on your arrival while you make longer-term

international research internship in physics is not much

arrangements.

different from learning in other research degree study. Although its duration is shorter than other research

Limitations and future study

degrees, it should be understood in the research context of the discipline – research is research. Like other

As a pilot study to explore international research intern-

research education, successful learning outcomes of

ship, caution is needed not to overgeneralise in inter-

research internship abroad also depend on the students’

preting the data. The scope of this study was only four

preparation, including their learning readiness and moti-

international interns in physics (and only in physics) in

vation as well as guidance from both home and host uni-

one host institute. We remind the reader of the hazards of

versities (Stronkhorst, 2005). This was seen in this study.

extrapolating from such a small sample and suggest fur-

The physics research internship students of this study

ther research to determine the generality of these findings.

effectively and independently prepared their own intern-

Most international interns’ visiting periods are very short

ships with self-search using various sources.Their positive

International physics research internships in an Australian university, Serene Hyun-Jin Choi et al.

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academic learning was achieved, in general, in supportive social contexts with supervisors and colleagues in the host university. As mentioned earlier, scientists travelling to learn, exchange and share knowledge in the same country or in different countries is a historical tradition in science (Benka, 2006). Academic publications by international co-authorship are greatly increased, especially in natural science, as an impact and products of international collaboration in modern internationalisation (Patricio, 2010). International internships are grounded in both this old tradition in sci-

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consequent increased opportunities for international edu-

Klein, M. & Weiss, F. (2011). Is forcing them worth the effort? Benefits of mandatory internships for graduates from diverse family backgrounds at labour market entry. Studies in Higher Education, 36(8), 969–987.

cation. Preparation by academic staff and researchers in

Lacey, J. L. (2006, Fall). Working abroad. Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 2-23.

the host institution can help maximise the benefit of such

Lefrere, P. (2007). Competing higher education futures in a globalising world. European Journal of Education, 42(2), 201–212.

ence, and the modern trend towards globalisation and the

international internships.Via research interns, the research group can benefit from additional research labour, and has an opportunity for recruiting future PhD candidates. Furthermore, student international research internships are not only an academic issue, but also affect the world recognition and reputation of the host university, which is, in turn, vital to business and management issues in interna-

Louis, K. S., Holdsworth, J. M., Anderson, M. S., & Campbell, E.G. (2008). Everyday ethics in research: translating authorship guidelines into practice in the bench sciences. Journal of Higher Education, 79(1), 88–112. Norris, E. M., & Gillespie, J. (2009). How study abroad shapes global careers: evidence from the United States. Journal of Studies in International Education, 13(3), 382-397.

tional higher education in the host nation.

Papatsiba, V. (2005). Political and individual rationales of student mobility: a case-study of ERASMUS and a French regional scheme for studies aboard. European Journal of Education, 36(4), 443–458.

The authors of this paper are all from the Physics Department

Patricio, M., T. (2010). Science policy and the internationalisation of research in Portugal. Journal of Studies in International Education, 14(2), 161–182.

at the University of Queensland, Australia. Serene H-J Choi is an education researcher and consultant, and worked as a postdoctoral research fellow. Timo A Nieminen is a senior lecturer in computational science. G Maucort is a PhD candidate in physics and biophotonics. Y X Gong, C Bartylla, and M Persson were research interns.

Shaw, K., Holbrook, A., & Bourke, S. (2011). Student experience of final-year undergraduate research projects: an exploration of ‘research preparedness’. Studies in Higher Education. Smerek, R. E. (2010). Cultural perspectives of academia: Toward a model of cultural complexity. In J. C. Smart (Ed.), Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research (Vol. 25), (pp. 381–423). Netherlands: Springer.

References Akerson, V.L., & Volrich. M.L. (2006). Teaching nature of science explicitly in a first-grade internship setting. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43(4), 377–394. Anonymous. (2008). NASA, Kansas student Brad Klee accepted for unique NASA internship at Goddard Space Flight Center. Retrieved from: http://pilot.us.reuters. com/article/2008/07/01/idUS154185+01-Jul-2008+PRN20080701 Benka, S.G. (2006). The entangled dance of physics. Physics Today, 59(12), 51–55. Berkeley University of California Career Centre. (2011-2012). Job & internship guide 2011-2012. Retrieved from https://career.berkeley.edu/Guide/Guide.stm Boylorn, R.M. (2008). Participants as co-researchers. In L.M. Given (Ed.), The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods. (pp. 599–601). Los Angeles: SAGE. Campbell, R.A. (2003). Preparing the next generation of scientists: the social process of managing students. Social Studies of Science, 33(6), 897–927. Doing, P. (2004). ‘Lab Hands’ and the ‘Scarlet O’: epistemic politics and (scientific) labor, Social Studies of Science, 34(3), 299-323. Guest, D., M. Livett, & Stone, N. (2006). Fostering international student vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

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Stohl, M. (2007). We have met the enemy and he is US: The role of the faculty in the internationalisation of higher education in the coming decade. Journal of Studies in International Education, 11, 359–372. Stronkhorst, R. (2005). Learning outcomes of international mobility at two Dutch institutions of higher education. Journal of Studies in International Education, 9(4), 292–315. Teichler, U., & Jahr, V. (2001). Mobility during the course of study and after graduation. European Journal of Education, 36(4), 443–458. Tremblay, K. (2005). Academic mobility and immigration. Journal of Studies in International Education, 9(3), 196-228. Universitas 21: The network for international higher education. (n.d.) http:// www.universitas21.com. Walsh, E. (2010). A model of research group microclimate: environmental and cultural factors affecting the experiences of overseas research students in the UK. Studies in Higher Education, 35(5), 545-560. Wisker, G., Robinson, G., & Shacham, M. (2007). Postgraduate research success: communities of practice involving cohorts, guardian supervisors and online communities. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 44(3), 301–320.

International physics research internships in an Australian university, Serene Hyun-Jin Choi et al.

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Australian higher education: regional universities under a Coalition Government Dominic O’Sullivan Charles Sturt University

Projected student enrolment growth places the Australian higher education system on the precipice of significant change, leading to philosophical debates about how the system should respond. One suggested policy change is that resources be redirected from non-research intensive regional universities to other providers. The Liberal Party is the senior partner in any future Coalition Government, and its education spokesperson has outlined a vision for Australian higher education which contemplates the closure of some regional universities and the diminution in status of others to teaching-only institutions. However, the Liberal Party’s policy proposals are likely to be countered by political and economic considerations that make them unlikely to succeed. The confidence in regional universities’ continuance as both teaching and research institutions expressed in this article is presented not as an apology for their public support, but as a pragmatic demonstration that there are sufficient market and political rationales to protect and justify their presence and form.

Introduction

some, and diminution in status to teaching-only institutions for others (Pyne, 2011). However, Pyne’s suggestions

Projected student enrolment growth (Birrell & Edwards,

are countered by political and economic considerations

2009) places the Australian higher education system on

that make his ‘reforming zeal’ unlikely to succeed. Among

the precipice of significant change, leading to philosophi-

the most important considerations is that the Liberal Par-

cal debates about how the system should respond. One

ty’s Coalition partner, the National Party – with which the

of the suggested changes is that resources be redirected

Liberal Party functions as a conservative bloc in parliamen-

from non-research intensive regional universities to other

tary politics, and to which it has a long-standing commit-

providers. In a comprehensive policy speech in 2011, the

ment to function together in government – is unwavering

Liberal Party’s education spokesperson, Christopher Pyne,

in its support of regional universities.The National Party is

outlined his ‘reforming zeal’ for the sector. The aspirant

a rural and regional party, with parochial interests underly-

Minister’s address to Liberal Party members established

ing its policy positions in relation to higher education, as

the party’s priorities for the sector and their underlying

this article will later demonstrate.

philosophical presumptions.

This article’s confidence in regional universities’ con-

These policy proposals would have far-reaching conse-

tinuance as both teaching and research institutions is

quences for regional universities, resulting in closure for

presented not as an apology for their public support, nor

Australian higher education: regional universities under a Coalition Government, Dominic O’Sullivan

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as an admission that ‘government initiatives … [ought to

and concentrate higher education’s functions in metro-

proceed] on a deficit model of Australian rurality … aimed

politan institutions (Tomaney, 2012).

at overcoming, or compensating for, numerous perceived

The possibility of widespread closure or reclassification

forms of rural “disadvantage”’ (Sher & Sher, 1994, p. 7).

of regional universities to teaching-only institutions arises

Instead, this article constitutes a pragmatic demonstra-

under a potential Coalition Government for at least two

tion that there are sufficient market and political ration-

reasons. First, it arises because of the Liberal Party’s insist-

ales to protect and justify these universities’ presence

ence on a four-year plan to concentrate research funding

and form. Such confidence remains even as the Liberal/

towards raising the status of research-intensive self-desig-

National Coalition’s philosophical commitment to fiscal

nated Group of Eight universities to the top 50 in world

constraint inevitably challenges teaching and research

rankings (Pyne, 2011). Second, the qualifications to the

environments. This commitment makes it particularly

Liberal Party’s acceptance of many of the proposals from

important for regional universities to maintain local stu-

the most recent major review of Australian Higher Educa-

dent market share. For those with distance education

tion (Bradley et al., 2008) may have a disproportionately

capacity, such as Charles Sturt University and The Univer-

deleterious effect on regional institutions, as they face

sity New England in New South Wales, it is important to

increased political pressure to justify their presence in a

develop this strength as a point of comparative advantage.

market that the Liberal Party is happy to see concentrated

It is also important that regional universities’ relationships

in metropolitan centres (Pyne, 2011).

with schools, technical and further education (TAFE) col-

This Review of Australian Higher Education was com-

leges and other universities are strengthened to facilitate

missioned by the Labor Government (elected in 2007) in

flexibility and variety in response to community needs.

2008, with terms of reference requiring it to make rec-

Attracting political support for the economic and labour

ommendations on diversifying and broadening participa-

market contributions of regional universities is also essen-

tion rates in higher education. The purpose was to satisfy

tial to position them as institutions with fair and reason-

national economic and labour market imperatives and

able claims on public support.

promote inclusion and opportunity (Bradley et al., 2008).

Pyne’s ‘Reforming Zeal’

aspiration to a 40 per cent graduation rate among 25 to

While broadly supportive of the Bradley Review’s 34-year-olds, Pyne has cautioned against rapid implemenThere is significant Liberal Party historical background

tation of the target. This is because, from his perspective,

that informs Pyne’s willingness to contemplate the

the funding increases required to support significant and

closure or reclassification of regional universities. He

rapid enrolment growth are beyond the Commonwealth

explains his contemporary position with reference to the

Government’s fiscal capacity. It is also significant that the

Howard Coalition Government’s (1996 to 2007) review

Coalition does not share the rationale, in social justice, that

of higher education (Guthrie et al., 2004), ‘One option

the Labor Government has accepted for increasing partic-

that came under consideration was a class of institutions

ipation levels. Brett Mason, the Coalition’s spokesperson

that would be recognised as engaged in teaching only.

for universities and research and a former academic crimi-

Research would not be regarded as an important or even

nologist, has suggested that, ‘One thing is certain – there

a necessary role for these providers’ (Pyne, 2011).

is a clear philosophical difference emerging, with the

Indeed, as Marsh et al. (2012, p.83) argued, it was

government seeing social equity as non-negotiable, while

‘political scepticism’ about universities’ claims to gen-

the coalition considers standards to be non-negotiable’

erate research worthy of public support that motivated

(Mason, 2012).

the subsequent national university research evaluation

Fiscal constraints occur in the context of a newly intro-

exercises. Pyne has demonstrated personal scepticism

duced ‘demand driven’ (rather than centrally controlled)

in relation to regional universities by arguing that Aus-

system for determining the number of students a univer-

tralia’s university evaluation rankings (the Excellence

sity may enrol. In this context, Pyne (2011) has indicated

in Research for Australia (or ERA) scheme) ought to

that the Coalition proposes no increase in per student base

lead to a concentration of research investment in self-

funding, and is willing to allow non-university providers to

selecting research-intensive institutions. His argument is

enter the market for degree teaching, thus creating addi-

supported by the proposition that if policy is ‘spatially

tional and differentiated competition for universities. How-

neutral’ in relation to where it directs public money,

ever, it needs to be considered whether the student market

agglomeration economics would run its natural course

would accept the transfer of university qualifications to

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what may be perceived as ‘lesser’ institutions.A ‘snob value’

increasingly obscure. Fundamental questions about the

may continue to give universities a competitive advantage,

purpose of a university education are raised as universi-

even when a clear academic rationale for keeping a course

ties provide training for endeavours whose skill bases are

within the university system is not apparent.

grounded in neither professions nor trades. For example,

The Bradley target is concerned with social equity, as

policing and paramedicine transcend the university’s tra-

much as it is concerned with economic imperatives. The

ditional work; however, their presence in the university

greater proportion of the students expected to account for

system and importance to the labour market changes the

future enrolments are projected to come from groups that

nature of arguments about the number and types of stu-

have not traditionally attended university, and who reside

dents that universities ought to serve. Universities are no

in areas not served by the institutions that Pyne’s policy

longer principally distinguished by the narrower, more

agenda privileges (Birrell & Edwards, 2009). Therefore,

obviously academic course profiles that previously char-

concentrating these people in lower level teaching-only

acterised their contributions to post-school education.

institutions will not challenge social stratification. While

University enrolment growth is occurring even in the

it may increase individual opportunities and incomes, the

absence of the Bradley target (Birrell & Edwards, 2009).

same people will remain at the lower ends of the political

Commonwealth Government data show increases in

economy. Alternatively, there remains the possibility that,

domestic student enrolments in the range of 2.2 per cent

rather than imposing closure as part of a policy strategy to

to 5.9 per cent per annum for the years 2006 to 2011

reverse the Labor Government’s social equity objectives, a

(Department of Industry, Innovation, Science, Research

Coalition Government may simply not fund social equity

and Tertiary Education, 2012). Remote and regional rural

measures to the extent required to give them substantive

enrolments have increased by 17.4 per cent since 2007

effect. Tomaney (2012) proposes that ‘there would be a

(Evans 2012), and the Regional Universities’ Network

period of [policy] consolidation … [to] counter … the

institutions have seen a 19 per cent increase since 2009

perceived excesses of distributive justice.The justification

(Evans 2012). When these figures are coupled with fur-

tends to be that access to higher education by greater

ther projected population growth in these areas, regional

numbers of people undermines [its] … benefits’ (p. 27).

universities are provided with an opportunity to chal-

He argues that public policy should, instead, emphasise

lenge, pragmatically, the Liberal Party’s policy paradigm.

‘the diversification and stratification of higher education,

Regional populations are expected to increase by 26 per

to facilitate the differentiation of opportunities according

cent by 2026 (Battersby, 2012), which alone provides

to “merit”’ (Tomaney, 2012, p. 27).

veracity to Mason’s (2012) argument that ‘if the variables are (1) increased participation, (2) the current levels of

Population growth, distance and quality education

funding, and (3) quality and standards, you can pick only two’. The consequent and serious policy consideration is that roll growth is occurring in an environment in which

Mason (2012) has observed that the Bradley Review’s

neither the Gillard Government nor a future Coalition

target requires university enrolments to increase by more

administration will, under their present policies, allow

than 50 per cent. Accepting Bradley’s argument would

universities to compensate for the unavailability of addi-

reverse ‘a decade of official [public policy] denial that

tional per student public funding by setting their own tui-

there is any need for expansion of the higher education

tion fees.The social equity argument is that, while demand

sector’ (Birrell & Edwards, 2009, p. 6). Bradley’s recommen-

for education in the more prestigious metropolitan uni-

dations were informed by predictions that, in 2008 alone,

versities may be relatively price insensitive, the same is

for example, there would be a 30,000 person differential

unlikely to be true of regional universities that generally

between the number of new graduates and the number

serve a lower socio-economic market, offer fewer social

of new positions in the labour market requiring an under-

and cultural opportunities and lack the prestige associ-

graduate qualification. It was simultaneously predicted

ated with the Group of Eight universities. It is in this con-

that demand for people with vocational qualifications

text that ‘the larger enemy of the public good and public

would progressively decrease (Birrell & Edwards, 2009).

sphere is not the economic market but the status hier-

It is also significant that arguments attributing a purely

archy’ (Marginson, 2011) – a point that is developed in

utilitarian value to a university education are conceptually

Pyne’s particular concern for concentrating public fund-

problematic, as the demarcation line between traditional

ing on those Group of Eight institutions most likely to

university courses and vocational education is becoming

advance in world rankings.

Australian higher education: regional universities under a Coalition Government, Dominic O’Sullivan

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An accepted policy alternative to universities being

to develop partnerships with TAFE colleges, high schools,

allowed to increase per student income to support growth

private providers and even other universities. Distance

is that both the Government and the Coalition will, over

education providers may also enjoy comparative advan-

time, entertain increasing systemic teaching capacity by

tage in that, ‘current funding incentives … suggest that

deregulating the market to allow private providers to

expansion towards the [Bradley Review] target would be

teach at undergraduate level:

low cost “chalk and talk” subjects, especially where the

A bigger student body will need a bigger system and a more diverse student population will need a more diverse range of courses, teaching styles and provider types. The very logic of opening up the system to demand implies the need to deregulate supply also, in order to meet this demand (Group of Eight Universities, 2011, p. 7).

ratio of revenue to costs was relatively favourable’ (Group of Eight Universities, 2011, p. 1). However, increased competition does create a market imperative to pay close attention to the quality of distance education. This needs to be done to ensure that teaching subjects in certain ways simply because they are inexpensive ought to be guarded against, particularly if, as King

While this ‘bigger student body’ may justify allowing

(2012) proposed, students increasingly adopt an ‘instru-

new competitors to enter the higher education market,

mental attitude to study’ (p. 13). Work and family commit-

enrolment growth remains the first of a number of impor-

ments increasingly frame the ways in which students are

tant economic and political constraints to changing regional universities’ dual teaching and research functions. The higher education sector is on the precipice of

opportunity-creating

growth, in markets that may not be as indifferent to their existence

the

able to complete university

...there remains the possibility that, rather than imposing closure as part of a policy strategy to reverse the Labor Government’s social equity objectives, a Coalition Government may simply not fund social equity measures to the extent required to give them substantive effect.

Liberal

study, and distance education is naturally responsive to these student imperatives. Quality also requires resistance to the demand-driven systems’ ‘perverse incentives’ to behave in ways that are not necessarily consistent with student needs or wider

Party imagines.

economic

considerations

There are numerous market signals to suggest that uni-

(Group of Eight Universities, 2011). For example, the

versities such as Charles Sturt and New England – with

New South Wales Minister of Education has suggested

their developed distance education infrastructures – are

that universities commonly enrol students with low uni-

well equipped to use increased demand to strengthen

versity entrance scores in teacher education programmes

their positions. Distance education means that they can

because these are relatively inexpensive to operate and

cater for increased student demand without recourse to

are allegedly among the least intellectually demanding

the costly physical expansion of university campuses.

university courses.This alleged practice has attracted min-

Birrell and Edwards (2009, p.10) outlined that the Brad-

isterial concern because it is said to occur even though

ley Review’s projection that, ‘an enrolment increase of

the labour market lacks the capacity to employ the

280,000 or so would require the addition of 20 full scale

number of people admitted to teacher education courses

universities’. Most of these additional students would be

(Piccoli, 2012).

‘young metropolitan residents requiring significant addi-

A further consideration in respect to course profiles is

tional capacity in the outer suburbs of Australia’s main

that of artificially increasing participation levels through

cities’ (Birrell & Edwards, 2009, p. 11).

disciplines, such as advertising, that do not demand the

Distance education positions some regional institutions

research base or theoretical foundations that traditionally

to expand low cost courses into areas such as Western

distinguish a university education. Increasing participa-

Sydney, while continuing to serve their own geographic

tion in such a discipline is unlikely to create the increased

communities. For example, with 40 per cent of its 21,000

national skill levels that the Bradley Review recommends.

distance enrolments being local students, Charles Sturt

Course profiles and research-based community and indus-

University’s experience shows that even in the worldwide

try relationships that distinguish institutions as distinct

market for distance education, a regional university’s con-

parts of a wider system – rather than simply replicas of

tribution to its local community can be significant. Dis-

other regional universities – will better assist them to

tance education also creates more flexible opportunities

retain university status.

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p. 27). As Tomaney (2012, p.27) put it, recognitive justice is concerned with the ‘interests of the least advantaged’. The National Party consistently expresses this concern

Barber’s (2011) argument that it is not necessarily a uni-

through policy positions that reflect James’s (2001) argu-

versity’s role to contribute to regional economic develop-

ment that, ‘educational advantage and disadvantage are

ment does not alter the fact that economic significance

the result of a three way intersection of family socio-

is an inevitable by-product of a university’s presence in a

economic background, the characteristics of the urban or

regional community, and an important political argument

rural context in which the people live, and the physical

for their continued operation. The political argument is an

distance from campuses’ (James, 2001, p. 469).

important and contested one. Indeed, the Grattan Institute,

Fiona Nash, The National Party’s deputy leader in the

an independent policy ‘think tank’ has described regional

Senate, has proposed a ‘distinct government policy for

universities as ‘regional development programmes’. The

regional universities’ (Nash, 2012) on the grounds that, ‘We

argument proceeds that, as such, they can be described

know that regional universities don’t have economies of

as ‘subsidies that can only be justified on equity or social

scale, but we know they make an enormous contribution to

grounds rather than because they are likely to drive long-

local communities, both social and economic. So we need

term sustainable economic growth’ (Daley & Lancy, 2011, p.

to come back to the role of tertiary education … in creating

7).Alternatively, Richardson and Friedman’s (2010) defence

sustainable communities into the future’ (Nash, 2012).

of regional universities’ economic and social utility is

Nash’s (2012) political case draws on the differential

grounded in institutional contributions to their local econ-

between regional school leavers’ university attendance

omies and labour markets.These authors lend independent

(33 per cent) and metropolitan school leavers’ attendance

authority to stakeholder arguments that regional universi-

(55 per cent) as a matter of recognitive justice. She also

ties’ teaching and research is economically significant.

draws on evidence that regional students who study at

In 2010, Charles Sturt University returned $4.50 to the

their local university are more likely to pursue careers in

economy for every dollar it received in Commonwealth

regional communities. For example, 43 per cent of school

funding. This comprised ‘$524 million in gross regional

teachers in western New South Wales obtained their

product, $331 million in household income and 4,996

professional qualifications from Charles Sturt Univer-

full-time equivalent jobs’ (Charles Sturt University, 2010).

sity, which also trained 74 per cent of locally employed

Southern Cross University’s annual contribution to its

accountants. Seventy per cent of the university’s on-cam-

regional economy is $270 million, while the University of

pus health students come from rural or regional areas, and

New England’s $280 million contribution represents 32

70 per cent of these remain in rural and regional areas to

per cent of the local economy (Battersby, 2012). Regional

work (Charles Sturt University, 2010), while 72 per cent

universities collectively account for 22,000 jobs (Parlia-

of The University of New England’s graduates secure their

ment of Victoria, 2009), and the combined student rolls

first jobs in a regional area (Barber, 2011). Nash’s conse-

of the six institutions that form the Regional Universities

quent argument that it is ‘in the national interest to secure

Network [a lobby group comprising regional universi-

[these people’s] future’ in the regions is – like her party’s

ties Central Queensland University and the University of

support for a new medical school at Charles Sturt Univer-

Southern Queensland, Southern Cross University and the

sity (Vann, 2012) – one that cannot be reconciled with

University of New England (in New South Wales), and the

Pyne’s ‘reforming zeal’.

University of Ballarat (in Victoria) was 40,000 in 2012 (Bat-

The University of New England’s Vice-Chancellor pro-

tersby, 2012). This group’s collective political significance

vides evidence that as many as 25 per cent of its students

is an obstacle to the reclassification of their institutions,

would not commence university study at all if the Univer-

particularly as the Liberal Party’s junior Coalition partner

sity were to close. Another 25 per cent would continue

– The National Party – has sharply contrasting perspec-

their studies elsewhere, but with ‘significant financial

tives regarding the importance of regional universities

stress’ (Barber, 2011).There is also international evidence

(Nash, 2012). This suggests that inter-party tensions may

to suggest that regional universities provide access to

compromise the Liberal Party’s policy agenda.

higher education to people who, for social or economic

The National Party’s arguments are grounded in theories of recognitive justice, which require the policy

reasons, would otherwise be unable to pursue this study (PASCAL International Observatory, 2011).

‘provision of the means for all people to exercise their

Students at regional universities are more likely than

capabilities and determine their actions’ (Tomaney, 2012,

students in metropolitan institutions to study agricultural

Australian higher education: regional universities under a Coalition Government, Dominic O’Sullivan

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disciplines (Regional Universities Network, 2011b), which

relevance to the economic wellbeing of rural and regional

is particularly significant for regional economies.The cost

communities. The ‘notable concentrations of research

and research-informed nature of agricultural courses

strengths’ (Williams, 2010) in some regional universities

makes competition from private providers less likely. The

provide some protection against Commonwealth direc-

particular appeal of these courses to rural communities

tion to focus on teaching alone, and subsequently dimin-

mitigates against arguments of agglomeration to make

ishes the likelihood of market direction to the same end.

widespread metropolitan competition unlikely. Agricul-

In 2010, members of the Regional Universities Network

tural studies’ importance to the National Party’s rural con-

achieved ‘world standard’ ratings or better in geochemis-

stituency makes them politically significant and central to

try, earth science, agriculture and veterinary science, med-

the overall argument that the party might advance in sup-

ical and health science, nursing, environmental science,

port of regional universities’ continuance.

mathematical science, accounting, auditing and account-

Research is also important for regional development,

ing, engineering, human movement and sports science,

and this, in turn, is politically important to the National

linguistics, historical studies and philosophy (Regional

Party. By way of international contrast, Scottish regional

Universities Research Network, 2011a). The ERA system

universities are more successful at creating commercial

has further focused regional university attention on

relationships with small rural-based companies (PASCAL

increasing research output. This had led to growth in

International Observatory, 2011), and regionally edu-

practices intended to support research development, and

cated Scottish students are more likely to work in the

growth in opportunities for research-active academics in

local labour market (PASCAL International Observatory,

these institutions. There is also a strong emphasis on sup-

2011). In Australia, participation rates (at any university)

porting staff to complete doctoral qualifications.

are higher in areas where there is a university campus,

The non-research intensive regional universities find

and higher still where a broad range of courses are taught

themselves in a difficult, yet not insurmountable, position

(Charles Sturt University, 2010).

in relation to protecting their status and opportunities in

A further argument for the continuance of regional

the policy environment that Pyne imagines. The Liberal

universities’ research functions is Barrett & Milbourne’s

Party’s policies are undermined by inconsistent logic.

(2012) identification of a positive, though not causal, rela-

For example, Pyne (2011) described the Coalition’s ‘long

tionship between research environments and teaching

held vision … to be recognised globally by the mining

outcomes. While this positive relationship is not evident

and manufacturing industries as the leading research

in the perceptions that students develop about the qual-

country delivering innovative technologies to the mining

ity of their education, it is evident in terms of economic

industry’. However, regional universities actually play a

outcomes, including ‘full-time employment, progress rates

specific role in supporting this vision and allowing them

and retention rates’ (Barrett & Milbourne, 2012, p. 77). Bar-

to develop further their strengths seems more promising

rett & Milbourne (2012) identified a positive correlation

than Pyne’s proposal to develop new institutions ‘that

between a university’s research ranking (ERA) score, in a

focus almost exclusively on research in the resources

particular discipline and the employability of that disci-

area’ and are funded ‘almost exclusively’ by the mining

pline’s graduates. From this, they concluded that, ‘funding

industry (Pyne 2011). Thus, there are a number of fac-

the time for both teaching and research activities of staff

tors that make Pyne’s vision difficult to realise and that

significantly improves the research environment and gen-

place regional universities in a strong position to maintain

erates significantly enhanced economic outcomes’ (Barrett

their status and research capacity. One of these factors is

& Milbourne, p. 77).Therefore, it is a fundamental lobbying

an observation in Pyne’s speech that highlights an aver-

point to present a future Coalition Government with the

sion to major structural reform: ‘Universities are in many

argument that the best teaching institutions are those that

respects self-selecting as either predominately research

retain research profiles, at least to some extent, thus bene-

or predominately teaching focussed. The state should not

fiting from research-active staff; research-based community,

interfere in this process by skewing grants to one institu-

industrial and professional relationships; and an environ-

tion or set of institutions in the future’ (Pyne 2011).

ment in which new knowledge is sought and valued. The political significance of research to the National

Conclusion

Party, as a political party focused on rural and regional interests, is enhanced by the concentration of regional

It is unlikely that a Coalition Government would force

universities’ research strengths in disciplines of particular

regional universities to close. However, the Liberal Party’s

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Australian higher education: regional universities under a Coalition Government, Dominic O’Sullivan

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attachment to fiscal discipline will create a more difficult operating environment, in which research aspirations will be challenged and capacity for increased student enrolments constrained by infrastructural limits. The ways in which these institutions might respond include: • Maintaining student market share as rural and regional populations increase. • Using distance education infrastructures to develop market share in neighbouring areas, such as Western Sydney, where significant population growth is also projected. • Continuing to develop partnerships with schools, TAFE colleges and other universities. • Using distance education infrastructure to develop comparative advantage in relatively inexpensive courses. • Lobbying and harnessing political support based on universities’ economic contributions to their regions. • Co-opting political support in association with the National Party’s pragmatic advocacy for regionally located research and research-informed teaching. Dominic O’Sullivan is an Associate Professor in political science at Charles Sturt University, NSW, Australia.

References Barber, J. (2011). The case for a regional higher education policy framework: Keynote address to the Inaugural Regional Tertiary Education Conference, 2-3 August 2011, Coffs Harbour, NSW. Barrett, G.F. & Milbourne, R. (2012). Do excellent research environments produce better learning and teaching outcomes? Economic Record 88(s1), 70–77. Battersby, D. (2012). Proceedings from the Student Demand Driven Education Conference, 19-20 March 2012. Sydney, NSW: Regional Universities Network. Retrieved from http://www.run.edu.au/cb_pages/policy.php Birrell, B. & Edwards, D. (2009). The Bradley Review and access to higher education in Australia. Australian Universities’ Review, 51(1), 4–13. Bradley, D., Noonan, P., Nugent, H. & Scales, B. (2008). Review of Australian higher education: Final report. Canberra, ACT: Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations. Charles Sturt University. (2010). Growing our communities: Charles Sturt University’s regional development report 2010. Bathurst, NSW: Charles Sturt University. Commonwealth of Australia. (2012). Higher Education Support Amendment Act (No. 1) 2012 (Cth). Canberra, ACT: Commonwealth Government. Daley, J. & Lancy, A. (2011). Investing in regions: making a difference. Melbourne, VIC: The Grattan Institute. Retrieved from http://grattan.edu.au/static/ files/assets/2ad32ac6/086_report_regional_development.pdf Department of Industry, Innovation, Science, Research and Tertiary Education (2012). Higher education statistics. Retrieved from http://www.innovation.gov. au/HigherEducation/HigherEducationStatistics/Pages/default.aspx Evans, C. (2012). University doors open to more regional and Indigenous students. Retrieved from http://minister.innovation.gov.au/chrisevans/MediaReleases/Pages/UniversitydoorsopentomoreregionalandIndigenousstudents.aspx

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Gale, T. & Tranter, D. (2012). Social justice as a matter of policy: higher education for the masses. Social Inclusion and Higher Education, 149–170. Group of Eight Universities. (2011). Go8 backgrounder: Legislation for a demand-driven system. Canberra, ACT. Guthrie, G., Johnston, S. & King, R. (2004). Further development of the national protocols for higher education approval processes: A report for the Department of Education, Science and Training. Canberra, ACT: Commonwealth of Australia. James, R. (2001). Participation disadvantage in Australian higher education: An analysis of the effects of geographical location and socioeconomic status. Higher Education, 455–472. King, B. (2012). Distance education and dual-mode universities: an Australian perspective. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 27(1), 9–22. Marsh, H., Smith, B., King, M. & Evans, T.D. (2012). A new era for research education in Australia? Australian Universities’ Review, 54(1), 83–93. Mason, B. (2012). Proceedings from Universities Australia Annual Conference, 8 March 2012. Canberra, ACT. Retrieved from http://www.brettmason.com. au/2012/03/08/universities-australia-annual-conference-2012/ Nash, F. (2012). Proceedings from the Innovative Research Universities Conference, 18-20 July, Gold Coast, QLD. Parliament of Victoria (2009). Report of inquiry into geographical differences in the rate in which Victorian students participate in higher education. Melbourne, VIC. PASCAL International Observatory. (2011). Worldwide perspectives on local possibilities: Response to the Scottish government consultation paper on post-16 education in Scotland. Glasgow, Scotland: PASCAL International Observatory. Retrieved from http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/0038/00388872.pdf Piccoli, A. (2012). NSW to make it easier to sack teachers. Retrieved from http:// www.news.com.au/breaking-news/national/nsw-to-make-it-easier-to-sackteachers/story-e6frfku9-1226439425295 Pyne, C. (2011). Excellence in universities: The David Davies memorial lecture. Retrieved from http://www.pyneonline.com.au/media/speeches-media/ excellence-in-universitie Regional Universities Network. (2011a). Submission to the Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research: Defining quality for research training in Australia consultation paper. Retrieved from http://www.run.edu.au/resources/ RUN%20Submission_Defining%20Quality%20for%20Research%20Training%20 FINAL.pdf Regional Universities Network. (2011b). Submission to Senate Education, Employment and Workplace Relations committee inquiry into higher education and skills training to support future demand in agriculture and agribusiness in Australia. Retrieved from http://www.run.edu.au/resources/Regional %20Universities%20Network%20Submission%20to%20Senate%20Inquiry%20FINAL.pdf Richardson, S. & Friedman, T. (2011). Australian Regional Higher Education: Student characteristics and experiences. Melbourne, VIC: Australian Council for Educational Research. http://research.acer.edu.au/higher_education/22 Sher, J.P. & Sher, K.R. (1994). Beyond the conventional wisdom: Rural development as if Australia’s rural people and communities really mattered. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 10(1), 2–43. Tomaney, J. (2012). Is there a case for regional policy in Australia? Australasian Journal of Regional Studies, 18(1), 150. Vann, A. (2012). Nationals formally back CSU medical school. Retrieved from http://staff.csu.edu.au/perl/portal.pl?task=main_page&content_ task=whatsnew_view_max&message_id=124823

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Crossing the line: Collusion or collaboration in university group work? Wendy Sutherland-Smith Deakin University

‘Almost everyone has difficulty identifying where collaboration stops and collusion begins.’ (Carroll & Appleton, 2001, p.15) In both policy and practice, collusion is a perplexing area of academic integrity. Students are expected to learn to work collaboratively in university courses, yet are often required to submit assessment tasks as individuals whilst in group-work situations. This paper discusses the tension between ‘collaboration’ and ‘collusion’ in group-work and the consequences for crossing the line. Adopting a theoretical framework from Bourdieu’s work (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1971; Bourdieu, 1991) on symbolic power, the notion of legitimate voice and intertextuality, this paper outlines the effects on the academic identities of 17 students found ‘guilty’ of collusion in one Australian university. In addition, 34 staff involved in formal disciplinary procedures were interviewed. The findings indicate that collusion is a fraught notion and not approached systematically across the university, nor with any degree of confidence by staff or students. The delineation between ‘acceptable collaboration’ and ‘collusion’ appears to be founded in shifting sands, with negative attitudes towards collaborative tasks being the main lesson learned by students.

What is ‘collusion’?

• Is the product of two or more students working

Collusion is outlined in various university policies

• Is the product of unauthorised cooperation between

together without official approval. within the area of academic integrity or academic mis-

the student and another person.

conduct. A random sample of university policies across

• Is a form of academic dishonesty (cheating) because it

a range of Australian and international universities are

is the same or very similar to that of another student.

used to illustrate the various ways in which collusion is

As can be seen from these statements, collusion is

defined. All policies used are available publicly on uni-

regarded as problematic where a student has engaged in

versity websites.

‘unauthorised’ collaboration with others in the presenta-

Collusion is the presentation by a student of an assess-

tion of an assessment item. As will be discussed later, one

ment task as his or her own which:

of the greatest issues is distinguishing the ‘line’ between

• In whole or in part is the result of unauthorised collabo-

authorised and unauthorised collaboration. An accom-

ration with another person/persons. • Is plagiarised due to inappropriate collaboration during group work.

students where that line exists within disciplines and subjects. Some policies aggregate collusion and plagiarism,

• Involves working with others without permission. vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

panying issue is taking responsibility for explaining to

yet others position collusion within the suite of academic

Crossing the line: Collusion or collaboration in university group work?, Wendy Sutherland-Smith

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dishonesty offences, which include plagiarism and cheat-

a ‘blanket ban’ on collaboration is ‘unrealistic’ (Barrett &

ing. Some policies place the onus on the lecturer/aca-

Cox 2005, p.111). Similarly, students acknowledged that

demic to clearly delineate ‘acceptable’ and ‘unacceptable’

they help each other with assessment tasks, particularly

collaboration. All policies deem collusion to be academic

when lecturer assistance is not forthcoming and they

misconduct and all universities state that penalties apply

have difficulty distinguishing between legitimate collabo-

for those found in breach of the policy (although the pen-

ration and collusion. In particular for group work scenar-

alties are often outlined elsewhere).

ios, Barrett and Cox (2005, p.116) noted:

The term ‘collusion’ in this paper means ‘inappropriate or unauthorised collaboration by two or more students in the production and submission of assessment tasks’. This definition is a paraphrase of the participant university’s policy statement on collusion, as the precise university statement cannot be reproduced here for ethical reasons of identification.

Prior research on student collusion

Eighteen per cent of participants said that there are situations in which collusion or plagiarism are acceptable. Of these 60 per cent mentioned group work. This may be attributed to confusion between legitimate collaboration and collusion or a misunderstanding between individual and assessed group work in the design of the question. It may also be referring to situations in which the more capable students help the weaker to bring up the group mark. The authors found that ‘both staff and students feel that collusion is much more acceptable than plagiarism

There are a number of excellent studies investigating the

because some learning is taking place. It appears that

specific issue of student collusion in universities. Ash-

there is no consensus on the boundary between col-

worth, Bannister and Thorne (1997) investigated students’

laborative behaviour and collusion’ (Barrett & Cox 2005,

motivations and understandings of broad academic mis-

p.107). They concluded that large numbers of staff could

conduct. Their work found that students value learning

not correctly identify instances of collusion in the sce-

and personal qualities such as friendship and trust above

narios, and as the staff did not consider collusion to be

policy mandates on academic conduct.Therefore students

a serious offence, therefore, ‘it is perhaps not surprising

may argue that they are ‘helping friends’ and collaborating

that students also do not consider collusion to be a seri-

as required by the university and do not see such actions

ous offence’ (2005, pp.118-119). The finding that staff are

as open to allegations of collusion. These findings are

unable to identify cases of collusion or lack sufficient

echoed in Bob Perry’s (2009) questionnaire study of 355

institutional professional development to identify and

undergraduate and 122 postgraduate students studying

explain instances of collusion to students is of grave con-

business at a British university. He found that 19 per cent

cern to institutions and those responsible for academic

of undergraduate students overall submitted work as their

integrity within them. Inconsistency in outcomes for

own but worked on it with others (with 14 per cent of

cases of collusion is likely, which is as Pecorari and Shaw

first year students; 26 per cent at second year, 31 per cent

note ‘potentially dangerous for students that teachers

at third year and seven per cent of postgraduates) con-

hold significantly diverse views about the sorts of inter-

firming their work was not the product of a sole author

textuality that are, and are not, acceptable’ (2012, p.150).

and was the result of collaboration or collusion in groups.

If staff indicate that they consider collusion not to be a

Perry stated,‘Ironically it might be that the positive teach-

serious academic offence, they are unlikely to implement

ing practice of using groups and the encouragingly high

institutional policies in relation to collusion. Therefore,

levels of student integration may, to some extent, help

revisiting university policy and implementation processes

drive collusion’ (2009, p.103).

in relation to collusion may be warranted.

In 2005, Ruth Barrett and Anna Cox compared 59 lec-

Anna Sutton and David Taylor conducted a large

turers’ and 451 students’ understandings of plagiarism and

study in the United Kingdom in 2011 in relation to aca-

collusion through a scenario-based questionnaire at a uni-

demic integrity and collusion. Over 1,038 questionnaire

versity in the United Kingdom. They found that although

responses were analysed and four key themes emerged:

generally there was a sound understanding of plagiarism

1. Trust – students rarely put themselves in a situation

by staff and students, the same could not be said of col-

where they are likely to collude. They have competi-

lusion. Their research illustrated that staff considered the

tive attitudes towards study and if they share work it is

issue of collusion much more problematic to resolve than that of plagiarism and that many staff believe that ‘assessment is the primary way in which students learn’ so that

with people they trust. 2. Cooperation – students feel obligations to ‘help’ their peers, particularly if they are struggling.

Crossing the line: Collusion or collaboration in university group work?, Wendy Sutherland-Smith

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3. Information technology (IT) use – students increas-

mate’ or ‘peripheral’ (Flowerdew, 2000) members within

ingly use IT in all aspects of their lives to ‘share’ arte-

group situations, with the authority to speak and be

facts (Twitter, Facebook, Google docs). Sharing is not

heard. This concept of ‘legitimate’ or authorised use of

viewed as collusion.

language is echoed in the policies outlining acceptable

4. Conscientious working – students are aware of the

and unacceptable academic practices, coded as collabo-

competition involved in successfully completing

ration (authorised/legitimate practice) and collusion

assessments and the final goal of employability.

(unauthorised/illegitimate collaboration).

Sutton and Taylor’s (2011) study indicates that students

Approach to study

are caught between understanding academic competitiveness and their genuine desire to assist peers with work.

In 2010, seventeen students and 34 staff were interviewed

The authors write:

about their experiences of collusion. The research was

In all the focus groups, students reported a strong social pressure to ‘help’ friends or colleagues with academic work whilst, conversely, experiencing a culture of competitiveness where they felt the need to protect their own interests to maximise the relative quality of their own work. Students were concerned about academic misconduct and had been told how serious it is, but felt they were not sufficiently well informed about expectations in this area to avoid possible problems (2011, p.837).

approved by the university Ethics Committee and parties

These prior studies indicate that students are confused

who had appeared before disciplinary hearings (the term

about the boundary between collaborative group-work

used by the institution) for academic misconduct of col-

(expected by their lecturers, peers, institutions, future

lusion (term in the policy) were invited to meet with the

employers) and collusion. All studies indicate that there

researcher to talk about their experiences. A global email

is a greater need to make the ‘line’ between collabora-

was sent through the student union, the postgraduate

tion and collusion clear and transparent. Some previous

research centre and through advertisement on faculty

work illustrates that academic staff are not clear about the

bulletin boards and central university advertisements

line themselves, or how to enforce the line under current

inviting participation.

and the university have been de-identified in this paper. The seventeen students (male n=10 and female n=7; undergraduate n=11 and postgraduate n=6) students were found ‘guilty’ of academic misconduct (collusion) by faculty disciplinary committees. The students were from faculties including Arts (n=6), Education (n=4), Engineering (n=3), Science (n=5). One student was enrolled as a double degree student in Arts/Education. All students

policy mandates (Sutherland-Smith, 2008, 2010). Univer-

All interviews were taped and transcribed with permis-

sities must also consider how they accept responsibility

sion and interviews took place post-hearing and post-pen-

for and ensure the line between collaboration and collu-

alty. Staff were invited to participate through emails sent

sion is maintained. This is pertinent as universities claim,

to each faculty disciplinary committee secretary, seeking

in their graduate attributes, that graduates will leave

voluntary participation. The staff members interviewed

the institution having learned and evidenced an ethical,

are volunteer members of disciplinary committees within

honest working ethos.

their own faculties. At the participating university, stu-

All previous research has focussed on student under-

dents are entitled to appear with a friend and also the stu-

standings of collusion before disciplinary action has

dent advocate (who is not a lawyer) at the hearing. Under

occurred. This paper extends prior research by exam-

formal processes, written notice of the right to appear

ining students’ responses post-disciplinary hearings

and speak are outlined. For students not living in the same

where they have been found ‘guilty’ of collusion. This

area, national and international phone links are arranged

study explores how that process influences their sense

and funded by the university. The thirty-four staff were

of academic self within their disciplinary discourse

from faculty committees in Arts (n=8), Science (n=11),

community, as developing a strong sense of academic

Education (n=15).

identity is a key component of student empowerment.

Data were coded using N*vivo software to find themes

There are three theoretical frameworks – discursive

under the three theoretical areas already outlined. A

power (Fairclough, 1989), academic identity (Bourdieu,

common theme of ‘lines’ emerged, which frames the fol-

1991) and construction of knowledge (Lave & Wenger,

lowing discussion of findings. All names used are pseu-

1991) – which underpin this study. An individual’s sense

donyms, only gendered names remain the same as the

of linguistic power is embodied in their status as ‘legiti-

original participant.

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The ‘fine line’ between collusion and collaboration: staff responses

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report’ (the software used is Turnitin). Conversely, a male staff member also from science said,‘You can tell from the lab report if students have colluded or not. Their words

All staff members (n=34) agree that collaborative group

are the same for much of the report, and they even report

work is an essential element of their course assessment,

the wrong results in the same place’.

as it is required under the university graduate attributes

Interestingly, what is considered to constitute ‘collu-

policy and faculty assessment policies.At the course level,

sion’ varies across the faculties and disciplines. One female

group work must be included in at least some assessment

member of staff from creative arts said, ‘You know, in

tasks. Staff members agree that working in teams is an

fashion design, we are always plagiarising designs. In fact,

essential skill and some disciplines indicate that it is a pro-

part of what we learn to do is to copy expensive haute

fessional registration requirement for students to evidence

couture designs and adapt them for business women or

their successful group work involvement. One female

for special events like the Spring Carnival and that is an

academic in Education said, ‘Pre-service teachers must

expected and assessed outcome of part of the course.

be able to work in teams because that’s what happens

Naturally, there will be collaboration, to varying extents in

in schools. You have to be able to work collaboratively

group design work – how else will students learn? To then

to write and deliver curriculum and learning objectives

say students have colluded would be impossible for us to

and the Teacher Registration Board requires evidence of

tell, and even unfair, in my opinion’. Similarly, a female in

this. It’s not an option in our courses’. However, most staff

education said:

consider there is a ‘fine line’ between collusion and collaboration, which is not easy to articulate to students. All academics interviewed expressed concern at the reliance students place on internet-based resources and were worried that the ‘cut and paste’ generation may end up facing collusion allegations because they use exactly the same words or possess poor citation skills. Overall, staff consider the term ‘collusion’, as defined in the university policy, to be quite vague and difficult to put into action. The ‘vagueness’ is because of the phrase

I don’t think collusion is seen the same way by all areas of the university. I mean in the area I teach (dance choreography), one task requires them to work together to choreograph a dance piece but all take a separate grade-able section. As it has to all ‘fit’ into one overall performance, so of course they are going to collaborate and perhaps collude, but replication of some steps could, arguably, be links to tie things together. I mean how could we call that collusion, but maybe such tactics in other departments would be collusion. I mean I don’t know. How consistent is this across the university anyway?

‘inappropriate or unauthorised collaboration’. Staff say that to know whether something is ‘unauthorised’ col-

However, a male academic from the arts stated, ‘I don’t

laboration, means that there should be very clear guide-

think there’s much doubt about when students collude. I

lines in the assessment task as to what is deemed to be

mean students know they can talk about things in groups

‘authorised’ collaboration and what student activities

and that’s to be encouraged, but when students turn in

would cross the line into the forbidden realm of ‘unau-

the same phraseology and it’s a bit ‘off’, then you know

thorised’ sharing of work. Similarly, most staff (n=32) con-

something more than collaboration has happened’. The

sider that ‘inappropriate’ collaboration needs to be clearly

data indicates there is no common view of what consti-

outlined or distinguished in each assessment task from

tutes collusion as ‘unauthorised collaboration’ across the

‘appropriate collaboration’ if students are asked to work

disciplines, although staff members indicate that ‘collu-

in groups on a particular task. One male academic from

sion is a greyer area than plagiarism’ (female, Science).

Arts said, ‘You know, this is something we struggle with

This supports the work of Erik Borg (2009) who found

all the time, because if students are asked to share ideas,

that the discipline-specific fields informed and altered

work, sections of tasks, or peer review work, it’s hard to

lecturers’ approaches to plagiarism and collusion to the

give concrete examples of when that crosses to the dark

extent that expectations varied according to disciplines.

side of collusion’.Another academic in the field of science

Borg concluded that, ‘disciplinary differences divide us

responded, ‘in lab work, when students are working on

profoundly, because disciplinary variations are realised

experiments or data collection together but need to write

in intertextuality, this variation needs to be recognised

up a lab report, often it’s difficult because so much of it is

in policies intended to address plagiarism and collusion’

in a template form now. Only some of it needs to be the

(2009, p.423). The staff in this study also consider that at

same and the software picks it up as collusion. Then it’s a

disciplinary hearings, cases of collusion do not appear to

bit dicey as to how different staff members interpret the

be thought of as serious as plagiarism. Although specific

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penalties set for cases of collusion in each faculty were

to do, or that what they submit for assessment contravenes

not available to the researcher, staff estimate that warn-

policy after the fact. Students indicate they want exam-

ings are more common in allegations of collusion than

ples of successful practice rather than examples of what

zero grades for assessment tasks. This may support prior

they should not do – emphasising the positive rather than

research findings that staff do not consider collusion to be

the negative in learning spaces. Providing such guidance

as ‘serious’ as plagiarism (see Barrett & Cox, 2005).

to students presents a challenge to university faculties, as

Most academics interviewed (n=32) regard the policy

what constitutes ‘acceptable collaboration’ or ‘unaccepta-

as framed in terms of negative actions. However, inter-

ble collaboration’ in terms of group work for individually

viewees are concerned that the policy does not then take

assessed tasks is not clearly apparent in policy or practice,

an active stance to state how offences are to be avoided.

according to the student participants in this study.

One female in education said, ‘You know the policy is

These students can generally provide a clear definition

full of ‘thou shalt not’ dictates, but nowhere is there any-

of plagiarism but are less clear in defining collusion or

thing that tells students how not to fall into these traps.

giving examples of it, even after their disciplinary com-

There aren’t even links from the policy to other areas that

mittee hearings, when ‘penalties’ (the term used in the

can outline how students can avoid these things, like the

policy) were awarded. One undergraduate female student

language and learning specialty websites and the like’

said, in frustrated tones, ‘If it is a group work project –

(emphasis in the original). Given that these academics

how do you know where this mythical line is between

view the policy as negatively framed or unclear, they also

‘collaboration’ and ‘unauthorised collaboration’?’ (Geor-

consider it is difficult for academics, particularly junior or

gia; emphasis in the original). Despite the fact she had

sessional staff, to explain the difference between ‘accept-

been found ‘guilty’ of collusion and the penalty was a

able’ and ‘unacceptable’ collaboration to students. One

warning and her name entered on the register, she still

male in education responded:

did not have a clear understanding of what she had done

I wonder about the equity of this. Like, I think about the sessional tutors or new staff and wonder whether the course coordinator has explained how they tell ‘acceptable’ or ‘unacceptable’ collaboration in group work to these folk. And I also wonder how it works for off-campus students – I mean, it doesn’t really seem to be any clearer in writing than an oral explanation, so how does that work for students you never get to talk to. I mean, what is the departmental or actually the university responsibility for ensuring casual staff and markers understand this, I wonder?

wrong. Georgia said the whole group talked, both faceto-face and via Facebook about the group project. They shared written documents through Google documents so continual amendments were enabled and freely added from whatever resources individual members brought to the group task. She said it is ‘stupid’ that so much of the design and thinking about the group project was done by most members, yet the marker required the project be divided up and written individually for the purposes of ultimate assessment grading. Georgia said:

This academic raises the question about the level of responsibility the university accepts for ensuring policies covering areas such as plagiarism and collusion, can be enacted in practice. This is particularly pertinent when universities give undertakings to the community at large that their graduates can evidence ethical skills and qualities upon graduation (Sutherland-Smith, 2008, 2010).

The ‘mythical line’ between collusion and collaboration: student responses

We all contributed, except one person who was pretty slack, so why do lecturers make us work in groups and then assign an individual writing task for assessment? When you talk about stuff and comment on bits, particularly time and time again, you don’t remember who wrote or said what originally and if it’s been altered by the group, then how can one individual claim it as ‘theirs’ in terms of the written assignment. I just don’t get it at all! Georgia argues that words appearing in the same way in their tasks, is ‘bound to happen’, simply because of the way in which they had set-up the joint document and

Overall, students in this study are unclear where the line

the recording of their group conversations. This example

between acceptable collaboration and collusion is drawn

indicates Lave and Wenger’s (1991) notion of the social

across the disciplines. Similar to Shirley Yeo’s (2007) find-

construction of knowledge, because during the group

ings, most students in this study indicate they ‘need clear

collaboration, Georgia notes the accompanying dialogue

guidelines on the boundaries of collaborative work’ (2007,

shapes and reshapes ideas and words. Within the act of

p.213). They want to be told what constitutes acceptable

engagement, words and ideas are shared in the group

collaboration, rather than being repeatedly told what not

without an expectation that they will carry notions of

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ownership or authorial rights requiring attribution. Geor-

are now less likely to ‘give away’ their ideas freely in class

gia remains convinced it is unfair that ‘collusion’ was the

or in online discussion groups, with Rina even saying,‘I’ve

outcome of her case because there had been no specific

reverted to being a ‘lurker’ online. I read others’ contribu-

instruction from the lecturer or tutor about how the

tions but rarely post anything of real significance myself.

group were to write together and what was to be distin-

You know, just meaningless garbage saying what a good

guished between the collaborative discussion / writing

idea someone else had, or restating something from a

and the final individual written submission. She says she

reading. I’ve learned to keep my thoughts and ideas to

feels ‘cheated by the system’ and is reluctant to work on

myself’. It is of great concern that this is the learning that

a group writing project again, unless the whole group

students gain from their collaborative group-work expe-

submits one piece of assessment for a final group mark.

rience. It is particularly so when prior research outlines

Although Georgia was given the chance to speak at the

the importance of group work in collaborative work-

hearing, she said she did not seem to be able to convey

ing spaces (Bakker, Albrecht & Leiter, 2011) and for the

the lack of clarity about the ‘mythical line’ between col-

development of ‘positive and pronounced learning iden-

lusion and collaboration to the panel. She said, ‘I tried to

tity’ that leads to ‘increased motivation and engagement’

explain that the very way we set up the electronic docu-

(Tinker, Buzwell, & Leitch,2012, p.2).

ment meant that words and phrases were likely to be used

Rami, a male, and Sakhoni, a female, both in postgradu-

by people in our individual written work, but they didn’t seem to get that it wasn’t collusion, just really good collaboration. They still punished me anyway’. Georgia is concerned that she is now labelled as a ‘colluder’ and

ate studies in education raise

Pete said, ‘It’s ridiculous to expect students’ group talk will not be reflected in their writing! Do lecturers expect us to talk about something, share ideas and then not reflect it in our writing? If so, then what’s the point of having any group work at all?’

issues of their academic and ‘moral’ (their term) obligations to help peers. Rami said, ‘Why would I not help my friends if they ask? It is helping each other, learning together, you know, collabo-

believes she will not be taken

ration, so how is it collusion?’

seriously in any group work

Sakhoni said:

projects in the future. This experience has left her with a very low academic sense of self and is worried about her future academic ‘legitimacy’ within her disciplinary discourse community. Similarly, two students in arts were found guilty of collusion on an essay writing task, based on group discussion and a group presentation. They are angry that their written work is considered a product of collusion. These students share a house, often discuss university work and happened to be placed in the same online discussion group for the task. Pete said,‘It’s ridiculous to expect students’ group talk will not be reflected in their writing! Do lecturers expect us to talk about something, share ideas and then not reflect it in our writing? If so, then what’s the

I thought it was part of collegiality to help friends who are struggling. We set up a reading group, to go through various unit readings and share ideas and thoughts about them. There were six of us and we all agreed to take turns to lead the discussion on a particular reading. It was kind of like being a mini-tutor for our little study group. We did it because some of the younger Vietnamese students were struggling with all the readings and we thought it would help us all to be clearer about what we thought and then wrote. As an older student who has been in Australia for a number of years, it is my moral obligation to help. I mean, what kind of person would I be if I did not help? Is that really the kind of teacher you want in your schools – someone who sees peers or students needing help and just ignores them and won’t give it?

point of having any group work at all?’ (Emphasis in the original). His housemate, Rina, agreed,‘So we both thought

Similar to Sutton and Taylor’s (2011) findings, students

the same words were great – we talked so much, we don’t

in this study spoke of friendship and loyalty as an essen-

even remember who said what and how are you meant

tial part of their growing academic identity to ‘help’ peers.

to cite spoken stuff anyway? Never seen the lecturers cite

These students have been ‘punished’ in some way, they

what words they take from other places, it’s just two sets

feel ‘the greater good of mutual help’ is lost (Tammy,

of rules and it’s unfair!’ (emphasis in the original). These

female in science).They are concerned that students view

students raise a considerable challenge in terms of lectur-

them as ‘cheats’ as do their lecturers, so are reluctant to

ers’ and students’ expectations of the dynamics and use of

speak in class. Leila, a female postgraduate in education,

spoken text in group work. The students claim that they

was particularly strident in her response. She explained

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that it is common in education units to work in groups

ments indicate they are unclear how they are to develop

but then to write assignments individually. Leila said:

a sense of authorial voice that does not include the work

When I got the letter, I felt like a criminal. The worst thing was I didn’t know what I’d done wrong. I still don’t! … a student in my group asked me not that long ago, ‘Oh, can you email me this?’ and I said ‘No! I’ve already been caught up on this and I’m not risking anything any more’. I still don’t understand how sharing ideas and words in a group is collusion but I will not risk my studies. I know they [current group members] don’t think I collaborate in the group, but I don’t care. I’m not going to be charged with collusion again. I reference every sentence now and I don’t share work with anyone and I don’t speak much either. I keep my ideas to myself. I despise being like this because I don’t think it’s really how learning is done, but that’s what I’ve learned at university…trust nobody, including your lecturers! (emphasis in original, my insertion)

or voices of others but they will not contribute openly as they are afraid that allegations of collusion may be levelled at them again. Clearly, the promised learning outcomes at discipline and university levels, in terms of collaboration and team work, are far from realised by these students. The student experiences must be aligned with government imperatives to ensure university graduates leave institutions with as skilled individuals able to work in groups and teams. It would be counter-productive to dismiss group work or team-based learning from the suite of approaches because of possible collusion. Indeed, Ginsburg-Block, Rohrbeck and Fantuzzo (2006) argue that small group approaches (like peer assisted learning) have positive effects on individual student’s perceptions

Leila is adamant that the assessment format was unclear

of themselves as academic achievers and their develop-

in terms of when sharing was to occur and when not. She

ing academic identities. This is because group work skills

is also very angry that her lecturer and tutor had not given

are engendered when students share ideas, comment on

specific instructions on shared or individual writing and

work and engage in a sense of collaborative learning.

she blames them for the outcome. She says she sees collaboration happening in the professional lives of school-

Conclusion and implications

teachers, but that her experience at university has taught her that assessment is divorced from true collaboration

This study indicates that collusion is no clearer for the

– that it is ‘collaboration in name only’ (Leila’s words).

17 students having undergone ‘disciplinary committee’

She remains convinced that the only way to succeed in

processes than before experiencing disciplinary commit-

passing her degree is to participate minimally and wait

tee processes. Their responses also indicate that they are

until she ‘gets into the real world’ to collaborate ‘properly’

angry, frustrated and upset about the outcomes of the pro-

(Leila’s words).

ceedings and blame lecturers and the institution for not

These experiences indicate that students leave the

making the line clear between collaboration and collusion

‘hearing’ process with negative experiences of collabora-

in group-work. Student responses also suggest, supporting

tion, assessment tasks in university settings and confusion

the prior research of Borg (2009), that collusion is viewed

as to their responsibilities for collegiality with respect to

differently, in practice, across disciplinary areas, thus

their developing academic identity. All students claim

making the design of a common institutional approach to

that, initially, they truly engaged in group work to test their

collusion a challenge. A most concerning finding relates

discursive understandings and gain ‘legitimacy’ as mem-

to the ‘lesson’ that a number of students have taken from

bers of their discourse communities. Now, they will not

this experience. Whilst the institution may assume that

take the ‘skeptron’ of power outlined by Bourdieu (1991,

the process has taught students how to understand the

p.109) as they are reluctant to engage in discursive group-

difference between ‘acceptable collaboration’ and ‘unac-

work for fear of allegations of unauthorised collaboration.

ceptable collaboration’, in fact, students’ report that

Their responses indicate that their experiences have had

they are now choosing not to collaborate at all. There is

a profound effect in engendering a ‘negative’ academic

clear disjuncture between these students’ approaches to

identity, as they are seen in a deficit model of collabora-

learning in groups and institutional ideals and promises

tion by other group members. They use words such as

of graduate readiness for employment in terms of group

‘slack’ (Georgia), ‘spongers’ (Leila) and ‘non-contributors’

cooperation. This finding indicates that the procedural

(Rina) to describe how they perceive their current group

handling of collusion is often counter-productive to the

members see them. None of the students want to wear

educational aspirations of universities. Instead of exhort-

the mantle of being un-cooperative in group work, but

ing students to strive for academic integrity, the policy

they do not see any alternative, as this is a mechanism

processes and outcomes drive students away from col-

of self-preservation and a path to graduation. Their com-

laborative learning spaces. This suggests policy processes

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should be rethought – perhaps by adopting more positive policy and procedural approaches to academic integrity issues (International Center for Academic Integrity, 2012; Sutherland-Smith, 2010). Some students claim that they only resist cooperation in group-work for university assessment tasks, but will happily collaborate once in professional workplaces.This raises questions about the authenticity of tertiary assessment tasks in relation to workplace practices. Indeed, many of the student responses suggest a much closer examination of assessment design – particularly for group work – is warranted at both individual and programme curriculum levels. Perhaps integration of software-assisted peer feedback in

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References Ashworth, P., Bannister, P., & Thorne, P. (1997). Guilty in whose eyes? University students’ perceptions of cheating and plagiarism in academic work and assessment. Studies in Higher Education, 22(2),187–203. Bakker, A., Albrecht, S. & Leiter, M. (2011). Key questions regarding work engagement. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 20, 4-28. Barrett, R. & Cox, A. (2005). ‘At least they’re learning something’: the hazy line between collaboration and collusion. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 30(2), 107-122. Borg, E. (2009). Local plagiarisms. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 34 (4), 415-426. Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power. Cambridge UK, Polity Press.

group work may provide a means to provide equity of con-

Bourdieu, P. & Passeron, J. (1971). Reproduction in education, society and culture. Beverley Hills CA, SAGE.

tribution and reduce confusing lines between collabora-

Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and Power. Longman, London.

tion and collusion (see SPARKPLUS, 2012; Willey, Jacobs &

Flowerdew, J. (2000). Discourse Community, Legitimate Peripheral Participation, and the Nonnative-English-Speaking Scholar. TESOL Quarterly, 34(1), 127-150.

Walmsley, 2007, for example). Staff are also concerned with how best to deal with collusion. Some consider it is difficult to explain, hard to prove and not as serious as other academic honesty issues, such as plagiarism and cheating. They are, perhaps, less likely to implement collusion policy or formal processes for academic integrity management. On the other hand, staff are aware of their responsibilities to ensure the academic integrity of their students’ work. Balancing these competing discourses is a continuing point of tension for staff which needs to be acknowledged by institutions and supported through ongoing professional development and institutional resourcing. Broader education issues arise from this study relating to students’ opportunities to develop their own academic identity and positive sense of learning self. If Lave and Wenger’s (1991) notion that knowledge is socially constructed is accepted, and these students are afraid to participate in group-work discussions because they may be caught for collusion, they are not fully engaged. This means they may remain ‘peripheral’ rather than ‘legitimate’ members of the discourse communities appropriate to their fields of study. As linguistic fringe-dwellers, they are less likely to develop the linguistic capital needed to forge a positive sense of identity, which is necessary for students to fully engage in learning. These issues raise real challenges for universities espousing learning outcomes that enable their graduates to collaborate and work in groups. Wendy Sutherland-Smith is a Senior Lecturer in the School of

Ginsburg-Block, M.D., Rohrbeck, C.A. & Fantuzzo, J.W. (2006). A meta-analytic review of social, self-concept and behavioural outcomes of peer-assisted learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 732-749. International Center for Academic Integrity. (2012). Retrieved from http:// academicintegrity.org/icai.home.php Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991). Situation learning: legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Pecorari, D. & Shaw, P. (2012). Types of student intertextuality and faculty attitudes. Journal of Second Language Writing, 21, 149-164. Perry, B. (2010). Exploring academic misconduct: some insights into student behaviour. Active Learning in Higher Education. 11(2), 97-108. SPARKPLUS (2012). Self and Peer Assessment Resource Kit. Available online at http://www.spark.uts.edu.au. Accessed 7 December 2012. Sutherland-Smith, W. (2008). Plagiarism, the Internet and student learning: Improving academic integrity. London, Routledge. Sutherland-Smith, W. (2010). Retribution, deterrence and reform: The dilemmas of plagiarism management in universities. Journal of Higher Education Policy & Management, 32 (1), 1-12. Sutton, A. & Taylor, D. (2011). Confusion about collusion: working together and academic integrity. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 36 (7), 831-841. Tinker, S., Buzwell, S., & Leitch, S. (2012). Academic personal best: Enhancing learning identities and student engagement by creating a sense of community. Paper presented at the International First Year in Higher Education Conference, ‘New Horizons’, 26-29 June 2012, Brisbane, Australia. Willey, K., Jacobs, B. & Walmsley, M. (2007). Self and peer assessment to promote professional skill development: Moving from ad-hoc to planned integration. Paper presented at the Australian Association of Engineering Education (AaeE) Conference, 3-5 December, Melbourne, 2007. Yeo, S. (2007). First-year university science and engineering students’ understanding of plagiarism. Higher Education Research & Development, 26(2), 199–216.

Psychology at Deakin University, VIC, Australia. She has been researching issues of academic integrity since her doctoral work in 2005 and her book Plagiarism, the Internet and student learning: Improving academic integrity (2008).

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Strategic Avoidance: Can universities learn from other sectors? Greg Kerr University of Wollongong

Peter Hosie Curtin University

Universities live in interesting times. For instance, government policies in Australia are allowing for more deregulation of the student market while overseas universities are entering the Australian domestic market. In an environment of increasing uncertainty, sound strategic planning is important. Processes including benchmarking, environmental scanning, knowledge management and risk management can identify best practice and guide ‘strategic pursuit’. Two approaches are suggested to assist universities. The first is to expand planning frameworks from within-sector to include cross-sector comparisons. The second is to use these processes not only towards strategic pursuit but also to learn from mistakes made in other sectors, that is, ‘strategic avoidance’. To defend this approach, potential lessons which could be learnt by universities from other sectors are provided. The concept of strategic avoidance has relevance for universities in other countries, and in addition, may be used by organisations in other sectors.

Introduction

from additional students provides marginal revenues to meet increasing operating costs. Many universities have

Competition for the recruitment of students in the

recruitment tactics to ensure that enrolment objectives

higher education sector has intensified. While academic

are realised. In some countries, this may include employ-

mobility is not a new phenomenon (Wildavsky, 2010),

ing recruitment officers and the payment of commission

students now have increasing opportunities to choose

agents to recruit students (Wildavsky, 2010).

between studying at higher education institutions in

In Australia for instance, the higher education market

either domestic or offshore locations. Also, the opportu-

is being increasingly deregulated by its national govern-

nity for students to complete a degree across a number

ment. This has occurred in conjunction with the expan-

of institutions is becoming more prevalent. For an exist-

sion of the domestic market in response to government

ing or potential student there are an increasing number

policies intended to increase the opportunities for Aus-

of suppliers from which to choose the higher educa-

tralian citizens to receive higher education. A number

tion ‘product’. Not only do higher education institutions

of international universities including Carnegie Mellon

now compete to attract the best students, there is also

(Mather, 2011), Laureate (Mather, 2011), New York Univer-

a desire by many to increase total student numbers, that

sity (Van Onsellen, 2011) and University College London

is, increase market share. For many institutions, income

(Van Onsellen, 2011) now have a presence in Australia.

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Competing more so in a global marketplace, Australian

the products, practices and services of some of its most

universities have to contend with issues such as currency

efficient global competitors. Patterson (1996) considers

fluctuations and government immigration policies when

that the benchmarking process can also be done within

seeking to attract international students (Hilmer, 2010).

the organisation (internal benchmarking), and as well,

As an export industry, the provision of higher educa-

identifies five forms of external benchmarking being,

tion to international students by Australian universities

competitive, collaborative, shadow, functional and

is faced with more competition by universities in the

world class.

United States, the United Kingdom, United Arab Emirates

An example of functional and cross sector benchmark-

and Singapore.The current strong Australian dollar means

ing is provided by Hill and Jones (2008) who explain

that Australian education is less price-competitive against

that in the 1980s Xerox benchmarked itself against L.L.

many overseas institutions, particularly the United States

Bean for distribution procedures, Deere and Company

and United Kingdom. Further, Australian students have

for central computer operations, Proctor and Gamble for

more buying power in overseas markets and there are

marketing, and Florida Power and Light for total quality

reports of its best students now being lured to top over-

management processes. In contrast, benchmarking by

seas universities (see Stevenson & Rosenberg, 2011).

higher education institutions is mostly done within-sec-

Not unique to Australia, higher education is entering

tor rather than across-sector (for example, see ASHE-ERIC

an era in which there is increasing environmental uncer-

Higher Education Report, 2009). Langford’s (2010) study

tainty (for example see Rolfe, 2003), particularly in the

of work practices and outcomes in Australian universities

context of the desire to increase student numbers in a

provides examples of cross-sector benchmarking.

more competitive market. Higher education institutions

In addition to benchmarking, Hill and Jones (p.10)

are increasingly realising the importance of strategic and

argue that part of the strategic management process

operational planning as well as branding and marketing

involves an analysis of the organisation’s external operat-

(Bunzel, 2007). In their report, University of the Future,

ing environment to ‘identify strategic opportunities and

Ernst & Young (2012 p.4) advise:

threats ... that will affect how [an organisation] pursues

‘Our primary hypothesis is that the dominant university model in Australia – a broad-based teaching and research institution, supported by a large asset base, predominantly in-house back office – will prove unviable in all but a few cases over the next 10-15 years.’

its mission.’They point out that three interrelated environ-

As with organisations operating in other sectors under-

ronment which is given attention in this work.

ments should be examined during this process; the industry environment, the national environment, and the wider socio-economic or macro-environment. It is some of the activities and events occurring in the broader macro-envi-

going substantial change, not only are there important

Following a discussion on the importance of bench-

decisions to be made, there may be a lack of successful

marking, Grant (2008 p. 159) alerts managers to the

models upon which strategic decisions can be based.

growing interest in knowledge management which is

Typically, corporate strategists use a number of common

broadly defined as, ‘the processes and practices through

processes which include benchmarking, environmental

which organisations generate value from knowledge’.

scanning, knowledge management and risk management

Further, he argues there is a growing body of literature

(Grant, 2008).These organisational planning processes are

pointing to the capability of knowledge management to

now discussed.

generate substantial gains in organisational performance. Grant (2008) distinguishes between knowledge genera-

Organisational planning processes

tion (exploration) and knowledge application (exploitation). Figure 1 shows that knowledge generation can

From both strategic and operational perspectives, organ-

result from knowledge creation (derived from research)

isations can undertake benchmarking activities with the

or knowledge acquisition (derived from sources including

aim of identifying ‘best practice.’ Hill and Jones (2008,

training, recruitment, intellectual property licensing and

p.105) argue that ‘one of the best ways to develop distinc-

benchmarking). Knowledge obtained from these sources

tive competencies that contribute to superior efficiency,

can assist senior management in charting the company’s

quality, innovation and responsiveness to customers is to

future course (Aguilar, 1976). With reference to Figure 1,

identify and adopt best industrial practice.’ They suggest

knowledge generation, particularly through benchmark-

this requires tracking the practice of other companies by

ing, and knowledge application are relevant to the argu-

benchmarking; that is, measuring the company against

ments presented herein.

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In dealing with corporate strategy, Grant (2008) also discusses attendant uncertainty

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Figure 1: Knowledge Processes within the Organisation Source: Grant (2008 p. 161)

and risks. With regard to emerging industries in particular, Grant identifies two main sources of uncertainly. The first is technological uncertainty ‘arising from the unpredictability of technological evolution and the complex dynamics through which technical standards and dominant designs are selected.’ The second is market uncertainty ‘relating to the size and growth rates of the markets for new products’ (Grant, 2008 p.302). On reflection, although not an emerging industry, arguably universities for the most part face both technological uncertainty and market uncertainty. If reliable forecasting is impossible, Grant (2008) argues the keys to managing risk in these circumstances are alertness and responsiveness to emerging trends, together with limiting vulnerability to mistakes. This advice also has relevance to the term ‘strategic avoidance’ introduced later in this paper. The processes of benchmarking, environmental scan-

Learning from mistakes

ning, knowledge management and risk management can aid strategic planning. Moreover, Grant (2008 p.144)

Organisational planning processes can influence either

suggests these processes are often not fully utilised and

proactive or reactive strategies. For instance, bench-

warns:

marking has a focus on delivering best practice as does

‘In assessing their own competencies, organisations frequently fall victim to past glories, hopes for the future, and their own wishful thinking. The tendency toward hubris among companies – and their senior managers – means that business success often sows the seeds of its own destruction.’

knowledge generation and knowledge application. Environmental scanning seeks to identify both opportunities and threats in the industry, as well as, the national and global socio-economic environments. Similarly, risk management requires alertness and responsiveness to emerging trends. In addition to using benchmarking and

Grant opinions that even organisations which are

knowledge management to identify best practices, these

enjoying success should retain focus on the organisa-

processes can be combined with risk management to

tional planning processes mentioned at the beginning of

limit vulnerability to mistakes.

this paragraph. With regard to Australian universities for

As well as scanning organisations within and across sec-

instance, Ernst & Young (2011) point out that contribu-

tors to benchmark (and copy or even improve upon) best

tions to past and even present success of many univer-

practices, organisations have an opportunity to learn from

sities has been the restraint on competition imposed by

‘strategic mistakes.’ Normally, organisations undertake

government and the ability for a university to dominate

benchmarking, environmental scanning and knowledge

within its location. Universities are now entering an era of

management with the aim of ‘strategic pursuit.’ Such pro-

more deregulation and a marketplace where geographic

cesses can however, be used as a means to increase alert-

boundaries matter less.

ness, and as a consequence, limit vulnerability mistakes by

Notwithstanding the benefits of the planning pro-

way of ‘strategic avoidance.’ Examples to explain ‘strategic

cesses described, the next section introduces some pos-

avoidance’ are provided in the following discussion in the

sible shortcomings. Examples are provided from a range

form of lessons which could be learnt by higher educa-

of industry sectors which may be relevant to the higher

tion, particularly in Australia, to avoid mistakes made in

education sector in Australia and beyond.

other industry sectors.

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Strategic avoidance

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ment standards’. Reflecting on Sadler’s comments, a sole focus on increasing market share could be a strategy best

To support the argument proposed, a search of contem-

avoided. For example, Hare and Ross (2012 p.4) identi-

porary issues in business where mistakes have occurred

fied that ‘regional universities made an offer to almost

was undertaken. As a result, a number of ‘lessons’ from

every person who applied this year, while the proportion

the finance, property, tourism, fast-food and government

of school-leavers who gained a place with a university

sectors, mainly derived from an Australian context, are

entrance score under 50 has more than doubled in three

provided as examples of cross-sector comparisons and

years’.With regard to the dependence of Australia’s higher

strategic avoidance. These are discussed having regard

education sector on the international student market,

to potential implications for decision making in higher

Schwartz (2012) commented:

education.

Lesson 1: From the Finance Sector: ‘Do not lend money to people with no capacity to repay’ Investigations into the causes of the Global Financial Crisis (GFC), particularly in the USA, exposed the inept lending practices of the banks. With a race to increase market share and the ease of access to funds, banks lent money to many customers who had no capacity to repay

‘Faced with declining revenues, vice-chancellors boarded the Shanghai-Mumbai express and set off to sell their wares. They offered large commissions to send students to their universities. To attract more students, some universities reconsidered their standards: do students really require a high competency in English for university work; have we been too tough on plagiarism and other forms of cheating…Will [universities] be able to resist the temptation to enrol students who might not be sufficiently motivated or prepared for higher education?’

(For example, NINJAs – No Income, No Job or Assets).The result was a large number of defaults on loans resulting in

In 2011, the Victorian Ombudsman criticised four uni-

hardship for the borrowers and both financial and reputa-

versities when examining ‘How Universities Deal with

tional losses for the banks. Contributing to this outcome

International Students’ (Taylor, 2011, p.32) accusing them

was the desire by the banks to transfer some of their fixed

of compromising academic standards to retain their

costs to variable costs, and to rapidly grow market share.

market share claiming: ‘Universities have a responsibil-

To do this, many banks used a commission-based model

ity to ensure that international students have the English

(using brokers) as a distribution channel for loans. Alleg-

skills they need to study successfully in Australia. I do not

edly, the commission-based model – an approach that

believe universities have been meeting these obligations.’

many in the higher education sector use to recruit stu-

It may be that Australian universities are charting a

dents (see,Wildavsky, 2010) – gave rise to ‘creative appli-

course not dissimilar to that set within the finance sector

cations’ to ‘help’ applicants gain approval for loans.

where hardship for some ‘customers’ and the reputational

A lesson for higher education institutions operating in very competitive markets, where there may be almost

capital of the institution may be at risk.

entry to students with no capacity to pass’. An obses-

Lesson 2: From the Property Sector: ‘Do not sell the rent roll’

sion with increasing market share, and using commission

The Australian property market is cyclical and sometimes

based models, may be lessons in strategic avoidance. Such

volatile. Despite the importance given by Australians to

practices, having an emphasis on market share and using

owning their own home, the property sales market does

commission-based models for recruitment may ultimately

experience peaks and troughs. In addition, there are many

cause hardship for students and ultimately lead to finan-

Australians who rent property, the property rental market.

cial and reputational losses for higher education institu-

Transactions in both of these markets are normally medi-

tions. In addition, there may be a link between the level of

ated by licensed real estate agents with commissions

ability of students and the high drop-out rates, estimated

being paid as a percentage of the value of the transaction.

to be costing the sector A$1.4 billion per year (see Hare,

In dollar terms, the commission on a property sale is far

2011a).

more than that earned on a weekly rental payment for a

an obsession with market share is perhaps, ‘do not allow

Sadler (2011, p.33) points out that the university system

property. In a boom property market, real estate agents

is caught between two large scale factors: ‘One is to pro-

earn high incomes from the commissions on property

tect revenue streams through enrolments and retention

sales. As the gross commission from rents is substantially

while tapping into a broader social spectrum of students.

lower, relative to sales commissions, some real estate

The other is to ensure appropriate academic achieve-

agents decide to sell their rent roll (the right to manage

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properties for rent on behalf of the property owners) to

destination of the Gold Coast of Queensland, Australia.

other agents. Some see the relative small returns from

There are many segments, including some based on age

commissions on rent payments as a ‘nuisance.’ However,

while others are based on interests. One tourist segment

if the boom property sales market turns to a bust, there

might be the ‘older retiree’ who seeks the warm weather,

are fewer sales commissions (and sometimes none).Those

beaches and relaxation. Another segment might be the

who have sold the rent roll during the boom have sacri-

‘schoolie’, that is, a young person who has just finished

ficed a reduced yet reliable cash flow. As a consequence,

high school who travels to the Gold Coast to attend ‘wild’

when the cyclical – even volatile – market (commissions

parties which continue over a period of weeks (see Win-

from sales) slows or stagnates, and the more stable market

chester, McGuirk & Everett, 1999). Although both of these

(commissions from rents) has been sold off, the real estate

segments are sought after by Gold Coast tourism opera-

firm can face a liquidity crisis.

tors, they are not compatible. The products they wish to

Perhaps a lesson in strategic avoidance for higher educa-

consume are mutually exclusive – that is ‘rest and relaxa-

tion institutions is distinguishing between higher-profit vol-

tion’ and ‘parties and excitement.’ The presence of each

atile markets and lower-profit stable markets. Perhaps the

segment may deter the other. Most likely, one will domi-

lower-profit stable markets should not be ignored (and even

nate and the other will go elsewhere.

sold or abandoned) during

Perhaps a lesson for higher

the peaks of the higher-profit

education institutions is to

volatile markets. If there is a downturn in the higher-profit volatile markets, the reliable cash flow from the lowerprofit in more stable markets

It may be that Australian universities are charting a course not dissimilar to that set within the finance sector where hardship for some ‘customers’ and the reputational capital of the institution may be at risk.

may no longer exist. Powell

be aware of its segments and mitigate the risk of conflicts. For instance, segments may be defined by higher education institutions according to capabilities. Would there be

(2011) for instance advises

conflict between a segment

of the predicted decline of international students enroll-

of higher capability students and a segment of lower

ing in Australian universities, while Hare (2011b, p.27)

capability students? The presence of each segment may

reports that fees from foreign students are ‘propping up’

deter the other. One may dominate and the other may

university research and that ‘there is extreme reliance on

go elsewhere. A study undertaken by Rindfleish (2003)

international students’. Meyers (2012, p. 159) explains that

into segment profiling in higher education highlights

the income from foreign students, upon which many insti-

the need for ‘a reduction in the risk of misplaced strate-

tutions have become dependent, can evaporate in a matter

gic goals’ (p.158). Notwithstanding the merits of govern-

of months and reminds,‘we have seen Central Queensland

ment policy providing pathways for people of diverse

University effectively go broke due to their exposure to the

backgrounds, Hare and Ross (2012) report of the possible

foreign student market’. The point here is that the lower-

trend of the higher education sector being stratified along

profit more stable domestic markets should not be ignored

socio-economic lines. Further, it may be that universities

during the peaks of the higher-profit more volatile inter-

which have high numbers of international students with

national markets. Interestingly, notwithstanding the higher

limited English skills (see Taylor, 2011) and as well high

per student revenues to universities from international

numbers of domestic students with an Australian Tertiary

students, Braithwaite and West (2012) found that domes-

Admission Rank (ATAR) below 50, may combine to form a

tic students who relocate to attend an Australian university

lower capability segment which may by its presence con-

may contribute more to a regional economy than some seg-

flict with a higher capability segment which may prefer to

ments of international students.

seek another university.

Lesson 3: From the Tourism Sector: ‘Do not target conflicting segments’

Lesson 4: From the Fast Food Sector: ‘Do not confuse the customer with too many products’

Essentially, marketing practice suggests that organisations

In fast food businesses, it has been found that too much

should identify segments within markets and target those

inventory increases both holding costs and preparation

segments which can realise the sustainable exchange of

costs, and in addition, can confuse both staff and custom-

benefits. An organisation will normally target more than

ers (see Schwartz, 2004). Part of the success of McDonalds,

one segment. In tourism, a case in point is the popular

for instance, has been the strategy of having limited and

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Strategic Avoidance: Can universities learn from other sectors?, Greg Kerr & Peter Hosie

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well-managed inventory. Staff and customers understand

While not suggesting the ‘McDonaldisation’ of univer-

the products which are usually served efficiently and to

sities, a lesson in strategic avoidance from the fast food

consistent standards. By contrast, particularly prior to the

sector may be to have a product range to satisfy target

McDonald’s business model, some other types of cafe

segments, and have both efficient supply chains and sys-

have extensive menus and therefore larger holding costs,

tems, that is not have ‘extensive menus’ offering a confus-

preparation costs and service inefficiencies. Staff and cus-

ing array of products to the broader market.

tomers in these establishments can become frustrated

and have both efficient supply chains and systems. In par-

Lesson 5: From the Government Sector: ‘Do not assume deregulation means competition across all segments’

ticular, the adage ‘inventory is the enemy’ has been learnt

In deregulating markets, governments may not always

by such organisations.

achieve the desired objectives. For example, in deregulat-

and confused. Today successful food outlets understand their market, have a product range to satisfy that market,

Perhaps a lesson in strategic avoidance for higher edu-

ing the finance market in Australia in the 1980s, some in

cation institutions is not to confuse their markets with

the Australian government (and the finance sector) fore-

too many products. A more focused and well-managed

saw the entry of foreign banks into Australia as resulting

inventory of the educational programmes might be better

in branches being opened in towns and cities across the

understood

staff

and

students. This may lead to greater efficiencies though reduced

transaction

costs

and may result in increased overall satisfaction by both parties in addition higher quality outputs. Perhaps sup-

nation. The result was quite

A lesson in strategic avoidance for both governments and higher education institutions is that a deregulation policy allowing foreign institutions entry to domestic markets may not result in more competition across the entire market.

porting this view, Ernst and

different as the new entrants (such as ING) were inclined to only open offices in major cities and exclusively target the most profitable segments (referred to in marketing as ‘cherry picking’). Australian banks soon found that they

Young (2011, p.15) recom-

were losing high value cus-

mend more focused segmentation of the student market

tomers and potentially being left with low (no) value cus-

by universities and ‘build product offerings, ... experience,

tomers whom they were obliged to service.

brand and marketing strategy around the needs and pref-

A lesson in strategic avoidance for both governments

erences of the chosen segments’. Further, Szekeres (2010,

and higher education institutions is that a deregulation

p.436) reported on studies into marketing by universities

policy allowing foreign institutions entry to domestic

stating: ‘Students identified difficulties in making their

markets may not result in more competition across the

choice due to the large variety of courses, the amount

entire market. Such an approach may actually result in new

of information to sift through, particularly on similar

entrants targeting only the high value segments and leav-

courses, lack of experience in making choices and lack

ing some higher education institutions with a greater share

of assistance.’ Ernst & Young (2012) suggest three broad

of the lower value (even loss-making) segments.This point

lines of evolution of the business models of Australian uni-

has been raised by Ernst & Young (2011) who reflected

versities being ‘Streamlined Status Quo’ (involving more

upon the impact of deregulation in the utilities sector in

efficient delivery of services), Niche Dominators’ (refining

Australia. In the context of Australian universities, one of

the range of services and markets and targeting ‘customer’

their respondents, a vice-chancellor’s chief of staff, made

segments) and ‘Transformers’ (private providers and new

the comment: ‘If we do not have the right government

entrants carving out new positions and new markets).

support, new entrants will cherry pick our most profit-

Ernst & Young (2012 p.5) suggest:

able courses. We’re going to be left providing loss-making

‘Australian universities should critically assess the viability of their institution’s current business model … Deliberations … need to include which customer segments to focus on, what ‘products’ or services they need, optimal channels to market, and the ideal role of the university within the education and research value chains.’

courses that serve the public good’ (Ernst & Young, 2011, p.8). This point of course raises the issue of the role and objectives of universities in a society (see Marginson, 2011). In their more recent report, Ernst & Young (2012) predict, even warn, of new niche dominators and new entrants who will carve out new market spaces that merge parts of the higher education sector with other sectors.

Strategic Avoidance: Can universities learn from other sectors?, Greg Kerr & Peter Hosie

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Conclusion

Ernst & Young. (2011). Higher Education and the Power of Choice. Melbourne.

This work argues that for organisations, particularly

Ernst & Young. (2012). University of the Future. Retrieved from http://www. ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/University_of_the_future/$FILE/University_of_ the_future_2012.pdf

those operating in changing regulatory and market environments, such as universities in Australia, there is potential in not only using organisational planning processes

Grant, R. (2008). Contemporary Strategy Analysis. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.

for identifying best practices for ‘strategic pursuit’ but

Hare, J. (2011a). High university drop-out rates cost $1.4bn. The Australian, 6th June, 21.

also to use these processes to learn from other sectors

Hare, J., (2011b). Foreign students prop up research. The Australian, 6th July, 27.

and adopt ‘strategic avoidance’, that is, to avoid mistakes

Hare, J. & Ross, J. (2012). Low Score No Bar to Uni Entry. The Australian, 4.

made by organisations in other sectors. From the examples provided, it is suggested that universities can adopt this approach as a means of limiting vulnerability to mistakes and in doing so may develop more successful and sustainable strategic and operational plans. It should not be assumed that either best practice or mistakes in other sectors are not relevant. Strategic avoidance has a place for strategic and operational planning in businesses in other sectors although it may be universities which are entering a new era which are in a position to best benefit from this approach.

Hill, C. & Jones, G. (2008). Strategic Management: An integrated approach. Houghton Mifflin Co., New York. Hilmer, F. (2010). The Dumb Blonde of International Education. The Australian, 1st November, 14. Langford , P. (2010). Benchmarking work practices and outcomes in Australian universities using an employee survey. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management. 32(1), 41-53. Marginson, S. (2011). Higher Education and Public Good. Higher Education Quarterly, 65(4), 411-433. Mather, J. (2011). Private Uni for Adelaide. Australian Financial Review. 18th October, 5. Meyers, D. (2012). Australian Universities: A portrait of decline. AUPOD, http://www.australianuniversities.id.au/.

Acknowledgement

Patterson, J. (1996). Benchmarking Basics: Looking for a better way. National Book Network, Lanham, MD.

We acknowledge the feedback from our colleagues at the First International Conference on Emerging Research Paradigms in Business and Social Sciences, Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 22-24 November, 2011. Dr. Greg Kerr is a lecturer and researcher within the Faculty of Commerce, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia and is Chair of the Faculty of Commerce and Sydney Business School Alumni.

Powell, S. (2011). Grim outlook for tertiary education sector as foreign students fade away. The Australian, 5. Rindfleish, J. (2003). Segment Profiling: Reducing strategic risk in higher education management. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 25(2), 147-159. Rolfe, H. (2003). University Strategy in an Age of Uncertainty: The effect of higher education funding on old and new universities. Higher Education Quarterly, 57(1), 24-47. Sadler, R. (2011). Letters to the Editor: Markers caught between revenue and standards. The Australian, 23rd March., 33. Schwartz, B. (2004). The Paradox of Choice: Why more is less. ECCO, New York.

Associate Professor Peter Hosie is the Business Capstone Unit Coordinator, Curtin Business School, Curtin University, WA, and held the position of Associate Professor in Management at the University of Wollongong, Australia in Dubai.

References

Schwartz, S. (2012). Standards Under Stress. The Australian Financial Review, 46. Stevenson, A. & Rosenberg, J. (2011). A world of offers for brightest students. Sydney Morning Herald, 1. Szekeres , J. (2010). Sustaining student numbers in the competitive marketplace. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 32(5), 429-439.

Aguilar, F. (1976). Scanning the Business Environment, Macmillan, New York.

Taylor, J. (2011). Investigation Into How Universities Deal with International Students. V. G. Printer, Victorian Ombudsman, Melbourne.

ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report. (2009). Benchmarking in Higher Education, Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., Richmond, Vic.

Van Onsellen, P. (2011). Arrival of NYU may be a timely shake-up. The Australian, 16th November, 2011, 28.

Braithwaite, B. & West, G. (2012). Globally Connected, Locally Prosperous: A Comparative Study (1991 and 2011) of the Regional Economic Impacts of International Student Expenditure while Attending an Australian University, Australian and New Zealand Regional Science Association, Wollongong, 6th Dec.

Wildavsky, B. (2010). The Great Brain Race. Princeton University Press, New Jersey.

Bunzel, D. (2007). Universities Sell Their Brands. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 16(2), 152-153.

vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

Winchester, H., McGuirk, P. & Everett, K. (1999). Schoolies Week as a Rite of Passage: a study of celebration and control In: Embodied geographies : spaces, bodies and rites of passage, E. Teather, New York, Routledge.

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OPINION

Dear Grant Applicant Karina Luzia Macquarie University

Dear Grant Applicant, You don’t know me but I am a fan. Not just of your current work but of your future work – the work you are going to fund with this grant.

work that only lacks funding to make it reality. You have shown me how you, your project team, and your project can be the heroes in this story. You’ve made the proper introductions. Because your

Now I haven’t applied for many grants, but I have read a

application is an introduction – not only an introduction

lot of applications – successful and otherwise – and I have

to an issue and to a project, but also to your academic/

sat on quite a few grant committees. And even in this rela-

research/technical/professional field, expertise, profes-

tively lowly role, I have been at least partly responsible for

sion, maybe even your passion. You’ve introduced me

the passage of a number of applications through the final

to some of the most pressing issues in this field. And of

crucial stages of the grant process. Sometimes I have been

course, your application is an introduction to a particular

partly responsible for applications not getting through.

problem of current and great concern, and it is this well-

Sometimes I have passionately – and more importantly,

defined and detailed concern represented in and by this

successfully – argued for a project I believe in. And some-

grant application that has made me sit up, even though it

times – and there is always a mental fist pump of victory

is midnight and I have just made my way through so many

when this happens – I have changed the minds of others

other applications and that wine is looking good.

regarding what is worth funding.

You’ve hooked me. In the very first line cast through

It’s not often I get the chance to address you directly – at

this application to fund your quest, you’ve provided me

least outside my head. Usually any feedback I give on indi-

with the broad context and the wider meaning of your

vidual applications will be channelled – and somewhat

project. You’ve done this by making reference to a broad

diluted – through the formal committee feedback process

issue or concern – a reference that captures my interest

and so I am glad to have this opportunity to talk to you,

straight away, no matter who I am or what field I work in;

not just as a member of the committee but as someone

a reference that makes me think straight away ‘Yes. This

who has read your application and is now fully prepared

is important’.

to defend you and your ideas – if necessary – to others. So,

Then you have narrowed down that broad frame of ref-

thank you for this opportunity to tell you directly why I

erence to focus on one particular aspect to this broader

am going into bat for your application.

issue, which happens to be the very problem that this pro-

You’ve told me a story – the story of your project. And

ject will address. All this within the first few paragraphs.

it’s a fascinating story too: the tale of an issue or a problem

You’ve made me mind the gaps. For example, in the

and your quest to find or implement a solution. You have

opening sections, you’ve made reference to the relevant

presented me with the whole kit and caboodle, all the

literature and to the past and current research, and to the

juicy detail, from the big, BIG picture stuff down to the

important gaps in this knowledge – enough to show that

finer points of who, what, how, where and why you are

what you are addressing or trying to do in your project has

going to use the funds from this grant to do important

not yet been researched, achieved, implemented, or even

Dear Grant Applicant, Karina Luzia

vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

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attempted.And it needs to be; now! You have also reassured

concepts; and last, but perhaps most importantly, clear

me. After you have stated the importance and/or urgency

and engaging writing. And at 11pm, the night before the

and/or necessity of this project or this problem in a schol-

early-morning grant committee meeting, I am grateful for

arly yet accessible way, you have told me – again in a schol-

this clarity that cuts through the fog in my brain that

arly, accessible way – that you are going to (try to) fix this

has risen from reading 30 other grant applications that

problem or fill in the gaps with your project and you have

haven’t been so focused.

told me precisely how you are going to do this. You’ve approached this application as a scholarly work. You’ve shown how this particular issue or problem is evidence-based; that other experts in your field also think this is An Issue.

You made it really easy for me to say ‘yes’ from the outset because you’ve made sure to provide all the required information outlined in the grant application guidelines. For example, your project rationale includes broad and specific descriptions of the challenge, issue or problem. It

You’ve presented background research in this area; you

details exactly what you, your project collaborators, and the

are clearly familiar with the literatures related to both field

project itself are going to do, and how. You’ve described

and specific topic; and importantly, you’ve made reference

exactly how you will be the instigators of change; the pro-

to the related pedagogical and andragogical literature. In

viders of evidence-based solutions; the innovators.

doing so, it is apparent that this hasn’t been a last-minute

Your project methodology makes sense, even to some-

pawing through any old text that happens to lying around or an unthinking use of Big Names and Buzz Words. No, instead, you have demonstrated that this is something that you have been thinking about for some time, and from different angles, and with input from other key thinkers in this area. You care about my properly understanding what you are trying to accomplish. You’ve

remembered

one who is not familiar with

You’ve remembered that while I’m a colleague and a peer, I might also be someone who is not necessarily wellversed in your field, and I might need to be informed about some things – concepts, definitions, philosophies, debates – that you have long ago come to terms with during your own extended immersion in this area. Thank you for using up precious application space to succinctly inform me on these important details.

that

the particular methods or techniques used in your field. You’ve answered the basic methodological

questions

–what you are going to do; where you are going to do it; how you are going to do it; who you are going to do it with; and why. You’ve shown that you and your colleagues are primed and ready to go. You’ve done this by having a realistic project schedule/timeline that

while I’m a colleague and a peer, I might also be someone

includes all resources – financial, human, and material – as

who is not necessarily well-versed in your field, and I might

well as clearly delineated roles and responsibilities; dis-

need to be informed about some things – concepts, defini-

semination strategies; and project milestones.And by ‘real-

tions, philosophies, debates – that you have long ago come

istic’, I mean you never made me think ‘Hmm – I wonder

to terms with during your own extended immersion in this

just how they are going to do THAT in that tiny amount of

area.Thank you for using up precious application space to

time’ or worse – ‘They are NEVER going to be able to do

succinctly inform me on these important details.

that in that timeframe!’

You also care about good communication. You’re a

You’ve been explicit about both the specific project

good teacher (whether or not you actually ever set foot

deliverables and the tangible and non-tangible outcomes

in a classroom) because your grant application includes

of the project.

succinct and straight-forward explanations of founda-

You’ve provided a realistic and legitimate budget with

tional or difficult or complex concepts while minimising

realistic and legitimate expenses. You haven’t asked for

jargon; you’ve explained any necessary technical terms;

non-allowable items such as laptops and iPads. These

all the while keeping your sentences short, clear, and to

tempting items are usually only funded if they are only

the point. In other words, you haven’t forgotten what

ever going to be used in and for this one project – some-

makes for good written communication in any field from

thing that is rather hard to demonstrate. Crucially too, your

the sciences to the humanities, from IT to HR: clear argu-

budget hasn’t made the calculator appear, whether the

ment; clear structure; clear sentences; clear explanation

night before the meeting, or when somebody calls (yells)

of relevant and/or difficult and/or discipline-specific

for one in the grant committee meeting.You don’t want to

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be the application with the weird figures that makes the

document that is not only a funding instrument, but also a

calculator appear because you know that if the calculator

valuable dissemination device that shows your willingness

appears, and if your budget doesn’t add up, your ability to

to use every opportunity to let people know about this

pay attention to the details that are critical to any project’s

important work that needs to be done.You have also made

success will be in doubt.

this application work for you as a key reference document

Admiring your attention to detail regarding your budget

for your project. As such, this application is not only going

reminds me of another thing that reassures me as to your

to get you money, it is going to be your first port of call

ability to manage this project successfully – your adher-

whenever you need to check that the project is on track

ence to the relatively few and simple formatting rules.

and for reporting back to the funding body.

You’ve used the right font (Times New Roman) and font size (12pt), line spacing (single) and paragraph spac-

Perhaps most importantly for a programme focusing on innovation and scholarship – you’ve shared your vision.

ing (6pt) and length (6 pages). You’ve shown you care

I am not in your area or in your field. But your applica-

enough about this application to not distract your reader

tion has made me see the gaps – or chasms – that exist in

with ostensibly minor formatting errors that nonetheless

your field, and your application has left me in no doubt as

put your ability to follow the simplest of instructions in

to how your project can start to fill some of these gaps.

doubt. I could rant about the experience of reading an

Even – and this is important – even if this project fails, it

application written in 10pt Arial with no paragraph spac-

will be a splendid failure born of a red-hot go.

ing and after reading eleventy-hundred other applications

In reading your application I’ve learnt something

that didn’t test my eyesight or bring on migraines. Or how

beyond your immediate need for funds. I’ve learnt about

much I resent reading one word over the 6 page limit. But

your field and discipline, about its methods and its con-

I won’t. I’ll just say that the formatting and length of your

cerns, but also a little about what makes working in your

document is not the place to get innovative or creative.

field so exciting. In fact you’ve made me want to learn

You’ve also got a plan to show success (or otherwise).

more – I want to sit in on one of your lectures, or work

In other words, your project has evaluation strategies that

with you on a project, or at very least, chat some more

will monitor the effectiveness (or otherwise) of:

about this particular project with you. You’ve made me

• the project methodology

blurt out things like ‘Nifty!’, ‘Oh, now that is cool!’ or

• the strategies you have used for implementing the

‘Excellent!’ You’ve made me fantasise, however briefly,

project

about working on this project with you, not just because

• the dissemination strategies

you’ve engaged me through a well written and presented

• project outcomes and

application but you’ve shown that this project matters.

• project’s potential to support change, innovation and/

Most of all you’ve invited me to become invested – not

or reform.

only in your project but in innovation and scholarship.

You’ve made it known that others – important others

You’ve shown that you care, not only about a particular

– think this project is not only a great idea but a needed

issue, but also about the themes and intent of the grant pro-

intervention. You’ve included the necessary endorse-

gramme itself; enough to spend your valuable time putting

ments from respective staff (Head of Departments,Associ-

together a tight, well-written, strictly-formatted application

ate Deans, Executive Dean etc.) however, it is also clear

for a scholarly, methodologically rigorous, evidence-based

that you have had advice and feedback from trusted col-

project that will contribute to positive change.

leagues and mentors on your application, because this

So thank you – not just for doing this all so well that you

application is obviously not a first or even a second draft.

have made it easy for me to go into that meeting and argue

Where possible too, you’ve referred to whatever local

(if necessary) for your application, but also for giving me

support is available, whether through additional funds,

the opportunity to play a tiny part in your quest.

reduced workload, administrative assistance, thereby show-

Yours in innovation and scholarship,

ing that your department is willing to put its money where

Your grant application reader and committee member,

its mouth is – in this time of widespread budget deficits,

Karina Luzia,

a powerful indicator of project value. Think of this as the

Macquarie University

support from your local village to go on your heroic quest. And by doing all of the above, you have been clever and

Karina Luzia is a lecturer in academic development and a

you have made your application work for you in a number

project research & development officer at the Learning and

of ways.You have made your application a multi-functional

Teaching Centre at Macquarie University, NSW, Australia.

Dear Grant Applicant, Karina Luzia

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Unhinged university Andee Jones ‘How is the Dictionary getting on?’ said Winston. ‘Slowly,’ said Syme. ... ‘We’re cutting the language down to the bone. ... It’s a beautiful thing, the destruction of words.’ George Orwell

The higher echelons of higher education are talk-

adverbs: ‘bad’ becomes UNGOOD; ‘best’ is DOUBLEPLUS-

ing Newspeak. The late Hazel Rowley (1996), eminent

GOOD; ‘well’ is GOODWISE. ‘All concepts of liberty and

biographer and academic, put it another way: ‘Never

equality,’ says Orwell, ‘were contained in the single word

has there been so much talk of “excellence” and “qual-

CRIMETHINK’. ‘Facecrime’ is a facial expression indi-

ity assurance” and never before ... so little concern for

cating thoughtcrime. To ‘crimestop’ is to rid oneself of

either’. In Australian Universities’ Review 53(2), 2012

unwanted incursions of unspecific UNGOOD precursors

I described my experiences as a post-retirement, post-

to thoughtcrime.

graduate student doing Masters coursework in the

Speaking of incursions, in 2010, the University of Mel-

contemporary uncapped university system. Those over-

bourne’s Vice-Chancellor, Glyn Davis, delivered the Boyer

crowded classrooms – from which teaching had all but

lectures. The series was entitled ‘The Republic of Learn-

fled – had me switching to a research degree. I closed

ing’ and honoured the Dutch Renaissance humanist Desi-

the AUR piece with the above comment from Rowley,

derius Erasmus and the subsequent Republic of Letters

and I repeat it here because it is indicative of how the

for privileging enquiry over received truth. In the first

university has become unhinged. And lest you think that

lecture, Davis conjured up a vision of seamless progress

UniNewspeak is merely unnerving, the reality is that it is

from Erasmus to the contemporary corporate university,

PLUS-UNGOOD for your health. (In his novel Nineteen

and thereby delivered his audience into a liminal space

eighty-four, George Orwell (2004, p. 372) introduces

just short of Orwellian.

Newspeak, a propagandistic language (often capitalised) designed to diminish the range of thought).

Davis’s purpose, so he said, was to cast an optimistic eye over the current state of higher education. While con-

George Orwell knew that having your perceptions

ceding that university class sizes had doubled in the past

repeatedly invalidated can drive you, literally or figuratively,

two decades, Davis reiterated the DOUBLEPLUSGOOD

over the edge. Newspeak, the invented language in Orwell’s

side: ‘Few appreciate just how much Australia’s current

Nineteen eighty-four, with its elimination of all vocabulary

prosperity rests on this new export industry called edu-

that might induce non-state-approved thoughts, is the sine

cation. ... The invisible hand of student spending shapes

qua non of invalidation. Potentially heretical ideas are ren-

our cities. ... Australia rides on the scholar’s back.’ Davis

dered unthinkable because the words required to express

flagged the notion of the ‘principally international’ Aus-

them (‘freedom’, ‘democracy’, ‘justice’, ‘resistance’, ‘moral-

tralian university. ‘What is the logic,’ he said, ‘of privileg-

ity’ etc.) have been erased from the historical record.Along

ing local students over international students?’ Of higher

with ‘doublethink’ and the slogans ‘War is Peace’,‘Freedom

education Davis claimed: ‘Look around and see its mighty

is Slavery’ and ‘Ignorance is Strength’, a central tenet of the

works.’ In this, Davis proved worthy of the DOUBLEPLUS-

state is ‘mutability of the past’.

GOOD Big Brother title – a DOUBLEPLUSGOOD DUCK-

If you’ve read Orwell’s novel, you’ll know that New-

SPEAKER. To DUCKSPEAK, according to Orwell (2004), is

speak eliminates the need for antonyms, adjectives and

‘to quack like a duck’ or speak automatically. Provided the

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In a futile attempt to measure the collective worth of higher education, Canberra counts the number of publica-

Most of the listener commentary, however, was

tions it generates. Canberra pretends that knowledge has

UNGOOD. One commentator, a university lecturer,

more in common with consumables than with maturity,

described his master’s class of eighty-two students (eighty

wisdom or health. But as any poor sod in yet another limi-

of whom were from overseas).‘I would expect,’ he wrote,

nal space – the pharmaco-medical conveyer belt – knows,

‘that no more than four of my students would have been

it’s neither health nor wellbeing that they’re getting for

able to follow along with the content of [Davis’s] lecture’.

their money.

This despite Davis’s presentation being PLUSBIGWISE

In order to squeeze higher and higher quality work

accessible: ‘Teaching may be a job, but it is also a joy’;

out of academics, Canberra believes it must keep them

‘Open Day is an advertisement for choice. It is the repub-

running in circles in front of Big Brother’s telescreen,

lic on display’;‘Research is not an ancient function of Aus-

Orwell’s equivalent of 24-7 Skype, a simultaneous trans-

tralian universities’. And so on.

mitter-receiver that cannot be turned off. (BIG BROTHER

‘We went rapidly from republic to corporation in your

IS WATCHING YOU is the universal caption throughout

address,’ said a commentator from the floor,‘and there was

the state). Does it matter to Canberra that the evidence

a sense that we’ve got to the stage where knowledge is a

is overwhelmingly to the contrary – that increased stress

commodity’. ‘Knowledge has always been a commodity,’ replied Davis.‘You always had to pay for books; you didn’t get given them’. Skipping this particular DOUBLEPLUSBIG hole in Davis’s argument – though librarians, surely, wouldn’t – I’ll merely extend his reasoning. If knowledge/

leads to reduced productiv-

How did it come about that bright people such as vice-chancellors actually believe (to give them the benefit of the doubt) that learning-and-teaching – that twoway, mutually enhancing thing that human beings do naturally and is the reason culture exists at all – is and ought to be about buying and selling?

ity (Halkos & Bousinakis, 2008;Wilke et al., 1985); that, more often than not, job insecurity is the most significant source of stress (Webb et al., 2005); that workplace stress causes morbidity and premature mortality on a DOUBLEPLUSBIG scale, particularly

learning is a commodity that

heart disease and stroke

is bought and sold among

(McEwan, 2002)? By way of

learners and teachers, then, similarly, health is a commod-

minutely choreographed moves, management keeps its

ity exchanged among medicos and patients. By the same

staff in perpetual self-doubt: ‘Do they see me as one of

token, myriad attributes – maturity, intimacy, love, wisdom

the team?’‘Will I ever be promoted?’‘Why haven’t I heard

and so forth – that emerge from parenting, partnering and

back from that journal?’‘Am I about to perish?’

similarly challenging relationships, are commodities.

If stress is not what makes workers productive, what

How did it come about that bright people such as vice-

does? In a nutshell, job satisfaction, including good-

chancellors actually believe (to give them the benefit

enough regard from significant others and enough room

of the doubt) that learning-and-teaching – that two-way,

to move.Threat, as distinct from social consequences (e.g.

mutually enhancing thing that human beings do naturally

being sent off the field for DOUBLEPLUSBIG sledging),

and is the reason culture exists at all – is and ought to be

elicits fear, and fear translates into lower quality work as

about buying and selling?

well as hostility toward the corporation. I ought to know,

In a word, Newspeak.

having been the hapless owner of a 1980s Skoda so-called

Three decades of Newspeak have blinded us to the fact

car, which, the story goes (apocryphal or not), was the

that the entire human project rests on countless formal

brilliantly wrought product of Czech resistance to Big

and informal instances of teaching and learning. It’s some-

Brother Russia’s occupation. In a bizarre metaphor, per-

thing humans do BIGWISE all the time.Amid this universal

haps for Prague itself, the Skoda regularly overheated and

enterprise (which requires no extrinsic-reward system),

was pacified only by lifting its lid and squeezing its black

in the comparatively few instances when money does

rubber water pipes. Just like the Skoda, people produce

change hands, it usually goes to pay for specialist time, not

their DOUBLEPLUSGOOD work when they feel both

learning, which may or may not happen (as in ‘I taught my

appreciated and stimulated to go further.

dog to whistle’). When learning/knowledge does occur, it is intrinsically constructed and impossible to cost.

Unhinged university, Andee Jones

So why do some institutions still operate STICKWISE? Apart from the fact that habits of mind become unconvol. 55, no. 1, 2013

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scious, the short answer is that living in unspecific morbid

Andee Jones is an author and retired academic and psy-

dread – of what BB might do to you when he twigs to your

chologist. Her most recent book is Barking Mad: Too much

thoughtcrime – keeps people quiet.As a rule, those in fear

therapy is never enough. ‘RU4Me’, the stage play adapted

of losing their jobs do not launch hard-nosed critique in

from Andee’s first memoir Kissing Frogs, is to tour Australia

the direction of management. In the world of UniNew-

in 2013.

speak, criticism (not to mention what it does for your chances of promotion) is DOUBLEPLUSUNGOOD. ‘Research, writing and teaching [are] what I do best,’ said Hazel Rowley (1996) on resigning from her university teaching position. So why leave? ‘The new regime,’ she said,‘is so opposed to the spirit of free inquiry and reflection that it is no longer possible to think creatively. ... The word from our leaders is loud and clear:“I don’t care what you publish. Just publish”’.

References Davis, G. (2010). Boyer Lectures, 2010. The Republic of Learning. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/ programs/boyerlectures/boyer-lectures-2010-the-republic-of-learning/2981312 Halkos, G. & Bousinakis, D. (2008). The effect of stress and satisfaction on productivity. MPRA Paper Number 39654 McEwan, B. (2002). The end of stress as we know it. Washington DC: Joseph Henry Press

What is this BB business model costing us? Invali-

Orwell, G. (2004 [1949]). Nineteen eighty-four. Fairfield, IA: 1st World Library

dation of staff needs, deliberately induced workplace

Rowley, H. (1996). Universities are losing on points. December. The Australian.

stress, consequent illness and premature death. The

Tytherleigh, M.Y., Webb, C., Cooper, L., & Ricketts, C. (2005). Occupational stress in UK higher-education institutions: A comparative study of all staff categories’ Higher Education Research and Development, 24, 1, 41-61

causal chain is fully documented, so where’s the oftlauded, evidence-based DOUBLEPLUSGOOD practice? Down the gullet of the DOUBLEPLUSGOODTHINKFUL

Wilke, P., Gmelch, Lovrich Jr, N. (1985). Stress and productivity: Evidence for the Inverted U function. Public Productivity Review, 9(4), 342-356.

DUCKSPEAKER, no doubt. A commentator on the second lecture in the series remarked on the current breed of ‘self-important middlemanagement drones whose role is to maintain the pretense of high principle while employing expensive and inexpert consultants to dismantle structures beyond their understanding or interest’. It’s a beautiful thing, the destruction of words.

vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

Unhinged university, Andee Jones

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Grants are not research outputs Lee Naish University of Melbourne

In his paper in Australian Universities’ Review 53(1),

not clear. However, in my experience as a university com-

Martin (2011) presents several criticisms of the Austral-

puter scientist, it has reduced research efficiency.

ian Research Council’s Excellence in Research for Australia (ERA) scheme and, like many other commentators,

A case study

encourages the development of new ideas which may overcome some of these defects. Here the focus is on one

Government funding policies have influenced how the

particular criticism of the ERA: inputs to research (namely,

University of Melbourne determines the funding for the

grants) are counted as outputs of research (in the same

Melbourne School of Engineering (MSE) and, in turn, in

class as journal publications). Some of the negative conse-

June 2008 the MSE introduced ‘minimum performance

quences of this are examined in more detail and a solution

expectations’ for academic staff which include research

is proposed: use direct peer assessment of research excel-

income (as well as research publications and other meas-

lence. This solution has a relatively low marginal cost,

ures).At time of writing, although I met research and other

provides a more accurate assessment, avoids the negative

targets, I had not achieved the research income target and

consequences of treating inputs as outputs and could

thus my job is currently under significant threat. This has

potentially help avoid other contentious issues such as

lead me to spend less time doing research in recent years

those surrounding journal rankings.

and more time seeking out opportunities and applying for grants, most of which has simply been wasted. This waste

Inputs are counted as outputs

is clearly reflected Australia-wide: grant success rates are low, which indicates a significant opportunity cost.

Under the Excellence in Research (ERA), and also previ-

One might expect that the occasional successful grant

ous policies, funding of a university depends directly on

application would more than compensate for this wasted

both numbers of journal (and other defined) publica-

time. However, in my experience it does not. When I

tions and research grant income. More journal publica-

have received grants, my research output has not signifi-

tions means more funding, all other things being equal;

cantly increased and has sometimes it has decreased.The

this is clearly an incentive for research excellence. More

reasons are somewhat subtle and discipline-specific, but

research grant income also means more funding, all other

may well apply more widely. For example, Allen (2008)

things being equal.Allen (2010) has noted that in Australia,

argues that the Australian obsession with research grant

more weight is given to grant income than other coun-

income is unhelpful in disciplines such as law and the

tries. Although this indirectly encourages research excel-

social sciences.

lence, it is also an incentive for less cost-effective research.

My research area is towards the more theoretical end

The extent to which this incentive changes behaviour in a

of computer science/software engineering and my main

negative way in the broad context of Australian research is

research tools are pencils and paper. However, it is much

Grants are not research outputs, Lee Naish

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easier to justify a research grant budget if the project is

A direct approach has several advantages when com-

more implementation-oriented – you create a need for

pared with the current indirect approach. The direct

a research assistant to do the programming etc. If the

approach uses more information and hence will measure

application is successful, you end up spending more time

research excellence more accurately. Most grant applica-

related to programming. Although this can be valuable,

tions are unsuccessful and the information contained in

and is sometimes necessary, it is expensive. By accepted

them and the assessments is used mainly to generate polite

measures of research output, it is less cost-effective and

rejection notices. By basing funding on only successful

less excellent. In years gone by I made a conscious deci-

applications we are essentially taking a sample of the data,

sion not to apply for research grants because I had seen

and most of the available information is discarded. The

many hundreds of thousands of dollars of grant income

direct approach would assess the performance of indi-

spent with rather modest research outcomes. That deci-

viduals, whereas the indirect approach assesses a mixture

sion has been reversed due to changed employment con-

of the performance of a whole team and their proposal,

ditions which are a consequence of government funding

which is less accurate. The direct approach can avoid the

policies.To summarise, treating grant income as an output

pitfalls of treating inputs as outputs implicit in the indi-

has led to more time wasted on applying for grants and

rect approach. There will be less pressure for researchers

a move from more basic research to implementation-ori-

to apply for grants when doing so does not lead to greater

ented research which is less cost-effective.

research productivity.

A proposal – Direct Peer Assessment

record could also be expanded beyond the current role of

The role of direct peer assessment of research track grant income. For example, measuring research output by Nearly all active researchers write grant applications and

counting publications in (peer reviewed) journals which

as part of those applications they justify their research

are ranked in some (inevitably controversial) way is also

track record (for example, the ‘Research Record Rela-

an indirect way of using peer assessment of research

tive to Opportunities’ section in ARC Discovery Project

and some disadvantages of this method (see Young et al.

proposals). These are used as an important component

(2011), for example) could potentially be avoided by a

in peer assessment of applications, which determines

more direct approach.

which grants are awarded. Thus the government funding component tied to research grant income is indirectly

Dr Lee Naish is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Com-

dependent on peer assessment of research track record

puter Science and Software Engineering at the University of

(this is its primary justification). Here it is proposed to

Melbourne, VIC, Australia.

make the connection direct rather than indirect: all active researchers should be asked to justify their research track record (whether they are applying for a grant or not), these should be assessed by peers and the results of these assessments should directly determine a component of government funding. Given that nearly all this information is generated already, the marginal cost of such a scheme should be relatively small. Such a funding model has been used elsewhere, for example in South Africa.

vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

References Allen, J. (2008). Our misgoverned universities, Quadrant, October 2008. Allen, J. (2010). Down under exceptionalism. University of Queensland Law Journal, 29(1), 143-154. Martin, B. (2011). ERA: adverse consequences. Australian Universities’ Review, 53(2), 99-102. Young, S., Peetz, D., & Marais, M. (2011). The impact of journal ranking fetishism on Australian policy-related research: A case study. Australian Universities’ Review, 53(2), 77-87.

Grants are not research outputs, Lee Naish

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Response to Petersen on ‘Staying or going?’ Australian early career researchers’ narratives William Boyd & Louise Horstmanshof Southern Cross University

We write in response to Eva Bendix Petersen’s commen-

In this commentary, we reflect on the outcomes and

tary on ‘Australian early career researchers’ narratives of

implications of Petersen’s (2011) AUR study of ‘Australian

academic work, exit options and coping strategies’, pub-

early career researchers’ narratives of academic work, exit

lished in Australian Universities’ Review (AUR) 53(2).

options and coping strategies’. While we do not provide

While the professoriate is, perhaps, unable to directly

solutions to the institutional matters that Petersen consid-

tackle the malaise that Petersen ascribes to what she sees

ers underlie the concerns she identifies, we suggest one

as an unsustainable staffing condition in the universities,

response, at the individual academic level, that may offer

we argue that the professoriate has a duty of care to early

opportunities for early career academics to become more

career academics, a duty of care that can be articulated

empowered at negotiating the modern university system.

through active mentoring. Acknowledging the growing

Petersen’s picture of academic career progression is

group of academics recruited from the professions and/or

gloomy. She records evidence of early career academics

specifically for teaching, but now increasingly required to

seeking coping strategies and exit options, rather than

meet scholarly research performance targets, we describe

developing strategic career paths, as one might expect

an approach to guided and mentored team-based, multi-

in a healthy system. She concludes that this is a conse-

authored research. By aligning experienced and inexpe-

quence of the pressures early academics experience in

rienced researchers into small project teams, often with

an environment where they feel overworked and under-

a scholarship of teaching and learning focus, we demon-

valued in the ‘neoliberal enterprise university’ (p. 40).

strate how early career academics can be better inducted

She argues that policy makers and university managers

into the world of academe, start to be research-produc-

should listen carefully to types of narrative she is record-

tive, and thus be acknowledged, validated and rewarded.

ing. She also, however, comments that such narratives ‘continue to be dismissed and even denigrated by those

A gloomy outlook on academic careers … a way forward? Mentors and apprentices are partners in an ancient human dance, and one of teaching’s greatest rewards is the daily chance it gives us to get back on the dance floor. It is the dance of the spiralling generations in which the old empower the young with their experience and the young empower the old with new life, reweaving the fabric of the human community as they touch and turn. (Palmer 1998, p. 26)

who should be listening extra carefully’ (p. 41). Whether we fully accept her analysis or not, there is clearly a malaise about which the university community should be seriously concerned. Petersen suggests that the solution is up to the policy makers and managers to change their practices. There is, however, another community of senior university members who, while they may not feel that they can influence policy and management practices in any significant or sys-

Response to Petersen on ‘Staying or going?’, William Boyd & Louise Horstmanshof

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Tackling professional development

some resolution, or at least mediation, of this issue. That body is the professoriate, and it needs to find the space

There are many ways, at the various scales of policy, pro-

within the system in which this non-managerial senior

cess or practice, in which universities may address this

body can contribute. We suggest one such space in this

lack of the grounding. Currently, is seems, policy and pro-

paper: the professoriate as individual mentor.

cess are the preferred targets, that is, the development

The current higher education landscape is, by any

and instigation of institutional-level policies, guidelines,

measure, in a state of flux. The adoption of ERA and its

and processes. Many universities, for example, currently

influence on research performance management, for

mandate professional training for new academics; as these

example, is resulting in shifting research policy and strate-

roll out, compulsory completion of graduate certificate or

gic approaches in all Australian universities (Martin, 2011;

equivalent courses in, for example, teaching and learning

Young et al., 2011); the evolving quality management and

or research management may become a norm. New aca-

improvement systems – most recent incarnations being

demics will need to find ways of accommodating, in their

TEQSA and the AQF – likewise result in shifting policy and

already busy working schedules, teaching and learning

strategy (Lawler & Sillitoe, 2010). Changing demograph-

workshops, courses in academic practice, research meth-

ics and government policy result in a widening of access

ods workshops and other formal professional develop-

to the university system to non-conventional university

ment activities. All the principles we espouse about good

entrants, placing demands on policy, process and practices

teaching and learning with our students are put to the test

in higher education teaching, while government funding

when we, as academics, have to engage as learners. The

models and trends towards higher education as business

intent, of course, of policy- and process-driven activities, is

present a moving feast of externalities. Such trends are

to change practice. Success in this is usually predicated on

global, and introduce pragmatic, philosophical and ethi-

harnessing conventional intellectual traditions of scholar-

cal tensions into the act of being an academic (Boyd &

ship (Boyd et al., 2012, in review).

Newton, 2011).

Palmer (1992), in his work on academic communities,

To add to the complexity of this new and evolving uni-

draws attention to the tensions implicit in such institu-

versity environment, and in part in response to it, there

tional policy and process responses. In commenting on

is a new workforce in the university academic system, an

what he calls ‘an old but helpful distinction between

academic workforce of former practitioners and profes-

an organisational approach and a movement approach

sionals hired to teach into – and increasingly expected

to change’ (p. 10), he identifies organisational change as

to be scholars in – the applied disciplines. This cohort

arranging power, while community movement concerns

has not necessarily served the apprenticeship that previ-

the human engagement with knowledge.

ously prepared academics for a career in academe. Without this cultural background, many such staff find they lack the background to flourish in academe. Much of the low morale that Petersen records may also result from the disjunction between conventional academic and scholarly cultures, staff career aspirations, and contemporary university processes and practices. While such new academics are knowledgeable and experienced in their own fields of expertise, they often lack the grounding required to easily fit into an academic or scholarly life and so develop a satisfactory career within the university.

Both organisations and movements are valuable, worthy of leadership, and channels for change, and a healthy society will encourage symbiosis between the two (indeed, reform-minded administrators often welcome movement energies). But when an organisational mentality is imposed on a problem that requires movement sensibilities, the result is often despair. I believe that some of us are making precisely that mistake when it comes to the reform of teaching and learning (Parker, 1992, p. 10). On a pragmatic level, Boyd et al. (2012) recently demonstrated the fragility of this tension. In a study of early-career

This view provides a parallel critique of the roots of

desires to engage the teaching-research nexus, one of the

the malaise that Petersen charts. While it does not pro-

core tropes of contemporary higher education, it is appar-

vide a means to address the institutional concerns raised

ent that new academics often do not share the culture and

by Petersen, it does provide an alternative opportunity

language of conventional scholars, and thus find it hard to

to contribute to a healthier workplace. Simply put, once

engage the formal processes of professional development:

these new academics have the appropriate navigation

While academics with scholarly apprenticeships (e.g. people … whose primary professional background is in academe) may intuitively understand ‘research’ and

skills, they should be better able to flourish in the career system they have chosen to engage. vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

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‘university teaching and learning’, for academics with professional backgrounds or later-in-life academic career starts (i.e. whose apprenticeship and culture is professional rather than academic), such intuitive understanding may be less tangible. Their professional cultural background is different. While such academics want to be good university teachers, they question what is required as an academic researcher. While there may be other organisational impediments to a university promoting the nexus, the professional cultural apprenticeship may be the crucial personal epistemological and ontological impediment to engaging the nexus (Boyd et al., 2012, p. 14).

a non-institutional cultural education for new university

A recent study (Boyd et al., 2012) of academics who

Petersen reported on one set of academic narratives.

had a desire to engage the nexus, but found it hard, dem-

There are, however, many others that need to be heard,

onstrate that engaging the nexus requires that academics

others that may offer more hope and optimism. These are

without a conventional scholarly apprenticeship, and thus

the narratives that provide a springboard, if supported, for

the epistemological or ontological understanding of con-

professional development within the university. In present-

ventional scholarly research, need to master key thresh-

ing here a few examples of studies in which such narratives

old concepts (Meyer & Land, 2003, 2005). The study also

are listened to, and acted upon, we are inspired by the work

suggested that triggers for such mastery are diverse, but

of Palmer in his considerations of how the academy can

predominantly reflect the immediate, often daily, and prag-

deepen its educational agenda. He believes that ‘we need a

matic needs of life as an academic, and represent positive

way of thinking about community in higher education that

responses to serendipitous opportunity, rather than being

relates it to the central mission of the academy – the gen-

an outcome of formal institutional professional develop-

eration and transmission of knowledge’ (Palmer, 1999, para.

ment processes. Examples of adoption of the nexus pro-

5): ‘knowing and learning are communal acts’, he further

vided evidence that ‘conventional academic development

comments, ‘they require a continual cycle of discussion,

needs to be adapted to harness the opportunities offered

disagreement and consensus over what has been and what

by this focus on teaching and learning, the pragmatic day-

it all means’ (Palmer, 1999, para. 21).

academics, and reflecting on the diversity of triggers for the threshold changes required to support any real professional development, we can draw on an age-old tradition, that of the master-apprenticeship mentoring process. We argue that, as senior members of the university, the professoriate has a responsibility to assist junior colleagues in developing the skills they require to navigate the environment. While some institutions have formal mentoring processes in place, here we illustrate the potential of a more informal customised or individualised mentoring approach.

to-day demands of teaching academics and the serendipity

Experiential narrative is increasingly being accepted as

so influential in any career [and that] mentoring … needs

a sound research tool to allow academics to explore social

to rely less on formal expressions of the nexus and more

processes and relationships (e.g. Estrella et al., 2000; Estrella

on adaptive strategies based on the daily experience of

& Gaventa, 1998), and empowering professional develop-

academics’ (Boyd et al., 2012, p. 15).The study concluded

ment (Cloke, 1994). While established academics can use-

that the ‘institutional response – the method to lead the

fully adopt experiential narrative to explore their own

novice to the threshold – needs to realistically reflect the

professional development (e.g. Boyd, 2011; Searby & Tripses,

diverse, troublesome and contingent contexts of academ-

2011), it provides a valuable option for early career academ-

ics’ desires to engage the teaching-research nexus’ (Boyd

ics seeking to engage research scholarship more fully (e.g.

et al., 2012, p. 15). Such a critique could be presented for

Radi et al., 2008; Elliott-Johns, 2011). Here, we describe a

other areas of academic professional development.

few examples of the convergence of these two approaches. We summarise several small research projects, in which an

Experiential narrative: a way to harness serendipity?

experienced academic assists in bringing together a group of willing but inexperienced academics to create small, practice-based research projects, usually in the field of the

It is unsurprising that new academics find the complex

scholarship of teaching & learning (SoTL), and in doing so

and evolving environment of the new university difficult to

mentor these staff through project planning implementation

navigate. Petersen’s conclusions are, likewise, unsurprising.

and publication, and in managing a productive work balance.

While all staff will need to find ways of navigating through this environment – and hopefully not navigating out of it

Examples of mentored scholarship

(sensu Petersen) – it becomes important to find alternative ways, outside the formal system, to assist new academ-

The teaching research nexus (TRN) study, introduced

ics in this navigation. In recognising the need to develop

above (Boyd et al., 2012), engaged a mix of academics,

Response to Petersen on ‘Staying or going?’, William Boyd & Louise Horstmanshof

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some of whom have a traditional scholarly background,

activity. A small group of early career education academ-

but most of whom were early career or late-entry scholars.

ics is currently working with the first author on issues of

This study drew on the experiential narratives of six aca-

maths anxiety amongst teacher training students. Draw-

demics who understood the importance of engaging the

ing on the first author’s own experience in such matters

teaching research nexus, but, despite institutional efforts

(Boyd et al., 1998), the group has developed curricu-

to promote it (Boyd et al., 2010) through the explanations

lum interventions that allow the teaching staff to move

and discussions of TRN-experienced academics, still found

beyond student surveys – intended to understand levels

it hard to engage the formal language and concepts of the

of maths anxiety – and actively engage the students in

teaching research nexus. In being mentored in an experi-

learning about maths anxiety and its management.A paper

ential writing process, they all found ways to better under-

has been submitted (Boyd et al., in review) and further

stand the engagement and to activate it within their work.

research has commenced. One team member has, notably,

All are now SoTL authors, and some are using this study to

expressed a newly-found confidence, lacking a year ago, in

support applications for academic promotion.

mentoring her own colleagues in SoTL research.

A similar approach – publishing reflective narratives as

In the growing world of academic publication, the call

core data – was adopted in a study on academic engage-

for submissions to specialist journals provides invaluable

ment with writing research ethics proposals (Boyd et al.,

opportunity for new academics. While some of emerging

in review). A team of two senior academics, two junior

and often online journals may not yet meet ERA stand-

academics and two teaching postgraduate students formed

ards, they provide an important outlet for current writ-

what turned out to be a mutually mentoring group, each

ing, and opportunity for a publication springboard into

writing in very different ways about their expectations,

ERA-focussed publishing. Three examples will suffice. In

aspirations and anxieties to seeking and obtaining research

2011, the journal FutureInternet issued a call for papers

ethics approval. The senior author is the chair of the uni-

in a special issue on Wiki Planning and Neogeography.

versity’s ethics committees; while the primary benefits

The first author identified early career colleagues using

are for the junior staff and their mastery of the ethics pro-

Web 2.0 technology in their teaching, encouraging sub-

cess, the project has enhanced the chair’s own awareness

missions from these staff on the basis that they are at the

of the nature of his approach to overseeing the bureau-

cutting edge of university teaching, that next year will be

cratic process of research ethics. Importantly, the junior

too late to publish given the rapidity of change, and that

staff discussed their own, often individual, approaches to

as innovators and early adopters they have obligation to

ethics applications (and consequently to research planning

share their expertise and experience.The results are three

and implementation), one interestingly coining the term

papers (den Exter et al., 2012; Newell et al., 2012; Boyd

‘e-mentor’ in describing the positive way she now uses the

& Ellis, in press) on the use of wikis in teaching, the adop-

application form in framing her research plans.Again, these

tion of web-based citizen science in natural resource man-

academics have commenced their SoTL publishing career.

agement, and the use of online mash-up technology to

Continuing with research ethics, the first author, as

develop technology teacher student skills. While all com-

ethics chair, was engaged by the University’s osteopathy

menced as, in the eyes of the junior academics, merely

staff to induct their senior students into research ethics.

technical papers, all have progressed to discussing con-

This resulted in a reflective narrative project with the oste-

ceptual issues, notably the need for intellectual, cultural

opathy staff – one senior but the other four less experi-

and governance change required in universities to cope

enced in research – examining the role of research ethics

with the implications of, especially, the shared authorship

and research projects in a course primarily designed for

implicit in much of Web 2.0 capability. Again, these junior

practitioner graduates, and the use of research as a peda-

authors are all new SoTL authors; one has commented on

gogical tool in coursework programmes. A paper (Grace et

the value of his paper in his promotion application.

al., in review) has been submitted for publication (for most

Another instance of mentoring via teaching and learning

of the authors this will be an early academic paper and a

practice came as a result of attempts to develop students’

first SoTL paper), the curriculum is being re-examined, and

academic writing skills in the on-line environment. Learn-

a case is being developed for the inevitable course review

ing to write in the appropriate academic style challenges

that may question the validity of the pedagogical adoption

students to acculturate by learning new conventions and

of research in coursework.

acquiring new literacy skills.In consultation with the second

Teaching and learning practice and curriculum devel-

author, another lecturer designed discussion board tasks

opment provides many opportunities for such mentoring

as a way of supporting and directing the development of

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students’ academic writing skills. Early indications showed

it does provide opportunity to assist this cohort of new aca-

that students found this form of formative assessment

demics with the survival skills required in the contempo-

very useful. They valued the timely and focussed feedback

rary university. At the core of the approach is an attitude of

from the lecturer and developed collegiality as they learnt

respect for such staff, coupled with a willingness by senior

from each other’s writing and feedback. Believing that this

or experienced academics to commit to what, for some,

strategy was sustainable and could be adapted to facilitate

may seem unglamorous or non-prestigious scholarship.

academic and social integration for students across many

There are, nevertheless, significant benefits. All the exam-

disciplines, the second author suggested that they write

ples cited above, for example, contribute to disciplinary

up the intervention for publication, an option previously

knowledge, largely but not exclusively also engaging both

not considered by the lecturer. The paper (Horstmanshof

the scholarship of teaching and learning and higher edu-

& Brownie, in press), examines one approach at addressing

cation governance (Boyd & Horta, 2011; Boyd & Newton,

three important contemporary academic challenges: the

2011; Boyd et al., 2010; Boyd et al., 2012). Furthermore,

pedagogic adoption of information technology, the provi-

they do so in efficient and manageable ways. Building small

sion of timely feedback through formative assessment, and

teams of inexperienced researchers provides the space

the need to help students to acquire the academic writing

they require to engage in research without over-stretch-

skills necessary to succeed in higher education. For the lec-

ing workload demands. It provides a confidence in their

turer it provided an opportunity to develop her research

potential as researchers. Furthermore, such team-based and

portfolio beyond her discipline into SoTL.

multi-authored research assists staff to develop appropri-

In response to a colleague’s description of the many

ate cultural skills, disciplinary knowledge, problem-solving

challenges she experienced working as the coordinator of

creativity, cultural awareness and lifelong learning skills,

a wide-ranging cross disciplinary research project within

while actively contributing to the core university function

her faculty, the second author remarked that she had dem-

of knowledge creation and dissemination (Palmer, 1999).

onstrated extraordinary collaborative leadership skills.

However, to fully harness this potential in the modern

Reflecting on this comment and after further discussion,

university, there may need to be discussion of cultural

that colleague agreed that she had indeed demonstrated

change. In examining the role of citizen science – also a

the skills of safeguarding the process, facilitating interaction,

collaborative knowledge building enterprise – Newell et

and patiently dealing with high levels of frustration (Chris-

al. (2012, p. 551) noted that ‘cultural change is required

lip, 2002). Despite the project being far from complete, the

to create an environment of acceptance of the shifting

second author encouraged her colleague to write up the pro-

relationship between authority, expertise and knowledge’.

cess to date, including the challenges and her approaches to

Similar conclusions have been reached in other collabora-

dealing with these.As the colleague had been taking care of

tive authoring projects (Boyd & Ellis, in press; den Exter et

the project during the research director’s leave of absence,

al., 2012). Academics and their institutions need to make

the second author suggested that a progress report was in

the transition from the conventions and practices of an

order. Together they applied for ethics approval and fund-

individual focus on writing to writing as a collective act;

ing to carry out the evaluation.This report not only provides

while this is common in some disciplines, it is not present

evidence of achievement for a performance review, it is

everywhere. Institutional processes, such as promotions

planned to be written up for journal publication. From feel-

schemes, often reinforce the individuality of research and

ing exhausted and somewhat demoralised, the colleague’s

publication, despite the trend towards formalised multi-

efforts are validated and on record. Furthermore, the wide-

researcher teams. Consequently, academics who recognise

ranging ambitious cross-disciplinary initiative has been

the value of multi-author teams, such as those described

evaluated and described, so that others can replicate the col-

above, find themselves having to negotiate these inherent

laborative strategies that proved successful.

tensions (cf. Shapiro 2006; Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2001).

Does this approach work?

Conclusion

Adopting a mentoring approach to assist early career aca-

Here we have described a process – the shared experi-

demics, especially those who bring a professional back-

ence of guided team-based research groups – whereby the

ground to the university and who may be employed for

professoriate may mentor early career staff in the skills

specific tasks rather than an overall scholarship, will not

required to negotiate the tensions. Our examples indicate

change the circumstances that Petersen laments. However,

that engaging individuals in this process provides oppor-

Response to Petersen on ‘Staying or going?’, William Boyd & Louise Horstmanshof

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tunity for them to create a narrative of their experiences. This narrative that provides early career academics the language to negotiate these tensions; through sharing the narratives they find solutions of practice issues and thus contribute to the university’s core mission of knowledge creation and dissemination.The narratives provide opportunity for academics to find their own language, using it to approach the point at which the formalised language and culture of academe – often previously a stumbling block – becomes meaningful and negotiable. The resultant publication acknowledges their lived experience, provides enhanced confidence and capacity to work within the system, and yields scholarly performance indicators. In other words, the process acknowledges, validates and rewards our early career academics. Bill Boyd is Professor of Geography in the School of Environment, Science & Engineering at Southern Cross University, NSW, Australia, Chair of the SCU Human Research Ethics Committee. He is currently Visiting Professor at the Australian Studies Centre, University of Barcelona, Spain. Louise Horstmanshof is a Curriculum Development Specialist with School

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Chrislip, D. (2002). The collaborative leadership fieldbook: A guide for citizens and civic leaders. Josey Bass, San Francisco, CA. Cloke, P. (1994). (En)culturing political geography: A life in the day of a ‘Rural Geographer’, in P. Cloke, M. Doel, D. Matless, M. Phillips & N. Thrift (eds.), Writing the rural: Five cultural geographies, Chapman, London. den Exter, K., Rowe, S., Boyd, W. & Lloyd, D. (2012). Using Web 2.0 Technologies for Collaborative Learning in Distance Education – Case Studies from an Australian University. Future Internet, 4(1), pp. 216-237, DOI:10.3390/fi4010216 Elliott-Johns, S.E. (2011). Reclaiming a writing voice as a new teacher educator: SoTL as portal. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 5/2, 9 pp. Estrella, M., Blauert, J. & Campilan, D. (eds.). (2000). Learning from change: Issues and experiences in participatory monitoring and evaluation, IDRC Books, Ottowa. Estrella, M. & Gaventa, J. (1998). Who counts reality? Participatory monitoring and evaluation: A literature review, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, Brighton. Grace, S., McLeod, G., Orrock, P., Boyd, W.E., Blaich, R. & Streckfuss, J. (in review) ‘Above all, do no harm’: Educating the ethical practitioner using research pedagogy in an osteopathic Masters course. Mss in review. Horstmanshof, L. & Brownie, S. (in press). A scaffolded approach to Discussion Board use for formative assessment of academic writing skills. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, DOI: 10.1080/02602938.2011.604121 Lawler, A. & Sillitoe, J. 2010. Perspectives on instituting change management in large organisations. Australian Universities’ Review, 52(2), pp. 43-48.

of Health and Human Sciences, Southern Cross University.

Martin, B. (2011). ERA: The adverse consequences. Australian Universities’ Review, 53(2), pp. 99-102.

References

Meyer, J.H.F. & Land, R. (2003). Threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge: Linkages to ways of thinking and practicing within the disciplines, in Rust, C. (ed.), Improving student learning: Improving student learning theory and practice – Ten years on, Oxford Centre for Staff & Learning Development, Oxford.

Boyd, W., Foster, A. & Smith, J. (in review) Feeling good about mathematics: A study addressing anxiety amongst pre-service teachers. Mss in review. Boyd, W.E., Cullen, M., Bass, D., Pittman, J. & Regan, J. (1998). A response to apparently-low levels of numeracy and literacy amongst first year university environmental science students: A Numeracy and Literacy Skills Survey. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 7(2), 106-121. Boyd, W. E. & Ellis, D. (in press). Sketching up new geographies: open sourcing and curriculum development. Boyd, W. E., & Horta, H. (2011). Network ethics in the growing global, multidimensional and technological academy: Introduction to papers presented at the 2009 Network Ethics Conference. International Journal of Cyber Ethics in Education, 1(3), pp. i-v. Boyd, W.E. & Horstmanhof. L. (2013). Response to Petersen on ‘Staying or going?’ Australian Universities’ Review, 55(1), 74-79. Boyd, W. E., & Newton, D. (2011). Times of change, times of turbulence: Seeking an ethical framework for curriculum development during critical transition in higher education. International Journal of Cyber Ethics in Education, 1(3), pp. 1-11. Boyd, W.E., O’Reilly, M., Bucher, D., Fisher, K., Morton, A., Harrison, P.L., Nuske, E. Coyle, R. & Rendall, K. (2010). Activating the Teaching-Research Nexus in smaller universities: Case studies highlighting diversity of practice. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 7(2), 19pp., http://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol7/iss2/9. Boyd, W.E., O’Reilly, M., Rendall, R., Rowe, S., Wilson, W., Dimmock, K., Boyd, W., Nuske, E., Edelheim, J., Bucher, D. & Fisher, K. (2012). ‘Friday is my research day’: chance, time and desire in the search for the teaching-research nexus in the life of a university teacher. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 9(2), 19pp., http://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol9/iss2/2. Boyd, W.E, Parry, S., Burger, N., Kelly, J., Boyd, W. & Smith, J. (in review) Writing for ethical research: novice researchers, writing, and the experience of experiential narrative. Mss under review. vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

Meyer, J.H.F. & Land, R. (2005). Threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge (2): Epistemological considerations and a conceptual framework for teaching and learning, Higher Education, 49, pp. 373-388. Newell, D.A., Pembroke, M.M. & Boyd, W.E. (2012). Crowd sourcing for conservation: Web 2.0 a powerful tool for biologists. Future Internet, 4, pp. 551-562, doi:10.3390/fi4020551. Palmer, P. J. (1992). Divided no more: A movement approach to educational reform. Change Magazine, 24(2), 10-17. Palmer, P.J. (1998). The courage to teach: Exploring the inner landscape of a teacher’s life, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Palmer, P.J. (1999). Change: community, conflict, and ways of knowing ways to deepen our educational agenda. http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/events/ afc99/articles/change.html. Petersen, E. B. (2011). Staying or going? Australian early career researchers’ narratives of academic work, exit options and coping strategies. Australian Universities’ Review, 53(2), pp. 34-42. Radi, D.A., Hildebrandt, P. & Martin, J. (2008). First experiences of four Ph.D. students in collaborative narrative inquiry research: The Artsmarts Research Project, http://www.artssmarts.ca. Searby, L.J. & Tripses, J.S. (2011). Going to the Balcony: Two professors reflect and examine their pedagogy. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 5(1), 11 pp. Young, S., Peetz, D. & Marais, M. (2011). The impact of journal ranking fetishism on Australian policy-related research. Australian Universities’ Review, 53(2), pp. 77-87.

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Maintaining a ‘Digital Profile’ under Web 2.0 Martin Davies, Mark Eggins & Mark King University of Melbourne

There are no A* to C rankings for blogs or tweets – at least,

Self-promotion is particularly important when academ-

not yet. Nevertheless academia is having to adapt to the

ics are going for tenure and promotion, and as another

digital publishing environment. This involves a subtle, but

avenue for evidence of who is reading one’s publications

inexorable, shift from ivory tower to public scholarship,

and where they are being cited. High profile academics

third to first person perspectives, Harvard to hyperlink

such as Richard Dawkins, A. C. Grayling, Susan Greenfield

referencing. More researchers are now reading blogs and

and Niall Ferguson are examples of excellent scholars

blogging themselves than ever before (Selg, 2008, cited

actively engaged in ‘digital scholarship’. In Australia, the

in Kjellberg, 2010; Powell, Jacob & Chapman, 2012), and

economist John Quiggin is particularly prolific in the digi-

they are doing so for a variety of reasons (Kjellberg, 2010;

tal space (see: http://johnquiggin.com).

Shema, Bar-Ilan, & Thelwall, 2012). These reasons include

Self-promotion has other advantages. A greater digital

developing skills – including skills in writing, critical

profile will also create more community engagement,

thinking and creativity; as well as keeping up-to-date with

which, in turn, indirectly influences one’s work. A short

the latest developments in their field – but also enhancing

but accessible summary of what you are up to will add

connectivity. Connectivity involves academics interacting

to an academic ‘conversation’ in contexts beyond the

and creating relationships inside and outside specific dis-

confines of a faculty meeting or discipline-based confer-

ciplines, through sharing their knowledge and opinions

ence.Academics can also potentially get more diverse and

via an online identity.

immediate feedback from audiences, many of whom they

While change in the academy may not be easy – or always

wouldn’t have had access to before. These audiences can

appreciated by university management – one upside is that

include academics in other fields, industry and govern-

the wider public may come to understand academics as

ment peers along with the general public. If members of

more than names with a collection of letters after them.

this potentially world-wide audience are interested, they

Greater transparency and public recognition (otherwise

can then follow up via links to a more ‘scholarly’ version,

known as community service or ‘knowledge transfer’) is,

which in turn results in more citations and wider influ-

naturally, a good thing for those working in universities.

ence. This is a virtuous circle, and the advantages of this

What this shift also means is that scholars need to be

are being recognised, not resisted, by some academics.

much more like entrepreneurs. Historically, many academ-

Sherma and Thelwall (2012) found, for example, that over

ics have been uncomfortable with this, but this shift is

70 per cent of the bloggers in their sample of 126 research

unstoppable. It is now the responsibility of academics to

academics had active Twitter accounts that directed fol-

get their ideas ‘out there’ any way they can, rather than

lowers to their blogs.

rely just on the traditional means of reviews in academic

The rise of digital profiling means that new questions

journals. Gone are the days of academics slogging away at

come to the fore, questions that were not even intelligi-

research that virtually no one reads.

ble a few years ago. What constitutes a good tweet? What

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is worthy of being re-tweeted? How can one find good

tences and paragraphs. They should use clear, pithy and

advice on Twitter? This may come down to personal style

lively expression. When they write, they should be writing

or approach, but in general the most valued tweets are

for the media, and wider public scrutiny, not for a cohort

those (unsurprisingly) that followers gain something from

of professional academics immersed in the discourse of a

reading, whether this be humour, insightful statistics, or

closed intellectual community.

sage personal advice (see van Kleek, Smith & Stranders,

For blogs especially, academics should focus on their first

2012). Studies from Harvard suggest that the most annoy

paragraph, as most search engines locate this first (as will

ing tweets are overly long, contain stale information, are

most readers who use it, to decide whether or not to read

excessively personal or mundane, or complaining in tone

any further). Around 2,000 words is also a good upper limit

(André, Bernstein, & Luther, 2012).

for blog entries as readers may not be bothered to scroll

It is now possible to use Twitter Web Analytics tools

down much further. Twitter is limited to 140 characters,

that help in understanding how much traffic a website

which should be carefully chosen. Given these constraints,

or blog receives from Twitter (see Suh, Hong, Pirolli, &

maintaining the attention of one’s reader is critical.

Chi, 2010). One can also analyse the effectiveness of

How can academics get noticed amongst all the ‘white

Twitter integrations in websites, or the reach and influ-

noise’ on the internet? We have a few suggestions to assist:

ence of an academic’s work in social media (Stavra-

• Academics interested in enhancing their digital profile,

kantonakis, Gagiu, Kasper, Toma, & Thalhammer, 2012).

should learn from those already doing it. They should

According to the iPhone application Klout, if an aca-

try reading some blogs by academics both in their area

demic has significant social media reach (called ‘True

and outside it. Which blogs are getting a lot of com-

Reach’), influence (called ‘Amplification’), and network

ments and ‘reach’? Why? Academics can also start their

influence (known as ‘Network Impact’) then the ben-

own collection of favourite academic blogs using RSS

efits can be far-reaching and considerable. Some even extend beyond the academy.

Readers so new posts come to them automatically. • Reading the best popular writing in one’s discipline (as

For example, visitors to the San Francisco International

opposed to more academic peer referenced texts) can

Airport who have a Klout score of 40 or higher are able

also be useful in developing a more accessible digital

to enter, and enjoy the privileges of the Cathay Pacific

media writing style.

Business Class lounge. A Klout score is instantly detected

• Academics should maintain a digital profile on several

from a user’s mobile phone as they enter the airport.This

platforms but concentrate on one main ‘home’. A basic

applies to any visitor travelling through the airport, even if

profile presence on other sites, such as Academia.edu,

they are not a Cathay Pacific passenger (Buyer, 2012).This

Twitter, Facebook and Linkedin can be used to ‘point’

ability to reach a broader audience, and to analyse influ-

readers to the central profile site where all one’s main

ence, may, in the not too distant future, be useful in grant

details are located. Hyperlinks and Digital Object Identi-

applications to demonstrate to funding bodies the actual

fiers (DOIs) can be effective here.

and potential ‘reach’ of academic work.

• Similarly, the use of a Google citations page to collect

How can academics develop a digital profile? How

publication citation data automatically, and ensuring

can they obtain ‘True Reach’? The options are almost

this is mirrored on the central site by cross-referenc-

endless. They include dedicated university websites, off-

ing it in a hyperlink, is helpful in developing further

campus profile pages on Facebook,Academia.edu,Twitter,

digital ‘reach’.

Linkedin, Google citation counts, personal websites and

• Many institutions also have their own research reposi-

blogs. In a few years, even more digital venues will make

tories. Depositing research there and then publicising

themselves known, and it is wise to keep abreast of these

it via blogs or tweets (with relevant links) can greatly

developments.

assist academics in monitoring downloads of their

Of course, certain fundamentals remain the same despite

work.

the digital means being used to enhance one’s profile.This

• Keeping sites up-to-date and accessible including pro-

includes clear consideration of purpose, audience and over-

file details and hyperlinks and/or DOIs for direct access

all message. Indeed, the old adage ‘less is more’ is particu-

to publications is important. Site visitor details can be

larly true for Web 2.0. Academics should not feel the need

collected automatically using a sophisticated analytics

to cover every possible complexity, exception and nuance

tool, of which there are many.

in their chosen digital space. Rather, they should focus on

• A bibliographic management tool such as Endnote can

their key message, expunge jargon, and shorten long sen-

be very handy to keep an up-to-date list of references

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under groups such as: books, peer-reviewed journal arti-

Associate Professor Martin Davies, Mark Eggins, and Dr Mark

cles, peer-reviewed conference papers, editor-reviewed

King work at the Centre for Excellence in Learning and Teach-

papers, media articles, and so on. This list can be either

ing in the Faculty of Business and Economics at the University

imported into a paper-based CV, uploaded regularly to

of Melbourne, VIC, Australia.

websites, or easily hyperlinked to other digital platforms.This overcomes the difficulty of having to update several publication lists on different sites. • Another notable feature of using Web 2.0 technologies is that academics can ‘mix it up’ more. This allows greater flexibility in delivery of information, and dispersal of knowledge. While journal articles tend to follow a set formula, Web 2.0 can potentially give academics more latitude in not only how they say something but

References André, P., Bernstein, M., & Luther, K. (2012). Vision Statement: What Makes a Great Tweet. Harvard Business Review, May 2012. Buyer, L. (2012). How to Increase Social Influence Scores on Klout & More. Search Engine Watch, from http://searchenginewatch.com/article/2181105/ How-to-Increase-Social-Influence-Scores-on-Klout-More Kjellberg, S. (2010). I am a blogging researcher: Motivations for blogging in a scholarly context. First Monday, 15(8).

what they say. Academics need not always focus on

Klout App, see http://klout.com/topic/iphone

their latest research findings. They can give their views

Powell, D. A., Jacob, C. J., & Chapman, B. J. (2012). Using Blogs and New Media in Academic Practice: Potential Roles in Research, Teaching, Learning, and Extension. Innovative Higher Education, 1-12.

on a range of topics too.They should personalise (don’t ever just ‘cut and paste’ research directly into a blog), write in the first person (‘I think ...’;‘My view is that...’), keep the tone informal and engaging, and link their work to places where readers can find not only more information about their research, but also about them as individuals. • The digital audience can also be updated quickly about any upcoming programmes an academic is involved in, events and collaborations, along with any interesting reflections on their research journey. Use the digital media as an opportunity to get feedback and post

Shema, H., Bar-Ilan, J., & Thelwall, M. (2012). Research blogs and the discussion of scholarly information. PloS one, 7(5), e35869. Stavrakantonakis, I., Gagiu, A. E., Kasper, H., Toma, I., & Thalhammer, A. (2012). An approach for evaluation of social media monitoring tools. Common Value Management, 52. Suh, B., Hong, L., Pirolli, P., & Chi, E. H. (2010). Want to be retweeted? Large scale analytics on factors impacting retweet in twitter network. Paper presented at the 2010 IEEE International Conference on Social Computing, Minneapolis, MN. van Kleek, M., Smith, D., & Stranders, R. (2012). Twiage: a game for finding good advice on twitter. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 2012 ACM annual conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, New York, NY, USA.

on other blogs. Blogs also offer freedom in terms of copying material from one location to somewhere else. All digital information is searchable and an academic should know where everything is. It is also information that is forever. Losing it or spilling your coffee on it really isn’t even an option! With the rise of digital media and social media, the walls of the academy are breaking down. Developing a digital profile is not only going to become increasingly important for promotion and advancement purposes within the twenty-first century academy, but also for professional networking and potential collaborations outside of it. It can be partly a tool for information transmission of academic and non-academic ideas, but also partly a biographical entry and calendar portal, and a personal journal. The good news is that enhancing one’s digital profile can be done strategically, and for maximum effect, with not too much effort. This means that academics still have time for research and teaching while also meeting the needs of new internet-savvy audiences.

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Onward to a new era of excellence A New Year message to all at Crumblefast University by Vice-Chancellor Professor James Duckmore Richard Hil University of Sydney

Dear Stakeholders,

high quality interpersonal customer support, thus distin-

Going forward, as you prepare (or not) for the chal-

guishing us from most of our regional competitors.As part

lenges ushered in by the New Year, I offer each and every

of this new approach we are redesigning our buildings

one of you heartfelt thanks for your hard work over what

so that they will be much more attractive to incoming

was a formidable past year. Despite significant changes

consumers. In this regard I have approved funding for

both within and without the university you have risen

the creation of Domesticised Recreational Interactive

heroically to the challenge and given your all – often well

Learning Spaces (DRILS) which will include the latest

beyond your performance goals – and for that, I am truly,

ergonomically designed eco-furniture from France, syn-

truly grateful.

thetic bamboo flooring from Cambodia and floral Japa-

As a token of my deep personal appreciation I have,

nese wallpaper manufactured in Australia – all exhibiting

via internal mail, sent each of you a gift of table napkins

our appreciation of stylistic and cultural diversity in the

featuring the University’s Coat of Arms and our slogan:

new global environment. Concealed LED lighting and

‘Excellence Assured, Future Certain’. Additionally, you will

mood music from Africa and Latin America will complete

receive a New Year greeting e-card with my customised

these advanced aesthetic spatial zones in which custom-

electronic signature. (Costs associated with these items

ers will access individual learning booths or gather in

will be covered by the university’s Well-being Contin-

sound-proof cluster hubs complete with free trade coffee-

gency Fund (WCF) which is proudly supported by one

making facilities.

of our major corporate sponsors, McLoveit Plumbing Services – ‘We do it quicker’).

I’m aware that some staff feel that smaller, more intimate and interpersonal engagement is backward look-

Nationally, we have experienced various shifts and

ing, which in some respects is true. However, the market

changes in government policy as well as the usual cycles

demands we think more expansively about how the

of supply and demand. The emergence of Massive Open

university might appeal to a new generation of techno-

Online Courses has presented us with perhaps our great-

logically sophisticated, culturally diverse and discerning

est challenge. However, I am delighted to report that the

customers. You will have noted the fact that there are

University Council and the executive have taken the wise

now more customers in private colleges than ever. While

and prudent decision to set the university on a different

it is wonderful to see choice being exercised in this way,

course. Crumblefast will offer more vocationally relevant

we need to tap into this buoyant market by offering a

niche courses with increased face-to-face contact and

better, more flexible and quality-assured product that

vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

Onward to a new era of excellence, Richard Hil

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rivals these colleges. Our future depends on it especially

tion, we will of course continue marketing our on-line

given the continuing soft demand from overseas and the

courses as well as seeking to develop more sophisticated

prospect of the Asian century leading to the emergence of

forms of Virtual Interpersonal Engagement (VIE).

super-sized Asian universities that are likely to absorb the

Faced with what is a new tertiary environment, we

new middle classes in India and China as well as making

have had to make some difficult decisions over the past

inroads into our domestic market.

year. The 75 retrenchments and 50 voluntary redundan-

Such challenges are compounded by our own govern-

cies among academic customer service officers are an

ment’s reduction in higher education funding which, in

unfortunate development necessitated by the changing

effect, means that we have become increasingly reliant on

nature of the higher education market.That said, this gives

resources generated through philanthropic, corporate and

rise to new opportunities for hundreds of sessional staff.

charitable donations. It is in this regard that I welcome the

Despite objections from the National Union of Tertiary

$1.5 million funding kindly donated by the Cutrun Mining

Education (NUTE), we welcome an enlarged and flexible

Corporation which will go much of the way to funding

workforce eager to enhance our reputation as a leading

two special professorial positions from 2013.

higher education provider.

I know that many of you are concerned that according

More generally, and going forward, I look forward to

to the latest international ranking results the university

working with the union and staff in seeking to promote

is positioned at 3,215. We are up two positions from the

the morale of our workforce.With this in mind I am happy

last academic year which I think reflects our commitment

to announce the opening next semester of the Cranberry

to more intensive customer-centred education! Once the

Institute located on the Whackville campus. The Institute

strategic changes work their way through the system in

will make available a range of well-being activities such

the months ahead, I feel confident we can break through

yoga, Ti Chi, meditation and Qi Gong. For those seeking a

the 3,000 barrier. This will require an exhaustive effort

more physical approach to health enhancement there will

involving all our staff as well as a general commitment to

Thai boxing, kung fu and karate classes.

promoting our brand as a gold standard example of insti-

On a final note, I look forward to travelling with you

tutional excellence and forward thinking. On the vexed

on an exciting journey toward a bright and bold future in

matter of our attrition rate which is hovering around the

which the University can become a leading purveyor of

40 per cent mark, we should reconstitute this as a sign

innovative pedagogy and inclusive connectivity.

of strength rather than weakness. We need to regard this

Onward!

figure as indicative of the university’s robust commitment to providing customers with a springboard to other insti-

Richard Hil was ‘Joseph Gora’, and is author of Whacka-

tutions which in turn reflects increased customer mobil-

demia: an insider’s account of the troubled university

ity in what is, after all, a post-modern tertiary landscape.

(available now from a good bookshop near you!).

And despite our increased focus on interpersonal educa-

Onward to a new era of excellence, Richard Hil

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REVIEWS

It’s time! Gough Whitlam His Time, The Biography Volume II by Jenny Hocking ISBN 9780522857931. Melbourne, Australia. The Miegunyah Press, Melbourne University Publishing, 2012;, 596pp. Review by Paul Rodan

Jenny Hocking’s second and concluding volume on

in Caucus and even if reversals were rare, the impression

Gough Whitlam covers the tumultuous period of his gov-

of discord and disunity was disastrous, especially during

ernment and, usefully, his active public life after he left

its second term as the Government’s reputation for inepti-

parliament in 1978.

tude grew.

The Whitlam Government set a frenetic pace from the

It was the worst time for a government to be led by a

outset, although executive action would prove easier than

man who professed a minimal interest in economics, as

legislative. Recognition of China, the abolition of con-

some ministers resembled children let loose in the lolly

scription, equal pay for women and the last rites for the

shop, unimpressed by arguments for financial and budget-

White Australia policy were amongst the changes which

ary prudence and anxious to make up for a generation

could be effected without parliamentary approval. A

of frustration. Possibly, there was a psychological accept-

more independent foreign policy was a welcome change

ance that Federal Labor never ruled for long: best to make

from the ‘all the way with LBJ’ mentality of the conserva-

the most of what time was available.The oil crisis of 1973

tives. Indeed, in the Government’s first month of office,

changed the post-war economic paradigm: inflation and

three ministers caused a diplomatic sensation when they

unemployment could co-exist and endless growth might

attacked US President Nixon and his Secretary of State

not be there to finance a reform agenda. For some then,

Henry Kissinger for their bombing of North Vietnam. The

it was a tragedy that Gough could not get over the line in

contrast with today, when certain Labor Government Min-

1969, even if it would have cost David Williamson (and

isters name-drop about their close acquaintance with the

us) Don’s Party.

war criminal Kissinger, is instructive.

The Liberal/Country Party opposition was ruthlessly

With the ALP out of office for 23 years, the Whitlam Gov-

determined to ensure that Labor’s reign was indeed brief,

ernment lacked a single minister with prior experience

an ambition they achieved in less than three years. Hock-

and this deficiency was compounded by the party’s deter-

ing convincingly portrays the conservatives as essentially

mination to persist with a cabinet comprising the full (27

undemocratic in their failure to acknowledge the Govern-

person – all men) ministry, in contrast to the conservatives’

ment’s legitimacy.This was best illustrated in the views of

cabinet/outer ministry dichotomy introduced by Menzies

their Senate leader, Reg Withers, who regarded the 1972

in 1956. While 27 might be a good number for an aca-

election result as ‘temporary electoral insanity’: the hap-

demic board, it proved to be pretty much hopeless for a

less voters simply didn’t know what they were doing (pp

cabinet. Moreover, several of the 27 were hacks and time-

61–62). Of course, there were more forces aligned against

servers, achieving ministerial office due to longevity rather

the Labor Government than just those in parliament. Of

than talent. Given that Whitlam was no Rudd when it came

necessity, Whitlam’s reform agenda threatened an array of

to micro-management, this was a story unlikely to end well.

powerful vested interests (including conservative State

Nor did it help that many ministers were reluctant to trust

Governments) more than willing to join the federal coali-

the public service, sometimes with good reason.

tion parties in a relentless campaign of destabilisation. In

At a time when the parliamentary party was more

a story which (amazingly) has attracted no public com-

important than in subsequent Labor Governments, minis-

ment, Hocking reveals the then Governor of Western Aus-

ters who were rolled in Cabinet could re-fight the battles

tralia, the blimpish Douglas Kendrew, as being engaged

vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

It’s time!, Review by Paul Rodan

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in planning a bizarre and complicated bloodless coup to

and its agencies, a political background seems to have

oust Whitlam from office (pp. 94–95).

been more than useful.

With his narrow re-election in 1974,Whitlam essentially

While space constraints are obviously relevant in a text

secured not a renewed mandate but a stay of execution,

of 480 pages, it is surprising that no mention is made of

and Hocking portrays well the siege mentality which

the controversial recognition of Soviet sovereignty over

would soon engulf the Government. With Senate num-

the Baltic states–important in its own right, but also as

bers perverted by conservatives’ breach of convention,

a possible window on Whitlam’s big-power thinking. This

the Government was always one money bill away from

would be of relevance in the enduring controversy over

oblivion. Ultimately, Whitlam would come tantalisingly

his attitude towards Indonesia’s takeover of East Timor in

close to staring Fraser down in 1975, if we accept that

1975. On that issue, Hocking makes a reasonable fist of

some Liberal senators would soon have broken ranks over

defending Whitlam, but for some, the jury is still out.

blocking the budget, although this must forever remain in

Unfortunately, as with several MUP books in recent

the realm of speculation. Hocking is appropriately harsh

times, the error rate is unacceptable, although much

on Kerr for his deceit of his Prime Minister during the

improved on Volume I. The most egregious slip is the

budget crisis: this aspect of his behaviour is now only

description of Bill Snedden as ‘a former Prime Minister’,

defended by the fiercest of partisans. He craved establish-

but also annoying is the confusion of PhDs and medical

ment approval and acted accordingly. It is simply incon-

doctors, the mistaken identification of a left-wing Labor

ceivable that had the party roles been reversed, he would

MP as a right-winger and confusion between Minister

have dismissed a conservative government. Kerr’s very

Connor’s legal first name (Reginald) and the name by

appointment as Governor-General is another reminder of

which he was known (Rex).The sins even include a proof-

that flawed Whitlam judgement.

ing ‘own goal’ with one of the project’s Research Assis-

Whitlam’s was an authentic reforming Labor Govern-

tant’s surname spelled in two different ways–in the same

ment with an impressive array of legislative achievements,

paragraph! There is also the occasional impression of

although these invariably entailed blood and toil given

uncertainty in terms of some of the finer detail of Austral-

Senate numbers. Universal health insurance (butchered

ian politics, an example being the implication that McMa-

by Fraser, resurrected by Hawke) remains an enduring suc-

hon could have held a simultaneous half-Senate election

cess and while fairer electoral boundaries may not excite

with that for the Lower House in 1972 – a constitutional

tabloid editors and shock-jocks, they are vitally important

impossibility, given senators’ terms, until mid-1973; a sena-

in a genuine democracy. The passage of civilised divorce

tor only ever known as ‘Bill’ is identified as ‘William’.

law reform would put a number of private detectives out

In summary, Hocking’s is a sympathetic but fair treat-

of work. Needs-based schools funding was an important

ment of one of Australia’s most significant political lead-

initiative, although later undone by John Howard.The abo-

ers. She is aware of his strengths and weaknesses and is

lition of tertiary education fees provided many with an

at her best when depicting the forces arrayed against his

education they would otherwise not have had, and Hock-

reform programme.The importance of Whitlam’s reinven-

ing makes clear Whitlam’s disillusionment with the later

tion of the ALP as an electable political force can never

re-introduction of student fees, albeit on a loans/deferred

be overstated and his contribution to an authentic, non-

repayment basis. A start was made on the recognition of

jingoistic Australian nationalism has never been undone.

Aboriginal land rights.

We shall not see his like again.

Hocking also provides a detailed account of Whitlam’s time as ambassador to UNESCO, in which he made a sig-

Paul Rodan is an adjunct professor at Swinburne University of

nificant contribution to advancing Australia’s interests.

Technology and sits on the AUR Editorial Board

Given the amount of politicking in the world of the UN

It’s time!, Review by Paul Rodan

vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

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Allons enfants… Franco-British Academic Partnerships: The Next Chapter by Maurice Fraser & Philippe Lane (eds.) ISBN 9781846316647 Liverpool, UK. Liverpool University Press, 2011. 241 pp. Review by Richard Winter This text profiles Franco-British academic partnerships

an acronym for the European Region Action Scheme for

from the perspectives of deans and directors of prominent

the Mobility of University Students, is a European Union

institutions. Joint academic programmes are showcased

exchange programme established in 1987. Approximately

as well as details on what makes a successful academic

4,000 higher education institutions participate in the Eras-

exchange agreement.Although the text does not offer criti-

mus programme across 31 countries and ‘over 2.2 million

cal insights into how things may go wrong in academic

students have already taken part’ (p. 64). Huw Morris,

partnerships, it does provide some interesting ideas and

Academic Registrar at Swansea University, ‘highlights an

formal mechanisms for establishing and maintaining suc-

ambitious and exciting project’ offering ‘industrial-based

cessful international partnerships. As the editors make

mobility placements for students and young employees

clear in their Preface, this volume is ‘not the place to tackle

in South Wales and Versailles (p. 14). According to Huw,

such vital and pressing issues as funding cuts, unequal

student mobility represents a ‘key priority in the develop-

access, [and] grade inflation’. Instead, the rationale is to

ment of a knowledge-based economy and society’ (p. 15).

‘exchange ideas on how we can take our many flourishing

In furthering this aim, Huw spells out a four-phase imple-

[Franco-British] academic partnerships – jointly taught pro-

mentation plan that allows Welsh students to undertake

grammes, research collaboration, exchanges of personnel

professional development courses in the greater Paris

and students – to the next level’ (p. xxv).

area and French students to study in Wales with support

The collection of twenty-five short essays are organised

from the local business community.

into three sections: Teaching and Training Partnerships

Christopher Cripps and Julie McDonald, Dean of Interna-

(eleven essays), Research Partnerships (eight essays), and

tional Affairs and Professor of English Studies respectively

Broader Perspectives (six essays). Each of the essays ema-

at the École Centrale Paris, and Florence Mele (Director of

nates from a one-day conference on Franco-British coop-

Studies at ESCP Europe London campus) offer some inter-

eration held in London in February 2010. A Foreword by

esting background on the development of Grand Écoles in

eminent French and British consular officials and extracts

France and their specific function within the Bologna Pro-

of speeches (Appendices) by directors of leading British

cess (the Bologna Declaration made by Ministers of Edu-

(e.g. London School of Economics and Political Science)

cation from 29 European countries in 1999 is designed

and French (e.g. École Normale Supérieure, Paris) institu-

to make university degrees more compatible throughout

tions completes the collection.

Europe). In their respective essays, Cripps and McDonald

Throughout the collection, references are made to the

highlight questionnaire responses from students who had

‘Grande École System’ (p. 39), ‘prestigious universities’

taken part in an academic exchange between École Cen-

(p. 78), and the ‘prestigious Entente Cordiale Scholarship

trale Paris and Cambridge University Engineering Depart-

Scheme’ (p. 101). Clearly, this collection targets academic

ment. Florence Mele takes a more expansive approach in

partnerships of an exclusive nature rather than those

her essay by describing some international partnerships

based on open-to-all criteria. Essentially, institutional repu-

between business schools as part of their Erasmus and

tations rest on the academic partnerships and exchange

double degree programmes.

agreements profiled and hence the authors make a con-

High profile international exchanges are a key feature

certed effort of ‘talking-up’ the nature of the programmes

of the text. Stephen Luckhurst, Jennifer Cooke and Julia

they support and offer.

Buckingham from Imperial College London, ‘one of the

The essays excel at explaining why student exchange

UK’s and Europe’s best universities’, detail how dozens

agreements are central to their budgets and reputations as

of French students ‘come to study at Imperial every year

members of the Erasmus exchange programme. Erasmus,

under the auspices of Erasmus, Entente Cordiale, [and]

vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

Allons enfants…, Review by Richard Winter

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Imperial’s Undergraduate Research Opportunities Pro-

up to the ‘challenges posed by the large American busi-

gramme’ (pp. 99–100). In a similar vein, Hunter-Henin and

ness school’, the PVC and Dean of the Business School at

Wilson describe University College London’s (UCL) Fac-

Oxford Brookes University sets out some key advantages

ulty of Laws student exchange programme with France

of his institution aligning with the Burgundy School of

and how teaching and research linkages have been

Business. The benefits of such an alliance include scale

established. Perhaps ‘top of the pecking order’ in terms

advantages, increased creativity and innovation, and

of Franco-British partnerships is that involving Paris 1

improved ‘access to sources of European Commission

Panthéon-Sorbonne, one of the largest universities in

funding and other funding streams’ (p. 93).

France occupying ‘part of the Sorbonne and other pres-

Most of the essays in the collection do a fine job of

tigious French university buildings’ (p. 85). In their essay,

showing how joint Franco-British partnerships are inte-

Renaud Le Groix, Pascal de Vareilles-Sommières and Chris-

gral to the continued success of their respective institu-

tine Mengin assess the university’s history of partner-

tions. Broader national-economic and cultural factors such

ships with UK academic institutions. Their profile of UK

as higher tuition fees and the rise of Chinese and Indian

students highlights the prominence of formal exchange

higher education systems are not featured. This perhaps

agreements between the two countries and an area of

limits the impact of the essays and precludes discussion

weakness: ‘a relative gap of British students in master’s

on how Franco-British academic partnerships can be

and doctorate degrees compared with European and

taken ‘to the next level’ (p. xxv). Nevertheless, the text

world averages’ (p. 86).

would be highly useful for those university administrators

Personal essays of a reflective nature are few and far between perhaps given the sheer number of contribu-

and academic managers engaged in, or planning, international partnerships in higher education.

tions. The writing is overall crisp and business-like in style. Chris Cooper’s piece on a ‘vision for a networked

Dr Richard Winter is a researcher and lecturer in organi-

European business school’ provides a nice introduction

sational behaviour and quality of work life in the Research

to how a new model of international management educa-

School of Management at the Australian National University,

tion might be ‘incubated’ (p. 93). With the aim of facing

Canberra, Australia.

Back to the Future IV? Managing the Future: A guide to forecasting and strategic planning in the 21st century by Stephen M. Millett ISBN 978-1-908009-48-7 Axminster, Devon, UK: Triarchy Press, 2011. Review by Maree Conway

Overview

Language

I like this book. I disagree with some of the points made

My biggest issue with this book is with the language used.

and would do some things differently, but that’s to be

It’s perfectly acceptable language in terms of the words,

expected when a book sets out to be as comprehensive

but not when you are trying to change the way people

as this one has done. The biggest positive about the dis-

think about a future that is inherently uncertain and for

cussion of the future by Millett is it clearly addresses the

which there are no future facts. Language matters if we

critical issues associated with thinking beyond the short

are to move beyond short-termism and an over-reliance

term and then shows equally clearly how to put that

on data to inform decisions so that people are comfort-

thinking into practice. This is a significant body of work

able with uncertainty. I think too, that the particular use

and deserves to be widely recognised.

of language in this book undermines its message that we

Back to the Future IV?, Review by Richard Winter

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Book structure

individuals – as well as organisations – if we are to ensure we make wise strategic decisions today. The title is an example – managing the future infers that the future is indeed manageable, that it is something

This section does not do justice to the significant content that is provided, so must be read as a summary that highlights some of the main points only.

tangible that can be addressed using a set of tools and

The first five chapters deal with five futures principles.

approaches (which is how I see management).The future

The first – Continuity and Change – deals with time/

can certainly be addressed, but only in terms of seeking to

chaos/chance/randomness/surprise and begins to iden-

explore what might be, not manage what is. Millett, how-

tify the traits humans display in their thinking that can

ever, actually recognises this very early on:

constrain consideration of the future. Millett provides a

Astute managers learn quickly that business trends can be upset by changes, not all of them good. They acquire the skills to better anticipate the future and to adjust to it when necessary. With such skills, they are better prepared to deal with uncertainty (p. 7).

list of possible changes in the future (p. 29), some so ordi-

I’m not sure that managing uncertainty is possible, and

that structure.The third is the wild card or black swan, the

in fact, attempts to manage or ignore uncertainty have

term made popular by Nasim Taleb. We need to be track-

led to some notable business failures. The other terms

ing all three types of change in our strategy work, because

I dislike are prediction and forecasting. They imply cer-

saying you are surprised by a major change is a sign of a

tainty when as Millett points out the trends upon which

mind and an organisational strategy process closed to the

these activities are based map continuities not discon-

future (p. 25). As Millett writes: ‘one person’s surprise is

tinuities – predictions and forecasts are only valuable

another person’s plan’ (p. 30); it just depends on whether

if we assume continuity, and Millett spends a chapter

you are willing to see the signals of change by moving

helping us to understand why we need to understand

outside the comfort zone of the status quo.

nary that we probably would not see them as change. He identifies three types of change: minor variations in a long term stable structure (which I will admit could be the basis for limited forecasts), or major variations in trends in

those concepts more deeply. Predicting and forecasting

The second chapter is around anticipating the future,

suggest that defining a single end state will provide a cer-

where Millett points out that our views of the future are

tainty that can be managed; the future therefore becomes

conditional because change will continue to happen…

another box to tick in today’s formulaic strategic plan-

but here there is a language issue again when predic-

ning approaches – something that requires no challeng-

tion rears its ugly head. Millett is right when he said the

ing of today’s assumptions that are likely to be irrelevant

response to the statement ‘you can’t predict the future’ is

and even unreasonable in the future.As Millett points out,

‘predict what?...and with what degree of certainty’ and

forecasting does a better job of describing today’s condi-

that you can put parameters on the future to make it more

tions than inferring future states (p. 37).

palatable (p.35). However, the future is often not palat-

I don’t like the term futuring, but that is a personal

able in an organisational sense, because responding to it

preference. It’s used widely, but always strikes me as odd,

usually requires us to change in significant ways, and to

somehow attempting to turn what is a very messy space

move out of our comfort zones to engage with ideas that

(the future) into a process that can be put in a strategic

aren’t mainstream strategic thinking. Many organisations

tool box. But these language issues are minor in the grand

aren’t ready for that degree of change, for any number of

scheme of this book which provides one detailed account

reasons, and futures practitioners need to walk a fine line

of how to go about engaging with the future.

to be honest with their clients and earning some income.

Finally, connecting futures work with strategic planning

The third chapter deals with the principle of futur-

in the title could infer that they are interchangeable terms

ing and visioning as being different but complementary.

– and they are not. Organisations need to do both, but

The hour glass figure used to explain this difference is

also need to apply specific approaches to thinking about

explained clearly, but it seems to infer that thinking about

the future, and to planning for action to be taken today.

the future starts outside an organisation, while visioning

Thinking and acting are two separate modes of activity

starts inside. For me, both have to start outside. A vision is

and they are sequential – planning comes after thinking.

a preferred future, and focusing the thinking inside sug-

Treat them as the same, and you run the risk of planning

gests a vision based on a linear extrapolation of today

for more of today rather than planning for action to move

rather than an understanding of where the organisation

you towards your preferred future.

might fit into possible future operating environments –

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particularly because as Millett points out, internal con-

be identified which is a detailed discussion, complete

ditions change more slowly than those in the external

with examples (p. 131):

environment (p.88).

• background, normal conditions,

An important point here is that thinking about the future can never be objective because there are no future

• signals, signatures of known threats, and • data arrays, raw data analysis not already known.

facts; it will always be a subjective process because it

The remaining sections (about half the book) deal with

involves imagination about how today’s conditions might

managing futures processes in organisations, including

evolve – but this does not reduce its usefulness. We imag-

a section on strategic planning and one on applications,

ine based our understanding today’s trends, and we need

and a final section on managing expectations. I’ve not

to be checking that understanding on a regular basis to

provided much detail here about these, because how you

ensure that we see the changes happening.

manage futures processes will depend on your organisa-

Visionary leadership is discussed in this chapter and fur-

tion’s readiness to integrate long-term thinking into its

ther on in the book, but I believe we are moving beyond

strategic processes. There is a wealth of information in

this idea of a single visionary leader to a more democratic

this section though, if you are ready to move beyond the

view of who can have ideas and visions about the future.

status quo in your strategy development.

All staff can and should be involved in visioning about

It is the final chapter on managing expectations that

the future of their organisations – not only will a diversity

the concept of managing the future is discussed – ‘you

of views emerge that allows for assumptions to be chal-

need to manage the future in order to increase the odds

lenged, but you will also be recognising that the people

of achieving desired success’, which is underpinned by

who will be taking action to implement that future should

the need to ‘formulate well-considered expectations’ (p.

be allowed to help shape it.

254). You can, as Millett suggests, logically prepare for the

Chapter 4 deals with well-considered expectations of

future, but the logic must not become so embedded in the

the future which relate to the need to spend time explor-

organisation’s culture and ways of working that important

ing what is possible.This is a very useful chapter for iden-

signals of change are missed where today’s logic no longer

tifying what you need to look out for in terms of potential

applies. That is, management of the process should not

errors when considering the future, including predispo-

take precedence over understanding change.

sitions (optimism/pessimism, hopes, beliefs and desires)

The final section explores the future of futuring, and

which are mental activities, self-interest and wishful

here Millett also picks up the language point made earlier,

thinking, false starting points and assumptions, omissions

pointing out shifts in usage among practitioners. The US

and unexpected events, lack of information, too much or

focus of the book is an issue here, because there are many

incorrect information, vagueness, misappropriations, poor

more universities globally now offering Masters degrees

packaging, lack of ownership and inadequate resources,

in foresight than the two mentioned in this section. The

personnel or budgets. Millett discusses each of these in

need for futures practitioners to focus on providing the

depth, and then offers five words to guide mangers in the

capacity for people in organisations to do this work them-

process of thinking about the future: thoroughness, hon-

selves is raised, as is the need for managers to be futur-

esty, specificity, participation and review.

ists – this I support strongly. This highlights the need for

The fifth principle covered relates to trend tracking

futurists and foresight practitioners to focus on capacity

and the need to continuously monitor change – and by

building to allow people to do good futures work within

inference, provide resources to allow this to happen.

their organisations.

The key point here is that ‘futuring is a learning pro-

As indicated in the Overview, I like this book – it has

cess – it’s a journey not a destination’ (p.127). Millett

much to offer anyone interested in finding out more

provides a list of ‘common’ trends to track, but I would

about doing futures in organisations. It is based on practi-

argue that stopping at this list will give you only half

cal examples and has numerous case studies to show how

the story. The process of trend tracking described here

thinking about the future can be integrated into organi-

works, but I would focus not only on the tracking itself

sational processes. It explores both the doing as well the

– which can be done by algorithms today – but also on

thinking that underpins the doing, and highlights the con-

building the capacity of staff to recognise when a trend

nections between the two – both are essential for futures

matters for their organisation, and what to do once that

processes to be successful.

judgement has been made. Millett covers this in his dis-

The US centric nature of the book is not a criticism,

cussion of three types for information patterns that can

more a reminder that other cultures do futures work

Back to the Future IV?, Review by Richard Winter

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using different approaches and are based on different

these assumptions may well be flawed or superficial is the

philosophies, but that is a topic for another day. One of

first step in the futures journey.

the best parts of the book is its linking of ideas back to their historical/philosophical origins – this is an impor-

Maree Conway is CEO of Thinking Futures, a Melbourne-

tant thing to do and not done often enough. By doing this,

based strategic foresight practice that helps people build

Millett allows readers to understand that commonly held

their environmental scanning, strategic thinking and strategic

assumptions about concepts such as time condition and

planning capabilities to develop stronger futures-ready strat-

constrain how we view the future – and recognising that

egy for today. www.thinkingfutures.net

A-one, a-two, a-one, two, three, four Managing Effective Relationships in Education by Carol Cardno ISBN 978-1-4462-0303-3. London: SAGE 2012, pp 208. Review by Andrys Onsman Carol Cardno has become an elder statesperson of

sector. Cardno’s argument is that whatever your working

educational management writing in New Zealand and

definition is, it needs to serve a purpose; for schools that

deserves to be far more widely read than is the case

ought to be the learning that goes on in them. So, while

at the moment. Her greatest strengths are the elegant

usually I am not a big fan of overly long definitions, espe-

clarity of her thinking and writing and the strategy of

cially when they seek to convince rather than to lay out

seldom allowing her recommendations for practice to

a position, Cardno’s chapter on what the core concepts

exceed her analysis of data.

are not only defines but also contextualises the definitions

Cardno’s emphases in leadership and management in

within the field. Although not everyone will fully agree

education are collaboration and transparency of purpose.

with her contentions, no one should be in any doubt

She champions collectivity and inclusivity as essential

about what she means.

ingredients but she also argues that productive relation-

She goes on to describe the layering within and beyond

ships are the key to stable and productive schools. Pro-

the levels of leadership and administration in schools.

ductive relationships are based on purposeful dialogue,

These chapters too are clearly conceived and written and

which I take to mean that there needs to be a point to

despite a slight feeling of being corralled as a reader, lead

them, and effective collaborative leadership involves get-

logically to what is the essence of her book. Collabora-

ting to that point.

tion, inclusivity, giving everyone a chance to put their oar

Her latest book Managing Effective Relationships in

in, call it what you will, the institutional dialogue needs

Education discusses much of her strategy in very clear

to have a purpose, it needs to be productive. I am cur-

and accessible language. Management and leadership

rently running a project about mid-level management

need to be based on good theory: there needs to be

decision-making in higher education therefore much of

sound conceptual understanding underpinning the deci-

this chapter resonated strongly with me: especially her

sion-making. And that, she warns, isn’t as easy as it may

point that resolving dilemmas, both within the group and

appear. For instance, are we all clear about the difference

within the thinking of the leader or manager, is far from

between educational leadership, educational manage-

easy. Moreover, her argument that when the decisions

ment and educational administration? I doubt that there

have been made/agreed on, they then need to be moni-

is anyone working in a decision-making position in any

tored and managed is spot on. Cardno’s approach is that

educational institution who hasn’t had a perfectly good

having made a decision collaboratively, it also needs to be

meeting descend into chaos as everyone argues for her or

managed collaboratively.This she argues is the basis if suc-

his own point of view of leadership versus management –

cessful teamwork. Effective teams produce worthwhile

and certainly not amongst those of us who work in the HE

results. I’m not entirely in agreement with every aspect

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of her approach but there is no confusion as to what she

chance of becoming learning institutions. Cardno empha-

means and I can see her point very clearly.

sises that the other side of the management equation also

The thread of the book as described in the above para-

needs to be enacted by the leadership team who need to

graphs is the bare bones of the argument. Cardno illustrates

carry out its assigned functions in a collaborative manner:

it with well-chosen research and some boxed ideas for con-

including setting and communicating direction, solving

sideration, most of which is very illuminating and informa-

problems and supporting staff to execute the plan. It is a

tive but there are also a few examples and citations that

theory that is difficult to fault.

should be updated. For instance she cites Hodgkinson from

I thoroughly enjoyed Cardno’s book and it will stay on

1991, which is a little out-dated particularly he has done

my to-hand bookshelf (i.e. the pile on my desk) for quite a

much better work since then. It’s a tough call because the

while so I can dip into it again. It is an accessible, purpose-

rate of change in this field is phenomenal and by the time

ful and engrossing book and it deserves a wide reader-

a book hits the market things have often already moved on,

ship – not only amongst school principals, teachers and

but on the other hand currency is important and there are

parents but also amongst teacher trainers and academics

too many references from last century.

engaged with school leadership courses.

Her statement that ‘there is nothing as powerful as a plan that is both a vision and blue-print for concerted

Andrys Onsman is an education consultant and adjunct

effort’ is a good summary of her approach. There seems

Associate Professor in the Faculty of Education at Monash

little doubt that if the staff do indeed work in concert to

University, Melbourne, Australia.

actualise a clear plan, schools will have a much greater

The law and the profits Privatising the Public University; The Case of Law by Margaret Thornton ISBN 978-0-415-67789-9 (hardback) 978-0-203-80453-7 (paperback). Routledge, Abingdon, 2012 xxi + 270 pp. Review by Jeffrey Goldsworthy Several books decrying the many pathologies that now

The book begins by summarising recent trends in

afflict Australian universities have been published in

higher education in the countries studied, and placing

2012, including Richard Hil’s Whackademia; An Insider’s

them within a broader social and political context in

Account of the Troubled University (2012) (see also the

which the rise of neo-liberalism is singled out as the most

book review in AUR 54(2)) and Donald Meyers’ Austral-

salient feature. She accuses neo-liberals of fostering the

ian Universities: A Portrait of Decline (2012). Margaret

idea that university education is a private rather than a

Thornton’s disturbing new book Privatising the Public

public good, which should therefore be funded by the cus-

University describes and forthrightly denounces many

tomers who benefit from it rather than the public purse.

of the same afflictions, but in a much more detailed and

The book then deals in separate chapters with: the impact

scholarly (if less entertaining) fashion, drawing on com-

on the curriculum and pedagogy of making universities

parative empirical research (including extensive inter-

more dependent on market forces (represented in the

views) and a critical theoretical approach attributing most

case of law mainly by the demands of the legal profession,

of the malaise to the rise of neo-liberalism (the revived

and the career aspirations of student-customers) (Ch. 2);

faith in market forces). Thornton’s book is about the dis-

the shift from theoretical and critical socio-legal enquiries

cipline of law, mainly in Australia but also in Canada, New

to technocratic, doctrinal and instrumental research that

Zealand and Britain, but the pathologies she describes are

is more palatable to these same market forces (Ch. 3); the

suffered to varying degrees by all disciplinary fields, and

rise of intrusive top-down corporate managerialism and

the book therefore deserves a broad readership.

stifling bureaucracy (Ch. 4); and the impact of quantita-

The law and the profits, Review by Jeffrey Goldsworthy

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tive performance measures, grantsmanship and the audit

quent student distraction and disengagement; increasing

culture on the nature and quality of research (Ch. 5). The

plagiarism; passive and uncritical teaching methods; a

book ends with a conclusion, and has an appendix that

degradation of assessment methods from research assign-

outlines the methodology employed.

ments to exams (including by multiple choice); soft mark-

Most of the pathologies that Thornton denounces for

ing and grade inflation; assessment of teaching solely by

‘devastating’ universities (xii) are familiar to all of us who

student popularity polls, which reward those who make

suffer from them. They can be grouped under four gen-

learning seem easy (as well as some genuinely good teach-

eral headings, namely: administration, teaching, research

ers); superficial ‘intensive’ subjects and a general ‘dumbing

and overall workloads. What follows is a quick summary

down’ (these last problems being particularly rife in fee-

of Thornton’s account of them, which are backed by wide-

paying master’s and diploma courses); and the subordina-

ranging evidence. I do not necessarily accept that all or

tion of teaching to research.

even most of them are characteristic of all universities.

Research is afflicted by the performance assessment

Current university administration as described by

methods that grotesquely over-emphasise quantitative cri-

Thornton is characterised by top-down corporate mana-

teria such as numbers of publications and (even worse)

gerialism based on ‘new public management’ theories; the

research income rather than quality (my own university

loss of collegial decision-making and the downgrading of

measures faculty research performance by a combination

scholars to employee status; the treatment of departments

of criteria in which its outcomes – publications – count

as cost centres responsible for funding their activities;

for only 6.6 per cent of the total), which stems partly from

staff redundancies to cater to market demands; the foist-

the inappropriate extension to all fields of performance

ing on scholars of trivial administrative tasks as support

measures used in laboratory disciplines; increasing pres-

staff numbers are reduced; the promotion of ‘yes-men’,

sure to apply for research grants even when they are nei-

self-promoting careerists and entrepreneurs; relentless

ther needed nor wanted, leading to massive time wastage

competition between institutions; domestic and inter-

and pressure to shift into areas of research simply to get

national empire-building; business strategies pursued

funding; the encouragement of relatively quick and easy

through intensive marketing that diverts much needed

doctrinal scholarship at the expense of theoretical and

funding from core areas; frenetic but relatively unsuc-

critical scholarship; reluctance to criticise external bodies

cessful fundraising; constant self-promotion and the sup-

due to the pursuit of industry grants and consultancies;

pression of negative views; an obsession with reputation

obeisance to league tables that emphasise the quantifi-

regardless of substance, with quantity rather than quality

able and the orthodox at the expense of creativity; and

(to which lip service is paid), and with procedures rather

the huge burden of supervising international doctoral stu-

than outcomes; intrusive uniformity and a one-size-fits–all

dents who lack basic language and research skills.

mentality that stifles creativity and vital cultural differ-

Overall workloads are characterised by constantly

ences between disciplines; constant data gathering, form

increasing performance requirements on all fronts; exces-

filling, report writing and auditing; and a reluctance to

sive demands and increasing bullying of staff; a decline of

criticise outside bodies (including the legal profession) in

morale and job satisfaction; increasing demands of admin-

case support and funding are withheld.

istrative and revenue-raising activities (e.g. postgraduate

Teaching is characterised by an explosion in student

coursework programmes that cater to the market are mini-

numbers (so-called ‘massification’); a lowering of entry

businesses whose organisation and marketing require

standards; worsening staff/student ratios (by a factor of

huge amounts of academic time and energy); increased

almost two since the 1980s); steadily increasing fees that

travel demands for the sake of overseas empire-building;

students must later repay through lucrative rather than

and casualisation of the workforce and the increasing

altruistic employment; the treatment of students as cus-

disadvantage of women lumbered with disproportion-

tomers; a market-driven curriculum focused on creden-

ate administration because they are more conscientious,

tialism and vocationalism rather than scholarly rigour and

especially in providing pastoral care.

depth; commercial and practical subjects replacing less

While I agree with much of Thornton’s critique, it is

popular theoretical and critical ones; demand for ‘apoliti-

too bleak and sometimes exaggerated. For example, at

cal’ subjects that do not jeopardise employment prospects;

one point she states that ‘Massification, privatisation and

‘flexible learning’ enabling students to enrol full-time but

bureaucratisation has [sic] brought about an end to seri-

study part-time while in employment (through classes

ous thinking in the university (p. 204). Yet on the next

being put online and taught in intensive blocks); conse-

page she acknowledges that ‘there are still academics who

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remain passionate about their research and writing and

ciated, especially by the judiciary. And the shift in stu-

who spend every moment they can on it’ (p. 205).

dent demand from social justice subjects popular in the

She rightly acknowledges that some law schools are

1970s to more vocationally minded ones may reflect

in much worse shape than others. For example, matters

generational changes that have many cultural causes

are worse in schools that have been merged into mega-

in addition to the impact of neo-liberalism. There are

faculties, whose managers make academic judgments

still plenty of idealistic law students, who now enrol in

without having the necessary disciplinary knowledge.

human rights subjects.

These schools are less able to defend their autonomy, and

Thornton suggests that ‘massification’ is a product of

distinctive disciplinary culture and needs, against inapt

neo-liberalism, because it has been ‘an endeavour to aug-

assessment criteria and mindless standardisation. Merger

ment the supply of new knowledge workers with the aim

with business and economics is alleged to be worse than

of ensuring that nation states are competitive within the

with the humanities, by increasing law’s subjection to

global economy’ (pp. 7 and 13). There may be some truth

instrumental and market values and reducing its concern

to this, but I suspect that it was also a response to increas-

for social justice.

ing demand for access to higher education among young

Thornton often observes that matters are far worse in the newer law schools, established in those universities

people, and a genuine desire to expand the opportunities available to them.

created overnight in the late 1980s by a wave of Education

Moreover, if the expansion of the sector was due mainly

Minister John Dawkins’ magic wand (p. 69).We went from

to neo-liberalism, why did federal governments not go

12 law schools to 32 within the next two decades, which

‘all the way’ by completely deregulating admissions and

was ‘unparalleled in the western world’ (p. 28). Chronic

allowing universities to set their own fees? Governments

under-resourcing has made the new schools much more

wanted to expand the sector without either providing

dependent than older ones on raising revenue by catering

the extra funding needed or allowing market forces free

to ‘the market’ (29).This seems right to me, since my own

rein. The financial squeeze was exacerbated in the case

experience belies her thesis that theoretical and critical

of law schools by their being funded at the lowest rate.

perspectives, including socio-legal studies, have been

This forced them to exploit whatever limited market

discouraged in law schools; but that experience is with

opportunities were available, such as fee-paying interna-

Group of Eight (major research university) law schools, in

tional students, and also fee-paying local students, at the

which the traditional commitment to independent schol-

undergraduate level under the Howard Government, and

arship remains strong.

at the postgraduate coursework level including the LLM,

Thornton sometimes complains about a lack of equity in the distribution of resources among law schools, but

diplomas and new JD courses (which are essentially a feepaying substitute for the LLB).

in my opinion the unnecessary proliferation of under-

The bureaucratisation and audit culture imposed by

resourced law schools in order to enhance the prestige

the Federal Government in Canberra also does not seem

of post-Dawkins universities was not sensible. We do not

to align well with a pure neo-liberal market model. It

need so many law graduates, and the aspirations of many

could be argued that the audit culture was a natural con-

of them to become lawyers will be cruelly dashed. (On

sequence of the Dawkins revolution, because the new

the other hand, I was surprised that Thornton reports

universities had to be closely scrutinised to prevent poor

that massification has not caused unemployment among

performances from damaging Australia’s reputation in

law graduates, partly because of substantial growth in the

the international student market. But that does not fully

legal profession (p. 46). Even so, less than half the gradu-

explain the intrusion of the audit culture into the older

ates enter the legal profession (pp. 47 and 49)). It seems

universities. The entrenched mind set of command-and-

to me that these newer law schools must suffer the conse-

control among Canberra bureaucrats would seem to be

quences or, if they are not viable, be dis-established.

responsible. In 2005, W. Max Corden published an arti-

My other major reservation concerns Thornton’s ten-

cle ‘Australian Universities: Moscow on the Molonglo’ in

dency to place too much of the blame on neo-liberalism.

which he described how the sector was characterised by

For a start, she complains about the undue influence of

an odd combination of market forces and Moscow-style

the legal profession on the curriculum in law schools,

central planning and regulation. (The Molonglo is the

but that surely predated the rise of neo-liberalism in

river that supplies Lake Burley Griffin in Canberra).

the 1980s. Law schools have long been deferential to

On the other hand, the obsession within universities

the legal profession, wanting to be noticed and appre-

on attracting increasing amounts of research funding is

The law and the profits, Review by Jeffrey Goldsworthy

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easier to square with neo-liberalism: it is motivated pri-

head a person who seems unfitted for employment in a

marily by competition for market prestige conferred by

genuine university, given that he (or she) is either igno-

high rankings in league tables based heavily on such fund-

rant of, or has betrayed, a fundamental rationale of the uni-

ing (Goldsworthy, 2008).

versity: namely, academic freedom to pursue knowledge

Thornton complains that the desperate plight of many

independently of the interests or preferences of external

law schools is concealed from the profession and the

bodies. But perhaps we are on a slippery slope to a future

public because criticism from within might damage their

in which even our best universities will no longer be gen-

‘brand name’. Successful marketing requires that we all

uine ones.

remain upbeat about how excellent we are (p. 33). This makes the publication of scholarly exposés such as her

Jeffrey Goldsworthy is a Professor of Law at Monash Univer-

book all the more important. Even if her concerns are

sity, where he has worked since 1984.

exaggerated, at least as generalisations, her careful research highlights severe problems that need to be addressed. There are all sorts of dangerous trends even in the older universities. I have just been told that a head of department in one of Australia’s Group of Eight universities has instructed staff that henceforth they must all work on a few pre-determined research projects rather than others of their own choosing, because the former are more likely to attract research grants. It is disturbing to learn that a major Australian university has promoted to departmental

References Cordon, Max W. (2005). Australian Universities: Moscow on the Molonglo. Quadrant XLIX, 7-20. Goldsworthy, J. (2008). Research Grant Mania. Australian Universities’ Review 50(2). Hil, R. (2012). Whackademia: An insider’s account of the troubled university. Sydney: Newsouth, Sydney. Myers, D. (2012). Australian Universities: A Portrait of Decline. AUPOD. Retrieved from www.australianuniversities.id.au

Elementary thought The 5 Elements of Effective Thinking by Edward B. Burger & Michael Starbird ISBN 978-0-691-15666-8 New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2012, pp 157. Review by Andrys Onsman

At first glance it would be easy to dismiss The 5 Elements

to self-aggrandisement that can sometimes grate on non-

of Effective Thinking by Edward B Burger and Michael

American readers is only slightly evident and not at all

Starbird as lightweight and self-laudatory. It is a slight

detracting from the message. In short, this is a very read-

volume that proposes four strategic steps that will lead to

able book, intended to be of practical help to students.

effective thinking and most educators would be dubious

The to-do exercises and points to ponder more often

about having the complex business of cognition reduced

than not actually do insightfully illustrate the points

to such a simple blue-print. But having said that, the book

made in the chapters. As part of this review, I tried them

is intended primarily (and possibly exclusively) for stu-

out on my students and they mostly liked doing them

dents who will probably appreciate its brevity (150 A5 size

and nearly always got the point.

pages) and fun anecdotal examples, and anything that gets students to think about their thinking is all right by me.

According to Burger and Starbird, there are four essential elements of effective thinking which are: define the

Moreover, the authors are prize-winning educators

problem clearly; utilise mistakes as part of the process;

and there is a nice feeling of the book having been

analyse your answers and contextualise your analysis.

written by teachers who really like teaching and care

Each is tied to a natural element for reasons that are little

about their students’ learning. The occasional tendency

more than mnemonic, and which works fine. In turn

vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

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they are Earth, Fire, Air and Water. Each element or step

what they were going to say but the real benefit was to

is clearly described and illustrated and each has specific

the questioners, who took their roles very seriously and

exercises and points for reflection. Referring to contem-

searched for intelligent things to ask. There were occa-

porary culture always runs the risk of becoming dated

sions when the questioning got to be a bit argumentative

(Seinfeld) but overall it all hangs together very well. The

but overall there was a discernible improvement in self-

inspirational quotes are usually well chosen but some

questioning throughout the course of the semester.

careful line-editing would have picked up that Polya’s

The fourth element was more or less meta-cognition:

quote on p. 24 ‘If you can’t solve a problem, then there

being aware of the flow of ideas and looking for gaps

is an easier problem that you can’t solve: find it!’ should

and potentially new avenues of thought within that

read ‘If you can’t solve a problem, then there is an easier

context. This is the water element and I tried it on my

problem that you can solve: find it!.’

students in terms of their literature scans. We talked

Defining the problem to which you are trying to find

about what a scan is meant to do in a paper – provide a

a solution is always a good idea but Burger and Starbird

‘narrative line’ in an argument rather than demonstrate

argue that the essence of defining a problem is under-

a knowledge of everything ever written on the subject.

standing it: you can’t define it without understanding

They cottoned onto the idea of looking backwards in

it. I tried this with my Masters class by asking them to

order to look forward.

list what about a particular problem they did know and

In alchemy the fifth element is the primogenous matter

what they didn’t; especially what they didn’t know about

from which everything else evolved and the authors

the relationships between the essential components. It

relate it to change: by deliberately and repeatedly using

worked particularly well in group-work. On the other

the above steps as your strategy you will change your

hand, these are keen and intelligent adult students well

default problem-solving strategy. It seems a reasonable

versed in academia – and they are usually willing to have

approach, based on what we currently believe to engen-

a crack at anything I ask of them.

der critical thinking, so I asked my intrepid trialists to

The second element – it’s OK to make mistakes as long

apply the first four elements onto the fifth. They defined,

as you learn from them. In fact the authors argue that stu-

questioned, came up with wrong answers and put it into

dents ought to be encouraged to make mistakes deliber-

the flow.They decided that although most of them already

ately in order to learn from them – is the practical aspect

did most of that, it was helpful to have it as a reminder

of the first element. After asking them to list what they

and/or a list. They agreed that it doesn’t cover insight,

didn’t know, I asked my students to make a deliberately

artistic and creative-thinking, spiritual understanding

wild guess at the items on that list, then divided those

or meditation – but then again, it doesn’t claim to. It is

guesses amongst the groups and asked each to critique

designed to improve students’ thinking as they wend their

the one they had in front of them. Some years ago, David

way through university and as practicing teachers they

Paganin (a particle physicist colleague) and I had investi-

felt they could adapt it to their own practice in schools. I

gated deliberately using analogies that ran into a dead-end

take that as an endorsement.

to engender lateral thinking, so the idea of asking students

There are numerous books such as this one around

to come up with deliberately wrong answers in order to

but this one has two strong attractions. First, as well as

come up with a different solution wasn’t entirely foreign.

the steps being helpful, the fact that it is short is a bonus.

Again, it worked very well: the critiques were analyti-

The second aspect that sets it apart from the others is

cal because (they told me later) the students knew that

that it is a joyful book: written by educators who enjoy

because their classmates were being deliberately wrong,

teaching and helping them to become effective thinkers.

they didn’t feel the need to ‘be nice’.

It deserves a wide readership.

The third element concerns asking questions, seeing things from a different perspective. In this section they

Andrys Onsman is an education consultant and adjunct

include the idea of teaching as one of the best ways of

Associate Professor in the Faculty of Education at Monash

learning something. One suggestion that I tried with my

University, Melbourne, Australia.

class was to appoint two ‘official questioners’ whose job it was to ask questions. Because everyone knew that they had a job to do, they got away with questioning everything.The rest of the class were aware that they would be questioned, which made them think a little bit more about

Elementary thought, Review by Andrys Onsman

vol. 55, no. 1, 2013

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