AUR 56 01 by NTEU

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014 Published by NTEU

ISSN 0818–8068

AUR

Australian Universities’Review

AUR Editor Dr Ian R. Dobson, Federation University Australia

AUR Editorial Board Jeannie Rea, NTEU National President Professor Timo Aarrevaara, University of Helsinki Professor Walter Bloom, Murdoch University Dr Jamie Doughney, Victoria University Professor Leo Goedegebuure, University of Melbourne Professor Jeff Goldsworthy, Monash University Professor Ralph Hall, University of New South Wales Meghan Hopper, CAPA National President Professor Dr Simon Marginson, University of London Mr Grahame McCulloch, NTEU General Secretary Dr Alex Millmow, Federation University Australia Dr Neil Mudford, UNSW@ADFA Professor Paul Rodan, Swinburne University of Technology Dr Leesa Wheelahan, University of Toronto

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References References to be cited according to APA Publication Manual 6th edition (with minor exceptions). References in the text should be given in the author–date style: King (2004) argues ... or as various authors (King, 2004; Markwell, 2007) argue ... Two co-authors should be cited in the text as (Smith & Jones, 2013). More than two authors cite as (Jones et al., 2011). Page references should be thus: (King, 2004, p. 314). Page references should be used for direct quotations. The reference list should be placed in alphabetical order at the end of the paper, utilising the author–date system. For a reference to a book: Gall, M., Gall, J. & Borg, W. (2003). Education Research: An introduction (7th ed.). New York: Allyn & Bacon. For a journal reference: King, D.A. (2004). What different countries get for their research spending. Nature 430, 311–316. For a reference to a chapter in a collection: McCollow, J. & Knight, J. (2005). Higher Education in Australia: An Historical Overview, in M. Bella, J. McCollow & J. Knight (eds). Higher Education in Transition. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. For a web reference: Markwell, D. (2007). The challenge of student engagement. Retreived from http://www.catl.uwa.edu.au/__data/ page/95565/Student_engagement_-_Don_Markwell_-_30_Jan_2007.pdf Do not include retrieval dates for web references unless the source material may change over time (e.g. wikis).

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014 Published by NTEU

ISSN 0818–8068

Australian Universities’ Review 2

Letter from the editor

ARTICLES 4

OPINION 61 The educative potential of industrial action: lessons from the picket line

The ethics and politics of ethics approval

Yarran Hominh

Tim Battin, Dan Riley & Alan Avery

Which is the more important: the rights of staff to proper conditions or the rights of students to an education? This tension can be resolved by looking at industrial disputes as deep learning.

One of the roles of human ethics committees is to protect at risk participants. Without transparent procedures, though, perhaps it is researchers who can be at risk. 13 Engaging or training sessional staff. Evidence from an Australian case of enhanced engagement and motivation in teaching delivery Philippa Byers & Massimiliano Tani

Teaching in Australian universities is increasingly dependent on casual teachers. This paper discusses a model that helps to increase the engagement and motivation of this expanding group. 22 Enthusiasm and the effective modern academic Brett Freudenberg & Lisa Samarkovski

Teaching produces 70 per cent of university income, so why isn’t teaching more valued than it is in university thinking? Research sits at the top, but it produces only 30 per cent of the bottom line. Considering this and other factors could boost teachers’ enthusiasm. 32 Expectations of university student learning quality: an introductory study Dennis Bryant

Measuring academic merit could improve our options for improving student outcomes. 39 The tertiary debate: a case study analysis of factors considered when applying for university entry by traditional age school leavers in Brisbane Fiona Harden, Gabrielle Davis & Kerrie Mengersen

How do school leavers decide which university to go to? This paper suggests a few of the reasons for their choices. 47 Higher education and the minerals boom: a view from the regions Philip Bell

Mining booms are good news for the Australian economy, but what impact can such booms have on regional universities in mining regions? 56 Agility: a crucial capability for universities in times of disruptive change and innovation Sheila Mukerjee

An agile organisation can react quickly to the changing environment. Universities must also improve their agility to enable them to compete in the globalised higher education market

67 Another matrix revolution? The overlap of university work Carroll Graham

Even if academic staff think that professional staff are remote from academic activities, professional staff are interested and engaged in direct support of positive student learning outcomes. Less them and us; more us. 70 To market, to market … Arthur O’Neill

Universities have fallen victim to HR speak. This paper looks at recent advertisements for people to fill layer after layer of senior and middle management. 75 Neo-conned university Andee Jones

A consideration of censorship and exclusion in the contemporary university. 78 Why write book reviews? Franklin Obeng-Odoom

Book reviews are an important part of academic life, but are not counted as research, and are undervalued. REVIEWS 83 Hang on, ELP is on its way! English Language Standards in Higher Education: From entry to exit by Sophie Arkoudis, Chi Baik & Sarah Robertson. Reviewed by Jim McGrath

85 Sense out of chaos On the Purpose of a University Education by Luciano Boschiero (ed.). Reviewed by Giles Pickford

87 Ideologically speaking ... Teaching in the Age of Ideology by John von Heyking & Lee Trepanier (eds). Reviewed by Thomas Klikauer

91 Emancipatory education: a review essay Corporatism, Social Control, and Cultural Domination in Education: From the radical right to globalization: The selected works of Joel Spring by Joel Spring. Reviewed by Thomas Klikauer

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Letter from the editor Ian R. Dobson

Welcome to a new year of Australian Universities’

larly teachers. However, the importance of teaching is

Review. I’m sure you will find that this issue presents a

underplayed in the corporatised university. It’s probably

fascinating set of articles and opinion pieces.

a pity that KPIs are easy for assessing research, but not so

A few years back, we sought papers on aspects of ethics

easy for assessing teaching. It used to be said of account-

approval in Australian universities, primarily because oft-

ants that they can count but not measure; perhaps this

heard anecdotal commentary suggested considerable

criticism could also be levelled at a few others, including

displeasure that a biomedicine/psychology methodology

government departments and research funding bodies.

was being imposed on researchers in the humanities and

Dennis Bryant discusses a variable he calls ‘academic

social sciences, even if they were not engaging in research

merit’ so it is possible to measure learning. This, he says,

on at risk respondents. Our call for papers elicited a

provides an opportunity to understand the quality of

single response (Lindorff, 2010) that presented strong

learning and thereby enhance student academic learning.

arguments for why non-medical research should not be

What do you think?

exempt from ethical oversight, because of potential risk

The paper by Fiona Harden and her colleagues exam-

to human participants and researchers’ conflicts of inter-

ines cohorts of school leavers in Brisbane in order to

est. Human ethics committees should be used as sound-

assess what is important in deciding which university they

ing boards, and these committees are still learning and

might attend. They compare ‘the differences between the

challenged by thinly spread resources, including human

factors which universities advertise, those that students

resources.

think are important, and those that students actually use

However, what happens when a university ethics com-

to make their decisions’. Campus desirability, student suit-

mittee grants approval to a research project, only to with-

ability, and employability are important, and a Bayesian

draw that approval a few days later? Unless institutional

network from a focus group demonstrates that employ-

procedures exist and are adhered to, the researchers can

ability was the most influential to students.

become the at risk parties. How might a participant in a

Philip Bell analysed multiple data sets to come up

voluntary on-line survey be at risk? Read the paper by Tim

with some views about the impact of a minerals boom

Battin and colleagues to find out what can happen.

on universities in minerals rich areas. He says that ‘Fail-

The so-called massification of higher education has led

ure to address the current decline in regional partici-

to an increase of about 40 per cent in the number of stu-

pation will see Central Queensland and other mining

dents attending tertiary institutions, but only about 20 per

regions becoming increasingly reliant on attracting

cent in the number of full time and fractional full time

graduates from outside their region to meet their

teaching staff. The considerable slack has been taken up

human capital needs’.

by casual/sessional staff, which has resulted in precarious

Sheila Mukerjee’s paper discusses agility as a necessary

and short term employment for the teachers and a super-

capability in a climate of disruptive change. She says that a

visory headache for the regular staff. This issue has pro-

managerial mindset ‘that is always alert for change through

duced an extensive literature, and in the paper by Philippa

active involvement in processes that inform of change’ will

Byers and Max Tani we are able to add to that.

help universities to boost their agility. More environment

The paper by Brett Freudenberg and Lisa Samarkovski explains why we need enthusiastic academics, particu-

scanning and improvements through the routine use of analytics and feedback mechanisms will help.

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AUR could be described as being highly opinionated,

Andee Jones looks at censorship and the impact of

and to prove that it is so we feature opinion pieces in

expressing one’s views in the modern university setting.

every issue. This time opinions are offered on industrial

Having been sent to Coventry by colleagues for express-

action, the way in which the work of academic and pro-

ing views, she argues ‘that, in the context of higher educa-

fessional staff is increasingly overlapping and a couple of

tion, the demands made on academics by the commercial

pieces that point out some of the foibles of contemporary

in confidence university, particularly for censorship of self

Australian universities.

and others, are detrimental to their health and wellbeing’.

Yarran Hominh considers ‘the tension between the

Academic freedom of opinion is no more, apparently.

rights of staff to proper conditions and the rights of stu-

We also have a piece on writing book reviews. This

dents to an education. This tension is embodied in the

piece, by Franklin Obeng-Odoom, is particularly impor-

figure of the picket line, which for staff is a symbol of

tant for AUR, because we seek out reviews for every issue.

unity and support, but which for some students is a bar-

Franklin is well qualified to write about book reviews;

rier to education that must be surmounted’. He argues

he is reviews editor for two journals, and has written 23

‘that this tension can be dissolved through reconceiving

reviews over the past few years.Why not consider provid-

of industrial action as an opportunity for deep learning

ing AUR with a book review? I’ll even get you the book, if

– which happens to be the guiding principle of modern

you haven’t got it yourself.

university teaching’. A nice way of looking at it.

And then the reviews …

Do you ever wonder about the advertisements for jobs at the pointy end? Arthur O’Neill has in the past noted

Ian Dobson is an Honorary Senior Research Fellow at the

that ‘universities are scarcely able to present themselves

Federation University Australia, an Adjunct Professional Staff

without boasting, crass displays of salesmanship and

Member at Monash University and editor of AUR.

brazen invocations of virtue’. Now he turns his hand to HR speak and the over-blown ‘English’ used to attract applicants. ‘Visionary’ and ‘strategic’ are among the more over-used adjectives.

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

Reference Lindorff, M. (2010). Ethics, ethical human research and human research ethics committees. Australian Universities’ Review, 51(1), 51–59.

Letter from the editor Ian R. Dobson

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The ethics and politics of ethics approval Tim Battin & Dan Riley University of New England

Alan Avery University of Newcastle and Hunter New England Local Health District

The regulatory scope of Human Research Ethics Committees can be problematic for a variety of reasons. Some scholars have argued the ethics approval process, for example, is antithetical to certain disciplines in the humanities and social sciences, while others are willing to give it qualified support. This article uses a case study to cast the debate about how to address the weaknesses in ethics approval processes into the context of an ever-increasing level of managerialist interference in the work carried out by researchers. The problems attached to the former are unlikely to be resolved, while the latter is allowed to continue.

Introduction

of bullying in an Australian university, and, on the other, the procedures and processes followed by a Human

Since the late 1990s, the projects of academics working in

Research Ethics committee (hereafter referred to as the

non-medical research have increasingly come under the

ethics committee) in, first, approving a research project

regulation of Human Research Ethics Committees. This

investigating perceptions of workplace bullying, and

process has not developed without criticism. Some crit-

then subsequently suspending its approval of the same

ics have focused on how the process can be improved

project.

(Cordner & Thompson, 2007; Dodds, 2002; McNeill, 2002;

The original research project of the authors and one

Langlois, 2011), while others (and some of the same) have

other researcher was an investigation entitled â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Percep-

questioned whether the process is fundamentally in con-

tions of Bullying in the Workplaceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; using a survey instru-

flict with research in the humanities and social sciences

ment at the University of New England (UNE). Subjected

(Parker et al., 2003; Cribb, 2004; Bamber & Sappey, 2007;

to scrutiny by the UNE ethics committee, approved in

Langlois, 2011).

March 2011 and begun on 1 April 2011, the project gained

Prior to the establishment of ethics approval pro-

part of its impetus from a survey implemented by Voice

cesses, and independently of them, another literature

Project Pty Ltd at UNE in mid 2010. Although general in

dealing with workplace bullying in higher education

its aims, the earlier survey revealed that many employ-

and the potential prevention of such behaviour, has

ees had serious concerns about the nature and extent of

grown considerably (Lewis, 1999; Thornton, 2004;

workplace bullying. For this particular reason, but more

Croucher, 2007; Fogg, 2008; Keashly & Neuman, 2010;

fundamentally because of longer standing concerns with

Raskauskas, 2006). This article is concerned with a case

the same problems, the research team developed a more

study that points to a connection between, on the one

extensive survey instrument. A principal aim of the

hand, an attempt to gather data relating to perceptions

investigation was to determine whether there were dif-

The ethics and politics of ethics approval

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

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ferent or conflicting perceptions of workplace bullying between various sections or categories of employees –

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Main criticisms of the National Statement and Ethics Committees

non-managers and managers, academic and professional/ general staff, male and female, for example. The aim was

A review of the literature concerned with the faults in the

(and is) seen as valuable because any demonstration of

past and present architecture of the National Statement

significant differences in perceptions correlating with

and the way in which it has come to be interpreted and

a category of staff would hold some important implica-

implemented by local ethics committees establishes sev-

tions for the literature dealing with workplace bullying.

eral recurring themes. These themes can be summarised

Throughout the preparatory stages, the project received

as follows:

the support of UNE’s Vice-Chancellor.

1. the human effects of research and the question of

This background is necessary to give an outline of the original project, but the present article does not sub-

whether or in what sense there can be a guarantee that no harm comes to a participant

stantively deal with that project. This article is entirely

2. the broad meaning given to participant, especially

about the procedural issues raised by the fact that the

in the 1999 National Statement, and significantly

original project’s approval, given on 14 March 2011, was

modified to a somewhat more specific meaning in

subsequently suspended on 8 April 2011. (Prior to suspension, the survey achieved a response rate of 17 per cent in five working days and after only one announce-

the 2007 version 3. the level of managerial control over ethics committees and the ethics clearance process

ment.) The article concerns itself with the ethical and

4. risk management, especially in the context of what

political issues that this suspension raises. It analyses

risk it is that some institutions see themselves as man-

these issues in the context of, in particular, doubts

aging – risk pertaining to ethical matters, or legal risk

expressed by writers in the humanities and social sci-

5. the degree to which disciplinary partiality exists in

ences about the disciplinary partiality of ethics commit-

the processes and interpretations of individual ethics

tee processes, the degree to which these processes can

committees, together with questions of methodology

be commandeered by management, and, more generally,

6. a corollary of (1), adjudicating between the welfare

what the experience may suggest about forms of insti-

and rights of participants and the benefit that the

tutional bullying.

research could bring to the community.

The article is situated within the literature dealing

This list of the aspects about which the Australian

with the disquiet already expressed by academic writers

Health Ethics Committee–local ethics committees–

regarding local ethics committees and the associated pro-

National Statement nexus has been criticised is not

cesses deriving from the National Statement on Ethical

exhaustive; the lack of expertise attributed to some ethics

Conduct in Human Research (hereafter National State-

committees, and what are said to be some demanding or

ment; NHMRC, 2007). In part, the case study touches on

unwieldy processes, for example, also feature prominently

the concern other writers have expressed about whether

in the literature (e.g. Dodds, 2002). Rather, the list conveys

or to what extent ethics committee processes can dis-

the relevant factors that could point to the potential for

play, partiality against the humanities and social sciences,

the misuse and abuse of power by institutions.

especially critical disciplines. The present discussion con-

Of course, with some of these points of analysis, namely,

cerns the disciplines of politics, industrial relations and,

(1), (2), (5) and (6), the degree of concern changes accord-

to some extent, applied ethics, although because it lacks

ing to whether it is the 1999 or the 2007 version of the

a comparative element, our case suggests that the con-

National Statement that is being examined. Yet, as we

cern with potential partiality is an ongoing debate. The

shall argue, the case study of an ethics approval that was

underlying conundrum considered is the extent to which

subsequently suspended shows that some serious ques-

the case study reinforces the basis on which previous

tions remain unresolved, in some cases even if it is (from

concerns have been raised, and/or the extent to which it

the authors’ point of view) the improved National State-

raises other problems. While not finding the architecture

ment of 2007 that is being applied.

of ethics committees and the National Statement to be

One possible objection to the list is that not all its

irredeemable, the article does raise the serious question

themes relate to matters to which the National State-

of how the guidelines arising out of this architecture can

ment speaks. Themes (3) and (4) might be said to relate

be ignored and/or misused by those holding institutional

to the institutional architecture of human research ethics

power within universities.

review, but only because they are part of the architecture

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

The ethics and politics of ethics approval Tim Battin, Dan Riley & Alan Avery

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of management of any committee process. While noting

The third – more curious – line of reasoning related to

this distinction, we nevertheless can claim that all six

the anonymity guaranteed to the participants. The com-

themes relate to the general controversy of ethics com-

mittee noted that ‘close inspection … reveals that ques-

mittees and their institutional infrastructure.

tions relating to the participants’ [profile] age/gender/ employment history, etc. could potentially enable some

Important events leading to the suspension of approval

research participants to be identified …’ The committee’s re-interpretation had the effect (if not the aim) of setting a different standard from that to which the researchers

Before coming to each point of analysis, it will be useful

had committed themselves. The researchers had under-

to sketch some of the important events and communica-

taken to guarantee participants anonymity in the report-

tion leading up to the suspension of ethics approval on 8

ing of the research. The ethics committee re-interpreted

April 2011, official correspondence at the time, and com-

anonymity to mean that the researchers would be unable

munications shortly after. The survey’s release on 1 April

to identify any participant. Further, the committee stated

seemed unproblematic, apart from reports that a senior

that, because some participants would potentially be

management figure was in contact with several people,

identifiable by the researchers, some of their ‘comments

complaining of the survey’s general bias, and questioning

could potentially lead to adverse consequences’, but the

whether the researchers were objective or held conflicts

committee did not say how this might occur.

of interest. These verbal complaints were made before this

In order to make this claim, the ethics committee needed

senior manager realised the survey had ethics approval

to make at least one unsound assumption. Such an out-

status. Subsequently, on 4 April, and thereafter (on 5, 6, 8,

come – if at all possible – is conceivable if, and only if, a par-

11 and 12 April) complaints and queries were received by

ticipant with a sufficiently unusual profile opted to answer

the UNE ethics committee. (The researchers had to rely

enough of the non-compulsory questions relating to profile

on a freedom of information appeal process in order to

to out themself. It is at this point that we encounter a crucial

obtain a redacted copy of the complaints/queries.) On 7

and belated – and flawed – claim made by the ethics com-

April, when the chair and one member of the ethics com-

mittee: that ‘collection of data in this manner for research

mittee met for a scheduled meeting to consider business

purposes is inconsistent with [National Health & Medical

items, the sub committee decided to suspend approval of

Research Council] guidelines which frame the UNE [ethics

the project; a letter to this effect was sent to the research-

committee] procedures’. The researchers could find no

ers on 8 April.

such guideline in the 2007 National Statement.

The letter from the Chair of the UNE ethics committee

On receiving the letter from the ethics committee, the

outlined the purported ‘significant concerns’ expressed

researchers complied with the instruction to remove refer-

by ‘a number of UNE staff members’. Without consulting

ence to ethics approval in the information to participants.

the researchers, the ethics committee based its suspen-

The ethics committee also instructed the researchers to

sion of approval on three grounds. The first, which was

destroy the data, even though approval had only been sus-

no longer operative by the time the ethics committee met,

pended, pending a response. Acting on an assumption that

was that one of three logos used by the research team

the committee was being at least partly compelled into its

had to be removed from the information sheet and the

stance by one or more figures in the senior management,

online survey.

two of the researchers sought a meeting with the Vice-

The second concern conveyed by the ethics committee

Chancellor to try to resolve the situation at hand. At the

was the involvement in the research of Dr Alan Avery, a

conclusion of a meeting with the Vice-Chancellor on 11

former employee of the UNE in the School of Health and

April it was agreed that a useful course of action would

currently a Mental Health Promotion Officer with Hunter

be to arrange a meeting between the researchers and the

New England Local Health District. The committee itself

Chair of the ethics committee. In the meantime, telephone

made no judgement about Avery’s involvement, or about

calls of a more insistent manner than a few days’ before

the claims made about his bias, but wanted to give him a

were made by the secretary of the ethics committee to

full opportunity to address the issue for the record. (The

the lead researcher to make a new demand that the survey

researchers take the committee at its word. At no stage

website (which was hosted external to the University) be

did the committee give any indication that it thought

‘taken down’. When this demand was refused, the secre-

there was any substance to the concerns expressed to it

tary called back six minutes later with two other demands:

about the involvement of Avery.)

that reference to research be deleted in the information

The ethics and politics of ethics approval Tim Battin, Dan Riley & Alan Avery

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

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statement pertaining to the project, and that the research

which the DVCR was seeking some considerable revamp-

team explicitly state that the project is to be regarded as

ing. The researchers present at the meeting informed the

an inhouse quality assurance exercise. The lead researcher

DVCR that it was not the role of management to question

asked for these demands to be put in writing.The secretary

the methodology of the survey, and that this would be

agreed and sent an email soon after. The significance of this

a matter for the refereeing process in particular and the

point is that the events suggest that the ethics committee

critical means of the academic community in general. On

was being driven from outside. It was not enough that the

this point, the Chair of the ethics committee, to his consid-

researchers complied with the instruction to remove refer-

erable merit, supported the view of the researchers.

ence to ethics approval; new demands were being made in a winner take all environment.

Moreover, at the 14 April meeting between the DVCR, the Chair of the ethics committee, the legal officer and

It is important to point out that at a meeting, requested

two of the researchers, the DVCR said to the researchers

by the researchers and agreed to by the Vice-Chancellor, to

that the project ‘raised very serious issues’, and later, on

conciliate and held on 11 April, the Vice-Chancellor stated

19 April, repeated this claim in an email when writing to

as his aim, which was agreed to by the researchers pre-

the lead researcher.

sent, the restoration of the

Although it was agreed at

status quo prior to the sus-

the 14 April meeting that the

pension of ethics approval. However, by 12 April matters had escalated to the point where an email was sent by a member of the UNE’s Legal Office to the lead researcher informing

him

that

Deputy

Vice-Chancellor

The researchers had undertaken to guarantee participants anonymity in the reporting of the research. The ethics committee re-interpreted anonymity to mean that the researchers would be unable to identify any participant.

the

researchers would propose a way forward, and although the research team did in fact propose two alternatives on 15 April, both proposals were rejected by the DVCR on 19 April. It should be stressed that the researchers’ offer of

(Research) (DVCR) had received a complaint that, it was

15 April to remove one potentially objectionable question

later claimed, alleged research misconduct. In this email

of the survey so as to allow reinstatement, was to no avail.

it was also conveyed that the Legal Office had advised

The DVCR claimed the project ‘raised very serious issues’

the Vice-Chancellor that an enquiry under the University’s

and that if the researchers wished to proceed with the

Code of Conduct for Research should proceed.

research, an investigation of research misconduct would

On 14 April a meeting involving two of the research

be progressed. If the project was dropped, she wrote, it

team, the Chair of the ethics committee, the DVCR, and a

would not be necessary to establish a committee to inves-

representative of the University’s Legal Office took place;

tigate the complaint of research misconduct. An impor-

prior to this meeting, it was still the view of the research-

tant legal point, the relevance of which becomes more

ers that a conciliated outcome was possible. However,

apparent below, is that on 15 and 21 April (and later on

matters raised by the DVCR and the UNE Legal Office in

1 June), senior officers of the UNE were informed by the

the meeting of 14 April, and related correspondence, soon

researchers and others that any enquiry or investigation

suggested that a conciliated outcome was unlikely. Two

would have to be in accordance with principles of natural

examples are sufficient to illustrate the escalation. The

justice and the provisions of the UNE’s Collective Agree-

first relates to the legal officer’s claim that a survey that

ment. The Collective Agreement provides for testing

‘facilitated anonymous and unsubstantiated allegations

allegations. In Australia the collective agreements of the

of bullying’ could not be allowed to run. The legal offic-

universities provide the only legal protection of academic

er’s claim seemed to be based on unawareness that any

freedom (see Jackson, 2005).

research of the kind conducted will give rise to the possibility of anonymous and unsubstantiated allegations being made. Additionally, the legal officer’s claim was quite inconsistent with the University’s own insistence that the

Application of the case study to criticisms of the National Statement, ethics committees, and institutional architecture

researchers would not be given access to the complaints 1. The guarantee that no harm comes to a participant

or allegations made of their research. The second example relates to the DVCR’s focus on

Some writers criticising the national and local committee

methodology and question-design of the survey, about

structure have questioned a principle that is said to arise

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from the National Statement that no harm can come to

upheld in the National Statement and ethics committee

a participant in human research, and that guarantees be

design – for example, by relying upon the information

provided in accordance with this principle. We stress that

the researchers gave to participants – it can certainly be

no serious scholar would claim that the National State-

questioned on those terms. In fact, in representations

ment guarantees that no harm can come to participants.

to review the determination, it was speculated that per-

Our point is that the UNE management, aided by its legal

haps all of the complaints to the ethics committee were

officer, was putting precisely this claim. One pertinent

generated by one discipline of one school and that a

aspect of this literature asks whether such a guarantee

senior manager of the institution was orchestrating the

should be given in situations in which observing the prin-

campaign. In any case, it is precisely the validity of the

ciple would lead to social scientists being the servants of

complaints, or the lack thereof, that the researchers were

power (Bamber & Sappey, 2007). Here, it is important to

trying to establish. It is all well and good that Cordner

distinguish between the 1999 and 2007 documents, as the

and Thomson urge that the 2007 National Statement

2007 version has its defenders (e.g. Cordner & Thomson,

‘does not privilege the right to privacy over the right

2007), not least because the previous untouchable status

to knowledge so as to exclude research that uncovers

of participants is significantly modified to allow for situa-

sabotage [and/or] bullying in the workplace’ (2007, p.

tions in which participants would not be entitled to pro-

46), but the actual events of the case study, to the extent

tection at all costs (Cordner & Thomson, 2007).

they suggest complaint generation by certain members

Showing sympathy with the concerns of Bamber and Sappey about the possible sabotage of research, Cordner

of one discipline, show that the potential for an abuse of process nevertheless exists.

and Thomson go to some length make the point that par-

Such an abuse of process can of course be minimised

ticipants are not entitled to ‘protection against any risk

by the establishment of transparent complaints handling

of adverse effects from research’ (2007, p. 45). The very

procedures. The National Statement, while it does not

broad meaning given to ‘participant’ in the 1999 docu-

prescribe these procedures, does require institutions to

ment, they concede, was a problem, but the 2007 state-

establish them. The University did not in fact have any

ment significantly reduces the concerns.

documented complaint procedure in place. One obvious

Consider the question of whether to approve a research project that might reveal that (say) middle management in a large firm had been bullying employees or otherwise treating them unjustly. The revised [National Statement] does not say, or imply, that those managers are entitled to protection against the effects on them of the exposure of their unjust behaviour (Cordner & Thomson, 2007, p. 46).

benefit of a complaints procedure is that it might pro-

The case study enables more light to be directed onto

cesses were either not provided or followed. First, the

this debate. In attempting to obtain greater transparency

National Statement calls for a procedure to be in place to

of process after the suspension of the project, a freedom

facilitate the handling of complaints made about research.

of information application was made when requests to

While the case study shows the University had in place a

see the complaints submitted to the ethics committee,

procedure of a kind, it also reveals that this was not fol-

and the allegation of research misconduct, purportedly

lowed. Second, and moreover, the National Statement

made to the DVCR, were refused. In turn, access under

calls for institutions to have processes in place for han-

freedom of information was also denied; that decision

dling and resolving complaints about the review bodies

was externally appealed, and the University was directed

(National Statement, 2007, 5.6.4). Clause 5.6.5 of the

to make a new decision. The original determination

Statement requires that where ‘the complaints cannot be

given by the Government Information and Public Access

readily resolved between the complainant and the review

(FoI) Officer heavily relied on a right to privacy of the

body that is the subject of the complaint, complainants

complainants, who, the Officer assumed, were partici-

should have access to a person external to that review

pants. The matter is made more complex by the fact

body to handle the complaint’. Third, at 5.6.6 the State-

that, in order to adjudicate between privacy and the

ment provides: where ‘a complaint that has not been

disclosure of information, we are in part dealing with

resolved by [earlier processes, institutions] should iden-

separate (state-based) legislation. However, insofar as the

tify a person or agency external to the institution’. No

Officer’s determination relied on principles said to be

such processes were provided.

vide all parties with procedural fairness. For instance, it is common in such procedures for researchers to be notified of complaints in sufficient detail to enable an adequate defence if one is to be had. Indeed, examination of the National Statement in light of this case study reveals that fully three complaints pro-

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2. Meaning given to ‘participant’

by the incapacity or unwillingness of the ethics commit-

Some of the implications of the previous section depend

tee to reinstate its approval once its ‘concerns’ were dealt

on what is meant by the term ‘participant’, and the case

with in a letter from the researchers of 30 May 2011 or to

study shows that the concern of those taking a scepti-

engage with the arguments of the researchers. An email

cal view of an overly broad meaning, or interpretation,

of 31 May 2011 from the then chair of the ethics com-

is well placed. But the problem is greater than this. As

mittee left the researchers with the distinct impression

Langlois points out, the extent to which individual partici-

that he was avoiding substantive matters or engaging with

pants may take on substantial forms of power, depending

argument. He informed the research team that its request

on the institutional context, is still ignored by the 2007

for project reinstatement could not be considered until

National Statement (Langlois, 2011, p. 148). Purportedly

a research misconduct investigation, under the purview

helpless participants who claim victim status, but who,

of the DVCR, had occurred. Third, and critically, it was

because of their capture of institutional forms of power

the advice of the National Tertiary Education Union that,

– (say) by objecting to information disclosure, claiming

if the investigation proceeded in terms made clear by

to be stressed by a voluntary survey, claiming that repris-

the UNE, it would be conducted according to a process

als would possibly be forthcoming (from the researchers),

that is inconsistent with the provisions of the University’s

and/or aligning themselves with senior managers in order

Collective Agreement dealing with misconduct. Those

to close down a survey – are actually in the more powerful

procedures (in the University of New England Academic

position, and can often abuse such power. Langlois’ advo-

Staff–Union Collective Agreement 2010–2012 clause 39)

cacy for new guidelines to be provided to ethics commit-

set out a mandatory code of procedures for dealing with

tees, so that a reconceptualisation of participants within a

misconduct. Actions taken were inconsistent with that

political context can be facilitated, is well founded.

code would be in breach of the Agreement (and, if that

An even more telling aspect of Langlois’ analysis is the

were the case, it would be actionable under Common-

extent to which it suggests that, in some ways, there is

wealth industrial law). (This transgression is not a feature

only limited value in trying to decipher whether the pri-

of, nor is it sanctioned by, the National Statement, but it

mary complaint is with the overall ethics architecture or

is improperly supported by Part B of the Australian Code

with forms of abuse within individual institutions. One

for the Responsible Conduct of Research (HMRC/ARC/

case study cannot make for a definitive statement, but it

UA, 2007).) And fourth, as already noted, with the assis-

can suggest that the actions of powerful figures in institu-

tance of the Legal Office, the management proceeded

tions raise doubts about the status of the guidelines and

to argue that it did not want to facilitate a survey that

their associated procedures and the impunity with which

allowed ‘anonymous and unsubstantiated allegations of

they can be ignored.

bullying’ to be collected, even though the nature of the research (and, incidentally, many other research projects)

3. Level of managerial control over human ethics committees and ethics clearance process

makes such allegations possible, and even though the University was refusing to let the researchers have access to

Among the criticisms of the ethics clearance process,

the anonymous complaints about the project and the alle-

some considerable comment has focused on the potential

gation about their conduct.

for an ethics committee to have its authority undermined

Some writers may be prepared to argue that there

by senior management within a university. The concerns

ought to be no misapprehension that ethics commit-

mainly go to forms of indirect monitoring: ethics commit-

tees are independent of management control. We dispute

tees second guessing what a management might object to

this. The very subject matter of ethical consideration,

(Bamber & Sappey, 2007; Cordner & Thomson, 2007) or

the deportment of the institutional architecture, and the

so-called ethics standards really being about legal hurdles

detailed nature of the accompanying documents – despite

or following rules (McNeill, 2002; Cribb, 2004).

the shortcomings – make it impossible to sustain a view

The case study suggests that, as important as this poten-

that all these requirements can be over-ridden. Regardless

tial for indirect control is, direct managerial intervention

of what final view one takes on that point, it is critical

is likely in some circumstances. Such direct intervention

to see that the described events in the case study take

is shown in the case study at four levels at least. The first

the matter well beyond any disagreement over whether

is revealed by the attempt made by the DVCR on 14 April

management has final say. Clearly, the researchers are enti-

to challenge the methodology and design of the survey

tled to form the opinion that the threat of a research mis-

(which she retracted on 19 April). The second is exposed

conduct investigation was used so that the project would

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be dropped by the researchers. However, the researchers,

(Parker et al., 2003, pp. 60–61; Bamber & Sappey, 2007;

having met the threat, then saw the University drop the

Langlois, 2011, pp. 148–150), there is a world of difference

investigation even though it had claimed that very serious

between a health and medical model of ethics clearance,

issues of misconduct had been raised.

where researchers are in a relatively powerful position,

To what extent these actions reveal problems inher-

and the kind of research necessary in politics, industrial

ent to the local–national committee architecture and to

relations, political or economic sociology, applied ethics,

what extent they reveal faulty and/or abused processes

non-orthodox economics or human geography. Research-

within an institution is an important question that needs

ers in these non-medical disciplines, if they are not to

further exploration. The question may not be definitively

experience discipline bias, need a model that will not

answered here, but finding an answer will turn, at least in

militate against – either by passive omission or iniquitous

part, on the extent or severity of any breach by a manage-

design – projects that challenge forms of institutional

ment of National Statement guidelines or a breach of the

power. Although it is generally recognised that the 2007

Collective Agreement. Confining ourselves to the single

National Statement provides much-improved processes

most serious action, the threat to conduct an investiga-

to allow greater specificity in the approach of various

tion in breach of the University’s Collective Agreement,

disciplines (Langlois, 2011), the case study demonstrates

we are presented with examples of faulty processes set

one of two things: that a model developed historically

out in the Australian Code for the Responsible Conduct

from a worldview of health academics – and (despite the

of Research and of faulty processes more particular to

improvements of the 2007 National Statement) retain-

the UNE. The relevant authorities have been warned that

ing a health repository – could in some circumstances

such a process, if followed, would bring legal action, yet

be exploited by a university management determined to

they have not seen fit to amend the Code; in the case of

suppress some kinds of research; or, rather, that the archi-

the UNE, its management issued a threat, failed to carry it

tecture and design were simply not established and those

out, did not provide for any process of proceeding with

processes were not followed because they did not exist.

the research, and did not acquit the researchers on the

The more that the case study cannot find weakness in the

allegation of research misconduct, which it said arose out

national architecture, the more the criticism must be with

of a complaint.

the university.

4. What risk – ethical or legal?

6. Welfare of participants versus the benefit to the

The case study reveals that the consideration given to

community

whether ethics committees are more concerned with

Although the authors of the 2007 National Statement

ethical standards or with legal risk (McNeill, 2002) war-

seem conscious of the importance of weighing the wel-

rants further research attention. The very fact that a

fare of participants against the benefit of research to the

legal officer, who was not a member of the ethics com-

community, there is little specific guidance that can be

mittee, acted in a manner that appears to be consistent

relied on.‘Determining whether [risks] are justified by the

with having made assumptions about the effect of imple-

potential benefits of the research’ (National Statement p.

menting the ethics committee’s approval of the research,

15) is all well and good, but anyone from the humanities

clearly raises serious problems about the integrity – that

and social sciences has to read between the lines of the

is to say, the intended collegiality – of ethics committee

Statement to find anything approaching firm ground. In

processes. The case study also suggests that such research

terms of this case study, the point may be academic, since

would benefit the academic community if it were primar-

the more fundamental error of the UNE ethics committee,

ily focused on the potential use of specious arguments

on the evidence available to the researchers, appears to be

about what is, or is not, legally permitted.

its failure to provide any evidence that it even attempted to weigh one entity against the other. According to the

5. Discipline partiality

National Statement, local ethics committees are to make

Underlying much of what happened at the University

‘judgements on whether risks are justified by potential

of New England somewhat reinforces the basis of the

benefits’ (p.15) by identifying whom the risks may affect

concerns already expressed about the discipline partial-

and to whom benefits are likely to accrue (p. 17), but no

ity that is at play when some projects, especially in the

evidence was presented that the UNE ethics committee

humanities and social sciences, encounter greater levels

made any attempt to do this. It simply took the statements

of hostility. As other writers suggest or explicitly state

of complainants as read, assumed they were participants,

The ethics and politics of ethics approval Tim Battin, Dan Riley & Alan Avery

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and provided no evidence that any assessment was made

tee on 30 May, yet the university management provided

of the potential benefits of the research to the community.

no process to restore the project’s approval. The Univer-

In fairness to the ethics committee, the National State-

sity’s Legal Office introduced specious legal argument,

ment’s dearth of detail regarding how such an assessment

which was allowed to stand. Procedural justice principles

is to be made tends to open the door for arbitrary deci-

were violated. Obfuscation occurred, most notably in

sions to be imposed on a committee that may have other-

denying access to information that could reasonably be

wise steered a collegial and non-managerial course.

expected to reveal improper behaviour. (The researchers do not question the integrity of the University’s freedom

Conclusion

of information officer. In our view the officer is in no way responsible for determining the direction of events.) And

This article has considered the literature concerned with

finally, a university management made preparations to

the local and national ethics committee architecture by

carry out a misconduct process without producing any

using a case study of a research project that obtained

allegation, and then aborted the same process when the

ethics approval only to have that approval suspended.

threat failed to dissuade the researchers.

Although setting out with the purpose of testing the

Abuse of process is very much part of the abuse of

weaknesses of the present design of the present national–

power. A more systematic strategy is needed to address

local model, in particular the extent to which it allows for

the institutional biases that currently prevent more

managerial abuse of power in universities, the case study

progress against industrial bullying. Those attempting

found other weakness. One flaw in particular is the ongo-

to combat bullying are going to have to redouble their

ing irregularity, sanctioned by Part B of the Australian

efforts – and develop wider strategies – to overcome the

Code for the Responsible Conduct of Research, where

techniques used by those who use institutional means to

institutions receive tacit encouragement to conduct mis-

thwart such progress.

conduct investigations that are arguably unlawful. In the main, our case study finds that the institution was irre-

Acknowledgements

sponsible in not establishing or observing important aspects of the National Statement architecture, and in

The authors are grateful to anonymous referees for help-

applying the Australian Code in a way that would appear

ful comments. They are also grateful to some current and

to offend the provisions of a Collective Agreement.

former colleagues: Loretta Fitzgerald, Claire Girvin, Bronwyn Hopwood, Tony Lynch, Ken McAlpine, Helen McLen-

Summary

nan, Peter Quiddington and Adrian Walsh. The authors remain responsible for any errors of interpretation or fact.

• Ethical approval was suspended without consulting the researchers, a failure to follow the procedures in

Tim Battin teaches and researches in politics and political

National Statement paragraphs 1.9, 5.5.6–5.5.9.

economy at the University of New England, Armidale.

• The ethics committee made findings about data collection that were irrelevant to matters set down in the

Dan Riley is the lead author of Bullying of Staff in Schools

National Statement.

(2012), published by the Australian Council for Educational

• The University did not have complaints processes to

Research.

handle complaints about either research or research Alan Avery is a registered nurse and adult educator. His areas

ethics review. • The planned research misconduct investigation was not in accordance with the relevant Collective Agree-

of project interest include mental health promotion and workplace health and wellbeing.

ment. • The ethics committee did not seem to apply the National Statement requirements on judgements about risks and benefits. In placing more stress on the institution’s irresponsibility and abuse of power than on the shortcomings of the national architecture, it should be emphasised that the researchers answered the concerns of the ethics commitvol. 56, no. 1, 2014

References Bamber, G. & Sappey, J. (2007). Unintended consequences of human research ethics committees: au revoir workplace studies? Monash Bioethics Review, 26(3), 26–36. Cordner, C. & Thomson, C. (2007). No need to go! Workplace studies and the resources of the revised National Statement. Monash Bioethics Review, 26(3), 37–48.

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Cribb, R. (2004). Ethical regulation and humanities research in Australia: problems and consequences. Monash Bioethics Review, 23(3), 39–57.

McNeill, P. (2002). Research ethics review and the bureaucracy. Monash Bioethics Review, 21(3), 72–3.

Croucher, J.S. (2007). How to detect a tertiary tyrant. Review of Business Research, 7(6), 100–105.

National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC). (2007). National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research, Canberra.

Dodds, S. (2002). Is the Australian HREC system sustainable? Monash Bioethics Review, 21(3), 43–48.

National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC)/Australian Research Council (ARC)/Universities Australia (UA). (2007). Australian Code for the Responsible Conduct of Research, Canberra.

Fogg, P. (2008). Academic bullies. Chronicle of Higher Education, 55(3) p. B, 10 September. Jackson, J. (2005). Express rights to academic freedom in Australian public university employment. Southern Cross University Law Review, 9, 107–145. Keashly, L. & Neuman, J.H. (2010). Faculty experiences with bullying in higher education: causes, consequences, and management. Administrative Theory & Praxis, 32(1), 48–70. Langlois, A. (2011). Political research and human research ethics committees. Australian Journal of Political Science, 46(1), 141–156. Lewis, D. (1999). Workplace bullying – interim findings of a study in further and higher education in Wales. International Journal of Manpower, 20(1–2), 106–119.

Parker, M., Holt, J., Turner, G. & Broerse, J. (2003). Ethics of research involving humans: uniform processes for disparate categories? Monash Bioethics Review, 22(3), 50–65. Raskauskas, J. (2006). Bullying in academia: an examination of workplace bullying in New Zealand universities. Paper presented at the American Education Research Association conference, San Francisco, 10 April. Thornton, M. (2004). Corrosive leadership (or bullying by another name): a corollary of the corporatised academy? Australian Journal of Labour Law, 17(2), 161–184.

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Engaging or training sessional staff Evidence from an Australian case of enhanced engagement and motivation in teaching delivery

Philippa Byers Massimiliano Tani UNSW Canberra

This paper examines the effectiveness of a programme of weekly meetings between sessional staff and the unit coordinator of a large first-year class at an Australian university. Interviews with sessional staff indicate that, in addition to training and targeted professional development initiatives, management initiatives that promote engagement matter for the motivation of individual sessional staff members and the overall quality and cohesiveness of course delivery. This result aligns with a key finding from the employee engagement literature, namely, that a local manager who is directly concerned with the day-to-day work of employees plays a crucial role in translating their knowledge and skills into high quality outcomes. In this instance, it is quality learning outcomes for undergraduate students. We discuss potential benefits and impediments to a serious focus on the employee engagement of sessional staff, which we contrast with the current focus within the higher education sector on generic training and skills development initiatives.

Introduction

of contribution to teaching has been noted within the higher education literature and within universities.

Recent Australian higher education workforce statistics

The status of sessional staff as casualised, marginalised,

show that approximately 16 per cent of the university

contingent and peripheral has been noted (Kimber, 2003;

workforce comprises staff employed on a casual basis

Anderson, 2007; Percy & Beaumont, 2008; Brown et al.,

(DEEWR, 2011). Among the staff responsible for the

2010; Gottschalk & McEachern, 2010), as has the need

provision of teaching, over 26 per cent were employed

for professional and teacher skills development (e.g. Wat-

on casual (predominantly sessional) contracts in 2011

ters et al., 1996; Australian Universities Teaching Commit-

(uCube, the Australian Governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s higher education

tee [AUTC], 2003a; AUTC, 2003b). There are also many

statistics website, n.d.). The size of the contribution to

entry-level induction and training programmes within

teaching is much larger than these full time equivalent

universities (Percy et al., 2008). For the most part, these

figures suggest, as it has been estimated that sessional staff

programmes are centralised events that focus on learning

are responsible for approximately 50 per cent of student

and teaching knowledge and expertise (Brew et al., 2011).

teaching across the sector (see Percy et al., 2008; Coates

They are not course- or discipline-specific, do not involve

et al., 2009; Coates & Goedegebuure, 2010). This level

the unit coordinators with whom sessional staff work, and

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tend to be one-off events, often set just before the start of

it substantially enhances their motivation and focus on

a teaching semester. The obligation to attend them also

student learning outcomes. We therefore recommend

varies across the sector.

viewing effective line management of sessional staff by

The contribution of sessional staff to university teach-

unit coordinators as a complementary tool to increase

ing also brings to attention the task of unit coordination

their engagement and students’ learning outcomes. We

for course convenors. Unit coordination is one part of an

also propose the advantage of clearly distinguishing

academic teaching role, a role that is typically conceived

between the management of sessional staff in discipline

of, and receives institutional recognition, as a research,

and context-specific situations from generic (or trans-

teaching or administration role, with research upper-

ferable) training initiatives for sessional staff aimed at

most in a hierarchy of value. In terms of the relationship

teacher skills development.

between unit coordinators and the sessional staff they

Throughout the paper we employ the Recognition

oversee, it is often unclear what constitutes leadership

Enhancement Deveopment (RED) Report’s definition of

and what constitutes management. It is also unclear

sessional staff as ‘teachers, including any higher education

where the leadership and management who are involved

instructors not in tenured or permanent positions, and

in a unit coordinator’s role sit in terms of the distinction

employed on an hourly or honorary basis’ (Percy et al.,

between teaching and administration. Research to date

2008, p. 4), but exclusively focus on sessional staff work-

has predominantly explored the supervisory relationship

ing as tutors. We also identify as unit coordinators those

between unit coordinators and sessional staff in terms of

operating as unit convenors, course or subject coordina-

leadership and mentoring capabilities rather than mana-

tors and lecturers in charge.

gerial capabilities and tasks (e.g. Roberts et al., 2011; Lefoe

Our interview findings and subsequent discussion apply

et al., 2011). This relationship is largely restricted to the

most directly to the traditional university teaching con-

potential for unit coordinators to contribute to the pro-

text, where unit coordinators in continuing employment

fessional development of sessional staff through setting

have designated responsibility for course content, lecture

an example of good teaching practice. Within discussions

delivery and assessment design, and where sessional staff

of informal pathways for the professional development

are employed to conduct weekly tutorial classes and mark

of sessional staff and discussions of their contribution as

student assessments.We recognise that sessional staff per-

educators, there is also recognition of the social and infor-

form other roles, but nevertheless regard this traditional

mal aspects of the relationship between unit coordinators

divide between continuing staff, as unit coordinators, and

and sessional staff, as members of communities of prac-

sessionally employed staff, as tutors, to be most repre-

tice (Percy & Beaumont, 2008; Warhurst, 2008).

sentative of current employment practice in the context

Yet, framing the relationship between unit coordinators

of undergraduate courses with large student enrolments.

and sessional staff as a relationship between line manag-

Accordingly, our findings and discussion are most applica-

ers and employees is not only under researched, but it

ble to this context. No comment is made on whether the

also opens up the possibility of drawing insights from

traditional lecture/tutorial divide does or does not pro-

the management literature, particularly with reference to

mote good teaching practice. Our focus is the impact on

employee engagement and motivation. In this paper we

and value of regular face to face meetings between unit

adopt such an approach. Specifically, we explore whether

coordinators and sessional tutoring staff from the per-

the engagement of sessionally employed tutors can be

spective of the latter, rather than specific teaching prac-

enhanced by higher than usual levels of contact with,

tices per se. However, we note, the two are connected.

and informal management by, the unit coordinator with whom they work through a programme of weekly meet-

Background

ings to discuss content delivery, teaching strategies, and students’ experiences of learning.

Within many Australian universities, sessional staff are

Despite the relatively small sample size of tutors who

responsible for a great deal of face to face interaction with

were interviewed, and the fact that the programme of

students through tutorials and consultations; they are also

weekly meetings was implemented in one undergradu-

responsible for a high proportion of student assessment.

ate economics course with a single unit coordinator at

It is likely that their engagement, motivation and skills are

one university, our findings suggest that regular con-

essential for the successful delivery of quality teaching, in

tact and informal management by a unit coordinator is

particular, through the augmentation of lecture content

highly valued by tutors. Most importantly, we find that

within the context of the tutorials they deliver. In turn, it

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is likely that disengagement, a lack of motivation, or inad-

Participation in the weekly meetings was voluntary,

equate skills on the part of sessional staff compromise stu-

and attendance was paid at the rate for consultation

dent learning experiences and learning outcomes through

and marking. The focus of the meetings was the week

suboptimal tutorial delivery. Unit coordinators are most

by week progress and engagement of students. The unit

closely situated to the day to day teaching work undertaken

coordinator would ask about the previous several weeks

by sessional staff; accordingly, they are best placed to have

of tutorials, enquire about student attendance, comments

an impact on at least some of the factors outlined.

and complaints, and ask the tutors for their assessment

The contact and informal management of sessional

of the students’ understanding of and engagement with

staff by a unit coordinator are characterised in terms of

the course material. He would then outline the key con-

‘employee engagement’ (Macleod & Clarke, 2009; 2010).

cepts and potential stumbling blocks for students in the

We draw on the high profile Macleod Report commis-

coming week’s lecture material, giving one or two exam-

sioned by the UK government (Macleod & Clarke, 2009),

ples of how to discuss particular concepts within tuto-

which characterises effective line management in terms of

rials. The meetings were deliberately informal to allow

regular coaching and feedback concerning work related

for participation by tutors, in particular to share of teach-

goals. The report’s authors suggest this is a key ffactor

ing strategies and experiences between one another. As

of employee engagement, one that distinguishes between

these discussions were guided by the unit coordinator,

organisations with high (as opposed to low) employee engagement – which, in turn, is highly correlated with team

and

organisational

performance across a wide range of metrics. Employees within high

organisations levels

with

they could not be adequately

Over a three year period of conducting weekly meetings, there was a decrease in the student dropout rate, an improvement in student lecture and tutorial attendance, and an increase in course enrolment numbers.

employee

replicated by tutor meetings without the unit coordinator.

Additionally, the

meetings provided the unit coordinator

with

insight

into individual tutors’ extra development needs and, on the basis of input within the

engagement are coached no

meetings, an opportunity to

less than once a week by their immediate or local man-

evaluate the suitability of individual tutors for sessional

ager. Regular coaching goes a long way to ensuring three

contract renewal.

work related outcomes: first, that goals are clearly estab-

Over a three year period of conducting weekly meet-

lished and well understood; second, that work done well

ings, there was a decrease in the student dropout rate, an

is regularly acknowledged; and third, that problems are

improvement in student lecture and tutorial attendance,

quickly identified and promptly addressed (Macleod &

and an increase in course enrolment numbers. The poten-

Clarke, 2009; 2010).

tial link between the improved student engagement and the unit coordinator’s weekly meetings with tutors was

The weekly meetings

investigated through interviews with tutors.

A unit coordinator with lecturing and overall responsi-

Interviews

bility for a large first year undergraduate course instituted a programme in which all tutors met with him as

A research assistant was employed to interview tutors

a group once a week. This was one of several initiatives

about their experience and views of the meetings, with a

aimed at addressing low lecture and tutorial attendance

focus on the weekly programme during Semester 1, 2011,

by students and a high student dropout rate; both of

when there was a course enrolment of 656 students.

which indicate low student engagement. A motivation

Tutors in other undergraduate economics courses were

for instituting the weekly meetings with tutors came

also interviewed for purposes of comparison. University

from the unit coordinator’s positive experiences meet-

Ethics Committee clearance was granted on the basis that

ing with senior lecturing staff when he was employed

participation in the interviews was voluntary and confi-

as a tutor during his postgraduate candidature. Another

dential and that individual views and opinions would be

motivation was a concern that a segment of the tutor

de-identified. The interviews had a common question

cohort was disengaged from the course material and the

format, but open ended and extended responses were

learning needs of first year students.

encouraged. Interviews were recorded and summarised

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There were varying levels of teaching experience within the cohort, ranging from several weeks for two

Thirty-one tutors were invited by email and follow up

tutors, to tutors with a number of years of tutoring and

telephone call to participate in the interviews, with 18

lecturing experience in Australia, to tutors with full-time

accepting the invitation. Seven of the eight tutors who

lecturing roles and years of teaching experience in other

had participated in the 2011 meetings were interviewed.

countries prior to commencing postgraduate study in

Three tutors who had participated in the weekly meetings

Australia and undertaking sessional tutoring work at the

with the same unit coordinator in previous years were

Australian university. Of the tutors with prior teaching

interviewed. The other eight tutors had not attended

experience, about one-third had taught outside Australia,

meetings with the unit coordinator.

and three-quarters envisaged an academic teaching career

Tutors were asked questions across three categories.

which aligns with a recent finding that almost 75 per cent

The first concerned the tutors’ cohort characteristics:

of postgraduate students in Australian universities would

demographic information (age, gender and citizenship);

like to have an academic career (Edwards et al., 2011).

tutoring and lecturing experience at the university and

The variations in teaching experience within the

elsewhere; teaching career intentions; and participation

tutor cohort enable comparisons between beginner

in teaching and learning training at the university. The

level tutors and experienced tutors to be made. For the

second category concerned tutors’ classroom and teach-

purposes of reporting our findings, we have combined

ing experiences: whether they had been adequately pre-

the views of tutors who participated in the 2011 meet-

pared as beginner level tutors, and views about challenges

ings (seven) with tutors who attended the meetings in

within the tutor role. The third category concerned the

previous years (three). One-third of the cohort had par-

meetings themselves: tutors who had participated in the

ticipated in training and induction programmes on offer

weekly meetings were asked to discuss the benefits (if any)

within the University, with those attending describ-

of the meetings and how they could be improved; and their

ing them as beneficial. We note this attendance rate

attitude towards payment for attendance at the meetings.

is higher than the national average, which is reported

Some tutors who hadn’t participated in the weekly meet-

to be approximately 13 per cent of postgraduate stu-

ings had experiences that were similar (i.e. had attended

dents attending tutor training (Edwards et al., 2011).

meetings with unit coordinators in other courses). These

The attendance rate is sufficiently low to suggest that,

tutors also contributed opinions concerning the benefits of

despite calls for the professional development of ses-

meetings between unit coordinators and tutors.

sional staff, many commence to teach and continue with no training or professional development at all. This is

Interview findings Cohort characteristics

relevant to the observations and recommendations we make concerning the benefits of effective management by unit coordinators, as many tutors, and sessional staff

With three exceptions, the interviewed tutors were cur-

more generally, receive little professional support or

rent or recent postgraduate students in the economics

opportunities for professional development.

department at the university. In this respect the cohort can be defined as traditional, in the sense that tutoring

Tutors’ teaching experiences

staff have typically been postgraduate students or indus-

Tutors were asked whether they were adequately pre-

try experts. However, the Australian context is changing to

pared as beginner level tutors and to comment on chal-

include an increasing proportion of long-term sessionally

lenging aspects of the tutor role. Most tutors seemed

employed staff who are neither (Gottschalk & McEachern,

reluctant to answer the first question, and so the ques-

2010). The cohort was not traditional in the sense that

tion was asked once, and then repeated in a qualified

a large proportion of them were international postgradu-

way as the question of whether they felt as if they were

ate students. There is literature and debate concerning

adequately prepared. The more experienced tutors were

internationalised student cohorts in Australia (Jakubowicz

asked to look back upon their early teaching experiences

& Monani, 2010; Wright et al., 2012), but what is perhaps

at the University and consider, with the benefit of hind-

less recognised is a concurrent internationalisation of ses-

sight, how adequately they were prepared as beginner

sional employment within the Australian higher educa-

level tutors at the University. Tutors with teaching experi-

tion sector. If this is correct, several of our findings are

ence in other countries were not asked about teaching

pertinent to this trend.

experiences outside Australia.

Engaging or training sessional staff Philippa Byers & Massimiliano Tani

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Most tutors said that they were well prepared as begin-

they had rote learnt answers to set course material and

ner level tutors.When asked to expand on this, tutors said

to additional questions they anticipated students would

their knowledge of and familiarity with the course con-

ask. Interestingly, though lacking confidence in their Eng-

tent helped them feel prepared. That the tutors knew and

lish language proficiency, two tutors said that they were

felt familiar with the course content is unsurprising, as

not so concerned about students understanding them,

tutors who are postgraduate students have demonstrated

but rather were concerned about their own comprehen-

academic proficiency at undergraduate levels of their dis-

sion and interpretation of students’ questions, particularly

cipline area. We received a more nuanced view of begin-

those of local students who spoke quickly and used unfa-

ner level tutor preparation from the more experienced

miliar English language expressions and idioms.

tutors, as these tutors reflected on the fact that their confidence and teaching skills had developed over time. They

Impact of weekly meetings

regarded themselves as having been under prepared as

Without exception, the tutors who attended the meetings

beginner level tutors, despite having felt prepared at the

regarded them as beneficial. Of those who taught in other

time, presumably on the basis of course familiarity and

courses and had not attended meetings, several suggested

knowledge. This suggests that the more experienced

they would attend meetings if given the opportunity.

tutors recognise that course content knowledge is only

Many who had attended similar meetings with other unit

part, albeit a necessary one, of the requirements for effec-

coordinators said they benefitted from them.

tive teaching.

The strongest finding was that tutors believe the

Tutors spoke more freely about their teaching experiences when asked about challenges within the tutoring role. The comment that ‘tutoring is extremely stressful when you are new’ is indicative of views expressed by a number of them. Tutors discussed

challenges

meetings produced greater

Tutors who were postgraduate students with office space made no mention of difficulty with access to resources needed for tutoring, such as photocopying. The issue of lacking access to resources necessary for the job was described as ‘distressing’ by a tutor without office space.

consistency of course delivery than would be the case if there were no meetings. Each tutor who had participated

the

weekly

meetings said that course consistency was the main benefit. Several experienced tutors also made compari-

terms of maintaining student

sons between large first year

interest and focus, managing distracting behaviour (e.g.

courses with regular unit coordinator meetings and large

mobile phone use), wide variation in student ability, vary-

first year courses without them, saying that consistency

ing levels of prior knowledge (mathematics in particular),

is a problem when there are no meetings. These tutors

understanding and responding to students’ expectations,

also had experience (sometimes as lecturers as well as

lack of familiarity and practice with differing ways to pre-

tutors) in second and third year courses, enabling them

sent course content, and large amounts of material to be

to comment on differences in student needs, expecta-

covered in each tutorial meeting. These seven issues were

tions and anxieties as students progress from their first

raised across the tutor cohort, independently of experi-

year to their later years.

ence level or background.

Experienced tutors believed that consistency across

Tutors who were postgraduate students with office

tutors, and between unit coordinators and tutors, are

space made no mention of difficulty with access to

key indicators of course quality, particularly for first year

resources needed for tutoring, such as photocopying.

courses with large student enrolments. Several of these

The issue of lacking access to resources necessary for

tutors noted that consistency plays a role in reducing anx-

the job was described as ‘distressing’ by a tutor without

iety experienced by a proportion of first year students.

office space.

When asked for examples, the tutors said that students

For international tutors for whom English is not a first

often feel that their allocated tutor compares unfavour-

language, the experience of difficulty and associated

ably with other tutors, and/or that their tutorial class does

stress was very high during early stages of tutoring (par-

not receive the same amount or same level of tuition as

ticularly in the first year), due to a lack of confidence in

do other tutorial classes; both of which may be causes

their English language proficiency, rather than to a lack of

of tutorial shopping, low tutorial attendance and course

teaching experience. Several international tutors said that

dropout rates.

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In general, tutors appreciated the meetings as an

of value did not diminish once anxiety about teaching in

opportunity to share ideas and provide feedback. Sev-

English was no longer pressing. Three international post-

eral said they sought and utilised ideas from other tutors

graduates talked about how much they appreciated the

regarding the presentation of concepts and problems

opportunity to teach in Australia, both as an income sup-

in class. They appreciated the opportunity to provide

plement and as broadening their social horizon. For these

feedback to the unit coordinator if students were having

tutors, the meetings were highly valued for social as well

problems with a topic, and they liked to see the unit

as professional reasons, and added to the quality of their

coordinator acting on their feedback, saying this allowed

experience at the Australian university.

problems to be addressed quickly. This tends not to

The tutors’ views of the benefits of the meetings can be

happen if unit coordinators rely solely on email commu-

summarised as follows:

nication. Several tutors also suggested that email contact

• Gaining a clear understanding of the unit coordinator’s

from unit coordinators, as the usual means of communi-

intentions concerning student learning outcomes on a

cation, was far less effective than face to face meetings for providing direction and maintaining communication.

weekly basis. • Hearing others discuss ways to respond to and manage

One experienced tutor said explicitly that course con-

student expectations, anxiety, and in-class behaviours.

sistency depends on the leadership of the unit coordina-

• Finding out about different ways to present course

tor, moreover that leadership can only be delivered on a

content to cater to differing ability levels and learning

direct, or face to face, basis.

styles of students.

The tutors’ positive views of the meetings were inde-

• Having the opportunity to provide feedback to the

pendent of the level of tutoring experience and inde-

unit coordinator, thus feeling involved in overall course

pendent of local or international background. Tutors

delivery, rather than simply their own tutorial delivery.

who were more experienced, and had also attended the

In summary, the interviews provided clear evidence

weekly meetings in previous years, expressed a desire

that tutors place a high value on unit coordinator meet-

to attend meetings if offered in future. Several experi-

ings as a means to develop as teachers and that they find

enced tutors noted that there is always something new

discussing their work intrinsically rewarding if given the

to learn as a teacher. The finding that tutors’ motivation

opportunity.

to attend meetings does not diminish as they become more experienced is instructive, and we return to it in

Discussion

the discussion. Tutors believed they should be paid for meeting attend-

Our findings suggest that the relationship between unit

ance, and that the payment was adequate, with only one

coordinators and tutors warrants attention as a relation-

suggesting that the higher repeat tutorial rate should be

ship between line managers and employees that can be

paid rather than the marking/consultation rate which they

either effective or ineffective, in terms of motivating and

received. Several tutors said that although they should be

engaging, on the one hand, or potentially disempower-

paid for their time, remuneration was not their incen-

ing and disengaging, on the other. The programme of

tive for attending, as they would attend meetings even if

weekly meetings described in this paper provides an

not paid for attendance. The tutors’ views about remu-

example of management of sessional staff that is effec-

neration indicate that they believe payment is a matter of

tive in these terms.

fairness – ‘If I give my time I should be paid for it’ – but

The most distinctive finding was that experienced tutors

that remuneration had little bearing on their views of the

valued the weekly meetings at least as much as beginner

meetings and their motivations for attendance.

level tutors, as their motivation to attend meetings did not

Several tutors suggested that fortnightly rather than

diminish as their teaching skills and confidence increased

weekly meetings may be sufficient. However, no tutor sug-

over time. Although the meetings probably do contribute

gested that only a few meetings would achieve the same

to teacher skills development, through sharing teaching

findings as a programme of regular meetings. One tutor

tips and experiences, the meetings are better character-

suggested that it was difficult to find time to attend the

ised as informal on the job coaching, rather than training.

meetings given other commitments.

The distinction between management and training is

A particularly high value was placed on the weekly

that with the former a concrete set of work related goals

meetings by international postgraduates, for whom Eng-

is discussed (in our case on a weekly basis), as opposed

lish is not a first language, and interestingly, the perception

to the latter where the focus is knowledge and skills that

Engaging or training sessional staff Philippa Byers & Massimiliano Tani

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are applicable to teaching in general. Management takes

comes are about student learning. The following remarks

place within a particular work context and is focussed on

from the Macleod Report are pertinent:

work related outcomes, whereas training is focussed on individual knowledge and skills. The purpose of drawing this distinction is not to devalue training, but rather to say that the meetings, as local management and on the job coaching, have a distinctive value. We also suggest that management, as described here,

Employees get most information from their line manager and well-run briefing group meetings allow for questions, discussion and some dialogue. The good line manager will, in any case, spend time talking informally with their staff, for example in task allocation, problem solving, and work issues especially in coping with change (2009, p. 13).

is not a form of mentoring. A mentoring relationship between a unit coordinator and sessional tutoring staff is

The Macleod Report addresses work contexts where

more likely in cases where the unit coordinator is also

there is an evident distinction between managers and the

a tutor’s postgraduate supervisor. Mentoring is a commit-

employees they manage. This distinction is not always

ment with distinctive emotional demands, and spans a

clear within the higher education context. Brown et al.

considerable period of time. It also serves to foster and

(2010, p. 170), for example, note that ‘continuing academ-

support individual career goals, such as developing a

ics are in an ambivalent position, positioned as workers in

research profile. This is far removed from the point and

relation to central management but as supervisors in rela-

purpose of the meetings, which was students’ weekly pro-

tion to casuals’. Marshall et al. (2011, p. 92) highlight that

gress, which is a concrete work related focus.

‘Position descriptions and workload formulae are often

In large part, sessional tutoring staff are a workforce

unclear and … fail to recognise or include the work of

that receive little in the way of direct management or

leadership and management. Furthermore, criteria used to

regular guidance. There are many reasons for this, but

evaluate performance of those with leadership or man-

one reason may be the assumption that basic goodwill

agement responsibilities are often ambiguous.’

on the part of individual tutors combined with some

There needs to be more explicit recognition of the

teaching skills and adequate course-specific knowledge

unit coordinator role as one that includes management of

will translate into student learning outcomes. Our find-

other staff and, accordingly, contributes to the employee

ings provide no evidence against this assumption, but

engagement of those staff, or not, as the case may be. As

we regard as instructive the finding that experienced

noted in the Macleod Report, employees within organisa-

tutoring staff viewed the meetings as contributing to

tions that have high levels of employee engagement are

better course outcomes – course consistency in par-

coached no less than once a week by their immediate or

ticular. This suggests that irrespective of the benefits of

local manager. On the basis of their research, they propose

training, training is not a substitute for regular and effec-

that regular coaching goes a long way to ensuring three

tive local management.

work related outcomes: first, that outcomes are clearly

The results of our interviews align with several themes

established and well understood; second, that work done

reported in the UK’s Macleod Report. In general terms,

well is regularly acknowledged; and third, that problems

the Macleod Report is an extension of organisational psy-

are quickly identified and promptly addressed (Macleod &

chology research, which shows that ‘job engagement is

Clarke, 2009, 2010). These features of effective local man-

associated with a sustainable workload, feelings of choice

agement should be harnessed within the higher educa-

and control, appropriate recognition and reward, a sup-

tion sector.

portive work community, fairness and justice, and meaningful and valued work’ (Saks, 2006 p. 603; for an early and

Conclusion

highly influential paper, see Kahn, 1990). The Macleod Report discusses large private sector

Our suggestion that regular face to face meetings

enterprises, small to medium private sector enterprises,

between unit coordinators and tutors should be pro-

public sector and public services organisations, and

moted as a species of effective local management may

third sector community and volunteer organisations, but

seem at odds with the ethos of the higher education

noticeably does not discuss higher education providers

sector. Management speak is seen by many as antitheti-

and their employees. There is much that can be applied

cal to the ethos of academic life, as academic careers are

to the higher education sector, understood as a setting in

often chosen for semi-vocational reasons and the notion

which effective working relationships are a key to deliver-

of working relationships as collegial relationships is

ing on organisational outcomes. In our example, the out-

valued. In addition, management tasks are often seen as

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necessary, but not at all welcome. Accordingly, our sug-

Philippa Byers is a researcher who has worked on teach-

gestion may seem to some to be a managerial-style impo-

ing and learning projects and ethics projects. She has a

sition; however, by local or line management we mean

PhD in philosophy (University of Sydney) and has lectured

no more than regular face to face meeting and coaching

and tutored at several universities in a range philosophical

that fosters an employee’s sense of engagement with the

areas.

purpose and goals of their work. This lack of clarity, or possible ambivalence about

Massimiliano Tani is a professor in the School of Business of

management, should be addressed to the extent that unit

University of New South Wales (UNSW) Canberra. He holds a

coordinators are explicitly recognised as both employees

PhD in economics from the Australian National University and

and supervisors or line managers, as are many people in

a graduate diploma in university learning and teaching from

other employment sectors. Better clarity and focus upon

UNSW.

the line management aspect of the unit coordination role is needed, and unit coordinators should be expected to be effective line managers of sessional tutoring staff. This needs to be adequately recognised within workload allocations and, possibly, in ad hoc management training for course coordinators. It should also be valued as a direct means of engaging sessional staff in their work as tutors and classroom teachers. There is little reason why the higher education sector should not pay heed to the well-established view within organisational psychology literature that for employees, ‘job engagement is associated with a sustainable workload, feelings of choice and control, appropriate recognition and reward, a supportive work community, fairness and justice, and meaningful and valued work’ (Saks, 2006, p. 603; see also Kahn, 1990). This applies to unit coordinators as well as the sessional staff who are employed to work with them as tutors. Like employees in other sectors, the sessional staff we interviewed appeared to respond well to their manager, the unit coordinator, taking a regular and genuine interest in their work. In turn, to the extent that unit coordinators are engaged in the effective line management of the sessional staff who tutor in their courses, this should be recognised and valued by their line managers and beyond. The fact that the course concerned was a first year course with a large enrolment may indicate that generalisation across other discipline areas is possible, as students in many large first year courses across a variety of discipline areas in many Australian universities receive much of their classroom teaching from tutors employed on a sessional basis.

Acknowledgements Financial support from Macquarie University’s Competitive Grant Scheme (2012) is gratefully acknowledged.

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Enthusiasm and the effective modern academic Brett Freudenberg & Lisa Samarkovski Griffith University

Academics today face an array of challenges to their enthusiasm, including teaching students from diverse backgrounds with wavering levels of engagement with their studies. Furthermore, reform to the tertiary education sector has seen the corporatisation of universities with management increasingly measuring academic outcomes in respect of both teaching and research. This is proving to be problematic, particularly in measuring and recognising good teaching. With these select measurements, academics can feel that a substantial part of their work is not recognised in a meaningful way, which may impact morale, intellectual time and autonomy. This limited recognition can result in academics’ enthusiasm, especially towards teaching, waning. This could result in unfavourable outcomes, as an academic’s lack of enthusiasm may have an adverse impact on student learning, may also affect their own wellbeing and, ultimately, be detrimental to the institution they work for.

Introduction

2011). The purpose of this article is not to argue the pros and cons of the modern tertiary sector, but to highlight

The notion of enthusiasm may seem far removed from the

that this environment can cause an academic’s enthu-

traditional attributes that an academic needs in order to

siasm to wane, especially towards their teaching. The

succeed, but in this article we argue that enthusiasm is

word ‘enthusiasm’ derives from the Greek meaning ‘God

an important part of being an effective modern academic.

(entheo) inside (iasm)’. While Sanders and Gosenpud

Reforms in Australian universities have resulted in the

(1986, p. 52) state that ‘enthusiastic teaching’ means simu-

implementation of corporatised management practices

lating, animated, energetic and mobile – it suggested that

including attempts to measure the outputs, and more

Ballantyne et al.’s (1999) notion that it extends beyond

recently the impact, of the sector (Universities Australia,

mere kinetics and includes a love of one’s discipline, the

2013). These reforms raise ideological questions about

act of learning and the role of being a teacher is more

what universities are about, and how and whether it is

insightful.

appropriate to measure outputs and impact. Also, it

The waning of academics’ enthusiasm should be of con-

appears that institutions have placed emphasis on meas-

cern to everyone in the tertiary sector, as an academic’s

uring (and rewarding) research as opposed to teaching

enthusiasm towards their teaching has been linked to

– which may have more to do with the ease of measure-

promoting student engagement and positive learning

ment of research outputs, however problematic (Carr,

outcomes (Evans, 2007), which is beneficial for the insti-

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tution and the sector overall. Given the demands of the

not clear whether these aims have been fully achieved,

contemporary tertiary sector, academics more than ever

there has been an increase in the quantity of output

need enthusiasm to face the challenges of their teaching.

from the sector in terms of both research and teaching

Hence, we argue, an academic’s enthusiasm is intrinsically

(Soo, 2008).

linked to being an effective academic in the 21st century.

Furthermore, the conversation about the role of universities and the economy, in terms of the economy

The challenges

today and into the future has been clearly articulated. Currently, the tertiary sector directly contributes $17.2

Some of the challenges arising in modern universities

billion (2008–09) to the Australian economy, making

include the corporatisation of universities, funding pres-

it the fourth largest earner of export dollars, much of

sures and a changing student cohort, each of which is

which comes from international education (Malkovic,

discussed below. There are also other challenges, such

2010). In terms of Australia’s future economic prospects

as advances in technology and the modes of educational

the tertiary sector is seen as playing a key role in provid-

delivery available to contemporary students, that are

ing a skilled workforce (CPA Australia, 2010).

beyond the scope of this article.

Studies have postulated links between time spent in education and a country’s gross domestic product (GDP)

Corporatisation

(Parker, 2011), although, other studies have qualified that

One of the challenges facing modern academics is the

this depends upon the quality of the education, rather

corporatisation of universities. Similar to other countries,

than just the quantity (Hanushek & Woessmann, 2009).

the tertiary sector in Australia has been subject to reforms

This market-based reform has seen Australian universi-

based on economic rationalism and related ideological

ties adopt corporate management principles and practices

(neo-liberal) orientations – most notably, managerialism

since 1993 (Winter & Sarros, 2002), including corporate

(Biggs, 2002). In Australia, these reforms can be traced

forms of work organisation (for internal and external

back to John Dawkins (Minister for Employment, Educa-

transactions), active engagement in entrepreneurial activi-

tion and Training from 1987–1991) and the release of a

ties (such as consulting), and the marketing of their edu-

discussion paper (Dawkins, 1987), and then a government

cation services internationally. This has seen the growth

policy paper (Dawkins, 1988). These reforms resulted in

of ‘superdeans’ and faculty leader managers with the

amalgamations of institutions and changes in government

installation of targets acting as powerful restraints and

funding along with the funding being directed towards

responsibility shifting (Marginson & Considine, 2000, pp.

particular activities (Group of Eight, 2012).

10–11). This has marked a move away from collegial deci-

This new market driven tertiary environment provides

sion making which included academics to more executive

a stark contrast to the historical perception of the tertiary

decision making (Marginson & Considine, 2000). Hil also

sector as an elite activity, with high levels of autonomy

points to concerns about the rise of administrative prac-

and little directed financial support from government and

tices with people getting caught up in the process rather

industry (Coaldrake & Steadman, 1999, p. 3). This history

than the outcomes, and academics struggling with admin-

can be romanticised as a time of freedom of thought that

istrators to gain status (Hil, 2012). This includes policies

was not bound by financial compromise and government

to protect the university brand which may involve limita-

agendas. However, Noll (1998) queries whether liber-

tions on academics’ discourse.

ties had been taken and that universities needed to be

While some see this a ‘very exciting time’ for univer-

subjected to more public scrutiny and accountability.

sities (Parker, 2011, p. 52, quoting McDonald), others are

Also, this era has been describe has having ‘autocratic

concerned about whether higher education and commer-

manager[s]’ and ‘god professors’ and privilege (Marginson

cialisation are necessarily compatible (Valsan & Sproule,

& Considine, 2000, p. 98), with ‘club members’ being pro-

2008). Part of the concern is that academic freedom in

tected (p. 110).

research is being driven more by industry and govern-

This market-based rationalisation which was assumed

ment priorities (Soo, 2008). Also, the commercialisation

to lead to improved quality and productivity (Hancock et

is being modelled on the assumption of ‘profit-maximis-

al., 2009) has been described as the ‘enterprise univer-

ers’, which is an awkward fit given that universities are

sity’ where money is a key objective, but is subordinate

typically public or non-profit organisations (Soo, 2008, p.

to advancing prestige and the competitiveness of uni-

24), and they strive for ‘prestige’ not profit (Garvin, 1980)

versities (Marginson & Considine, 2000, p. 5). While it is

although Slaughter and Leslie (1997) indicate that uni-

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versities now strive for prestige and profit. Recently Hil

load of tenured staff, as they have to ‘manage the army’ of

(2012) has given a scathing assessment of the university

causal staff (Coaldrake & Stedman, 1999, p. 20).

sector in Australia, which can see academics valued more

Furthermore, academics appear to be doing a lot of

for ‘how much they contribute to revenue streams than

unpaid overtime, with their hours increasing as their

to ideas’.

career progresses. Research shows that associate lecturers

Funding Another challenge facing the modern academics can be

work on average 46 hours a week, compared to 51 hours for a senior lecturer, which then climbs to 58 hours for a full professor (Coates et al., 2009).

funding pressures for their institutions. Even for institu-

An expanding area of potential revenue for universities

tions that have built up surpluses, universities have to be

is students, in particular the growth in post-graduate and

far more strategic in allocating limited resources.

international students (Bexley & Baik, 2011). This has led

Compared to the early 1990s, Australian universities

to the idea of education as a commodity, with students

now have a diverse funding pool to draw upon, with con-

described as ‘customers’ (Anderson et al., 2002, p. 12),

temporary funds coming from ‘[C]ommonwealth govern-

who demand full value for their money (Biggs, 2002).

ment grants, HECS, fees and charges, investment income,

Given that university funding is contingent on student

state government allocations, and donations and bequests’

numbers, attracting students is big business which creates

(Soo, 2008, p. 17), as well as corporate sponsorships. Stu-

concerns that this can lead to pressure to pass students

dent fees are a particularly important source of revenue,

(Anderson et al., 2002). Australia is not alone in this fear.

as reforms have allowed universities to enrol fee-paying

There is evidence from the USA of grade inflation and/or

overseas students, which has led to strong increases in

concerns with soft assessment (Leigh & Ryan, 2008). Aca-

international student numbers (Department of Education,

demic integrity is seen as compromised due to the com-

Science and Training 2007). Underfunding, coupled with

mercial nature of education and concern about buying an

discretionary/conditional government funding, can act as

education.

a strong inducement to modify university priorities and behaviour (Marginson & Considine, 2000). This appears

Student cohort

to be due, in part, to universities adjusting to the uncer-

Another challenge facing the modern academic is that

tainties in the new funding environment (Bexley & Baik,

the student cohort has changed dramatically with greater

2011). This has been made more severe by recent govern-

heterogeneity. This diversity poses a number of issues;

ment budget cuts.

teaching approaches, cultural knowledge, prior skills

However, universities appear to be doing more with

and knowledge. Given that academics may have limited

less, particularly for teaching, as resources for teaching

knowledge about theories of learning and teaching strate-

have been reduced on a per student basis, with increased

gies, this can mean they need assistance to meet these

staff:student ratios over a ten year period, moving from

challenges (Freudenberg, 2012).

15 students to one academic in 1996 to over 20 to one in

Full time undergraduates, for example, are working

2006 (Davis, 2010; Coaldrake & Steadman, 1999). Guthrie

longer hours with their average hours of work increasing

claims that in business schools this was as high as 60:1 in

nearly threefold from five hours per week in the 1980s

2010 (Malkovic, 2010, p. 37, quoting Guthrie). In contrast,

to 14 hours per week in the early 2000s (Anderson et

dedicated funding for research has risen significantly in

al., 2002). Research has demonstrated that, depending

this period (Group of Eight, 2012).

upon the hours worked and whether it is a career job,

Another area of concern for modern academics is the

this increased work commitment can have an effect on

casualisation of the industry, with a greater reliance on

whether students complete their degree (Zakirova & Poli-

casual academic staff (estimates between 40 and 70 per

dano, 2011, p. 8). This may also mean that academics feel

cent, with the majority being female) rather than full

students are less engaged with their tertiary studies due

time tenured staff (Bexley & Baik, 2011). This can lead to

to their absences.

apprehension about quality, but also, to the actual viabil-

Furthermore, students can have increased family and

ity of an academic career (Malkovic, 2010, p. 37, quoting

parenting responsibilities (Cushman, 2004) and many

Guthrie). This is a worry for a sector that needs to focus

have adjustment challenges due to the less regulated

on recruiting as thousands of new academics will be

learning environment, and they may lack the time man-

required to replace academics retiring in the next decade

agement skills to deal with this (Lahmars & Zulauf, 2000).

(Parker, 2011). Also, casualisation can add to the work-

Increasingly, there are students from diverse socio-

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economic backgrounds (Anderson et al., 2002), whose

2009). These KPIs can relate to the three main areas of

members are likely to increase due to the Australian gov-

an academic’s role: teaching, research and service, with a

ernment’s policy to increase the level of 25–34 year olds

traditional model being a 40:40:20 split.

who have attained a bachelor’s degree or higher to 40 per cent (Parker, 2011).

For teaching, these KPIs typically cover graduate feedback on teaching, course pass and retention rates, and

This means there are concerns about whether stu-

levels of graduate employment. The volume and status

dents (domestic and international) have sufficient skills

of publications and research grants have been used to

to cope with or to even undertake tertiary study. Students

measure research outputs. However, these KPIs can have

with poor language and academic skills can struggle

unintended consequences. For example, attempts to try to

with academic requirements, as academic achievement

ascertain the quality of research outputs with the ranking

and ability to engage with learning are both necessary

of journals has been said to lead to undesirable managerial

(Carini et al., 2006).

practices that resulted in the withdrawal of the scheme

There are also greater numbers of international students

(Carr, 2011).

who can be concentrated in certain disciplines; estimates

In terms of teaching KPIs, the use of student evaluations

are that up to 80 per cent of the student body in account-

of teaching has also been highly criticised, with implica-

ing degrees are international students (Malkovic, 2010).

tions that these can be manipulated (Sawyer et al., 2007).

While additional resources or support may be provided to

Also, the use of student evaluations of teaching for admin-

address this, it is questionable to what extent these might

istrative purposes leaves some to ponder whether there

be adequate (CPA Australia, 2010). Additionally, there has

is collusion between students and academics (Valsan &

been an internationalisation of the Australian academic

Sproule, 2008).

staff that can lead to challenges for such staff lecturing in

While measuring good teaching is problematic, for the

English when it is not their first language (Horstmanshof,

university’s management system to work in terms of pro-

2010). This internationalisation of student and academic

viding extrinsic motivation to the modern academic, good

populations can be positive, but it does present potential

teaching must not only be measured but it must also be

language and cultural difficulties (Arkoudis et al., 2012).

rewarded and acknowledged, appreciated and valued. If

All of these factors can lead to an increased workload

this does not occur in a meaningful way, it can lead aca-

for academics in assisting students to successfully adjust

demics to view teaching as a ‘distraction’, as students are

to university (Biggs, 2002).

getting in the way of academics progressing their careers

Consequently, it can be appreciated that the modern university culture and the changes that have and continue to take place in terms of corporatisation and increased student diversity mean that the work for the modern academic is both dynamic and challenging. These challenges have taken on new dimensions, with universi-

through a greater research profile. Guest (2009, p. 22) persuasively argues that: whenever one of two outputs of an employee is rewarded (extrinsically) and the other is not, there is likely to be a decline in the relative and absolute standards of the unrewarded line of output.

ties exploring the ways they can use online teaching to

One visible way that good university teaching has been

deliver their courses. What this means for academics in

recognised is through teaching awards, which can be

terms of workload, skill base and pedagogical techniques

granted at the faculty, university and national levels. The

is still uncertain (Todd, 2012). The next part of the article

rise and fall of Australia’s national award body (Carrick/

will focus on how management practices may be having

Australian Learning and Teaching Council) adds credence

a detrimental effect on academics’ enthusiasm, especially

to the scepticism of the value placed on teaching. How-

towards teaching.

ever, it appears that these awards may not be a good external motivator for academics. A survey of teaching award

Evidence of a decline in enthusiasm

recipients found that the award was of ‘minor importance’ and that some found them to be ‘alienating’ – in that they

It is important to appreciate that management practices

placed the recipients separate to their colleagues (Rams-

can act as extrinsic motivators for academics in terms of

den & Martin, 1996, p. 312). The award can also carry

focusing their attention and effort less. In order to meas-

‘negative connotations’ when the particular institutional

ure the economic performance of the sector’s outputs,

academic community is engrained in a research culture,

key performance indicators (KPIs) have been created

as teaching expertise may not carry the same respect as

and implemented on a number of fronts (Hancock et al.,

research expertise (Leon, 2002). This was still the case

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in 2010 when fewer academics placed a higher value on

why McInnis’ study (1996) found a decline in academics’

award for teaching excellence (58.7 per cent) compared

commitment to teaching as they progress through their

to research awards (74.4 per cent) (Bexley, James & Ark-

careers. Even for staff at the associate lecturer and lecturer

oudis, 2011).

levels the perceived lack of institutional support for teach-

Rather than teaching awards, recipients have thought that the promotions system would be a more effective

ing can have a depressing effect on academics’ motivation and work performance (Winter & Sarros, 2002).

and appropriate way to recognise good teaching (Rams-

This evidence demonstrates that for academics there is

den & Martin, 1996). Some universities have made ten-

a perception gap between the recognition and rewarding

tative moves to try to establish a career trajectory for

of teaching compared to research, even if the reality is

high performing teachers, so they can achieve career

that they are equally recognised and rewarded by their

advancement. Nevertheless, academics feel there is more

universities. We argue that this perception gap is critical

work to be done as there continues to be a perception

as it may have a demoralising effect on the modern aca-

gap between the recognition and reward of teaching as

demic in terms of their enthusiasm towards teaching. A

opposed to research.

2010 study of 5,525 Australian academics began its Execu-

Australian research by Ramsden and Martin (1996) revealed that most academics consider that research and teaching should be highly valued. While 84 per cent of academics thought that research is actually highly valued by their institutions, only 37 per cent thought that teach-

tive Summary with the following participant quote: Even though there is a spoken acknowledgement that all three (teaching, research, and service) are important, every academic knows there is a hierarchy, with research sitting at the top (Bexley et al., 2011, p. xi).

ing was actually highly valued. This is somewhat incon-

This means there can be incongruity between academ-

sistent with respect to the institutions’ own perceptions,

ics’ roles and what they get meaningful recognition for,

as 81 per cent of Australian universities indicated that

referred to as the workload–reward paradox. Currently, in

equal value was given to research and teaching with pro-

Australian universities, a large proportion of the income

motions. Only 47 per cent of the universities surveyed at

for a university can come from teaching students. The

the time indicated that the promotion could be primarily

authors’ institution, for example, gains approximately 70

on the basis of excellence in teaching.

per cent of its income from teaching students, with a

The perception continued in 2010 as 88 per cent of

large percentage of the university’s output being gradu-

academics believed that teaching should be rewarded in

ating students. Even though teaching accounts for only

promotion but only 31 per cent believed that it is cur-

40 per cent of a traditional academic’s workload. This

rently rewarded (Bexley et al., 2011). This means that

can mean that the academic is faced with the arduous

over the decade there are now ‘far fewer’ academics

fact that 40 per cent of their work (which accounts for

believe that teaching is recognised through the promo-

70 per cent of their employer’s income) is not compara-

tion criterion (Bexley et al., 2011). This may be related to

bly measured with the other 40 per cent of their work

the finding that more than 40 per cent of academics were

load (research), which may account for less than 30 per

dissatisfied with ‘the way teaching expertise is valued in

cent of their employer’s income. However, this may not

academic recruitment’ and used as the criteria for promo-

be technically correct, as there may be a link between

tion (Bexley et al., 2011, p. 23). This dissatisfaction with

student enrolment and research, rather than teaching.

the recognition of teaching can be contrasted with the

There is, for example, some contention that students use

finding that 70.6 per cent of academics were of the view

indices that rank universities (such as the Shanghai Jiao

that research activity is currently highly rewarded and

Tong or the Times Higher Education university rank-

73.8 per cent believe that it should be rewarded (Bexley

ing) to choose universities. These indices are driven by

et al., 2011).

the institutional research status (as opposed to teaching)

What these finding suggest is that the promotion

(Soo, 2008). Even though research by Hattie and Marsh

system is unlikely to be a strong extrinsic motivator to

(1996) comprising a comprehensive review and meta-

encourage good teaching which can lead to a sense that

analysis of 58 quantitative studies, found that there was

research productive academics will get promoted even

only a loose coupling between research and teaching. In

if they are ‘mediocre teachers’ (Ramsden & Martin, 1996,

terms of these rankings, Marginson and Considine (2000,

p. 300). Such preconceptions can encourage junior staff

p. 193) argue that it is ‘not value added in teaching that

to think that their institutions do not care about teach-

matters’ but instead ‘scores of students who enter, the

ing (Ramsden & Martin, 1996) which could be a reason

reputation of the academics who teach them, the suc-

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cess of the university in research, and the labour-market

per cent of academics in 2010 finding their work to be a

status of graduates’.

considerable source of personal stress compared to the

We argue that managerialisation (and measurement)

high base of 56 per cent in the late 1990s (Bexley et al.,

has had a major impact on external motivation for aca-

2011 c.f. McInnis, 1999). The researchers do not provide

demics. McInnis’ (1999) study of over 2,000 Australian aca-

an explanation for this decline, but it may be related to

demics found that the level of work satisfaction declined

the retirement of older academics who recall the prior

rapidly from 1993 (67 per cent) to 1999 (51 per cent).

system, with newer academics knowing no other system.

In a later survey of Australian academics, they responded

In any event, it is argued that the 2010 levels of personal

negatively to the statements that their university ‘inspires

stress are of concern.

the very best in the way of job performance’ (mean = 2.46,

Overall, it is argued that this provides evidence to sup-

scale 1:5) (Winter & Sarros, 2002, p. 247). This is despite

port the claim that academics’ enthusiasm towards teach-

caring about their university and willing to put in the

ing is under strain in the modern university environment.

extra effort (mean = 4.22) (Winter & Sarros, 2002). Research

also

demon-

strates that junior staff at associate lecturer level have a stronger interest in teaching as opposed to research (Ramsden & Martin, 1996).

What this means for the

What this means for the modern academic is that the systems (and rewards) implemented in today’s corporatised universities provide little as an extrinsic motivator for teaching, and this we argue is detrimental.

For lecturers and senior lec-

modern academic is that the systems (and rewards) implemented in today’s corporatised

universities

provide

little as an extrinsic motivator for teaching, and this, we argue, is detrimental. Luckily university management is

turers the interest in research

not the only source of extrin-

and teaching is much more aligned, however, for senior

sic motivation, as students can be an important source of

academics (associate professors and professors) there is

motivation for academics (Houston et al., 2006):

clearly a preference for research as opposed to teaching. This is of concern, as research by McInnis (1996) found that those who considered themselves as more teaching orientated were more likely to hold negative attitudes about their careers and working conditions compared to those who were research orientated. The

What makes it all worthwhile is that very small percentage of the time where you see something catch. I often wonder whether it’s the kind of thing that pyromaniacs have. There’s a certain absolute joy in striking that match ... and then seeing it suddenly start to grow (quote from participant, Ballantyne et al., 1999, p. 251; emphasis added).

impact of such negative attitudes for academics is considered later in this article.

This personal and intrinsic motivation appears to be

Further evidence of the decline in enthusiasm is found

strong in academics who take teaching seriously (Bexley

in the national survey of 8,732 staff members from 17

et al., 2011). This is a factor recently highlighted by Hil

participating Australian universities, which was regarded

that ‘[good teaching] occurs in spite and not because of

as representative of the population of university staff and

the organisational cultures within which academics work’

included academics from various disciplines. This study

(quote from participant, Hil, 2012, p. 104).

concluded that the 3,711 academic staff surveyed showed

Is this internal motivation enough to drive modern aca-

greater psychological stress than general staff (Winefield

demics to meet the challenges of their new work environ-

et al., 2003). This means that academics were more likely

ments, and will such academics have a long fruitful career,

to be ‘at risk of psychological illness’ compared to the Aus-

or will they risk being burnt by being pyromaniacs for

tralian population (Hil, 2012, p. 93). This may be due to

learning?

a mismatch in academics’ skills and modern job requirements, as well as expectations (especially with older aca-

The importance of enthusiasm

demics) (Winefield et al., 2003). In a follow-up survey a number of years later there was not a significant differ-

If the goals of reforms to the university sector were to

ence in psychological strain and job satisfaction for those

improve outcomes, and to advance the position of Austral-

academics surveyed again (Winefield et al., 2008).

ian universities compared to their international counter-

Stress levels continue to be very high, even though

parts, then the institutions’ own wellbeing is intrinsically

a 2010 study indicated there was a decrease, with 44.6

linked to the wellbeing of academics and students (Coates

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et al., 2009). Coaldrake and Stedman (1999) argue that

interest in a topic is enhanced by the academic’s enthusi-

there must be greater alignment and linkage of individual

asm and use of real world examples (Hodgson, 1984). This

academic careers to the institutional goals to ensure suc-

is supported by an Australian study which found that good

cess for the sector. More recently, they argue that universi-

teaching was demonstrated by ‘motivating engagement’

ties themselves need to take more responsibilities for the

(Lizzio, 2010, p. 51). Similarly, the study with engineer-

challenges they face (Coaldrake & Stedman, 2013). How-

ing students by Davies et al. (2006) concluded that a key

ever, there is currently a perception of a lack of alignment,

feature of a good lecturer was the lecturer’s enthusiasm.

which can result in academics’ enthusiasm waning. This

Studies have also concluded that the energy level and

tainting of academics’ enthusiasm can be adverse for the

enthusiasm of the teacher is important in terms of stu-

individual, the institution and students’ learning.

dent learning (Gilbert, 1995). Accordingly, if academics’

Positive emotions produce the tendency in people to approach rather than avoid, which prepares the individ-

enthusiasm for teaching has been diminished this could be adverse for students’ learning.

ual to seek out and undertake new goals (Lyubomirsky et

Academics’ enthusiasm that can feed student motiva-

al., 2005). Such positive emotions would seem critical in

tion is critical given that students themselves are facing

assisting academics to deal with the challenges they face

challenging circumstances in undertaking their studies

and will continue to face in academia.

(such as other demands on their time, difficult course

Research has also demonstrated that increases in har-

material and differing academic ability). Being able to

monious passion were shown to predict increases in job

motivate students is important as what the student does

satisfaction and decrease burnout symptoms (Carbonneau

can be ‘more important in determining what is learned

et al., 2008). Harmonious passion relates to an internalisa-

than what the teacher does’ (Shuell, 1986, p. 429).

tion of an activity important to the person and relating

Referring to an academic’s enthusiasm is not to sug-

the person’s idea of self. Furthermore, employees with

gest that academics have to be performers or tell jokes for

a positive disposition receive relatively more favourable

entertainment, as:

evaluations from supervisors (Staw et al., 1994). Researchers argue that it is not necessarily success that leads to happiness, but that: Positively balanced moods and emotions lead people to think, feel, and act in ways that promote both resource building and involvement with approach goals (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005, p. 803).

students recognised that ‘good lecturers’ could be good in different ways. They appreciated that different personalities could produce equally satisfying lectures by playing to strengths ... But students indicated that sine qua non for most overall was that the lecturer should demonstrate enthusiasm for the subject (Evans, 2007, p. 6).

Positive emotions can mean that academics ‘have a

It should be recalled that students can be an impor-

greater likelihood of working actively toward new goals

tant source of motivation for academics, so an academic’s

while experiencing those moods’ (Lyubomirsky et al.,

enthusiasm could be self-perpetuating, with enthusiasm

2005, p. 804). Also, there are benefits for institutions

feeding enthusiasm. If academics are enthused about

because satisfied workers show less job withdrawal, such

teaching then it is more likely that their students will

as absenteeism and job burnout (Donovan, 2000). Positive

be enthused about learning. Then, when academics see

moods also relate to increased belief in one’s capabilities

their students wanting to learn and enjoying what they

(self-efficacy) (Baron, 1990) and the setting of higher goals

are learning, this drives the academics to do better and

(Baron, 1990; Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). The link with

become a ‘pyromaniac’ for learning as expressed in the

self-efficacy is important as it can be related to a person

earlier quote (Ballantyne et al., 1999, p. 251).

having a greater sense of control, which can assist them

The link between academics’ enthusiasm and student

in persisting with difficult tasks (Bandura, 1982). Having

engagement and learning is supported by the research

a positive frame of mind (as opposed to a negative one)

of Ballantyne et al. (1999) in which they surveyed 708

can also be linked to more efficientproblem solving (Staw

Australian academics who were considered by their

et al., 1994).

universities to be exemplary or had noteworthy teach-

Academics’ enthusiasm can be central to their ability to

ing practice. This was the result of approaching some

effectively teach (disseminate) knowledge. Evans (2007)

1,996 nominated academics from 40 universities around

found that students considered that an academic’s enthu-

Australia, with representation from all disciplines. This

siasm was central to their learning and a pre-requisite for

research found one of the strongest teaching character-

student involvement’. Research has found that students’

istics of exemplary teaching practices was motivating

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student interest (Ballantyne et al., 1999). This was then

Another important attribute for academics to teach

supported by themes of ‘love for one’s discipline, which

effectively is ‘valuing students and their perspectives’

included the concepts of ‘enthusiasm’ and ‘creating and

(Ballantyne et al., 1999, p. 245), which can relate to a ‘stu-

maintaining student interest’ (Ballantyne et al., 1999,

dent-centred’ approach to learning (Samuelozicz & Bain,

p. 239). But this is not just enthusiasm for their subject

1992, p. 93). This can potentially lead to motivating stu-

matter, but also for the act of teaching and ‘instilling the

dents to adopt a deep learning approach to their studies

love of learning’ (Ballantyne et al., 1999, p. 244). The

(Prosser & Trigwell, 1999).

absence of such enthusiasm can be obvious to students: the subjects I’ve least enjoyed learning and the people I’ve least enjoyed being taught by were the ones that were most disinterested sic. They may have had a great love for their subject – they may have been world experts – but they didn’t come across as getting a kick out of their subject (quote from participant, Ballantyne et al., 1999, p. 244).

This may mean that students appreciate academics who relate the course content to the students’ future professional careers, as research demonstrates that two-thirds of students are at university with the hope of of obtaining a worthwhile job and to improve their standard of living (Newstead et al., 1996), which is supported by the finding that a highly appreciated teaching trait of effective academics is ‘linking theory and practice’ (Ballantyne et al.,

Indeed, an academic’s enthusiasm can rise above the course content and ignite the student’s desire to learn:

1999, p. 242). Accordingly, linking the theory to practice should appeal to most students as doing so clearly dem-

Students consistently referred to the need for engaging, enthusiastic lectures, indicating that the most important issue is not the course content per se, but rather the way in which it is delivered in the classroom (Horstmanshof, 2010, p. 17).

onstrates that their studies are important and relevant to

This would support Hodgson’s contention that ‘stu-

academic life compared to more able students (Carini et

dents’ engagement with content is likely to be more pen-

al., 2006). Such engagement is an issue that will continue

etrating if they share the lecture’s sense of challenge and

to grow with the Australian government’s objective to

enthusiasm’ (Hodgson, 1984, p. 90). This potential link

increase tertiary participation rates to 40 per cent.

their future careers. This concept of engagement, whether through enthusiasm or linkages, is important as it may be able to substantially assist those students who are struggling most with

with enthusiasm and student engagement is important, as

Consequently, there is evidence to suggest that academ-

students play a pivotal role in their own learning (Shuell,

ics’ enthusiasm is important, not only for their personal

1986).

wellbeing, but also that of the institution (and sector) they

Day (2004, p. 3) considers that this enthusiasm (pas-

work in and for student learning. If an academic’s enthu-

sion) is ‘not an option’ but is critical for academics to suc-

siasm for teaching is at risk of waning, then it is an impor-

cessfully deal with the challenges they face, particularly

tant issue that managers in this new corporatised tertiary

because of the energy and time academics need to invest.

environment need to address.

Such enthusiasm is also important if students are to be engaged and attend (Pithers & Holland, 2007), because: students are encouraged to attend and engage if they enjoy the teaching style of the lecturer, if the lecturer is engaging and enthusiastic, if they are included through interactions and questions and if they see the lecture as adding value (Horstmanshof, 2010, p. 17).

Conclusion Universities are places for the creation and the dissemination of knowledge. The value of universities is appreciated in economic terms, and can be intrinsically linked with the future prospects of a country. However, this neo-

While the sincere presence of a lecturer’s enthusiasm to

liberal economic ideology has resulted in a new mindset

engage students is important, as boredom may be linked

about how universities operate, which has led to a corpo-

to diminished academic achievement (Mann & Robinson,

ratisation of the sector and the introduction of manageri-

2009), it is naive to think that enthusiasm by itself is a cure

alism to measure outputs.

all.The process of education is more complicated: I had a lecturer this semester that you could tell that he really did love the subject but he wasn’t very good at conveying it at all ... he knew what he was doing and he could do the course fine but he couldn’t teach very well ... it’s not just enthusiasm for the subject (quote from participant, Horstmanshof, 2010, p. 16). vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

For those in the sector this has created a dynamic and challenging environment, and for academics it has had an adverse impact on their enthusiasm, particularly for teaching. This is in part because (good) teaching is hard to measure, and universities have tended to focus on recognising and rewarding research. This work-

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load–reward paradox may cause academics’ enthusiasm towards teaching to wane as rewards offered by universities appear not to adequately provide a good external motivation. If an academic’s enthusiasm for teaching was to wane, then this could lead to adverse results. In particular, it was highlighted how an academic’s enthusiasm was an important prerequisite for students’ engagement with the learning process, as well as for the academic to address the issues and challenges that they face. If the purpose of the systemic corporatisation of universities is to improve the quality of the outputs of the tertiary sector, then it is critical that the sector addresses the lack of appropriate and adequate recognition of good teaching. It is argued that good teaching is an essential component for universities to achieve their goal of creating and disseminating knowledge. This needs to be achieved through providing meaningful recognition of teaching through the normal means of promotion, and not just through external (and sometimes alienating) awards. Similarly, as Bexley et al. (2011) recently argued, good teaching needs to be recognised through the promotion process. While some steps have been made towards these goals, the journey has only just started. Are university managers up to the challenge of implementing and seeing through to fruition the rewards for good teachers? If this is not achieved, then academics’ enthusiasm towards teaching will continue to be under threat and academics risk being

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Bexley, E, James, R. & Arkoudis, S. (2011). The Australian Academic Profession in Transition: Addressing the challenge of reconceptualising academic work and regenerating the academic workforce. Melbourne: Centre for the Study of Higher Education. Biggs, J. (2002). Corporatised universities: an educational and cultural disaster. In The Subversion of Australian Universities, J. Biggs & R. Davis (eds), Chapter 12, 184–222. Carbonneau, N., Vallerand, R., Dernet, C. & Guay, F. (2008). The role of passion for teaching in intrapersonal and interpersonal outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(4), 977–987. Carini, R., Kuh, G. & Klein, S.P. (2006). Student engagement and student learning: testing the linkages. Research in Higher Education, 47(1), 1–32. Carr, K. (2011). Ministerial statement to the Senate Economics Legislation Committee – Improvements to Excellence in Research for Australia (ERA). Canberra: Minister for Innovation, Industry, Science and Research, 30 May. Coaldrake, P. & Stedman, L. (1999). Academic Work in the Twenty-First Century. Canberra: DEST. Coaldrake, P. & Stedman, L. (2013). Raising the Stakes: Gambling with the future of universities, Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. Coates, H., Dobson, I., Edwards, D., Friedman, T., Goedegebuure, L. & Meek, L. (2009). Research Briefing: Changing academic profession. Australian Council for Education Research, Melbourne: LH Martin Institute for Higher Education and Educational Policy Institute. CPA Australia. (2010). Higher Education Needs Less Red Tape, More Investment in Outcomes. Melbourne: CPA Australia. Cushman, P. (2004). Where does all the time go? Implementing a time allocation research project with year one tertiary educational students. Paper presented at the First Year in Higher Education Conference. Brisbane. Retrieved from http:// www.fyhe.com.au/past_papers/papers04.htm. Davies, J., Arlett, C., Carpenet, S., Lamb F. & Donagy, L. (2006). What makes a good engineering lecture? Students put their thoughts in writing. European Journal of Engineering Education, 31(5), 543–533.

burnt out in their quest to be pyromaniacs for learning.

Davis, G. (2010). Finding a Voice for Higher Education. ABC TV. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/unleashed/41028.html.

Brett Freudenberg and Lisa Samarkovski are colleagues at the

Dawkins, J. (1987). Higher Education: A policy discussion paper, Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.

Griffith Business School, Griffith University, Brisbane.

Dawkins, J. (1988). Higher Education: A policy statement, Canberra: APGS. Day. C. (2004). A Passion for Teaching. London: Routledge Falmer.

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Expectations of student learning quality An introductory study Dennis Bryant University of Canberra

Without a direct measure of learning, universities and lecturers do not have reliable evidence of changes, past or present, in the academic merit of a unit. By using grade data to develop a variable called Academic Merit, all university units were measured for their percentages of academic merit over one semester at an Australian teaching-intensive regional university. Although the results revealed units with excellent percentages, there were others with percentages that were other than excellent. The implication is that an opportunity exists to understand the quality of the learning merit in those units with a view to enhancing student academic learning.

Introduction

alignment model promises that adherence to teaching and assessment will result in student learning quality

Discussions in higher education that uncritically link

excellence; however, in both models the missing ingre-

teaching and learning into a co-joined mass are sim-

dient is how best to detect student learning quality

plistic in their acceptance of the assumption that edu-

excellence (abbreviated hereafter as merit), given that

cational improvements in one co-joined principal,

students start from different bases.

stereotypically, the teaching principal, imply that those

A commonly used method of detecting learning merit

improvements affect equally the other co-joined princi-

is to rely on surveys that measure a surrogate variable

pal, here, learning. In the co-joined teaching and learn-

in place of directly measuring learning merit. In survey

ing model, quality assurance efforts that raise the quality

devices (Ramsden, 1991), students are invited to reflect

of teaching by one point would be expected to raise

on their satisfaction with teaching, from which results

the quality of learning by a similar margin of one point.

are extracted student perceptions of learning. But this

Curiously, there is a dearth of published literature that

approach relies on simplistic co-joined model assump-

empirically supports the teaching and learning co-joined

tions and has critics (Denson et al., 2010; Edstrom, 2008;

model’s assumption of equivalent co-growth. However,

Shevlin et al., 2000).

there are claims, not merely against an assumed equiva-

An alternative approach is to eschew surrogate meas-

lence of teaching improvements to learning result:gain

ures in favour of direct measures. Using a non-surrogate

ratios, but more dramatically against the nature of some

approach with an emphasis on empirical learning results,

co-joined educational models. Biggs (2001) presents a

Bryant (2013a) proposed a variable called ‘academic

number of impediments to the quality feasibility of co-

merit’, whose values were ‘no merit shown’ and ‘merit

joined models, arguing that educational success requires

shown’. A no merit shown value refers to students

the alignment of not two but three principals, with the

who achieved either a failure grade or a P (pass) grade.

third principal being assessment. The Biggs constructive

While it is intuitive that a failure grade be interpreted

Expectations of student learning quality Dennis Bryant

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as no merit shown, a pass grade is adjudged as no merit

quality of learning required in universities, then the bar

shown because it is an expectation that students have a

would need to be raised. Setting expectations at 60 per

reasonable chance of achieving a pass in units (MacKie,

cent of students attaining merit grades might be a work-

2001). Completing the picture, a value of merit shown is

able solution. Although a 60 per cent rate might seem a

adjudged to contain credit, distinction and high distinc-

mediocre goal, it encompasses expectations of a lower 20

tion grades.

per cent failure rate, together with a 20 per cent P rate,

With a measurement approach established, discussion

on average.

turns to expectations, particularly university educators’

In summary, while rates of 100 per cent merit are

and university leaders’ expectations about the learning

likely to be idealistic and unachievable in some univer-

quality evident in student grades, which occur in each

sity units, an alternative benchmark point exists at 60 per

unit’s learning spaces. Ideally, expectations could be set

cent. This benchmark is interpreted to mean that to be

at 100 per cent of a unit’s students achieving merit. While

considered mediocre as regards attained learning merit,

this expectation is laudable, there are reasons to doubt

a unit’s learning results need to reach this point. Beyond

that educators and university leaders are likely to be set-

this point, merit might be referred to as good, and beyond

ting their goals at ideal levels. Biggs (2001, p. 236) finds

good as excellent.

that ‘there are factors in the institutional climate or struc-

When it comes to the number of students enrolled in a

tures that are deleterious to learning’. Specifically, Biggs

unit (class size), the Biggs constructive alignment model

(2001) registers a number of points and these include

remains a unified model, reiterating the value of assess-

concerns about experience levels of validation panels

ment alignment at all times with educational objectives.

that approve courses, student feedback questionnaires

On the same topic of class size, the co-joined model splits

and the measurement of charisma instead of teaching

into two variants, the second variant dealing with per-

effectiveness, which is a theme also developed elsewhere

ceived operational problems with large class sizes (AUTC,

(Edstrom, 2008), the maintenance of quantitative mind-

2003). In Version 2 of the co-joined model, assessment

sets that seek to grade on the curve, thereby ranking stu-

options are often restricted to formal timed, usually multi-

dent learning results against desired norms rather than

ple choice examinations and, on occasions, can comprise

having a focus on attainment, and, as a final example, Biggs

100 per cent of the assessment tasks. Without delving

(2001) claims that some educators have adopted a ‘Han

into the shortcomings or discussing the justifications for

Dynasty in 4th Century BC China’ elitism that seeks to

this assessment approach, it is sufficient to note the lit-

be selecting the real scholars at the expense of perceived

erature’s concern with large classes. Due to this concern,

student non-scholars.

some effort will be expended to differentiate large classes’

Accepting the validity of these impediments to the ideal,

merit from small and medium classes’ merit.

it follows that expectations would need to be set lower. In this regard, the question becomes: What is the lowest

Research questions

merit point that needs to be achieved? If it is an axiom that students, selected for university courses through

1. Is a failure of quality assurance of learning, evidenced

entry requirement tests have a better than fair chance

in units with low merit, visible across universities,

of passing courses (MacKie, 2001), then the lowest merit

and are there any indicators of its degree of preva-

point might be near a half way average point, that is, at

lence?

least 51 per cent of student grade distributions should be in the merit range. But if this were to be accepted as the

2. Is a failure of quality assurance of learning evident only in large classes?

merit goal point, it might be considered to be disappointingly low since it would give acceptance to units with 49 per cent student non-merit rates. At first glance, 49 per

Methodology

cent non-merit might seem reasonable because it implies

Data

a 24.5 per cent P rate; but it implies also a 24.5 per cent

For this analysis, an available but secondary dataset, con-

failure rate, on average. Accepting a one student in four

taining unit learning results for all 9,000 students enrolled

failure rate does not evoke images of universities and

in all units in Semester 1 of 2009 and falling within the

students cooperatively reaching the heights of learning

confines of an existing ethics agreement, was used. Units

excellence. If the rhetoric of the Bradley Review (Brad-

that assessed students using competency-based assess-

ley, Noonan, Nugent & Scales, 2008) is any guide to the

ment were removed, since such assessment does not

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Table 1. Merit distribution for Semester 1 of 2009 units Rating

Units Students with merit %

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the mode to be two students (indicating the incidence of

Learning

small units). But this distribution does not sit comfortably

Up to 20

Pitiful

with the university’s definition of small at 20, medium

Up to 40

Dismal

at 100 and large above 100 students. A better fit was

Up to 50

Disappointing

Up to 60

Mediocre

No merit total

172

178

Up to 80

Good

quartile of 423 representing large classes. When mapped,

199

Up to 100

Excellent

139 units were small, 272 were medium and 138 were

Merit total

achieved when quartiles were used. When the quartiles were calculated, the first quartile cut-off point for small was 10; with the second and third quartile representing medium classes at 24 and 58.5 respectively; and the fourth

377

recognise merit (Booth, 2000; Ennis, 2008; Gonczi, 1994;

large sized. In terms of statistics, this distribution parallels a bell shaped curve, with tapered left and right ends.

Discussion

Guthrie, 2009). This left 549 traditionally assessed units or 26,891 rows of unit data. A few words concerning

A total of six merit ranges are presented in Table 1 in the

the unavailability of competency-based assessment data

Students with Merit column, beginning with an Up to 20

are appropriate at this point. The dataset did not include

per cent range and flowing through to Up to 100 per cent

a unit type attribute that would have described a unit’s

range. It would have been possible to show ten ranges, that

assessment as either competency based or traditionally

is, at every 10 per cent cut-off point, but fewer range points

based assessment. Additionally, for Semester 1 of 2009,

convey satisfactorily a clear picture of merit distribution.

the university did not employ a central repository for

As regards interpretation, an Up to 20 per cent range

paper or electronic copies of unit outline documents.

means that there might have been a complete absence

This absence of an attribute and the then non-availability

of students within a unit who showed merit through to

of outlines, meant that competency-based assessment

a maximum of 20 per cent of the unit’s students who

units had to be detected from grades such as ‘ungraded

showed merit. Alternatively stated, the Up to 20 per cent

pass’ (UP in the grade attribute), and from the non-pres-

range means a minimum of four of every five students

ence of merit grades in a unit’s reported learning results.

in a unit were adjudged as unable to demonstrate learn-

Although not likely, it must be acknowledged that some

ing merit against the unit’s learning assessment criteria.

competency-based assessment units could have become

This level of learning has been labelled as pitiful. While a

unintentionally included, with traditionally based units.

label of pitiful might be seen to be emotive, it does serve

Process

to direct attention to poor learning performance, which is an issue often avoided in higher education literature,

The data were loaded into database tables (Microsoft

although poor performance, and especially failing per-

Access, 2007) which enabled the construction of SQL

formance, is ‘costly for both individuals and universities’

queries to operationalise academic merit. This was done

(McInnis, 2001, p. 106) and is easily underestimated since

using two attributes, called ‘merit shown’ and ‘no merit

often they are revealed as discontinuation or failure only

shown’. For each student record that indicated merit, the

in later years (Pargetter et al., 1998).

merit shown count was incremented; alternatively, the no

In summary, Table 1 shows that every third unit was

merit shown count was incremented. The total count for

below learning merit expectations. This means a total of

merit shown for each unit was converted into a percent-

172 of 549 units had sub expectation merit levels, and the

age of records for that unit. In the final step, and needing

172 total can be broken down into eight units wherein

the addition of a range attribute, merit shown was seg-

student learning merit was pitiful, 47 wherein student

mented into six percentage ranges, as shown below, the

learning merit was dismal, 57 wherein student learning

six ranges increasing from pitiful merit through dismal,

merit was disappointing and 60 units wherein student

disappointing, mediocre and good merit to excellent

learning merit was mediocre. The good news is that

merit, and then populated using the earlier calculated per-

within two of every three units, student learning merit

centage counts, which yielded Table 1.

was good or excellent. While this is a solid starting point,

As regards class size in the dataset, descriptive statistics showed the mean to be 49, the median to be 24 and

Expectations of student learning quality Dennis Bryant

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Table 2. Units where merit distribution was pitiful

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struggling with the university discourse and being unable

Unit

Merit students

Non-merit students

Total Students

Merit %

impossible because the small number of students might

have been unrepresentative of the overall student popula-

tion. However, the fifth student’s learning journey details

continuing student, the fifth student had a grade point

average score of seven points, which can be attained by

130

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achieving a high distinction in all previously taken units.

to produce any merit. While this picture of new student total inability seems dubious, it cannot be dismissed as

suggest strongly that there are institutional impediments blocking student learning in the unit, affirming Biggs’ (2001) findings in a small way. Coming into Unit 5 as a

In this unit, the fifth student attained a non-merit P grade. It must be admitted that this fall is a long drop from high-

Dismal unit learning merit case study

est merit ranking to non-merit attainment. Taken together,

The eight units with dismal learning merit are now pre-

the students’ grade results suggest the presence of institu-

sented in more detail, via two tables.

tional impediments to student learning merit that could

Table 2 shows that Unit 1 to Unit 3 had only one stu-

be investigated in order to assure quality. The presence

dent each, effectively making the teaching a full semes-

of impediments to learning merit, resulting in unit merit

ter of personalised tuition. In spite of the teacher:learner

underperformance, should not be considered necessarily

ratio favouring success, the learning results were pitiful,

as a chance event. Unlike the wide ranging claims made

with all three units registering zero merit levels, when

by Biggs (2001), no doubt predicated soundly on wide

it would be reasonable to expect that singularly per-

higher education experience, Bryant (2013b) has docu-

sonalised tuition levels would produce merit results.

mented situations occurring at the unit level where learn-

Even if the ratio were to be increased to become one

ing was negatively influenced by institutional factors.

teacher:two students or one:five students, it would not

There are three as yet undiscussed pitiful learning units,

be unreasonable to hope for merit results, but Table 2

Unit 6 to Unit 8, for which grade details and some descrip-

results show two such units in which there was a com-

tion of year level and course are provided below.

plete absence of student learning merit. Those units are

Unit 6 is a postgraduate management unit in the business stream; Unit 7 is a third year accounting unit, again in

Units 4 and 5. A common explanation given anecdotally by teach-

the business stream; and Unit 8 is a first year administra-

ing staff for low learning merit revolves around students

tion unit in the sports science stream. Although the three

being the culprits for their own downfall. This anecdo-

units in Table 3 share a common feature which the count

tal explanation of assumed student under commitment is

of non-merit students dramatically exceeds the count of

known as the student deficit discourse (Lawrence, 2002)

merit students, they share a further feature: no students

but it has not been shown to be reliable. When under-

have been awarded a high distinction grade. Unit 6, for

performing Unit 5 was investigated further, it was found

example, awarded distinction and credit grades but no

that there were four first year students of whom three

high distinction grades. This action is difficult to under-

had attained a P grade, with one attaining a fail grade due

stand because the number of students in each unit is sig-

to not completing all the assessment. These numbers

nificantly sized to statistically imply that there should be

might be taken to represent a picture of new students

students awarded a high distinction merit grade (Moore,

Table 3. Final three units where merit distribution was pitiful Unit

Unit

Merit students

Fail

Non-merit students

Total students

Management

Accounting

Administration

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Expectations of student learning quality Dennis Bryant

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2007). Furthermore, Unit 7 awarded few distinction

this university’s attributes are shared by other universities,

grades, and Unit 8 awarded no distinction grades. These

it is proper to conclude that these findings might be rel-

figures would seem to indicate what Biggs (2001, p. 235)

evant to merit levels in other universities. The following

refers to as ‘distorted priorities’ in the alignment of educa-

section addresses the second research question, which

tional objectives.

regards class sizes.

Regression to non-meritorious assessment

Discriminating by class size

While it can be argued that the source of misalignment

Recapping, for size analysis, classes were divided into one

rests with the institution, and while it has implications for

of three groups (small, medium and large) based on enrol-

student entry procedures, for curriculum design, for teach-

ment numbers, which allowed for different sized groups

ing, for assessment (Biggs, 2001) or for all of these factors,

to be compared by using the six learning merit ranges

there is a worrying pattern in Table 3’s figures, which

of dismal, representing poor merit, through to excellent

could be an indication of a growing trend. Is university

where merit expectations were exceeded. Table 4 shows

merit assessment regressing to competency-based assess-

a pattern of rising class sizes being paralleled by a fall in

ment, in which there are no indicators of merit? Units

learning merit. Units with small class sizes, for example,

6 and 7 use the lower two of the three merit indicators

achieved 82 per cent merit levels, but this fell to 71 per

minimally, whereas Unit 8 regresses to the lowest possible

cent for medium class sizes and, in a sombre continuation

merit grade as the lone indicator of merit. This situation is

of the falling trend, to 51 per cent for units with large

reminiscent surely of competency-based assessment. The

class sizes.

grades for Unit 8 are ironic because it is the largest of the

An economic interpretation of the percentages shown

three units and in statistical distribution terms, should best

in Table 4 might conclude that this university, as a gener-

reflect a student population (Moore, 2007). Additionally,

alisation of all universities, is running a two speed learn-

it is easier to attain a fail grade in Unit 7 than to secure a

ing economy. In this metaphor, small and medium sized

P grade, with failures (42 of 74 non-merit grades) exceed-

classes are productive centres of learning, with about

ing P grades (34 of 74 non-merit grades). Against these

three out of four units achieving merit. By contrast, large

numbers, it is difficult to conceive the beneficial learning

sized classes produce merit in only two out of four units.

opportunity being given to students.

Furthermore, when the quality of large sized classes is internally examined for learning, merit rated as good (43

Answer to research question 1

per cent) is found five times more frequently than merit

Research question 1 asked: Is a failure of quality assur-

rated as excellent (8 per cent), and might reflect the

ance of learning, evidenced by units with low merit, vis-

operation of Han Dynasty agendas (Biggs, 2001). While

ible across universities, and are there any indicators of its

the ratio of good:excellent learning merit is close to par

degree of prevalence? This paper’s analysis of one semes-

in medium sized units (37 per cent compared to 34 per

ter’s learning results suggest there is a failure of quality

cent), the ratio in small sized units is the inverse of large

assurance, and the failure in learning is happening in up to

sized units, at almost five:one (14 per cent to 68 per cent)

one-third of the university’s units. To the extent to which

in favour of merit excellence.

Table 4. Units by Class Size and Merit Rating

Learning

Small

Small %

Medium

Medium %

Large

Large %

Pitiful

Dismal

Disappointing

Mediocre

No merit

Total

Good

100

Excellent

Merit shown

Total

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Answer to research question 2

ceptions of the quality of teaching, and preclude them-

Research question 2 asked: Is a failure of quality assur-

selves from the benefits of a direct method for measuring

ance of learning evident only in large classes? This

academic learning merit for their units. The implication

paper’s analysis of one semester’s learning results, done

was proven that, without a direct measure of unit merit,

empirically using lecturer-assigned grade data in prefer-

universities and lecturers are unlikely to have reliable evi-

ence to collection of student perceptions, suggests that

dence of merit excellence or merit non-excellence, past

there is a failure of quality assurance across units in all

or present, in academic units. An empirical methodology

three size ratings, but this failure of quality appears to

was employed at a teaching intensive university, where all

be dire within large sized units and is seen in low merit

units were measured over one semester for their percent-

attainment by large units.

ages of merit shown which was the operationalisation of

For intellectual universities, large sized below par unit

unit grade data to measure academic merit.

learning must become a point of contention and resolu-

Even though the results showed units with good or

tion. Some centuries ago, Plutarch admonished his col-

excellent percentages, there were other units that were

leagues by claiming it was an intellectual duty to fire,

placed in the non-merit portion of the scale, being ranked

not fill, student minds. The admonition might be taken

as pitiful or dismal or disappointing because of their low

to be an exhortation to produce learning merit, ideally

merit percentages. When units were ranked by class size,

at excellence levels, in students. While there is scope for

that is, by the number of student enrolments such as

improved learning rates in small and medium sized units,

small to medium to large, a non-merit pattern was seen to

there must be greater scope to uncover the reasons for

be prevalent in large units. This pattern does not imply

low merit performance in large sized units.

student underperformance and hence student culpabil-

While it might have been fashionable to accept the

ity. Rather, it implies factors that are outside the control

culpability of students in all matters of failure, there was

of students and hence points at institutional responsibil-

never convincing empirical proof (Lawrence, 2002).

ity, which has been discussed in higher education litera-

In fact, there is research that supports a case of institu-

ture in alignment models by Biggs and inevitably might

tional culpability, especially in its short sighted avoidance

concern assessment choices made prior to student arriv-

of understanding assessment’s impact on learning. The

als into units. The implication is that an opportunity

Biggs (2001) alignment model is an argument detailing

exists to investigate the quality of non-merit units with a

institutional, not student, blindness. Additionally, Brennan

view to enhancing their academic merit.This could be an

et al. (2008) argue for improvements in university excel-

empowering step towards firing student minds, thereby

lence. Finally, and apart from this paper’s findings on units

enhancing student learning, not to mention strengthen-

with below expectations learning merit, there is empiri-

ing student retention with resulting reductions in stu-

cal research that reveals areas of institutional underper-

dent recruitment replacement costs for universities, as

formance in understanding learning, including the role of

well as more effectively progressing students on their

formal withdrawals impacting learning, student strategies

degree journeys.

in determining unit workloads after unit failure, students who enrol but do not participate in unit attendance and

Dennis Bryant has an abiding interest in student learning

assessment, the presumed quality of teaching inputs, and

failure and thrives on designing non-surrogate metrics to

the fairness of procedures that exclude students from

measure student learning.

their learning journeys even if the student failures were in units with dismal learning levels (Bryant, 2013a, 2013b; Bryant & Lyons, 2013; Bryant & Richardson, 2010; Bryant et al., 2013). These concerns are indicators of where and how research can be employed to enhance institutional direction of student merit attainment.

Conclusion The thesis was that universities and lecturers are restricted to surrogate measures of measuring learning, for example, employing surveys concerning student pervol. 56, no. 1, 2014

References AUTC. (2003). Teaching Large Classes Project 2001 Final Report. Brisbane: The University of Queensland. Biggs, J. (2001). The reflective institution: assuring and enhancing the quality of teaching and learning. Higher Education, 41(3), 221–238. Booth, R. (2000). Competency based assessment – One minute wonder or here to stay? Practitioners’ attitudes to CBA & complexities of implementation. Retrieved from http://www.avetra.org.au/abstracts_and_papers_2000/ rb_full.pdf. Bradley, D., Noonan, P., Nugent, H. & Scales, W. (2008). Review of Australian Higher Education. Retrieved from http://www.deewr.gov.au/he_review_finalreport. Expectations of student learning quality Dennis Bryant

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Brennan, J., Enders, J., Musselin, C., Teichler, U. & Valimaa, J. (2008). Higher Education Looking Forward an Agenda for Future Research. Strasbourg: Eurpoean Science Foundation. Bryant, D. (2013a). Retaining students who ‘did not participate’: two case studies and lessons for universities. Paper presented at the 20th The Learner International Conference on Learning. Rhodes: University of the Aegean. Bryant, D. (2013b). Students and their learning journeys: a study of failure in an Australian university. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Canberra, Canberra. Bryant, D. & Lyons, K. (2013). Academic retention or exclusion: student failing learning journeys. Paper presented at the 20th The Learner International Conference on Learning, University of the Aegean, Rhodes. Bryant, D. & Richardson, A. (2010). Rising unit withdrawals can signal student concerns with learning results: an exploratory study. Unpublished paper. Bryant, D., Richardson, A. & Lyons, K. (2013). Student academic learning failure and workload strategies: what does it mean for universities? Paper presented at the 20th The Learner International Conference on Learning, University of the Aegean, Rhodes. Denson, N., Loveday, T. & Dalton, H. (2010). Student evaluation of courses: what predicts satisfaction? Higher Education Research & Development, 29(4), 339–356.

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Gonczi, A. (1994). Competency-based assessment in the professions in Australia. Assessment in Education, 1(1), 27–44. Guthrie, H. (2009). Competence and competency-based training: what the literature says. Occasional paper by The National Centre for Vocational Education Research 1–32. Retrieved from http://www.ncver.edu.au/publications/2153.html. Lawrence, J. (2002). The ‘deficit-discourse’ shift: university teachers and their role in helping first year students persevere and succeed in the new university culture. Paper presented at the 6th Pacific Rim FYHE conference. Retrieved from http://ultibase.rmit.edu.au/Articles/march03/lawrence1.htm. MacKie, S. (2001). Jumping the hurdles – undergraduate student withdrawal behaviour. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 38(3), 265–276. McInnis, C. (2001). Researching the first year experience: where to from here? Higher Education Research & Development, 20(2), 105–114. Moore, D. (2007). The Basic Practice of Statistics (4th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. Pargetter, R., McInnis, C., James, R., Evans, M., Peel, M. & Dobson, I. (1998). Transition from Secondary to Tertiary: A Performance Study. Canberra: DETYA.

Edstrom, K. (2008). Doing course evaluation as if learning matters most. Higher Education Research & Development, 27(2), 95–106.

Ramsden, P. (1991). A performance indicator of teaching quality in higher education: the course experience questionnaire. Studies in Higher Education, 16(2), 129–151.

Ennis, M. (2008). Competency models: A review of the literature and the role of the Employment & Training Administration. 1–25. Retrieved from www. careeronestop.org/competencymodel/info.../OPDRLiteratureReview.pdf.

Shevlin, M., Banyard, P., Davies, M. & Griffiths, M. (2000). The validity of student evaluation of teaching in higher education: love me, love my lectures? Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 25(4), 397–405.

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The tertiary debate A case study analysis of factors considered when applying for university entry by traditional age school leavers in Brisbane Fiona Harden, Gabrielle Davis & Kerrie Mengersen Queensland University of Technology

Many interacting factors contribute to a student’s choice of a university. This study takes a systems perspective of the choice and develops a Bayesian Network to represent and quantify these factors and their interactions. The systems model is illustrated through a small study of traditional school leavers in Australia, and highlights similarities and differences between universities’ perceptions of student choices, students’ perceptions of factors that they should consider and how students really make choices. The study shows the range of information that can be gained from this approach, including identification of important factors and scenario assessment.

Introduction

atic model demonstrating proven and concrete factors that influence school leavers’ choice of university.

Although there has been international interest in the

Although studies have explored this process, most have

decision making process that traditional aged students

failed to provide a conceptualised, mathematical model,

undertake in their choice of university, most theoretical

or have not provided an appropriate scope of study. Chap-

and conceptual approaches to modelling choice of uni-

man (1981), for instance, reports a systematic model to

versity are based on the assumption that prospective stu-

aid universities to develop more sophisticated marketing

dents think rationally and make careful, objective analysis

strategies by modifying their institutional descriptions

of available universities when making their choice. This

and targeting of recruitment literature. Chapman’s model

study aims to reveal the relationship between the factors

is created on the basis that students’ college choice is

that make a university appealing to prospective students,

influenced by a set of student characteristics in combina-

those factors that are considered important by the univer-

tion with a series of external influences and the college’s

sities themselves and those few factors that actually tip

own fixed characteristics. Although effective, it is rela-

the scales in the final decision.

tively open ended and so fails to provide a detailed guide

Due to an increase in competition and decline in

to interested universities. In addition, the study itself does

resources supplied by the government, universities in

not move beyond the creation of this model and fails to

many countries, including Australia, are under constant

report any kind of extended study to test the effectiveness

pressure to increase the number of applicants to their

or demonstrate the usage of the model.

institution. Although in the past, student equity, engage-

A study by Beswick (1973) provides good insight into

ment and the access to technology have been among the

the external factors affecting a student’s university choice.

top priorities of tertiary education institutions, the recent

The study’s survey revealed not only that course offerings

flattening in student demand is now making obvious the

tended to dominate the decision making process, but also

increasingly crucial need of the organisation for a system-

that mothers were actually the most influential people

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reported to affect the process. Apart from its age, a limi-

entry that in turn positively predicted indecision. Other

tation of this study is that it only sampled students from

studies have focused on broadly similar topics. Calderon

three tertiary education institutions, making it potentially

et al. (2000), for example, have discussed the relation-

unrepresentative. Moreover, the focus was on the decision

ship between subject choice and transition from school

making process in terms of student support and guidance,

to university.

rather than university marketing.

This study aims to contribute to this literature by con-

Catley (2004) measured the relative significance affect-

sidering the factors associated with university choices

ing prospective undergraduate students in their choice of

made by traditional age students after they have applied

university. The paper focuses on the course that students

but before they have enrolled in a university. Importantly,

choose and the decision making process underlying this

the study allows for the possibility that there is a popula-

choice. The results were obtained from a questionnaire

tion of students whose real reasons for choosing a univer-

distributed to two universitiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; first year undergraduate

sity could differ from those factors they think should be

law students and a focus group of approximately 20 of

important and hence should be considered by themselves

these students. Catley discovered that the most impor-

and members of their graduating cohort.

tant factor was reputation, followed by position in league

The study focuses on results from a study of three

tables. These factors show a general interest in future suc-

Queensland universities, two student-based focus groups

cess and employability, implying that the students who

and a consequent survey Factors Related to a High School

undertook this survey all applied to their university on the

Graduatesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Choice of University. The data are modelled

basis of the potential marketability of their qualifications.

using a complex systems approach via a Bayesian Net-

The study also showed that course-related factors were

work (BN), which is a graphical model of the researched

ranked above university factors or external influences. A

relationship between a desired outcome and the interact-

limitation of this study is the potential bias arising from its

ing variables influencing this outcome, probabilistically

pool of subjects (undergraduate law first-years in second

quantified by resulting statistics and responses. In addi-

semester in university), especially when considering the

tion to inferences based on the individual BNs developed

fact that they are enrolled in one of the hardest and most

from the literature, focus groups and survey, comparisons

competitive courses in the US (Community College Trans-

are made between the three BNs in order to develop a

fer Students, 2012).

more holistic understanding of this important issue.

There appears to be only a handful of relevant studies undertaken in Australia. The survey conducted by

Methods

Soutar and Turner (2002) of high school students, for example, included a list of eight factors and was based

The research methodology comprised three stages. In the

on a trade-off decision making process model. The study

first stage, a literature review was conducted to identify

revealed that course suitability, academic reputation,

the factors that universities choose to highlight in adver-

job prospects and teaching quality were the four most

tising themselves to students. Due to the nature of the

important determinants. It also showed that there was

topic, the traditional literature sources, comprising jour-

only a small gap between the highest rating (15) and the

nal articles and conference papers, were augmented by

lowest rating (7) attributes, which provides evidence as

grey literature, in particular information collated from

to why university choice is such a hard decision for most

websites, pamphlets and booklets. Using a qualitative the-

school leavers. The primary limitation of this study was

matic analysis, this information was conceptualised as a

its restricted consideration of a small number of factors.

network of interacting factors, and then quantified proba-

More recently, the studies by Jung (2013a, 2013b) have

bilistically as a Bayesian Network.

focused on whether students decide to enter university,

In the second stage, two focus groups were held with ten

based on variables related to motivation, cultural orienta-

recently graduated high school students who had sought

tion and occupation. In a survey of 349 senior high school

enrolment in university but had not yet been accepted.

students drawn from three high schools in Sydney, Jung

The members of the focus groups were recruited from a

(2013b) found that variables related to allocentrism and

social networking site subscribed to by students across

idiocentrism were predictive of attitudes towards uni-

the city of Brisbane, the capital of the state of Queensland

versity entry and intention to enter university. Based on

in Australia. The objective of the focus groups was to iden-

the same survey, Jung (2013b) reported that family influ-

tify what students think are important factors to consider

ences negatively predicted amotivation with university

when deciding on a university. Each of the participants

The tertiary debate Fiona Harden, Gabrielle Davis & Kerrie Mengersen

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Table 1. Results of Bayesian Network for universities’ perception of student choices Node

Factor(s) most strongly associated with largest probability of a high level for the node

Factor(s) most strongly associated with largest probability of a low level for the node

Programme

Quality Innovative range

Global perspective

Employability

Teaching staff Programmes

Ranks and acknowledgements

Reputation

History

International reputation

Social

Reputation

Popularity

Campus desirability

Social

Campus Sports

Suits student

Internationalism Personal attention

Societies

Student chooses this university

Employability

Suits student Campus desirability

was asked to write down five factors that they consid-

volunteers recruited through an online survey tool. No

ered important for their cohort and themselves to keep in

respondents were members of the focus groups. The

mind when choosing a university to apply to as their top

questionnaire listed the set of factors obtained from the

preference. The responses were aggregated by the group

first two stages and each participant was asked to rate

as a conceptual network, and then quantified as a BN by

them on a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being ‘Did not consider’ and

popular vote based on ranked importance of the factors.

5 being ‘Deciding factor’) and answer a small number of

In the third stage, a questionnaire was sent out to a

demographic questions. The information was then used

sample of 39 traditional age school graduates yet to be

to construct a final Bayesian Network and was quantified

enrolled in university. The survey respondents were

using the information provided by the survey recipients.

Figure 1. Overview of quantified Bayesian Network of factors promoted by universities to prospective traditional age students, based on available literature vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

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Table 2. Results of Bayesian Network for students’ perception of student choices Node

Factor(s) most strongly associated with largest probability of a high level for the node

Factor(s) most strongly associated with largest probability of a low level for the node

Reputation

Industry people

Ranks

Quality of programme

Practical experience

Teaching

Valuable programmes

Quality of programmes

Global perspective Range of programmes

Employability

Valuable programmes

Reputation

Preferable course

OP (high school exit grade) Flexibility

Student support

Industry people

Family Friends

Suits student

Preferred course

Financial aid availability Student support

Social liveability

Social life Family life

Friends

Liveability

Cost Social liveability Environment

University location

Liveability

Location

Campus location University location

Facilities

Academic

Eateries Sporting facilities

Clubs

Sporting

Academic Special interest

Social atmosphere

Societies

Social places Clubs

Campus desirability

Social atmosphere General aesthetics

Location Facilities

Industry

Student chooses this university Employability

Campus desirability Suits student university suits the student and campus desirability (see

Results Universities’ perception of student choices The quantified Bayesian Network based on the available

Table 2). The interaction between these three factors was in turn influenced by the other factors in the model, as indicated by the arrows in Figure 1.

provides a list of nodes in the BN and those factors that

Students’ perception of factors they should consider

were most influential in determining the largest prob-

The Bayesian Network based on the connections made

ability of having a high level, or alternatively a low level,

by the students in the focus groups is shown in Figure

for that node. For example, obtaining a high level for the

2. Table 2 shows the factors associated with high and

Programme was most strongly influenced by quality and

low levels of the nodes in the BN, after quantification of

innovative range, whereas obtaining a low level for pro-

the network based on the focus group responses. A high

gramme was dominated by global perspective. Based

level for quality of the programme, for example, was most

on this analysis, the overall probability of choosing the

strongly influenced by practical experience. By design,

university under study was 0.62 (see Figure 1), and was

the overall probability of choosing a university was influ-

influenced primarily by employability, whether or not the

enced by the same three factors as for the BN based on

university documentation is shown in Figure 1. Table 1

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Figure 2. Bayesian Network derived from the focus groups.

universities’ perceptions, but the different weighting of

3. For some nodes such as quality of programme and stu-

the factors in the network result in different interactions

dent support, there was strong correspondence between

and impacts based on students’ perceptions.

students’ perceptions of factors they should consider and how they reportedly really make choices. For most nodes,

How students really make choices

however, these two perceptions differed. Students appar-

The BN based on the survey responses is shown in Figure

ently understand, for example, that a dominant factor in

3. The results of the quantified BN are displayed in Table

rating a university as having a low reputation is a low

Table 3. Results of Bayesian Network for how students really make choices Node

Factor(s) most strongly associated with largest probability of a high level for the node

Factor(s) most strongly associated with largest probability of a low level for the node

Reputation

Critical reputation

Popular

Quality of programmes

Practical experience

Teaching

Employability

Reputation

Range of programmes Quality of programmes

Course suitability

Preferred course

Flexibility OP (school exit score) requirement

Student support

Industry people

Friends Family

Suits student

Course suitability

Financial aid availability Student support

Facilities

Academic facilities

Sporting facilities Access to technology

Campus desirability

University location

Social atmosphere General aesthetics Facilities

Student chooses this university

Suits student

Employability Campus desirability

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Figure 3. Bayesian Network based on survey

Table 4. Results of scenario analyses as part of model interrogation Node

Survey %

Scenario 1

Scenario 2

Scenario 3

Ranks

High 56

Industry reputation

Low 50

High

Low

High

Low

Media influence

Low 32

Low

High

Appearance

High 59

High

Low

High

Workload

Low 42

Low

High

Exchange

High 53

High

Low

OP requirement

High 62

High

Low

Preferred course

High 78

High

Low

Family

High 51

High

Low

Friends

Low 38

High

Low

High

Industry support

Low 34

Low

High

Low

Financial aid availability

Low 45

Low

High

Low

Sporting facilities

Low 40

Low

High

Academic facilities

High 73

High

Low

Access to technology

High 58

Low

High

Social atmosphere

Low 48

High

Low

High

General aesthetics

High 59

High

Low

High

Campus location

High 68

High

Low

High

Availability of transport

High 69

Low

High

Low

Teaching

Low 32

High

Low

Practical experience

High 64

Low

High

Low

Range

High 68

Low

High

56%

53%

57%

40%

P (student chooses university is high)

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rating, but based on how their choices are actually made,

area, 7 per cent of the suits student category, and 12 per

a low reputation is dominated by the university having

cent of the campus desirability.Within the pie chart repre-

low popularity. Similarly, overall university choice is most

senting survey results, reputation takes up 11 per cent of

strongly influenced by employability based on students’

employability, and 11 per cent of suits student. Therefore,

perceptions of factors they should consider, but the

it is critical for a university to understand how to improve

strong influence in how they really make the choice is an

its reputation through appealing to the two separate ave-

overall sense of whether the university suits the student.

nues of reputation: critical and popular.

Model interrogation

Discussion

Three scenarios involving three separate model universities were used to test the Bayesian Network from phase

This study aimed to contribute to research into the fac-

three. Table 4 shows the outside nodes that were defined

tors that influence a school leaver’s choice of university.

using results from the survey and can be seen as the base

Importantly, it provided insights into the differences

probability to be compared to the three scenarios. Sce-

between the factors that universities advertise, those that

nario 1 represents a typical student who values education,

students think are important and those that students actu-

but also factors convenience, as well as social and cultural

ally use to make their decisions.

aspects, into their decision. Scenario 2 represents a very

Based on the study results, the major factors contribut-

academically driven student who is very driven to find

ing to a traditional age school leaver’s choice of university

employment soon after graduating their degree, and who

are campus desirability, student suitability and employabil-

values practical teaching and employability far above any

ity. Among these, the Bayesian Network representing the

social or locational factors. Scenario 3 represents a stu-

results from the focus group demonstrated that students

dent who is attracted to the social and cultural value of a

considered employability as the factor which should be

school, rather than any immediate potential employability.

most influential. The network derived from the survey showed that student suitability, followed by campus desir-

Comparison of major factors

ability were the most influential.

The major factors identified in each of the three BNs were

The network related to how the tertiary education insti-

represented as pie charts (Figure 4). It is apparent that

tutions advertise themselves, showed that universities in

although the focus groups demonstrate different priori-

Australia appear to put the most weight on employabil-

ties than those of the universities, the factors relating to

ity, then campus desirability. Nevertheless, the most sig-

the students’ actual choices, as shown through the survey,

nificant factor relating to how well university advertising

are much closer to the values expressed by the universi-

measures up to student desires is reputation: if the institu-

ties.Across three charts, the most influential factor proved

tion’s reputation is high, the advertising featured on the

to be that of reputation.Within the focus group responses,

university’s website is considerably more likely to match

reputation occupied half of the employability percentage

up to the students’ own decision making process. This

Figure 4. Major factors relating to students’ choice of university, based on (from left to right) relevant literature, focus groups and survey. vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

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could suggest that students are not receiving enough

Fiona Harden is a senior lecturer in pathology in the Faculty

information from universities to know what they should

of Health, Queensland University of Technology (QUT),

consider for each institution, and are therefore relying on

Brisbane.

populist opinion to make their decisions for them. The Australian ranking system, as set out by the Australian Education Network, is unclear about which fac-

Gabrielle Davis is a research assistant in the Faculty of Science and Engineering, QUT.

tors exactly determine the placement of each institution. Membership of the Group of Eight, which is marketed as

Kerrie Mengersen is a Professor of Bayesian Statistics in the

the leading group of Australian universities, is determined

Faculty of Science and Engineering, QUT.

on the basis of: research outputs, industry links, graduate outcomes and the standing of the university’s academic staff. From this study, it is apparent that one way in which a university can greatly improve its popular reputation is through improvement of its home website, focusing on quality content, communication, audience, exposure, credibility and authority. The key factors identified in this study are broadly comparable with those identified in most of the published literature (see, for example, Beswick, 1973; Chapman, 1981; O’Connor & Moodie, 2007; Soutar & Turner, 2002). Whereas they overlap with the findings of Jung (2013a, b), they almost directly contradict the findings of Catley (2004), in which course-related factors were the most influential, over university or external factors. This can perhaps be explained by observing the difference between subjects in the survey: Catley’s students were all second semester freshmen in a law school, suggesting they would have a particularly strong preference for academic and future critical success. Overall, this study has two main benefits. First, it proposes a rigorous modelling approach to identification of factors that influence choice in a complex problem. Second, it employed appropriate age subjects and a relevant time period in which to assess the subjects.

References Beswick, R. (1973). A Study of Factors Associated with Student Choice in the University Selection Process. Lethbridge, Alberta: University of Lethbridge. Calderon, A.I., Dobson, I.R. & Wentworth, N. (2000). Recipe for success: Year 12 subject choice and the transition from school to university. Journal of Institutional Research, 9(1), pp. 111–123. Catley, P. (2004). Which university? Which course? Brookes eJournal of Learning and Teaching 1(1), pp. 1–6. Chapman, D. (1981). A model of student choice. The Journal of Higher Education 53(4), pp. 490–500. Community College Transfer Students. (2012). 4 Most Competitive University Degrees. Retrieved from Community College Transfer Students: http://www.communitycollegetransferstudents.com/4-most-competitive-university-degrees/. Jung, J.Y. (2013a). Adolescent decision making processes regarding university entry: a model incorporating cultural orientation, motivation and occupational variables. Tertiary Education and Management, 19(2), pp. 97–111. Jung, J.Y. (2013b). Amotivation and indecision in the decision making processes associated with university entry, Research in Higher Education, 54(1), pp. 115–136. O’Connor, I. & Moodie, G. (2007). Major issues facing universities. Paper presented at the Universities Australia staff development and training programme Student administration conference, Brisbane. Retrieved, from Griffith University: http://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/38487/major-issuesfacing-universities.pdf. Soutar, G. & Turner, J. (2002). Students’ preferences for university: a conjoint analysis. International Journal of Educational Management, 16(1), pp. 40–45.

The study also has two main limitations. First, it is essentially a pilot study, focused on Australian universities in general, and students in one city (Brisbane) in particular. The study could be broadened to larger samples of students, other locations within Australia and, indeed, other countries. Second, the scope of the study is restricted to traditional age prospective university students, who may have different priorities in their choice of university than other students. The study could, for example, be broadened to postgraduate students, or focused further to particular discipline groups. The success of the present study in meeting its objectives provides motivation for these more general analyses. It also provides important data for universities preparing marketing strategies to attract students in what is becoming an increasingly competitive environment.

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Higher education and the minerals boom A view from the regions Philip Bell Central Queensland University

This paper examines the impact of the minerals boom to date on the demand for higher education in Central Queensland, and the sustainability of higher education providers in high economic growth environments. Several datasets were used to examine changes in the demand for higher education among specific student groups within the region, the impacts upon currently enrolled students, and some of the potential consequences for regional employers and long-term regional competitiveness. It identifies challenges facing higher education providers operating in such environments and the policy implications of these challenges for government.

Introduction

cant impact on the demand for higher education in these regions. Increased employment opportunities and rapidly

Since 2002, Australia has experienced an export-driven

rising costs of living have motivated many current and

minerals boom, which has a significant and generally posi-

potential students to move into the workforce rather than

tive impact on the national economy as a whole. Regional

continuing their education. This has in turn placed con-

areas of Australia that are closely associated with the

siderable short-term strain on several regional universities,

mining industry or host major mining operations have

and has the potential to have a serious long-term impact

been particularly affected by this boom, with many of

on the future sustainability of the regional communities

these areas experiencing significant economic growth

that they service.

and opportunities for development during this period.

The recent history of Central Queensland Univer-

Despite the recent economic slowdown, the long-term

sity (CQU) has been dominated by the impact of the

growth prospects of countries such as China and India

resources boom on its regional community. The mas-

indicate that this mining-based growth is likely to con-

sive growth in Central Queensland’s coal industry over

tinue to play an important role in Australia’s economy for

the past ten years has caused immense economic and

the foreseeable future.

social change within the University’s campus footprint.

The minerals boom has radically changed the social and

Those changes have had an impact on the University in

economic norms of many regional areas in Australia. Eco-

a variety of ways, the most obvious being a sustained

nomic growth has placed considerable strain on regional

fall in enrolments of domestic students from the Central

labour markets, with increased demand for labour and

Queensland region.

consequent higher salaries providing opportunities and

Central Queensland’s declining demand for higher

incentives to drive a rapid expansion of the traditional

education is not unique among the regions impacted by

labour market and encouraging many traditional non-par-

Australia’s resources boom – regions in Western Australia

ticipants to enter the labour force. This has had a signifi-

and the Northern Territory with high levels of expo-

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Figure 1. The coal industry in Central Queensland Source: Department of Mines and Energy (2010)

Higher education and the minerals boom Philip Bell

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The coal boom and its impact on the Central Queensland economy

CQU is arguably the university most exposed to the economic impact of the resources boom. Along with Charles

The expansion of mining activity in Central Queensland

Darwin University in Darwin, the majority of its campus

has significantly changed the region’s economic land-

footprint is physically located in one of Australia’s major

scape in a short period of time. The region has seen its

resources regions, and it relies heavily on domestic enrol-

traditional economic reliance on service industries, tour-

ments from regional areas on which the resources boom

ism and agriculture decrease, and mining take a key role

has had the greatest impact. The University has therefore

in the regional economy.

been uniquely exposed to the rapid economic and social

Between 2001–2002 and 2010–11, the number of

change occurring in its regional community as a result of

people employed in the mining industry in Queensland

the expansion of the mining industry.

expanded from approximately 19,600 to 55,500 employees. During that period, mining was the fastest growing

Central Queensland’s coal boom

employment sector in the Queensland economy, with employment growth running at almost four times the

Central Queensland is the hub of Queensland’s coal

all sector state average (Office of Economic and Statisti-

mining industry, with approximately 95 per cent of

cal Research [OESR], 2011). Much of the employment

Queensland’s coal exports either originating in the

growth in the mining sector was focused in Central

region or being processed through the region’s ports (Department

Natural

Resources and Mines, 2012). The growth in coal production and processing in recent years has been substantial, with Queensland’s

Queensland. Between 2001

The employment opportunities associated with the mining boom meant that between 2001 and 2011 median weekly income grew by 98 per cent in the Mackay region and 86 per cent in the Fitzroy region, compared with 54 per cent Australia-wide

and 2011 employment in the mining industry grew by more than 190 per cent in the Fitzroy region, and by more than 159 per cent in the Mackay region (Australian Bureau of Statistics

coal exports growing from

[ABS], 2011). The boom in

$5,946 million in 2003–04

mining activity also gener-

(Office of Economic and Statistical Research, 2004) to

ated growth outside the mining sector. As early as 2004–

more than $29,022 million in 2010–11 (Department of

05 research by the Department of Mines and Energy

Natural Resources and Mines, 2012). On a global scale,

(2007) estimated that approximately one in every six

Central Queensland’s maritime exports of coking coal

jobs in Central Queensland could be directly or indi-

total more than the rest of the world combined (Depart-

rectly attributed to the coal industry. Between 2001 and

ment of Mines and Energy, 2007), with the volume of

2011, this growth in mining and related employment

exports of coking coal from Central Queensland now

contributed to an increase in the number of people

being almost double that of the world’s next largest

employed full time in the Mackay region of 54 per cent

exporting nation (World Coal Association, 2013; Depart-

and in the Fitzroy region of 36 per cent, significantly

ment of Natural Resources and Mines, 2012).

higher than the national employment growth rate of 19

The geographic scope of coal mining activities and key

per cent during the same period (ABS, 2011).

related infrastructure in Central Queensland is shown

Many of the jobs created by the boom were well paid

in Figure 1. CQU’s regional footprint overlaps with the

and required minimal formal qualifications or train-

region’s coal extraction and export operations. Mackay

ing. The employment opportunities associated with

and Gladstone both host university campuses and major

the mining boom meant that between 2001 and 2011

coal export facilities. Rockhampton, Mackay and Glad-

median weekly income grew by 98 per cent in the

stone all host significant service industries for the coal

Mackay region and 86 per cent in the Fitzroy region,

industry and act as accommodation centres for staff

compared with 54 per cent Australia-wide (ABS, 2011).

working on ‘drive-in, drive-out’ rosters at coal mines in

By the peak of the mining boom in 2008–09, six Central

the region, while Emerald plays a key regional role as the

Queensland postcodes were among the ten postcodes

service and administrative hub at the centre of the coal

identified by the Australian Taxation Office as having the

industry in the Central Highlands region.

highest mean taxable incomes in Queensland (Australian

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Taxation Office, 2010). In terms of incomes associated

all ranked in the 50 least affordable locations in the world

with specific positions, by 2008 the commencing salary

for housing (Demographia, 2009), an outcome that ranked

of truck drivers in the Queensland coal industry was

some regional Queensland locations as being less afford-

approximately $80,000 per annum (Hays Recruitment,

able than London or New York. Examples such as those

2011). These and other positions in the mining industry

cited in the Courier-Mail (Hele, 2011) of rental costs in

were substantially better paid than comparable positions

regional mining centres of up to $3,000 per week for a

in other parts of the economy.

four bedroom house had become increasingly common,

As a result of these opportunities, the growth in mining industry employment saw a rapid fall in regional unemployment and a change in the structure of the

and played a major role in driving increases in the cost of living in these centres. Government agencies have, in many cases, struggled

local economy as mining displaced other traditional employers within the region and as industries required to support the growth in the mining industry also experienced substantial growth. As an example, between 2001

to respond to the pace and

Between 2004 and 2009, enrolments of students from the Central Queensland region at Queensland universities fell by more than 20 per cent, contrasting with an increase in enrolments from students state-wide.

and 2011 as many employees moved to the mining

scale of the growth associated with the mining boom. The challenges facing government agencies in delivering adequate services in these conditions are summarised in a recent report by the Queensland Coordinator General on proposed

industry, employment in agriculture fell by more than

changes to BHP Billiton Mitsubishi Alliance’s mining

34 per cent in the Mackay region and 28 per cent in the

operations in Central Queensland:

Fitzroy region (ABS, 2011). Over the same time period, coal-related projects and their multiplier effect led to employment in the local construction industry growing by 135 per cent in Mackay, and 96 per cent in Fitzroy. Despite the growth in the number of people employed within the region and the transformation of the regional

The state government and other services providers are responsible for providing adequate social infrastructure and services. However, as funding for government services is generally based on five-yearly census data, the supply of services cannot always keep pace with the demand caused by the rapid growth, such as that seen in the resource sector.

economy, the labour needs of the coal industry were such that a large number of workers needed to be attracted

While the challenges associated with service and

to the region through fly-in, fly-out (or drive-in, drive-

infrastructure planning and delivery in a high growth

out) employment options. Calculating the prevalence of

environment are understandable, they also create real

fly-in, fly-out and drive-in, drive-out work arrangements

issues at a local and regional level. The health sector

across the region is difficult; however, at the time of the

is one example where a failure to keep pace with the

2011 census, more than 8 per cent of all full time work-

rate of regional economic development has created sig-

ers present in the Mackay region nominated their usual

nificant regional problems. The Report on the Audit

place of residence as being somewhere other than the

of Health Workforce in Regional and Rural Australia

Mackay region (Australian Bureau of Agricultural and

(Department of Health and Ageing, 2008) found Central

Resource Economics and Sciences [ABARES], 2011).

Queensland was substantially underserviced in a range

By 2011, the mining sector was the largest employ-

of health and allied health professions, creating ongoing

ment sector in the Mackay–Fitzroy–Central West region

problems in delivering an adequate level of service to

(ABARES, 2011). This represented a major change to the

the Central Queensland community.

regional economy’s traditional reliance on agriculture,

In examining mental health issues in Australia prior to

typified by the historic labelling of the regional centre

the 2010 federal election, Four Corners (ABC TV, 2010)

of Rockhampton as being the beef capital of Australia.

chose to examine mental health issues and service provi-

The growth in regional employment and income

sion in the Mackay region as a case study in the shortfalls

fuelled growth in other areas of the regional economy,

of health service provision in regional Australia and for

such as real estate. By 2008, growth in housing prices in

the impact that such shortfalls are having on regional

the Central Queensland region meant that regional cen-

communities. Queensland Health documents obtained

tres such as Rockhampton, Mackay and Bundaberg were

by the Courier-Mail (Miles, 2011) show that during the

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Table 1. QTAC enrolments 2004–2009 by geographic region of applicant 2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Change %

Fitzroy

1231

1181

1097

1036

1096

933

-24.21

Mackay

868

720

727

732

769

662

-23.73

29599

30668

30330

30215

29625

30064

1.57

Queensland Total

Source: Compiled from the Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre’s Statistical Reports 2003–04 to Semester 1, 2009.

course of 2011, the Central Queensland Health District

and skill levels of many jobs associated with the industry

consistently had one of the highest levels of reliance

mean that coal mining regions are typically regarded as

on locum medical staff for service delivery in Queens-

disadvantaged when assessed using regional employment

land. Trying to build an adequate staff base to deliver

and education profiles such as Socio-Economic Indexes

key services in an environment where many local stu-

for Areas (SEIFA).

dents are attracted to the high salaries offered by the

These research findings align closely with CQU’s expe-

mining industry and experts from outside the region

riences during the minerals boom. The creation of a large

being deterred by the high cost of living in the region,

number of well-paid jobs requiring limited professional or

represent significant challenges to many regional com-

tertiary level education reduced the demand for higher

munities in Central Queensland.

education within the region. The high level of demand for labour during this period and the high salaries on offer

The impact on higher education

from the mining industry led to many potential students choosing to take up employment opportunities rather

Gylfason (2001) undertook research on the demand for

than enrolling in tertiary study. The employment choices

higher education in mineral-rich economies, and argues

of Central Queensland’s school leaver demographic are

that natural resource-based economies create a well-paid

particularly illustrative of this trend.

work force that requires relatively low skill levels. As a

Time series data from the Australian Bureau of Statis-

result, they offer little incentive for individuals to invest in

tics Basic Community Profiles (2011) shows that between

their education or other forms of human capital develop-

2001 and 2011, the number of 15–19 year olds in the

ment. Auty (1993) argues that mining activity effectively

Mackay region working full time grew by more than 53

‘crowds out’ other activities by monopolising resources,

per cent, while the number in the Fitzroy region grew by

including the human resources needed to develop and

39 per cent.

sustain other activities in the region.

By comparison, across Queensland during the same

These findings are supported by recent research on

period, the number of 15–19 years working full time grew

issues such as regional participation rates and regionality

by just under 5 per cent. In the Mackay region, the pro-

as a source of disadvantage in higher education. Regional-

portion of 15–19 year olds describing themselves as not

ity has been recognised as an indicator of disadvantage in

in the regional labour force (individuals neither working

the Australian higher education sector, with students from

nor actively looking for work – a category that includes

rural and isolated backgrounds classified as an equity

many full time students) fell from 39 per cent to 29 per

group (James et al., 2004). Students from regional areas

cent, while in the Fitzroy region the proportion fell from

are less likely to enrol in or complete a higher education

41 per cent to 33 per cent. By comparison, across Queens-

qualification than students from metropolitan locations,

land during the same period the proportion of 15–19 year

and regional locations typically have relatively fewer ter-

olds describing themselves as not in the labour force fell

tiary educated employees than metropolitan areas (James

only marginally, from 42 per cent in 2001 to 40 per cent in

et al., 2004).

2011. These figures demonstrate that during this period

Research by the Department of Education, Employ-

the number of Central Queensland school leavers opting

ment and Workplace Relations (2010) suggests that socio

to move into full time employment was growing consid-

economic disadvantage – particularly measured in terms

erably faster than the state average, and the proportion

of regional employment and education profiles – is one

of school leavers describing themselves as outside the

of the main contributors to regional areas having signifi-

labour force (and, by implication, available for full time

cantly lower participation rates in education. Despite the

study) fell from close to parity with the state average to a

high salaries associated with the coal industry, the profile

substantially lower level.

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Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC) data

a report undertaken by the Queensland Treasury Corpora-

(Table 1) indicate that this change in employment pat-

tion (2009) noted serious concerns regarding the impact

terns had a significant impact on new enrolments of

of declining enrolments on the University’s ongoing finan-

students from the Central Queensland region. Between

cial viability.While questions have been raised concerning

2004 and 2009, enrolments of students from the Central

the validity of that report, such analysis serves to highlight

Queensland region at Queensland universities fell by

the vulnerability of regional higher education providers

more than 20 per cent, contrasting with an increase in

to economic and social trends within their regions, and

enrolments from students state wide.

is an example of the potential impacts on regional educa-

To some extent, this fall in enrolments had an impact

tion providers of the resources boom.

on all Queensland universities, however, as a regional university relying on these areas for the majority of its

Looking forward

domestic student intake, CQU was more heavily affected by these changes than other Queensland-based provid-

The slowing of the global economy in 2008–09 led to a

ers. It is worth noting that the regions that CQU relies

downturn in mineral prices and a slowing of the rate of

on most heavily for its domestic student base – Mackay–

growth in Australia’s mining industry. The slowed regional

Fitzroy–Wide Bay–Burnett and the Central West – now

employment growth resulting from this led to an increase

have among the lowest participation rates for higher edu-

in the number of students from the Central Queensland

cation in Queensland.

region enrolling in higher education programmes in

Employment pressures were a significant factor in

2010 for the first time since 2004 (QTAC, 2010), with this

this change and to other changes in enrolment patterns.

growth continuing into 2011 and 2012.While this growth

Between its inception in 2005 and the peak of the min-

in enrolments from its key catchment areas is positive

erals boom in 2008, Education Queensland’s Next Step

news for CQU in the short term, it again highlights the

Survey (2005, 2006, 2007, 2008) noted an increase in

close link between the regional economy and regional

work related deferrals among school leavers consider-

demand for (and enrolments in) higher education.

ing higher education, as well as in the number of school

Based on continued demand for coal and other miner-

leavers undertaking full time or part-time employment

als to fuel China and India’s ongoing economic growth,

in their first year of university study.

it appears that Central Queensland and other mining

In addition to its impact on the level of new enrolments,

regions within Australia will continue to experience

the increase in employment opportunities led to changed

strong mining-driven economic and employment growth.

higher education enrolment patterns and higher rates of

While the value of Queensland’s coal exports dipped fol-

student attrition. CQU’s student attrition rates rose from

lowing the global financial crisis, a recovery in the price of

26 per cent in 2005–06 to 31 per cent at the peak of the

coal on international markets means the value of Queens-

minerals boom in 2007–08. Data released by the Depart-

land’s coal exports now exceeds its pre-global financial

ment of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations

crisis highs; numerous new extraction and infrastructure

via the Teaching and Learning Performance Fund indicate

projects continue to be implemented to support this

that this is not an institution-specific phenomenon, and

ongoing growth (Department of Natural Resources and

that other regional Queensland universities experienced

Mines, 2012). Employment and other opportunities asso-

similar pressures, as did Western Australian and Northern

ciated with growth will continue to place pressure on

Territory institutions which also experienced pressures

the regional economy and on CQU’s enrolments. Hollows

from increasing mining activity in their regions. Most of

(2008) estimated that the Queensland coal industry will

the bottom five rankings in student retention in all of the

require 16,000 new employees over the next six to ten

discipline areas considered by the Learning and Teach-

years to replace current employees leaving the industry

ing Performance Fund were occupied by institutions in

and to staff new initiatives and expanded projects.

regions closely linked to the mining boom. The impact of

The development of Queensland’s liquid natural gas

regional economic conditions upon these retention out-

industry will also see the employment pressures gener-

comes needs to be more fully considered than it has been

ated by Queensland’s mining boom spread over a larger

in analyses conducted to date (Department of Education,

geographic area. Australia’s liquid natural gas produc-

Employment and Workplace Relations, 2009).

tion is expected to quadruple between now and 2017,

At an institutional level, the impact of the decreased

with Australia expected to become the world’s largest

enrolments and increased attrition at CQU was such that

exporter of liquid natural gas by 2020. Four proposed

Higher education and the minerals boom Philip Bell

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liquid natural gas processing plants in Gladstone are a

government strategies for encouraging and supporting

key part of that expansion, with those plants and their

students from regional or remote locations have, typi-

associated infrastructure expected to generate more than

cally, focused on income support for students during

23,000 jobs during the construction phase (Energy Skills

their studies, with this support being means tested

Queensland, n.d.). The major gas extraction sites servic-

based on parental incomes (Department of Education,

ing those processing plants are expected to be located in

Employment and Workplace Relations, 2010).

Central and Southern Queensland, to the south of Cen-

strategy is of questionable real benefit to regions with

tral Queensland’s main coal mining regions. Regional

low levels of educational attainment but high levels of

centres in Southern Queensland associated with gas

personal income. The question of how the federal gov-

extraction, such as Quilpie and Roma, are already expe-

ernment intends to support and encourage individual

riencing unemployment rates of approximately 2 per

students from high income regions, such as coal mining

cent due to the demand for labour associated with new

centres, to proceed into tertiary studies has been largely

gas-related construction projects (McCarthy, 2012). That

left unanswered.

This

rate is considerably below the Queensland state average,

The extent to which this question is an issue requiring

which in late 2012 sat at approximately 6 per cent. The

further consideration in mining regions such as Central

extent to which employment pressures in these new

Queensland is indicated by SEIF). SEIFA was developed

boom regions impact on the regional demand for higher

by the Australian Bureau of Statistics to identify and meas-

education and this change in demand may have on the

ure relative socio economic well being and disadvantage

universities that services those regions will be interest-

in communities throughout Australia (ABS, 2008). It pro-

ing to assess.

vides four indices of socio economic conditions across

This demand for labour is likely to place pressure on

almost 1,400 statistical local areas in Australia. An indica-

the ability of the region to meet its own human capital

tion of where means tested support for improving low

needs. At a regional, it will certainly challenge level goals

levels of higher education participation is likely to be

such as those articulated by the previous government

least effective can be found by comparing SEIFA’s Index

(Gillard, 2009) to consistently increase the number of uni-

of Economic Resources, an index focusing on family

versity graduates across Australia, and create further chal-

income, rent and mortgage payments within a desig-

lenges to building a long-term skills base for Queensland’s

nated area, with the Index of Education and Occupation,

booming coal industry to draw upon for future growth.

which focuses on educational attainment and employ-

The key question for the federal government in respond-

ment categories. A relatively low score in the Index of

ing to this situation will be how to motivate potential

Education and Occupation indicates a relative shortage

students to enrol in and complete tertiary programmes

of degree-qualified individuals in a given area, while a

that involve a considerable investment in time, money

relatively high score in the Index of Economic Resources

and opportunity cost when there are extremely well-paid

identifies that incomes in a region are likely to make

local employment alternatives available that require very

potential students from that region ineligible for means-

limited formal training or study. Discussions around how

tested income support. Quarter of the 20 statistical local

to achieve this goal have mainly focused on supply-side

areas in Australia where the regional Index of Economic

issues – how to generate the additional places required

Resources exceeds the region’s Index of Education and

to achieve the government’s enrolment and completion

Occupation by the greatest amount are located in Cen-

targets. The idea that potential students may not wish to

tral Queensland. While not denying that means-tested

take advantage of those opportunities may instead prefer

income support will provide assistance and support for

to continue to take advantage of well-paid but relatively

some parts of the Central Queensland community to

unskilled positions in the mining industry has not been

access higher education, the difference between the two

addressed, and will be a key issue in addressing the chal-

SEIFA indices indicates that such means-tested support

lenges currently facing Queensland’s mining-intensive

is becoming increasingly irrelevant and inaccessible for

regions in developing their human capital base.

many parts of the region. Identifying alternative strate-

As previously noted, recent research by the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Rela-

gies to maintain and increase participation rates in the region is therefore critical.

tions (2010) has indicated that regional employment

The idea of a regional higher education policy is some-

profiles are a significant indicator of a region’s higher

thing that has gained increasing support in recent years.

education participation rates. Unfortunately, the federal

Through the Education Investment Fund and other ini-

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

Higher education and the minerals boom Philip Bell

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tiatives, the federal government has made significant

and that relies on those industries reversing the historical

funds available to regional universities to expand their

trend of graduates moving from regional areas to metro-

infrastructure and the range of programmes offered

politan centres in search of career and lifestyle options.

in regional Australia (Battersby, 2011). While this con-

The success of government policy in recognising and

tribution to supporting regional universities must be

addressing these unique regional needs and challenges

acknowledged, the decreasing relevance of the support

will play a key role not only in the future of higher edu-

available to individual students in specific regional areas

cation in Central Queensland, but also in meeting the

must also be recognised. While programmes to develop

human capital needs of key Australian export industries

regional higher education infrastructure and encour-

that make significant contributions to the whole of Aus-

age capacity building are important, they should not

tralia’s economic wellbeing.

be regarding as a substitute for developing appropriate regional initiatives to encourage and support student in

Philip Bell is a member of the Higher Education Directorate

undertaking further study.

at Central Queensland University, Rockhampton.

Conclusion

References

As a result of its part in Australia’s resources boom, Cen-

Auty, R. (1993). Sustaining Development in Mineral Economies: The resource curse thesis. London: Routledge.

tral Queensland has experienced massive social and economic change over the past ten years. Those changes have affected many parts the region, but have created particular challenges for regional higher education providers in terms of participation and retention, which have in turn led to lower enrolments in higher education among students from the region. The fall in regional higher education enrolments as a result of the massive social and economic changes arising from the mining boom has consequences not only for regional higher education providers, but also more broadly for the region’s community in terms of decreasing numbers of local graduates to work in regional businesses, hospitals, schools and other workplaces. Given that regional businesses in Central Queensland increasingly include minerals extraction and processing operations of national and international importance, this fall in graduate numbers also has the potential to impact on Australia’s economy as a whole. Workforce composition and skills levels were identified as some of the potential reasons for decreases in the productivity of Central Queensland’s mining operations during the minerals boom (Rolfe et al., 2007). Given the importance of the resources industry to Australia, strategies to effectively address the factors contributing to such declines should receive a higher priority from government than is currently the case. Failure to address the current decline in regional participation will see Central Queensland and other mining regions becoming increasingly reliant on attracting graduates from outside their region to meet their human capital needs, a strategy that imposes significant costs upon the industries driving Australia’s current economic growth,

Higher education and the minerals boom Philip Bell

Australian Broadcasting Commission. (2010). Hidden Voices (video recording). ABC TV, 9 August. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resources Economics and Sciences (ABARES). (2011). Commodity outlook and financial performance of key agricultural industries in the Fitzroy and Central Highlands region of Queensland. Paper presented at Regional Outlook Conference, Rockhampton, 27 July. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). (2011). Census of Population and Housing, 2011, Basic Community Profile. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). (2008). SEIFA: Socio-Economic Indexes for Areas, 2008, Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310114. nsf/home/Seifa_entry _page. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). (2011). 6291.0.55.001 – Labour Force, Australia, Detailed – Electronic Delivery, Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov. au/ AUSSTATS/ abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/6291.0.55.001Dec%202010?OpenDocument. Australian Taxation Office. (2010). Taxation Statistics 2008–09, Australian Taxation Office. Retrieved from http://www.ato.gov.au/Youth/content. aspx?menuid=39514&doc=/content/ 00268761.htm&page=1&H1. Battersby, D. (2011). Full steam ahead for the regional agenda, The Australian, 20 July. Retrieved from http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education /opinion/full-steam-ahead-for-the-regional-agenda/story-e6frgcko–1226097798689. Demographia. (2009). 5th Annual Demographia International Housing Affordability Survey: 2009. Retrieved from http://www.demographia.com/ dhi-ix2005q3.pdf. Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR). (2009). 2009 Teaching and Learning Performance Fund. Retrieved from http://www.dest.gov.au/sectors/ higher_education/policy_issues_reviews/ key_issues/learning_teaching/ltpf/2009ltpf.htm. Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR). (2010). Regional Participation: The Role of Socioeconomic Status and Access, Retrieved from http://www.deewr.gov.au/HigherEducation/Programmes/Equity/ Pages/RegionalParticipation.aspx. Department of Health and Ageing. (2008). Report on the Audit of Health Workforce in Rural and Regional Australia, April 2008. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Department of Mines and Energy. (2007). Queensland’s World-Class Coals: Mine Production and Developments. Brisbane: Department of Mines and Energy. vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

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Department of Natural Resources and Mines. (2012). Financial Year Coal Statistics – 2011–12. Retrieved from http://mines.industry.qld.gov.au/mining/ coal-statistics.htm. Education Queensland. (2005). 2005 Next Step Survey. Brisbane: Education Queensland. Education Queensland. (2006). 2006 Next Step Survey. Brisbane: Education Queensland. Education Queensland. (2007). 2007 Next Step Survey. Brisbane: Education Queensland. Education Queensland. (2008). 2008 Next Step Survey. Brisbane: Education Queensland. Energy Skills Queensland, CSG/LNG Projects in Queensland. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.energyskillsqld.com.au/industry-sectors/coal-seam-gas-csgliquefied-natural-gas-lng/csglng-projects-in-queensland/. Gillard, J. (2009). Speech to Universities Australia Conference, 4 March. Retrieved from http://www.deewr.gov.au/Ministers/Gillard/Media/Speeches/Pages/Article_090304_ 155721.aspx.

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McCarthy, J. (2012). Bush booming as jobs growth bounces back, The Courier-Mail, 21 December. Retrieved from http://www.couriermail.com.au/ news/queensland/bush-booming-as-jobs-growth-bounces-back/story-e6freoof-1226541429249. Miles, J. (2011). Exposed: numbers shock our doctors, The Courier-Mail, 4 October. Retrieved from http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/exposed-numbersshock-our-doctors/story-e6freon6-1226157599605. Office of Economic and Statistical Research (OESR). (2004). Annual Economic Report 2003–04, The Queensland Economy. Brisbane: Queensland Treasury. Office of Economic and Statistical Research (OESR). (2011). Annual Economic Report 2010–11: The Queensland Economy. Brisbane: Queensland Treasury. Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC). (2004). Statistical Reports 2003–2004. Brisbane: Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre. Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC). (2005). Statistical Reports 2004–2005. Brisbane: Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre. Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC). (2006). Statistical Reports 2005–2006. Brisbane: Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre.

Gylfason, T. (2001). Natural resources, education and economic development. European Economic Review. 45(4–6), 847–859.

Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC). (2007). Statistical Reports 2006–2007. Brisbane: Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre.

Hays Recruitment. (2011). The 2011 Hays Salary Guide. Retrieved from http:// www.hays. com.au/salary/output/pdf2011/HaysSalaryGuide_2011-AU_edu-oilres.pdf.

Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC). (2008). Statistical Reports 2007–2008. Brisbane: Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre.

Hele, M. (2011). Rental Prices in Central Queensland Mining towns like Moranbah skyrocket to level of luxury houses on Gold Coast, The Courier-Mail, 22 September. Retrieved from http://www.couriermail.com.au/life/homesproperty/ mining-towns-rent-bonanza/story-e6frequ6-1226143039455. Hollows, N. (2008). Queensland: Are we smart enough to really shine? Retrieved from http://www.macarthurcoal.com.au/Portals/0/ASX per cent20Announcements per cent202008/081023%20Brisbane%20Mining%20Club_ %20NH. pdf. James, R., Baldwin, G., Coates, H., Krause, K. & McInnis, C. (2004). Analysis of Equity Groups in Higher Education 1991–2002. Canberra: Department of Education, Science and Technology.

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Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC). (2009). Statistical Reports, Semester 1, 2009. Brisbane: Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre. Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC). (2010). Statistical Reports, Semester 1, 2010. Brisbane: Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre. Queensland Treasury Corporation. (2009). Financial Viability Review, Brisbane: Queensland Treasury Corporation. Rolfe, J., Miles, B., Lockie, S. & Ivanowa, G. (2007). Lessons from the social and economic impacts of the mining boom in the Bowen Basin 2004–2006. Autralian Journal of Regional Studies, 13(2), 134–153. World Coal Association. (2013). Coal Statistics. Retrieved from http://www. worldcoal.org/resources/coal-statistics.

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Agility: a crucial capability for universities in times of disruptive change and innovation Sheila Mukerjee La Trobe University

Government funding cuts have provided a new impetus to Australian universities to re-examine their value proposition and corporate focus. While the sector has gone through waves of change in recent times, institutions are now scrambling for their place in a highly competitive market. Institutions explore new revenue opportunities and digital transformation to achieve cost savings and efficiencies. The digital world is driving innovation and continuous change at such a rapid and random rate that universities are struggling to keep up with demand.

Introduction

importantly, will stand the test of time and still exist to meet the ongoing demand and challenges of the times.

The film, music, newspaper and retail industries – among

Over the years, the higher education sector has faced

many others – have already experienced the impact of

a barrage of disruptions and reforms as a result of gov-

the digital revolution and experienced the need to adapt

ernment reform, market demand and volatility, economic

or perish in the face of such unprecedented change and

pressures and technological innovation. Recent innova-

swing in consumer preferences. White (2013), a former

tions to open up education, including Massive Open

journalist who experienced this impact on the print

Online Courses (MOOCs), blended learning, collaborative

media first hand, warns of seeing the same warning signs

models and free education with elite universities, have

of technology’s impact on the higher education sector

changed the landscape of the education sector (Marques,

and the consequences of ignoring them. Universities

2013;Valiathan, 2002; Associated Press, 2013). These inno-

have been warned to overhaul or perish (Hare, 2012).

vations have placed the sector on high alert to the disrup-

Given the growing take up of online education, views

tive force of the digital revolution.

are being expressed about the longevity and viability of

In Australia, recent government announcements about

higher education institutions (Coy, 2013). It is becoming

funding cuts and proposed reforms to the university fund-

increasingly clear that business models and corporate

ing model (Matchett, 2013; Hurst & Tovey, 2013) have

focus need to be reframed and renewed to ensure that

compounded the situation. Now, more than ever, business

they are relevant to current and future markets and more

models are needed that have strategic foresight capability

Agility: a crucial capability for universities Sheila Mukerjee

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

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underpinned by corporate and business agility to respond

Leadership unity encompasses actions designed to

and adapt to change with minimum latency. Agility is an

create a bond and trust within the leadership team. These

increasingly crucial factor for survival in this new throwa-

actions include engaging in dialogues to explore, under-

way paradigm of innovation upon innovation.

stand and develop; revealing motives and aspirations,

What is meant by agility in an organisational and opera-

integrating and building interdependencies to define a

tional sense? Agility encompasses the ability to respond and

common agenda for success, aligning to a common inter-

adapt to change in a timely manner so that change quickly

est, and caring empathy and compassion to provide per-

becomes the norm for the organisation. Sambamurthy et

sonal safety to be playful. At universities where leadership

al. (2003, p. 238) define agility in the context of business

is based on a multi layered decision making and govern-

success as ‘the ability to detect and seize market opportuni-

ance model built around numerous committees overlaid

ties with speed and surprise’. An agile organisation has this

by leadership at central, faculty and sub faculty levels, this

sense of opportunistic sensitivity and adaptability embed-

unity is critical in providing the organisation with a strong

ded in its strategic and operational DNA.

level of trust and commitment to collaboratively achieve

Many facets of agility as an organisational capability

its strategic goals and objectives.

have been researched and reported. Doz and Kosonen

Resource fluidity drives the agility of the organisa-

(2010) provide a framework for strategic agility and cor-

tion at the operational level. Actions include decoupling

responding leadership actions that accelerate the process

tightly integrated single entities into well-functioning

of business transformation and renewal. Goodhue et al.

separate entities to gain flexibility, modularising business

(2009) published their findings of the effectiveness of

processes and systems into plug and play components,

enterprise systems in addressing business agility. Systems

dissociating resource use from resource ownership,

and hardware agility are significant players in today’s

switching to enable parallel use of multiple business

technology-driven businesses. Sambamurthy et al. (2003)

models, and grafting of new business models through

discuss the strategic role of IT investments and capabili-

acquisition. Resource fluidity equips operational leader-

ties in shaping agility in organisations. They also present

ship with meta capabilities to optimise operations and

an argument that agility comprises the three interrelated

explore opportunities for greater flexibility in delivery.

capabilities of customer agility, partnering agility and

While the first two dimensions focus on exploring, align-

operational agility. Cultural agility, espoused by Caligiuri

ing and building relationships, resource agility mobilises

(2013), is another interesting perspective of agility that

the resources to provide an agile foundation upon which

relates to the professional working in cross-cultural envi-

its innovations and experiments can be built.

ronments. Being culturally agile in a globalised market is a definite advantage in successfully negotiating, operating

Business agility

and delivering outcomes under foreign domains. The sections that follow describe these facets of agility in greater

Businesses today are so highly technology-based that their

detail and relate these capabilities to the university sector

agility and manoeuvrability depend greatly on the agility

as it seeks to re-imagine, transform and innovate.

of the various components that form their IT landscape. Today’s large enterprise systems are so complex and

Strategic agility

tightly integrated that making quick changes in response to external triggers or change in business direction is

Doz and Kosonen (2010) describe three main dimen-

mostly a huge undertaking and not without considerable

sions in strategic agility as strategic sensitivity, leadership

costs and risks. This is particularly the case in universi-

unity and resource fluidity. Strategic sensitivity includes

ties, where business processes are complex and varied

leadership actions such as anticipating with foresight,

and built into systems that are not designed with agility in

experimenting and corporate venturing, distancing to

mind (Mukerjee, 2012).

gain perspective, abstracting to concepts and models and

It is commonly understood that automation of pro-

reframing to imagine and generate new business models.

cesses brings improved efficiency and a more streamlined

Strategic sensitivity is particularly pertinent to leadership

approach. What needs greater awareness is the impact of

at universities as they observe and monitor innovations

highly customised and complex solutions on an organisa-

unfolding from a distance, explore new opportunities and

tion’s ability to respond quickly to change. Glass (2002)

markets through digital transformation and different busi-

found that the complexity of software increases by 100

ness models.

per cent for every 25 per cent increase in the problem

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

Agility: a crucial capability for universities Sheila Mukerjee

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complexity. Thus, while customisations and complex

with minimum latency defines its agility. The speed with

solutions may appear to provide the alignment and ben-

which an organisation is able to respond from the time

efit to the business unit requesting the solution, it intro-

the need for a change is identified to the time the change

duces a level of rigidity and maintenance overhead to the

is implemented and operational determines its place and

enterprise system that may ultimately impact on the agil-

voice in the competitive market: missed opportunities

ity of the organisation.

could have a severe impact on an organisationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s competi-

Research undertaken by Goodhue et al. (2009) indi-

tive edge. Universities are notorious for having complex

cates that there are ways to enhance enterprise systems to

and non-standard business processes. Their agility could

achieve agility. They conducted interviews with business

be significantly enhanced by streamlining and optimising

and IT managers from 15 companies to gain insight into

their business processes.

how agility challenges in enterprise and non-enterprise

In his paper on the efficiency of lean versus agility, Ver-

systems are addressed. They concluded that, contrary to

straete (2004) talks about agility in terms of reactive and

concerns expressed about enterprise systems restricting

responsive companies. Reactive companies have efficient

agility, there were four ways of leveraging off enterprise

business processes across the enterprise but do not pro-

systems to facilitate agility. These include the use of exist-

actively address potential disruptions. Thus, while they

ing system functionality not previously implemented,

are efficient and optimised to value add, these companies

leveraging off high quality and well integrated data, use

are not in a ready state to deal with sudden or unexpected

of third party special purpose add-ons to the enterprise

change. Responsive companies have well-established busi-

systems and vendor enhancements to the system. This

ness processes across the organisation and proactively

may provide the extra functionality required to address

look for ways to address disruptions.. The aim of respon-

the business challenges but may not necessarily provide

sive companies is to reduce response times by reducing

the organisation with the latency that it needs to respond

the latency between planning and implementing change.

in a timely manner, particularly if resources are limited.

It has been suggested that one of the barriers to change is

The ability to achieve the desired agility then becomes a

embedding business processes in a transaction within an

question of cost and affordability.

application. Separating business processes from system-

Non-enterprise systems are less complex with fewer

based transactions enables change to be made quickly to

interdependencies, making them more flexible and easier

the business process, thus providing greater ability and

to change. Because of this decoupling from complex inter-

room to move with change. IT infrastructure that can

relationships, they can provide the resource fluidity of

quickly resize and reconfigure in response to identified

plug and play. However, if a global change is required, this

change can also provide the underlying flexibility.

agility is somewhat limited. It is generally easier to make a global change on a single enterprise-wide system than it is

Cultural agility

to change multiple non-enterprise systems spread across many countries.

Cultural agility refers to the ability of a workforce to

Whether enterprise systems or non-enterprise sys-

operate effectively and successfully in cross-cultural and

tems are used with vanilla implementations or complex

international environments with complex cultural issues,

customised solutions, there does not appear to be an

customs, behaviours, attitudes, values, regulatory and legal

immediate answer to the dilemma experienced by organi-

requirements and competition (Caligiuri, 2013). A cultur-

sations with respect to systems and agility. Rettig (2007)

ally agile professional is able to successfully assess, operate

discusses this dilemma and the greater expectations cre-

and deliver within the cross-cultural context whether the

ated by technology. She highlights the need for commu-

professional is operating by communication across borders

nication between the business and IT to enable better

or located within a foreign country. As universities become

understanding and realistic expectations. Understanding

increasingly global in their reach and operations, cultural

the limitations of enterprise systems can often lead to

agility is likely to be a competency that will be sought after

helpful discussions and exploration of what is needed

and reflected in the recruitment, training and development

and what else can be done. Systems are only one part of

processes. Technology can enable a university to identify,

the equation; there are other factors that can facilitate

reach out and expand, but culturally sensitive and aware

greater business agility. At an operational level, an organi-

staff can make a difference in the way interactions and

sationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capability to create, modify and re-design its pro-

communications with the deal makers, customers and legal

cesses, and therefore its operations, in response to change

and regulatory personnel are handled.

Agility: a crucial capability for universities Sheila Mukerjee

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Customer agility

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level relies on the individual staff member. A mindset who is always alert for change through active involve-

Customer agility draws on relationships with customers

ment in processes that inform of change such as regular

to provide valuable input into the innovation of products

environment scanning, monitoring business process for

and services, including product design, testing and feed-

improvements and routine use of analytics and feedback

back, as well as a communication network (Sambamurthy

mechanism for trends, patterns and consumer sentiment

et al., 2003).Tools that manage customer relationships

sets the tone for readiness to act, adapt and adopt.

and provide analytics of customer data, preferences, social

Technology now has a pivotal role to play in enabling

network interactions and volume can enhance an organi-

and enhancing the agility capability of an organisation.

sation’s customer agility. In this age of online transactions,

The challenge of digital transformation is foremost on the

virtual communities and social networks, these valuable

agendas of most organisations in today’s global and digital

customer relationships and participation can be discov-

economies. Customer expectations, satisfaction and pref-

ered, built and enhanced through the use of technology

erences are now of greater significance in driving strategy

tools. Universities have a rich source of customers, a good

and innovation. Technology is so embedded in businesses

proportion of which are already actively engaged in inno-

that the line between business and technology is almost

vative spaces of social networks and the online world.

invisible. For businesses to be successful, this closely inter-

This multi-generational group of consumers is a valuable

twined relationship must be reflected in the strategic and operational models of the

source of customer preference, feedback on existing products and services, and partnership to develop new ideas and products.

Partnering agility

Outdated structures, consisting of silos and too many handover points working under old methodologies that have not been optimised against the current delivery model, will struggle to deliver outcomes in the timeframes required by the business.

Partnering agility is an organisation’s ability to leverage off

organisation. Large organisations with separate IT departments (such as universities) need to ensure closer alignment between the business and their provider(s) of IT services and functions to ensure a greater understanding of needs and capabil-

its partnerships and relationships with suppliers, provid-

ity so that minimum latency between identification of a

ers, vendors, business partners and any other third party

change and its implementation can be achieved. This may

arrangements (Sambamurthy, et al. 2003). This capability

mean a rethink of the models of delivery and service away

provides an organisation with a ready network of enabling

from the traditional model to a more agile approach.

resources to draw upon for innovative partnerships, fund-

Outdated structures, consisting of silos and too many

ing sources, advice, support and provision of services and

handover points working under old methodologies that

products when required. Partnership with technology pro-

have not been optimised against the current delivery

viders and suppliers can provide the expertise and support

model, will struggle to deliver outcomes in the timeframes

required for joint innovation programmes. Universities have

required by the business. The question of managing

successfully demonstrated this agility in the area of collabo-

and supporting a diverse range of systems and software

ration with industry partners for research purposes, indus-

remains a big challenge for universities. The diversity of

try work experience and placements. More can be done

systems is a reflection of the diversity and complexity of

with industry and technology partnerships in learning and

business needs. Researchers work in specialised fields

teaching innovation. MOOCs have galvanised movement

that require software developed to address their unique

in this space in a significant way (Kolowich, 2012). Fund-

requirements for innovation and discovery. Lecturers and

raising through philanthropy and other avenues is also a

teaching staff operate in a space in which new delivery

growth area for partnerships in universities.

methods and models are constantly evolving to satisfy new ways of engaging a multi generational student pop-

Conclusion

ulation in a highly digitised market. Administration and management require enterprise systems and tools to sup-

The human element represents a critical core of any

port their functions, as well as the provision of service to

organisation. While agility at the leadership level aims at

staff and students. If resources are limited, diversity and

the strategic, agility at the very heart of the operational

complexity can be a distraction that has an impact on the

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organisation’s agility and ability to maintain its strategic focus. It may be possible to simplify and consolidate systems to a certain degree, after which the business imperative to specialise or differentiate takes greater priority and importance. This is a tension that universities will need to address through constant communication and close collaboration with their IT departments. In conclusion, organisations that are slow to respond strategically and operationally are likely to struggle in the rapid digital world of throwaway innovations. Universities must learn to evolve and embrace game changing transformations. It is time to start ‘getting comfortable with chaos’ and ‘stop defending the status quo’ (Penttila, 2009). The randomness of innovation and the trend for quick innovation upon innovation means that we are dealing with more paradigm shifts than incremental shifts. Unless an organisation is appropriately structured, managed and resourced to move with the times as an agile entity, its ability to respond to change and, ultimately, its survival will be under serious threat. Sheila Mukerjee works as Business Engagement Manager in Information and Communications Technology at La Trobe

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Agility: a crucial capability for universities Sheila Mukerjee

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

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OPINION

The educative potential of industrial action Lessons from the picket line Yarran Hominh University of Sydney

Recent staff industrial action at Australian universities has shown that such action involves a tension between the rights of staff to proper conditions and the rights of students to an education. This tension is embodied in the figure of the picket line, which, for staff, is a symbol of unity and support, but which for some students is a barrier to education that must be surmounted. It is argued here that this tension can be dissolved through reconceiving industrial action as an opportunity for deep learning, which happens to be the guiding principle of modern university teaching. The picket line, reconceptualised in this way, becomes not only a symbol of the relationship between staff and students who constitute a university, but also connects with the overall purpose and place of a university as a centre of learning.

Introduction

perception. Students now increasingly see themselves as just consumers of university services and consequently as

The first half of 2013 saw five days of strikes at the Univer-

having no particular stake in the institution itself.

sity of Sydney, the highest number in well over a decade.

The strikes were, on the whole, supported by staff and

Semester 2 saw two more days of strike, with further roll-

student representative bodies (Bennett, 2013; Collins, 2013;

ing action planned before agreement was reached on the

Student Representative Council, University of Sydney,

Enterprise Agreement that was the direct (though not

2013; University of Sydney Union, 2013a, 2013b, 2013c).

sole) cause of the strike.

However, particularly as the strikes wore on, many stu-

Challenges to university funding and the increasing

dents became increasingly disenchanted with what they

workload of university staff (Shah, Lewis & Fitzgerald, 2011;

perceived as the educational cost to them of the ongoing

Vidovich & Currie, 2011) mean that it is increasingly likely

industrial action. There are many reasons for this, including

that such industrial action will become more common-

the monopolisation by university management of the nar-

place on our campuses. Recent industrial action at universi-

rative surrounding the strikes, the massification of higher

ties around Australia (ABC News Online, 2013b; Horn, 2013;

education, leading to greater distance between staff and

Preiss, 2013) has shown that these challenges are felt sector

the wider student body, the increased commercialisation

wide. These challenges are underpinned by a transition

of universities and the other extracurricular imperatives of

in university culture; staff increasingly see themselves as

work, rent and socialising that take (perhaps rightly) pride

employees of the management-run university, rather than

of place in the lives of students today.

as an essential part of the institution. This transition has

It is fair to say that there is an inevitable tension

been accompanied by an analogous shift in student self-

between the industrial action we take as teachers and

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The educative potential of industrial action Yarran Hominh

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the educative cost that such action has for students. This

lining of staff voices and management’s unwillingness to

article does not attempt to analyse or evaluate the rea-

negotiate a new Enterprise Agreement in good faith. With

sons why this tension exists. It seeks, instead, to provide

regard to the latter, there is no question that these strikes

a reconceptualisation of university industrial action that

were instrumental in achieving (or maintaining) what bar-

could begin to resolve (or dissolve) this tension, which

gaining gains have been achieved by staff. Since the begin-

between staff and students is particularly embodied in the

ning of the campaign, university management had already

figure of the picket line – the most weighty of industrial

agreed to (among other things) reinstate intellectual free-

relations acts – and which, for the staff who participate, is

dom and anti-discrimination protections for staff, to insti-

a symbol of unity and support but which, for the students

tute pathways to permanent positions for casual staff and

who wish to cross it (for whatever purposes), can be a

to increase consultation with staff as part of change man-

barrier to education that must be surmounted.

agement processes. The Enterprise Agreement that secured

How is this tension to be resolved? We may begin to

these gains was concluded in early October 2013.

resolve it by reconceptualising the picket line as an act

But the strikes have not been without cost. The picket

of education; more specifically, an act which embodies

lines were, for some, confrontational and at times violent.

and encourages deep learning among students (and staff).

Students who were picketing with staff received injuries

Deep learning, rather felicitously, is the way in which

on multiple occasions, including a broken arm and con-

good university teaching is currently understood.

cussions, as a result of police intervention. The last day

I do not wish to deny as part of this argument that indus-

of strike action resulted in eleven arrests as the university

trial action, whether at a university or elsewhere, must

claimed picketers were ‘putting the general public’s safety

take into account any number of considerations. Some are

at risk’ (ABC News Online, 2013a; Davidson, 2013).

narrowly strategic and practical, others more abstract and

Whether these injuries and arrests were justified or

theoretical. Industrial action, very correctly, has certain

not, the fact that they happened exacerbated the feelings

aims and purposes other than encouraging deep learning:

of some in the student body that the picket lines – and

pressuring management; raising public awareness; encour-

the picketers – were engaged in actions that have a cost

aging solidarity. However, how industrial action at a uni-

to their education with no perceivable immediate reward.

versity is undertaken should be informed by the nature

A few anecdotal incidents from the University of Sydney

of that institution. As an educational institution, univer-

picket lines may support this: a student telling a senior

sity industrial action has (and should have) certain dis-

professorial colleague that he was a ‘bludger’ and ‘should

tinct characteristics that mark it off from industrial action

get back to work’, general student indifference to the fact

undertaken in other contexts.

they were crossing a picket line, a long discussion with a

This reconceptualisation of industrial action in the uni-

particular student as to his stake in the strikes, since ‘Sure, it

versity as an act of education has certain practical implica-

will affect education in the longer term, but not my educa-

tions for how such industrial action should be undertaken.

tion’ and many discussions with other students attempting

Not all of these are addressed, instead the focus is on how

to cross the picket line who proposed (perhaps sarcasti-

this reconceptualisation may function for the particular

cally, perhaps not) that they should receive monetary rec-

example of the picket line. It will be shown that a picket

ompense for the cost of their missed lectures.

line need not be an impermeable barrier, but instead, as a

Again, whatever the rights and wrongs of these particu-

moving picket line, can be a symbol of walking together.

lar incidents, the fact is that students perceive a tension

This walking together aims, through discussion with stu-

between university industrial action and their own inter-

dents, to be an educative tool to develop students’ critical

ests. This perceived tension may have been exacerbated

awareness of the role of a university and their place, as citi-

by an assumption by staff that the student body was, by

zens of that institution, within the university itself.

default, in support of their position. This assumption may have had the consequence that efforts by staff to explain

Industrial action at the University of Sydney, 2013

their case directly to students were not as robust as they could have been. Apart from a social media campaign involving academic and general staff, communication to

The five days of strikes at the University of Sydney during

students regarding the strikes in the early part of the cam-

the first semester of 2013 were driven by deep discontent

paign was largely limited to material such as flyers and

over several issues: the way staff were treated during a pro-

lecture slides that were made available to students and

cess of cuts in 2011–12, increasing micromanagement, side-

staff prior to and during the strikes, and to whatever com-

The educative potential of industrial action Yarran Hominh

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munication that individual teaching staff felt appropriate

rights balancing approach contributes to this denial by

to engage in with students during teaching hours.

saying this: we say that the loss of your learning is a price

These efforts were increased in the latter part of the campaign as it became clear that students were becoming

we are willing to pay for the greater good, which we define as your education.Where is the student’s voice in this?

less supportive of the industrial action. It is perhaps a sub-

Let us take a particular example. A picket line, as the

ject for another article to consider the larger educational

physical symbol of staff unity and staff support for a strike,

strategy in respect of university industrial action.

can be quite an alienating experience for students who

In any case, regardless of the chain of events (perhaps

either feel compelled (wrongly) to attend, or for their

of missed opportunities) that led to this problem, the

own reasons still wish to attend, class. These students do

question remains: how might this tension between staff

not fully understand what the picket line represents for

industrial action and student interests be resolved?

staff or the justifications for staff action; they see only a reduction in their education. It is all loss and no gain. They

Balancing rights and interests, or the expression of voice?

have had no say in this action; they are simply bystanders, third parties in this internecine dispute within an educational institution that they just attend. A picket line, for

One (perhaps standard) response may be to characterise

some, only adds to the dislocation they already feel as

the tension as a conflict between rights or interests. On

merely one student among thousands. What is their place

this approach, the staff right to take industrial action con-

in this institution?

flicts with the student right to education. This conflict,

This sense of alienation is not only true of students who,

it might be thought, can be easily resolved: staff rights

we may feel, do not have a proper grasp of the situation, but

clearly take precedence. The loss of student learning

also of students who take part in industrial action alongside

during any industrial action is a small cost compared to

staff who may feel this way. An example may be a partici-

the long-term cost of not taking the action.

pating student who, when it was suggested he try to talk to

This may be true; indeed, may be trivially true, however,

students crossing the picket line in more detail about the

what this approach passes over is the way in which this

reasons for the strike, shrugged his shoulders and said, ‘If

dispute is decided. This can be brought out by under-

they haven’t got the point by now ...’ The feeling for this

standing the tension not in terms of rights, but in terms

student may not be the same as for students wishing to

of voice. This is important, because industrial action has

cross the picket line, but the same sense of distance from

traditionally been understood in terms of voice: equal-

the university and from the educative process is evident.

ising the voices of workers with those of employers. Ewing (1989) writes that industrial action has a number of rationales: putting pressure on employers to take or

A way forward: industrial action as encouraging deep learning

refrain from a particular course of action, to display and reinforce the power of the working class and, in doing so,

How can this tension be addressed? How can staff fight

to redress the vast power imbalances that exist between

for their place in the university without denying students

employees and employers. Implicit in all these rationales

theirs? Any such resolution must involve bringing students

is the idea of voice.

to a consciousness of their place in the university institution, and of the relevance of the industrial action to them.

The university: whose voice?

What is outlined below is not meant to be an exclusive method of achieving this goal. Equally important is what

This conception of the purposes of industrial action is

is done in the classroom by individual teaching staff, and

complicated in the university context (and in the edu-

in the preservation of a wider university culture involving

cation sector more generally) by the fact that the work-

students and staff. These other methods are outside the

ers (university staff) in question have a duty not only to

scope of this article, although there is important work to

themselves, but also to students. What university staff do

be done by teaching staff in encouraging greater student

in their role as teachers is to enable students to find and

involvement in the university.

express their own voice.

What is suggested here is that one approach to this

What the rights balancing approach misses, then, is that

resolution is through understanding industrial action as

the expression of voice by staff in industrial action has the

an educative process, in particular an understanding that

potential to deny the concurrent voices of students. The

encourages a certain sort of conceptual thinking in stu-

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dents. A university is meant to embody certain values of

ine, 1998, p. 147). Weston and McAlpine (1998) argue that

educational integrity (the transformative power of educa-

a primary characteristic of teaching in this sense is caring,

tion). It should be a place in society, present an attitude

respect, or concern for students – it is a focus on the stu-

of enquiry, critical thinking and engagement, and should

dent and their understanding, their place with regard to the

highlight the importance of connecting members of that

material. Concern for students thus involves fostering and

institution through education and research to the wider

encouraging the voice of students. Like industrial action,

world. All these values require a strong staff–student

deep learning involves the expression of voice.

relationship through which the research knowledge and

Importantly, this relationship necessarily involves the

skill set can pass down from academic staff to the student

entire institution in which learning takes place. The uni-

body. This relationship of teaching and learning intends

versity itself is meant to embody this sort of relationship

to foster a certain sort of student, one who is aware that

to students, this sort of concern and respect for students

they are able to contribute to the university and to society,

and their place in the university.

one who fully absorbs the knowledge available to them at

It is precisely this notion of concern and respect that

university – in short, a student who engages in what could

gives rise to the tension between staff interests and stu-

be called deep learning.

dent interests identified earlier. University staff have a conception of themselves as playing a particular role in a

Deep learning as an educational philosophy

university, one that involves teaching. It is this self-conception they are protecting by taking industrial action. The conflict within this self-conception arises if, in doing so,

What is this idea of deep learning that a university is

they are inadvertently undermining students’ self-concep-

meant to encourage and that seems to constitute, to a

tion of themselves as part of the university. Only if a univer-

large degree, what university staff wish to see in students?

sity contains students can it contain teachers.

Ramsden (2003) describes a deep learning approach as one in which students use high-level verbs. They do not merely describe, or memorise; they analyse, relate, under-

The picket line as embodying deep learning

stand, organise. Instead of just remembering content as a selection of ‘disconnected pieces of material’, deep

This tension with respect to industrial action at a university

learning means students draw connections, they learn to

generally is embodied in the particular figure of the picket

understand the material as a ‘coherent whole’ (Prosser &

line: for staff, a symbol of unity and support, for students, a

Trigwell, 1999; Ramsden, 2003). They learn to have their

potential barrier. The picket line divides, or at least has the

own approach to the material; it becomes something they

potential to divide, students and staff, rather than including

can use, play with – something that is meaningful to them,

them both in the same institution. How, then, can the picket

something that matters.

line be re-imagined in order to embody this notion of deep

Thus, deep learning involves ‘conceptual change, not

learning at the centre of university teaching?

just the acquisition of information’ (Biggs, 1999, p. 13). It

The picket line can be re-imagined as part of the total

entails ‘the meaning and structure of what is taught’, and

teaching context in which a deep learning approach is

‘arises from a felt need to engage the task appropriately

encouraged. The picket line can provide an opportunity

and meaningfully’ (Biggs, 1999, pp. 15-16).

for creating and strengthening a staff-student relation-

This approach to learning is encouraged by a total teach-

ship through educative discussion with students as to the

ing context in which teachers and students engage in dia-

role they play in the university. This contributes to deep

logue. This teaching context involves not only the material

learning through contextualising students’ own education

to be taught and the way it is presented, but also a relation-

within the wider context of a university – they are given

ship between teachers and students and, importantly, the

not only abstract knowledge, but also a new conception

institutional context within which this teaching relation-

of themselves and their civic role as students.

ship is located (Biggs, 1991). Good teaching, then, on a basic

This student self-conceptualisation can be achieved by

level, fosters student engagement with the material in such

portraying the picket line not as an impermeable barrier

a way that students realise the ways in which that material

to the university (to education), but as part of the univer-

matters to them. Teaching for deep learning empowers stu-

sity, part of the educative process that takes place at a uni-

dents; it engages with them (Weston & McAlpine, 1998). It

versity. To do this, it must be connected to the classroom

gives them ‘a sense of their own ability’ (Weston & McAlp-

and to learning.

The educative potential of industrial action Yarran Hominh

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nition of the role each plays in that institution, and that each is taking a part in that institution through the act of

How is this to be achieved? How are two things as dispa-

civil disobedience that is industrial action.

rate as a picket line and the classroom to be connected?

This idea is, admittedly, not without its costs. It requires,

Here are a couple of non-exhaustive ways by which this

first of all, that there are sufficient numbers of staff (and

might occur. These suggestions flow from the central idea

students) on the picket line to maintain a physical pres-

that the picket line can be a symbol of educative concern

ence at the entrances to the university and to walk and

and respect for students, while those on the picket line

talk with students who wish to cross the picket line. The

remain cognisant of the other (strategic and practical)

implementation of this idea will also require a high degree

considerations that necessarily enter into any decision to

of organisation and dedication from those participating on

take industrial action.

the lines. The University of Sydney campaign did show this

The picket line can achieve this if its sole goal is more

level of organisation and dedication, evidenced, in part, by

than seeking to force students to turn around. The picket

increased unionisation rates, especially among casual staff

line can also inform students, encourage discussion and

members, and new sub-forms of organisation within the

foster understanding of the purposes of the industrial aac-

broader union structure.

tion. It can also help students to appreciate their place with

For these reasons, this reconceptualisation of the

regard to that action and to the university more generally.

picket line, as has been previously emphasised, should

This act empowers students; it shows them, on a basic level,

not be understood as a standalone solution to the ten-

that staff are responsive to their concerns, are showing

sion between student interests and staff interests, or to

them respect, and that they, too, are part of the university.

the more general problem of student engagement in the

Further, such empowerment could not only take the

university. Unlike individuals themselves, the cultural shift

form of simple discussion, but also of encouragement and

towards educational individualism and consumerism

exhortation to positive acts. Students who wish to cross

cannot be turned around on the picket lines.

the picket line could be encouraged to continue to classes,

Despite these issues, this relationship between stu-

but to question their teachers and fellow class members

dents and staff, if properly encouraged, can contribute to

as to their views on the industrial action taking place.

addressing these problems by embodying the ideal of deep

Such exhortations would work to connect the picket

learning which is the essence of the teaching and learning

line with the classroom. Anecdotally, the vast majority of

relationship. It embodies this ideal insofar as it empowers

students say they are more than willing to engage in this

students through engagement with them; it helps them to

way, even those who have had prior uncomfortable expe-

realise that their voice – not only the voice of staff – matters

riences at the picket line. Useful empirical work could be

within the institution of which we are all a part. We need

done here in terms of measuring student knowledge and

also to keep in mind that these initiatives, once planted in

engagement after the discussion with staff.

the minds of students, can and do take on a life of their

This sort of picket line would involve not only engaging students in discussion at the line itself, rather than

own. Like the picket line, every step counts, and every step taken together, no matter how small, is important in itself.

engaging in aggressive conduct towards it, but also walking with students past the picket line – even all the way to the

Conclusion

classroom – as an act of good faith. This has the effect of symbolically making the students part of the picket line,

This article has tried to show how the increasing chal-

and of keeping the reasons for the strike in their mind

lenges faced by university education make it all the more

during class. The picket line, in this conception, becomes

important that members of the university community find

flexible. The picket line, as a symbol of staff support and

new ways to remain faithful to their idea of a university

staff resolve – as a symbol of their place in the university

as a place of knowledge and of education. One particular

– attaches itself to students (as all such symbols of support

challenge that faces this conception of a university is the

must in a more standard teaching environment), in order

relationship between staff and students, a challenge that is

to enable students to find their place with respect to the

heightened when industrial action is taken to protect the

institution, a place that is found, through walking together,

interests of both groups. This challenge comes about due

in relation to the classroom and the picket line.

to the fact that such action has a (perceived) cost to the

In this way, students and staff enter into a relationship

education of students, one that they may not understand

that itself constitutes the university. They do so in recog-

or be willing to accept. To meet this challenge, I have tried

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Acknowledgements

encourages deep learning, in terms of the proper relationship between students and staff. This reconceptualisation

Thanks to Rick Benitez, who has played inspirational and

can be understood in terms of the particular example of

advisory roles to this piece, and to the staff and students at

the picket line, re-imagined not as a barrier to the role of

the University of Sydney for being who they are.

students in the university, but as an invitation to and an encouragement for their participation in the whole of the

Yarran Hominh is a casual lecturer and tutor in the Depart-

university, not just during their set class time. The picket

ment of Philosophy, University of Sydney, Sydney.

line, thus re-imagined, reflects and embodies the values of the university. The values of the university that are to be expressed through the picket line are the values of educational integrity, critical thinking, engagement, connection with the wider world and within the institution itself. These values are reflected in the educative concept of deep learning, which attempts to engender in students a wider conceptual, structural understanding of their place with respect to the material. It attempts to empower them, to give them the skills and knowledge necessary for them to find and express their own understanding, which includes their place with respect to, and their own understanding of, the institution in which they learn. Essential to this is the teacher–student relationship. Encouragement of a deep learning approach requires that teachers display their concern and respect for students, and they do not dismiss students or their perspective. The teacher, then, is to treat the student as having something to say, as having a voice. If the picket line is to embody these values, it must do so not as a place of conflict of rights, but as a place of expression of voice. This means re-imagining the picket line not as a barrier that must be surmounted, but as a symbol of walking together. It means open discussion with students – not only at the stationary picket line, but also with the picket line as it moves with students through the university to wherever they wish to go. It means connecting what is done at the picket line with what is done in the classroom. It means the picket line becomes flexible; it empowers students by helping them realise that staff are upholding their role in the university, that the concept of a university necessarily includes the role of students, and by encouraging them to acts that allow them to connect, in a deep sense, the concept of a picket line with the concept of their education. It does so, of course, while still remaining true to the fact that a picket line, as an example of industrial action more generally, also involves other sorts of considerations that have their proper place. The picket line itself thus becomes an act of education. It is that act of education – the embodiment of the university society as it should be within the individual citizens

References ABC News Online. (2013a). Multiple arrests as protesters clash with riot police at Sydney University, ABC News Online, 5 June. ABC News Online. (2013b). Uni staff withhold exam results as industrial action escalates, ABC News Online, 26 June. Bennett, L. (2013). Sydney University shut down by strike, Vertigo, University of Technology, Sydney. Biggs, J. B. (1991). Teaching for better learning. Legal Education Review, 2, 133–147. Biggs, J. B. (1999). Teaching for Quality Learning at University (1st ed.). Buckingham: Open University Press. Collins, S–J. (2013). Strike action an academic exercise, Sydney Morning Herald, 25 February. Davidson, H. (2013). Riot police arrest eleven at Sydney University protest, The Guardian, 5 June. Ewing, K. D. (1989). The right to strike in Australia. Australian Journal of Labour Law, 2(1), 18–39. Horn, A. (2013). Union to intensify James Cook University industrial unrest, ABC News Online, 21 June. Preiss, B. (2013). Uni industrial action likely to widen, The Age, 27 May. Prosser, M. & Trigwell, K. (1999). Understanding Teaching and Learning: The experience in higher education. Buckingham: Open University Press. Ramsden, P. (2003). Learning to Teach in Higher Education (2nd ed.). London and New York: Routledge. Shah, M., Lewis, I. & Fitzgerald, R. (2011). The renewal of quality assurance in Australian higher education: the challenge of balancing academic rigour, equity and quality outcomes. Quality in Higher Education, 17(3), 265–278. University of Sydney Student Representative Council. (2013). Education Officers’ Report. Retrieved from http://srcusyd.net.au/education-officers-report/. University of Sydney Union. (2013a). Industrial action: 20 August. Retrieved from http://yourunionboard.blogspot.com.au/2013/08/industrial-action20-august-2013.html. University of Sydney Union. (2013b). Latest Sydney Uni strike and funding news. Retrieved from http://yourunionboard.blogspot.com.au/2013_05_01_archive. html. University of Sydney Union. (2013c). USU board supports NTEU’s campaign for fair enterprise bargain. Retrieved from http://yourunionboard.blogspot.com. au/2013/03/usu-board-supports-nteus-campaign-for.html. Vidovich, L. & Currie, J. (2011). Governance and trust in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 36(1), 43–56. Weston, C. & McAlpine, L. (1998). How six outstanding math professors view teaching and learning: the importance of caring. International Journal for Academic Development, 3(2), 146–155.

of that society – that brings about change.

The educative potential of industrial action Yarran Hominh

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Another matrix revolution? The overlap of university work Carroll Graham University of Technology, Sydney

Imagining more productive relationships in higher education, in ways that do not look nostalgically backwards to an older, more elitist system, may be part of the first steps towards realising universities as more humane places in which to practise (Clegg & McAuley 2005, p. 13).

plexity of higher education professional identities, which

There may be a perception among academic staff that

framework in which to locate all university staff: the Roles

professional staff are remote from academic activities

Matrix (Figure 1) is proposed here. The dimensions of

(Wallace & Marchant, 2011), however, recent research

this matrix are academic focus and skills, encompassing

demonstrates that professional staff, across a range of

both teaching and research, and management focus and

roles and seniority levels, are interested and engaged in

skills. By conceptualising the roles of all university staff in

supporting positive student learning outcomes (Graham,

a two-dimensional matrix the concept of the third space,

2012, 2013a, 2013b). The improved understanding of

with unbounded and blended professionals, is accommo-

the work of professional staff that is emerging provides

dated as shown. The matrix model is significantly more

opportunity for substantial changes to practice and policy.

accommodating than either the Whitchurch typology or

Building on Whitchurch’s (2008a, 2009) typology of

the overlap model (Schneijderberg & Merkator, 2013).

bounded, cross-boundary, unbounded and blended profes-

The two-dimensional matrix could be extended into a

sionals, this research shows that professional staff span all

third dimension (thereby becoming a cubic space) in

four professional identities and show movement towards

order to delineate specialisations such as different aca-

the third space (Graham, 2013a). Although Whitchurch

demic disciplines or professional functions; however,

(2008a) developed her framework for professional staff at

this third dimension might unnecessarily complicate the

management levels, this research extends the framework

model, and it is contended here that all positions could be

to more junior roles, reinforcing Whitchurch’s contention

mapped to the two-dimensional matrix.

is addressed in the proposed matrix model. Rather than a binary divide between professional and academic staff, or a continuum from professional and administrative to academic roles, a matrix structure as a

that third space work is ‘indicative of future trends in pro-

Three key benefits that arise from this matrix concep-

fessional identities’ (2008b, p. 377). Yet, like the overlap

tualisation relate to understanding and developing the

model (Schneijderberg & Merkator, 2013), the Whitchurch

capabilities of all staff. First, an improved understand-

typology describes a linear continuum of professional

ing of the organisational capabilities of the institution

identities from routine professionals through to tradi-

could be generated by mapping individual roles to this

tional academics. This limitation may miss a deeper com-

matrix. Second, a clearer view of the potential pathways

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the recognition and reward of academic staff’ (University of Technology, Sydney, 2012). Nevertheless, there are limitations to academic promotions, usually based on quotas at academic Levels D and above. For professional and academic staff, more flexible options for career development could be of individual benefit. Significantly, there are signs that the binary divide is starting to crumble in some locations. There are, for example, increasing numbers of professional staff in senior executive roles in Australian universities (Szekeres, 2011), and the Library Professional Staff promotions policy and the associated procedure at La Trobe University are structured very much like typical academic promotions (La Trobe University, 2012). In addition, the Enterprise Agreement that was negotiated at Curtin University in 2012 is a single agreement for professional and academic staff (Curtin University, 2012). These

Figure 1. Roles Matrix: a two-dimensional conception of university roles

examples illustrate recognition of institutional benefits that accrue from having a more flexible approach to career progression for professional staff. Third, an understanding of the equivalent value of dif-

for career progressions for staff would become apparent.

ferent roles could be developed, thereby enabling the

Thirdly, an understanding of the equivalent value of differ-

development of a single pay spine that would permit

ent roles could be developed. These three points will be

equal pay for work of equal value. There are several

explored below.

general organisational advantages to embedding equal

Mapping all roles in an institution to the two-dimen-

pay for equal value of work, including a positive impact

sional Roles Matrix shown in Figure 1 would enable an

on female workers, a more effective use of skills and

improved understanding of staff capabilities across all

improved human resource management, better working

functions. Such an improved understanding would ben-

relationships and positive effects on organisational repu-

efit the institution by enhancing workforce planning

tation (International Labour Organization, 2011). Within

through supply analysis (Anderson, 2004, p. 363), as the

the context of the higher education sector, implementa-

mapping would help to identify both capacity and gaps

tion of the principle of equal pay for equal value of work

in the workforce. Workforce planning, or capacity plan-

could be framed using the Roles Matrix and a single pay

ning, is a key part of business planning (Turner, 2010),

spine. A single pay spine and lines of iso-pay – that is,

and should be part of an organisation’s overall talent man-

lines connecting roles of equal pay – are shown in Figure

agement (Conlon et al., 2010). Moreover, having better

2. The current study indicates that the work of all staff is

understanding of organisational capacity will assist in its

essential to students achieving their learning outcomes,

development, management and alignment with institu-

and that all staff need to work together, supportively, valu-

tional strategic directions, which will contribute to the

ing the work of their colleagues, ‘to serve The University

achievement of organisational strategic goals.

and its students’ (Sharafizad, Paull & Omari, 2011, p. 47).

Second, allowing staff to maximise their careers by

This is contingent upon recruiting and retaining the right

facilitating progressions that might not be obvious or

staff, be they professional or academic, which would be

even possible with the current binary divide between

facilitated by implementation of the Roles Matrix and a

academic and professional staff has individual and organi-

single pay spine.

sational benefits. Currently, career progression for pro-

The Roles Matrix and the single pay spine with its lines

fessional staff has typically two routes: appointment to a

of iso-pay, with an associated single enterprise agreement

different role at a higher-ranked level, or reclassification

for all university staff, are somewhat radical proposals that

of a current role to a higher ranked level. In contrast, aca-

have significant human resources and industrial relations

demic promotions have well-established, formal, merit-

implications. Non-salary benefits and conditions such as

based procedures that are clearly defined (Moodie, 2002),

flexible working arrangements and systems to ensure nec-

which apply to individuals and provide ‘a mechanism for

essary work–life balance across all roles would also need

Another matrix revolution? Carroll Graham

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Management Handbook: Creating a sustainable competitive advantage by selecting, developing, and promoting the best people, London: McGraw-Hill. Curtin University (2012). Curtin University Academic, Professional and General Staff Enterprise Agreement 2012–2016. Retrieved from http://hr.curtin.edu.au/ local/docs/Enterprise_Agreement_2012_-_2016.pdf_-_Adobe_Acrobat_Pro.pdf. Fullan, M. & Scott, G. (2009). Turnaround leadership for higher education, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Graham, C. (2012). Transforming spaces and identities: the contributions of professional staff to learning spaces in higher education. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 34(4), 437–452. Graham, C. (2013a). Changing technologies, changing identities: a case study of professional staff and their contributions to learning and teaching. Perspectives: Policy and Practice in Higher Education, 17(2), 62–70. Graham, C. (2013b). Professional staff contributions to positive student outcomes: a case study. Australian Universities’ Review, 55(1), 7–16. International Labour Organization (2011). Equal Pay for Work of Equal Value: How do we get there?, UN Global Compact webinar. Retrieved from http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_emp/@emp_ent/@multi/ documents/meetingdocument/wcms_156288.pdf.

Figure 2. Single pay spine showing lines of iso-pay to be equitably provided to all staff. Given these potential complexities, it would be useful to learn from the UK experience, where equivalence was determined across all professional and academic positions (other than clinical academics) (Joint Negotiating Committee for Higher Education Staff, n.d.), and a single pay spine has been implemented progressively across UK universities since 2006 (University and College Union, n.d.). The UK implementation did not conceive of a matrix approach, however, and a binary divide remains between the roles for academic and professional staff. Nevertheless, given the increasing external forces on higher education (Fullan & Scott, 2009), it is imperative that universities make the most of all staff to help them achieve their potentials, while developing a talent pool that can assist universities meet the challenges of increasing accountability. United we stand, divided we fall. Carroll Graham is a third space professional working at the Institute for Sustainable Futures at the University of Technology, Sydney.

References Anderson, M.W. (2004). The metrics of workforce planning. Public Personnel Management, 33(4), 363–378. Clegg, S. & McAuley, J. (2005). Conceptualising middle management in higher education: a multifaceted discourse. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 27(1), 19–34.

Joint Negotiating Committee for Higher Education Staff (n.d.). Framework agreement for the modernisation of pay structures. Retrieved from http://www. ucu.org.uk/media/pdf/frameworkagreement.pdf. La Trobe University (2012). Library Professional Staff Promotions Policy. Retrieved from http://www.latrobe.edu.au/policy/documents/library-professionalstaff-promotions-policy.pdf. Moodie, G. (2002). Fish or fowl? Collegial processes in managerialist institutions. Australian Universities’ Review, 45(2), 18–22. Schneijderberg, C. & Merkator, N. (2013). The new higher education professionals, in Kehm, B.M. & Teichler, U. (eds), The Academic Profession in Europe: New tasks and new challenges, Dordrecht: Springer. Sharafizad, F., Paull, M. & Omari, M. (2011). Flexible work arrangements. Australian Universities’ Review, 53(2), 43–49. Szekeres, J. (2011). Professional staff carve out a new space. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 33(6), 679–691. Turner, P. (2010). From manpower planning to capacity planning – why we need workforce planning, in CIPD (ed.), Reflections on Workforce Planning, London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD). University and College Union (n.d.). HE framework agreement single pay spine. Retrieved from http://www.ucu.org.uk/he_singlepayspine. University of Technology, Sydney, (2012). Academic promotion: Vice-Chancellor’s directive. Retrieved from http://www.gsu.uts.edu.au/policies/documents/ promotion-academic.pdf. Wallace, M. & Marchant, T. (2011). Female administrative managers in Australian universities: not male and not academic. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 33(6), 567–581. Whitchurch, C. (2008a). Beyond administration and management: reconstructing the identities of professional staff in UK higher education. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 30(4), 375–386. Whitchurch, C. (2008b). Shifting identities and blurring boundaries: the emergence of third space professionals in UK higher education. Higher Education Quarterly, 62(4), 377–396. Whitchurch, C. (2009). The rise of the blended professional in higher education: a comparison between the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States. Higher Education, 58(3), 407–418.

Conlon, R., Norman, E.M. & Sorensen, A. (2010). Using workforce planning as part of a talent management program, in L. Berger & D. Berger (eds), The Talent vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

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To market, to market… Arthur O’Neill

The university of life

God, will be requisite for membership of His management team. Take this example from an advertisement for an

‘This is a secular age,’ replies [Professor] Godwin. ‘You cannot turn back the clock. You cannot condemn an institution for moving with the times.’ ‘By an institution you mean the university?’ ‘Yes, universities, but specifically faculties of humanities, which remain the core of any university.’ The humanities the core of the university. She [Elizabeth Costello] may be an outsider, but if she were asked to name the core of the university today, its core discipline, she would say it was moneymaking. That is how it looks from Melbourne, Victoria … J. M. Coetzee, Elizabeth Costello (2003, p. 125)

Associate Librarian: You will provide innovative leadership, strategic planning, and management of liaison and research support services across the Library Services portfolio, including policy development, quality assurance and high level liaison with strategic partners. Other leadership responsibilities include the Library’s web and electronic interfaces, cultural collections and archives. No hands-on stuff with books in this one. A template for jobs down the line is provided by the manner in which those at the top are displayed, usually with the assistance of executive search consultants.

In earlier pieces (O’Neill, 2002, 2010, 2012), I chewed on

Monash University wants a Vice-Chancellor – ‘Leading

and tried to digest newspaper advertisements made by

Monash to a brilliant future’ says the sub-title – ‘to build on

universities. Byproducts did not come out smelling like

the momentum generated …’: by the present incumbent.

roses: universities are scarcely able to present themselves

Apart from telling readers what a hot scone Monash is, the

without boasting, crass displays of salesmanship and

advertisement includes:

brazen invocations of virtue. Now I hark to their recruiting calls by taking a sample (the bias is all mine) from recent announcements. Maybe universities went about seeking employees differently in the good old days – I don’t go into that – but these days they are, as I hope to show, besotted with marketing brands as they seek aco-

A visionary and strategic leader of the highest calibre, the successful candidate will be bold in thinking and creative in spirit – one who will have the exceptional ability and profile demanded for the role of steering a large-scale and complex research-intensive university, constantly determined to achieve excellence and to make a difference to the world.

lytes to join them in the vision splendid. Great expectations, indeed. Happily, expectations of

Top dogs

humility and modesty are not included. If they were, the wrong sort of leader could apply …

Using job advertisements to report a university’s high ranking is like barbers painting ‘Hairdresser of the Year’ on their windows. The sign is the massage: you’ll feel good, look good, after entering such places. Institutional strengths are advanced, though it was not always so: twoliners in Wednesday’s ‘Men and Boys’ columns left out strengths of employers. Announcements of jobs in uni-

In another place, Griffith University, and down the ladder a bit, a Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic) provides strategic leadership for the portfolio areas of academic planning and quality; students, teaching and learning; academic staff; and student and staff equity … The role requires exceptional management and operational skills and the ability to drive a culture of performance.

versities convey expectations that, if not realised only in

To market, to market… Arthur O’Neill

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Far be it for me to cavil at the semicolons, for they

Those executives make all the difference. Deans have

butter my literary bread; but are we to suppose that the

transmogrified into Executive Deans. The University of

anointed one will provide strategic leadership for a port-

Queensland wants two of them. According to an adver-

folio area of academic staff? In which respect? And is a

tisement placed by the appositely named search firm of

culture of performance to be driven by vague promises

Heidrick & Struggles, the one to lead a newly minted Fac-

or veiled threats? The same advertisement also calls for

ulty of Humanities and Social Sciences will be involved in

a deputy vice chancellor (engagement) who ‘provides

‘building coherence of purpose and culture, setting and

strategic leadership for the external engagement and

implementing strategic direction, and establishing effec-

representation of the University … The role plays a

tive administrative practices and service delivery modes’.

pivotal part … in fostering strategic alliances with key

The ‘ability to unify diverse discipline groups, identify syn-

stakeholders from industry, government, education and

ergies and drive opportunities with existing and merging

community groups’. ‘Strategy’ and ‘strategic leadership’

local and offshore partners’ are required. The successful

keep popping up. Devising tactics is, presumably, the lot

candidate ‘will need a global perspective, the ability to

of subordinate breeds.

inspire and lead a clear vision for the Faculty, and should

Slightly further down the ladder (or maybe up), Deakin

be a collaborative, team player with a strong institutional

University’s headline is ‘We’re Looking for Worldly People’

commitment’. In all, the Faculty needs a messiah to shep-

in an advertisement for a Pro Vice-Chancellor, Faculty of

herd its eight Schools and other bits and pieces out of the

Business and Law. Helped by an executive search firm, it

wilderness of incoherent purpose and culture. To nail my

announces: ‘An ambitious LIVE the future strategic plan

colours to the mast, I reckon disunity and incoherence are

has the University focussed on bringing the opportunities

marks of universities that are worthy of the name.

of the digital age to deliver brilliant education and world-

Another new faculty at the University of Queensland,

class innovation and research, while strengthening com-

Health and Behavioural Sciences, already has a ‘coher-

munities and delighting staff, students and friends.’

ent focus’ – ‘on health and well-being underpinned by

Now to the job: an ‘exceptional entrepreneurial leader’

a clear integrative theme related to preventative health

is sought ‘in the role of Pro Vice-Chancellor to play a key

and behaviour change’. ‘The opportunity now exists for

role in this new strategic direction and head up the Uni-

a strategic and visionary leader to head this new faculty.’

versity’s Faculty of Business and Law with a clear vision

Enter, stage left, the Executive Dean who ‘will develop the

and enthusiastic leadership’. The appointee will provide

vision for the new faculty … and implement the strategy

‘outstanding academic leadership’ and ‘will be commit-

in order to create a cohesive and dynamic environment

ted to Deakin’s premium cloud and located learning and

that takes the health disciplines forward in all domains –

teaching strategy, graduate employability and innovative

research, teaching and engagement’.

research’.

Then there is the Executive Dean’s part (not mentioned

Deakin’s Pro Vice-Chancellor and friends are going to

for the other one) in steering this ship of followers: ‘As

be high as kites and approaching visions of heavenly bliss.

a member of the university’s Senior Management Group,

It’s onwards, ever upwards, ‘to the next level of achieve-

the Executive Dean will contribute to the corporate mis-

ment’ as the University of Queensland says when ‘seeking

sion of the university. They will be a key representative

to appoint a new Deputy Vice-Chancellor (International),

[sic] of the Vice-Chancellor and the university to the exter-

who will lead the University’s Global Strategy and Inter-

nal community, in particular to the professions and dis-

nationalisation plan ...’ While conveying the expectation

ciplines represented by the faculty.’ That’s a bit confused

that new brooms sweep clean, an unwritten code requires

(maybe because the University used another executive

universities to glance backwards and nod deferentially. So

search consultancy) but you get the idea: the former Vice-

La Trobe puts in its announcement of the position of Head

Chancellor left under a cloud but now we are kicking arse

of School, Law:

and new executive bloods will be rockin’ the joint.

With the appointment in 2012 of Professor John Dewar as Vice-Chancellor, along with a number of significant senior executive appointments in the past 12 months, the University is well positioned to build on its achievements and continue to transform into a modern and efficient institution of higher education with a regional footprint and a global focus, committed to making a difference through its teaching and research. vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

Groovers, movers and assorted strategists If there are no local or international elephant stamps to announce in advertisements then look to the pleasures of living hereabouts. Staff are attracted ‘from around Australia and the world to Armidale in the beautiful New EngTo market, to market… Arthur O’Neill

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land region of New South Wales’. They enjoy ‘a vibrant

gardens bloom by way of a whole lot of nurturing. The

cosmopolitan university city’ that is ‘recognised as a

Director, Centre for Innovation and Entrepreneurship, ‘will

centre of culture’ and ‘is well served with high quality art,

nurture cross-disciplinary and collaborative research and

music, theatre and public and private education’. What

significant funding, both within and beyond the Faculty

about the university? An affirmation about its quality is

…’:. As ‘members of the Faculty Executive Management

phrased in such a way as to suggest that the university’s

team, the appointees will nurture cross-disciplinary and

past has been fine and terrific things are just around the

collaborative research, generating high quality research

corner:‘While UNE has a long history and strong tradition

output and attracting significant external research funding’.

of academic distinction, our outlook is dynamic and fresh.

One grasps at a caution through a thicket of superlatives:

Our focus is on the future.’ Accordingly, ‘enthusiastic and

beware the wrath of entrepreneurial gods.

suitably qualified professionals’ are invited ‘to be a part of our energetic and innovative community dedicated

The executivisation of everyone?

to the rigorous pursuit of excellence’. Only the titles of jobs on offer are given. Of course, you can ask about what

Being at least as much to do with selling a university as

you will do and how much you will be paid, though the

with selling a job, an employment advertisement will start

implication is that lifestyle is, or should be the primary

by displaying the place in taffeta and end by dressing the

consideration. No mention either of enthusiastic blowies

position in pin-stripe. In the latter respect, ‘leader/leader-

in summer, rigorous winters in a valley swathed in wood

ship’ and ‘strategy/strategic’ go together like a horse and

smoke, and a one-train town.

carriage; and so it is when, through an executive search

For more dynamic, community-minded types, La Trobe

and leadership development outfit, the University of

University is the place of choice – at least in the Faculty of

Western Australia seeks a Director, Marketing and Com-

Education with its ‘long and distinctive history of progres-

munications. ‘With significant marketing and leadership

sive and socially engaged teaching and research in educa-

experience’ the Director ‘will be responsible for planning,

tion’. The university’s success

developing and implementing the university’s marketing

is driven by people who are committed to making a difference. They are creative and highly motivated, pursue new ideas and create knowledge. Our teaching and research address some of the most significant issues of our time and we’re passionate about driving change to benefit the communities we serve.

capability, strategy and communications’ and will have ‘demonstrated experience in developing and implementing comprehensive, integrated, engaging marketing strategies to diverse stakeholder groups’. Candidates ‘should combine strategic, analytic and creative thinking with expert communication, collaboration and leadership

Latte-drinking cultural layabouts need not apply. ‘All hands to the pumps’ might summon educators to work at La Trobe. At Swinburne University of Technology, members of the senior echelon plot courses through organisational reefs. The University seeks a ‘strategic leader to assume the newly created position of Executive Dean,

skills’. To cap it all, the Director: will have experience of driving a proactive marketing and communications function in similar strategic and operational contexts, and demonstrate the ambition to shape a long-term strategy that will enhance the University’s international reputation, profile and network of relationships.

Faculty of Health,Arts and Design’, one who is ‘strategically focussed’. Corralling that lot together has to require ‘Taking

Not bad scores: two mentions of leadership and five of

Tiger Mountain by Strategy’ (as a Mao-era singing and danc-

strategy/strategies/strategic. Warble them over and over

ing revolutionary war movie was called). A Dean of Health

and you’ll entice entrants into your fairy bower.

Sciences, also advertised, ‘will contribute to the strategic

Helped by another firm whose registered trademarks

development and management of the School’s academic

include ‘cutting through complexity’, Griffith University

offerings, research profile, and student experience’; ‘will

hopes to do so with its own Director of Marketing and

provide strategic leadership to build new courses and

Communications:

research initiatives’; and ‘will demonstrate exceptional strategic, analytical and conceptual skills …’:. In the same advertisement, ‘Two Key Director positions’ in the Faculty of Business and Enterprise are sought by this ‘ambitious and strategic university’. As well as possessing all manner

With four key direct reports and a team of 35 [!] staff, this significant leadership position works in close collaboration with members of the Vice Chancellor’s executive team to ensure strategic branding, marketing and communications are in alignment with the University’s strategic plan.

of qualities, strategic and instrumental, they will make their

To market, to market… Arthur O’Neill

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This Director ‘will be responsible for ensuring the con-

vades these advertisements. Starting work must lead to

tinued strengthening of the University’s brand presence

a big downer. It’s about time for some executive-wallah

and profile’ and ‘will provide strategic and operational

to sue a university for raising false hopes in its advertise-

advice in relation to student recruitment, marketing,

ments.

communications and media matters affecting the overall

Are we helped by turning universities into businesses?

operation and reputation of the University’. In short, the

Administrative and financial operations must be well-man-

executive team is to be assisted in severing Gordian knots

aged. But to run the whole shebang that way is to muddle

of bad press by the Director’s compositions.

its reasons for being. Good administrators promote the

Here is a third musical version:‘In 2013 we are seeking

academic climate of universities. Given expectations of

an experienced and influential Director to lead the Plan-

them, Executive Deans, Directors and their ilk are liable

ning and Performance Measurement function at ANU into

to become their own and the university’s worst enemies.

the future.’ This is real upping the periscope and scanning

The following extract is taken from the job description

the ocean stuff: As Director, you will contribute to the enhancement of the University’s overall performance and reputation through effective corporate planning, management of the business intelligence function and system, and delivery of critical data to support decision making. Expectations are set. Your ability to deliver effective management reporting, both to senior executive and to middle management, will be critical to your success, as will be your experience in facilitating corporate planning which delivers results. You will ensure an appropriate balance between the growth of the business intelligence function, and the delivery of the day to day statistical and analytical functions within the role.

of a Governance Coordinator: In this role you will operate in both the political and organisational arenas and be responsible for the team that coordinates Council’s corporate planning and reporting, prepares business papers and records minutes for Council and Standing Committee meetings. Additionally this position will chair Council’s Corporate Management System steering group. Not an advertisement for a position in a university but for one with a city council in New South Wales. Note that the appointee does not undertake specified tasks but is responsible for the team that coordinates them, which means that team-led worker ants do the humping and shoving. Like much that passes for executive work

Timely information and data are driving decisions and providing a competitive advantage more than ever before. This role will provide you with the platform to make a direct and significant contribution to ANU and its strategic direction.

in universities, the position in question is stamped with a hands-off seal, and that underscores the gap between office holders and operatives. It’s not that universities have grown so big that they are obliged to indent a supercargo of executives. Rather,

Well may academics at the ANU ponder the significance

they have embraced the idea that middle and senior

of this position. For mention of ‘the business intelligence

level academic and support posts have to be conceived

function’ brings to mind the launching of torpedoes in

in terms that may or may not be fitting to the conduct

their direction after competitive shortcomings in teach-

of mining companies and chicken processing plants, and,

ing and research are spotted. A competitive advantage for

finally, that statements about vacancies have to be fitted

the ANU over whom? However much some business deci-

with synthetic lures. A local supermarket has as motto:

sions may be said to turn on securing competitive advan-

‘We serve to serve again.’ If universities imagine that

tage, the wholesale adoption of that notion by universities

they enhance their credibility by having with-it attract-

is bound to involve them in races to the bottom.

ants in their advertisements. then this one does better

To change slippers for a while, the job has been out-

than ‘Think Beyond’ and ‘Top 2% of Universities World-

sourced to the Vatican and only bishops need apply –

wide’ (Tasmania). Or ‘Know More. Do More’ and ‘Ranked

preferably those with experience of finangling in Banco

in the world’s top 5 per cent’ (Griffith). Or my favourite

Ambrosiano or in Instituto per le Opere di Religione. A

(because adjectival attributions mask your author’s indif-

professor in the parish of biochemistry is, I suppose, a

ferent passage through its Arts degree) ‘Your UQ. Your

middle manager with expectations of dirigiste treatment

Advantage’. Responding to such inducements is to run the

by the new chum in planning. Perhaps religion fits better

risk of buying a pig in a poke.

than business, or business and universities in turn have learnt from religion, for a tone of breathless enthusiasm,

Arthur O’Neill has been described as a retired gentleperson,

of excellences to the power of ten, of ecstatic frenzy per-

but perhaps he has too much time on his hands.

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

To market, to market… Arthur O’Neill

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References Coetzee, J. M. (2003). Elizabeth Costello. New York: Viking/Penguin. O’Neill, A. (2002). Tough at the top? It’s easier with an MBA. Overland, 167, Winter, 58–62 O’Neill, A. (2010). Reach for the stars. Australian Universities’ Review, 52(2), 72–75.

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‘Staff are attracted …’: University of New England, Employment Opportunities at UNE. The Australian, Higher Education, 7 August 2013, p. 32, and 2 October 2013, p. 26. Advertising for two Associate University Librarians & Head of School of Rural Medicine. ‘The university’s success …’: La Trobe University, Associate Professor (Education). The Australian, Higher Education, 21 August 2013, p, 35.

Sources

‘The university seeks …’: Swinburne University of Technology / Jo Fisher Executive Search, Executive Dean Faculty of Health, Arts and Design, Dean Health Sciences & Key Director positions. The Australian, Higher Education, 14 August 2013, p. 31, and 21 August 2013, p. 35.

‘You will provide innovative leadership …’: University of Newcastle, Associate Librarian (Research & Information Services). The Sydney Morning Herald, My Career, 21–22 September 2013, p. 24.

‘and so it is when …’: University of Western Australia / Crown & Marks Executive Search & Leadership Development, Director, Marketing & Communications. The Australian, Higher Education, 23 October 2013, p, 28.

‘A visionary and strategic leader …’: Monash University / Perrett Laver, Vice-Chancellor, Monash University. The Australian, Higher Education, 21 August 2013, p. 31.

‘Helped by another firm whose registered trademarks include …’: Griffith University / KPMG, Director, Marketing and Communications. The Australian, Higher Education, 6 November 2013, p, 33.

‘In another place …’: Griffith University / Heidrick & Struggles, Deputy Vice Chancellor (Academic) & Deputy Vice Chancellor (Engagement). The Australian, Higher Education, 14 August 2013, p. 29.

‘Here is another musical version …’: Australian National University, Director Planning and Performance Measurement. The Australian, Higher Education, 14 August 2013, p. 32.

O’Neill, A. (2012). Grand crews: tasting notes on the Group of Eight universities. Australian Universities’ Review, 54(2), 65–70.

‘Slightly further down the ladder …’: Deakin University / Jo Fisher Executive Search, We’re Looking for Worldly People & Pro Vice-Chancellor Faculty of Business and Law. The Australian, Higher Education, 2 October 2013, p. 29. ‘It’s onwards, ever upwards …’: University of Queensland / Rachel Lucas Consulting Search, Deputy ViceChancellor (International). The Australian, Higher Education, 4 September 2013, p. 30. ‘So La Trobe puts in its announcement …’: La Trobe University / Odgers Berndtson Executive Search, Head of School, Law. The Australian, Higher Education, 2 October 2013, p. 26. ‘Deans have transmogrified …’: University of Queensland / Heidrick & Struggles, Executive Dean, Humanities and Social Sciences. The Australian, Higher Education, 16 October 2013, p. 25.

‘The following extract is taken …’: Lake Macquarie City Council, Governance Coordinator. Sydney Morning Herald, My Career, 21–22 September 2013, p. 24. ‘If universities imagine that …’: University of Tasmania, Think Beyond and Do You Have a Global Urge? in a general announcement of positions that includes UTAS is ranked in the top 2% of universities worldwide. The Australian, Higher Education, 21 August 2013, p. 32, and Top 2% of Universities WORLDWIDE in call for applicants for PhD Scholarships in 2014. The Australian, Higher Education, 16 October 2013, p. 28. Or ‘Know More. Do More …’: Griffith University, Professor of Population Health. The Australian, Higher Education, 16 October 2013, p. 28. ‘Or my favourite …’: University of Queensland, Executive Dean, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences. The Australian, Higher Education, 16 October 2013, p. 28.

‘Another new Faculty at the University …’: University of Queensland / Rachel Lucas Consulting Search, Executive Dean, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences. The Australian, Higher Education, 16 October 2013, p. 28.

To market, to market… Arthur O’Neill

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

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Neo-conned university Andee Jones

Every day public opinion is the target of rewritten history, official amnesia and outright lying, all of which is benevolently termed ‘spin’, as if it were no more harmful than a ride on a merry-go-round. We know better than what they tell us, yet hope otherwise ... Needless to say, this is of inestimable value to those in power. Thomas Pynchon

other way when they see you coming or simply staring through you. While the department had all the patriarchal charm of a provincial pastorage, I was still caught off guard. After all, I sulked, I had been in their shoes and I was on their side. But, clearly, two or three disciples had gathered together about my name and declared it mud. There’s just no helping some people.

Censorship, says Australian political theorist John Keane

Less flippantly, though, had I been an up and coming

(1991), can ‘echo within us, take up residence within our-

academic, the glassy-eyed stares would’ve left me won-

selves, spying on us, a private amanuensis who reminds us

dering if I was in the right job (which, of course, is their

never to go too far ... It makes us zip our lips, tremble and

intent). In fact, given the compelling evidence about

think twice’ (p. 39). It can also make us sick. At least that

the deleterious effects of social disapproval on people’s

is my argument here: that, in the context of higher educa-

health and wellbeing (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009; Wilkin-

tion, the demands made on academics by the commercial-

son, 2011; Shulevitz, 2013; McEwan, 2002), I might rather

in-confidence university, particularly for censorship of self

have been dead than rejected. I argued in a sequel to the

and others, are detrimental to their health and wellbeing.

AUR article that the commercialisation of public institu-

‘We’re very happy with the piece,’ he said.‘It’ll go in our

tions, with its privileging of profit and concomitant deval-

first edition for the year.’ ‘He’ being ‘Eds’, the 2012 editor of the student news-

uing of people, is compromising our health. More on how and why in a moment.

paper; me being a retired academic and current post-grad

Why has critical thinking become thought crime? Is it

student; the article being a commentary on my experi-

just neo-liberal groupthink? Groupthink, said 1970s social

ences in two (unnamed) universities under the newly

researcher Irving Janis (1982), is the way a cohesive group

uncapped system. The edition duly appeared, the article

sees things when its desire for unity overrides its capac-

didn’t.

ity to think critically. The results can be devastating, says

‘Hi Eds. What happened to my piece?’

political scientist Paul ’t Hart: ‘a distorted view of reality,

‘We’ve held it over until next month.’

excessive optimism producing hasty and reckless poli-

After the third no show and subsequent promise to pub-

cies, and a neglect of ethical issues’ (p. 247). The impact

lish ‘next month’, I sent the piece to Australian Universi-

varies depending on the group’s prestige, power, political

ties’ Review.‘Guess you’ll be as relieved as I am,’ I wrote to

agenda and the degree to which members value the group

Eds,‘to know the article has found a spot elsewhere’.

(and their being part of it) above anything else (’t Hart,

Some weeks later, I sent Eds another piece – not as close

1991). Arguably, though, some basics of Janis’ theory will

to home – which he published within the month. Mean-

apply to most close knit groups. ‘To preserve the clubby

while, the close to homer appeared in Australian Univer-

atmosphere,’ says ’t Hart, ‘group members suppress per-

sities’ Review, and my university department – that is, the

sonal doubts, silence dissenters, and follow the leader’s

handful of people I knew in my department – duly sent

suggestions’ (p. 247).

me to Coventry. You know the kind of thing: not answer-

and statements of uncomfortable truth – even silences

ing emails and phone messages, turning and walking the

– are interpreted as personal attacks on the leadership.

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

Alternative opinions, questions

Neo-conned university Andee Jones

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Self-appointed ‘mind guards’ keep internal and external

casual teaching hours – the usual carrot for winning post

doubts at bay. Whenever members fail to toe the line, the

grad compliance?

others try to change their mind. Failing that, they start to

Academics, says University of Sydney political econo-

exclude them. No one can trust anyone because, when

mist Tim Anderson (2010), are ‘a fairly conformist lot’ (p.

push comes to shove, if you don’t side with management

13). So what’s happened to that public good that the Uni-

against the doubter, you’re out.

versity of Melbourne’s Vice-Chancellor Glyn Davis (2010)

But why and how can such invalidation make us sick?

is fond of saying we ought to practise, namely, speaking

Enter the monkey brain, the human brain’s limbic system

truth to power? In these days of fear and trembling, or,

or emotional core. Given a mere sniff of rejection or belit-

more to the point, in the broader post-US loss in Vietnam

tlement, the monkey brain reacts involuntarily – just as it

era, the truth favoured by institutionalised power in the

did millions of years ago – with blind terror (Short, 2005).

New American Century is that there is no such thing as

Why? Because back then, to be abandoned by one’s tribe

truth. ‘Mutability of the past’, as Orwell (2004[1949])

meant certain death. Unlike the thinking brain, the limbic

puts it. As an aside, perhaps that’s why the policy of the

system still can’t tell the difference between impending

university-funded journal The Conversation is not to pub-

death and a cold shoulder. Groupthink works because

lish articles by retired (non-adjunct) academics, many of

social disapproval makes the monkey brain feel as if it’s

whom might be sick of, if not from, duckspeaking. For

about to die. But what can be so harmful about a feeling?

those unfamiliar with the term, to duckspeak, according

After all, there’s no actual danger afoot.

to Orwell, is ‘to quack like a duck’ or speak automatically.

There are sickening experiments that show how it works. On gazelles, for example. Frightened gazelles pro-

Provided the opinions quacked are orthodox, the term is complimentary (p. 383).

duce armies of stress hormones that pump them up for

A specific target of Anderson’s (2010) article was the

flight (Short, 2005). Normally, once out of danger, they run

dearth of academic protest against the Rupert Murdoch-

off the excess hormone that would otherwise damage

inspired, Howard-backed, commercial in confidence pro-

their internal organs. But when, for experimental pur-

tected United States Studies Centre installed at Sydney

poses, gazelles are immobilised and stressed, the hormone

University in 2007. Murdoch, it seems, had had a gutful

overload can cause heart attack and death.

of anti-American prejudice in Australia and said so to

‘Under acute conditions stress protects,’ says neuro-

the American Australian Association. The level of hostil-

endocrinologist Bruce McEwan (2002), ‘but when acti-

ity, he reportedly said, ‘is ridiculous. What are you blokes

vated chronically it can cause damage and accelerate

going to do about it?’ (p. 12). What they did was get then

disease’ (p. 4). While ‘stress in the sense of challenging

Prime Minister Howard to pledge A$25 million of public

events is inevitable to some degree,’ says McEwan, ‘being

money to start the Centre. Its research focus, said the then

“stressed out” is not’ (p. 4). People:

Vice-Chancellor, would be on core themes of ‘power and

suffering from intense or ongoing stress,’ he says, may develop cardiovascular problems, including heart attacks, hardening of the arteries and stroke. The immune system can be compromised, making people more susceptible to colds and infections, for example, or – in ratcheting up its response – bring on allergies, asthma or autoimmune conditions. Other conditions include clinical anxiety and depression, diabetes, colitis, chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, eczema and ulcers (pp. 3-4).

democracy’, ‘wealth creation and rights protection’, and

Although I was stressed by the ostracism and subse-

it wants (p. 13).

‘American thinking’ (p. 12). Despite there being no immediate benefits, says Anderson, academics volunteered to teach units of study at the Centre, whose courses include US ‘exceptionalism’ and ‘Obama’s America’ (p. 16). The American Australian Association, as a private business lobby group, he says, exercises unique control over the finances and academic appointments at the Centre (p. 11) and openly talks of pulling funding if it doesn’t get what

quently afflicted by a cold sore, I was comforted that I

Despite widespread ignorance about the psychologi-

hadn’t been blacklisted by Eds, just smudged. A year later,

cal and other damage inflicted by imperialistic bullying,

something more like splodging occurred, not just by the

it’s nothing new. What is new, says social epidemiolo-

new Eds, but also by some bigger boys. Why hadn’t I quit

gist Richard Wilkinson (2011), is our understanding that

while I was ... well, not ahead, but still upright? Did I prefer

such ‘chronic stress from social sources’ can make us ill

to be hung for a sheep as for a lamb? Perhaps, compared

and shorten our lives (p. 4). The stress that most reliably

to the quiescent flock I know, I’ve got less to lose. I don’t

raises levels of cortisol (the central stress hormone), says

want a job in academia. Of what use to me is an offer of

Wilkinson, is ‘social-evaluative threat’, that is, threats to

Neo-conned university Andee Jones

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

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self-esteem or social status ‘in which others can negatively judge your performance’ (p. 4). And the New American Century – or should that be ‘centurion’ – taps us on the shoulder and over we go.‘University managers and academics themselves,’ says ANU Law Professor Margaret Thornton (2008a), have contributed to ‘subverting the independence and critical social conscience that constitutes the linchpin of what remains

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References Anderson, T. (2010). Hegemony, big money and academic independence. Australian Universities’ Review, 52(2), 11–17. Davis, G. (2010). Boyer Lectures, 2010. The Republic of Learning. ABC Radio National. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programmes/ boyerlectures/boyer-lectures-2010-the-republic-of-learning/2981312. Janis, I. (1982). Groupthink: Psychological studies of policy decisions and fiascos (2nd ed.) New York: Houghton Mifflin.

of the idea of the university’. Academics, Thornton says,

Keane, J. (1991). The Media and Democracy. Cambridge, MA: Polity.

‘have been remarkably quiescent ... testament to the effec-

McEwan, B. (2002). The End of Stress As We Know It. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.

tiveness of the compliance strategies’ (p. 9). And it’s not just the humanities’ limited money making potential that neo-liberalism finds distasteful, says Thornton (2008b), but their reflexivity and independent cri-

Orwell, G. (2004 [1949]). 1984. Fairfield, IA: 1st World Library. Pynchon, T. (2000). Introduction. In G.Orwell, 1984. London: Penguin Modern Classics.

practices of the market’, the ‘resiling from the public

Shulevitz, J. (2013). The lethality of loneliness. New Republic. Retrieved from http://www.newrepublic.com/article/113176/science-loneliness-how-isolationcan-kill-you#.

good’ and neo-liberalism’s ‘morally conservative policies’

Short, J. (2005). An Intelligent Life. Sydney: Random House.

(p. 10). Even if commercialisation appears unstoppable,

’t Hart, P. (1991). Irving L. Janis’ victims of groupthink. Political Psychology, 12(2), 247–278.

tique: their potential to ‘draw attention to the exploitative

she says, academics must speak out in order to salvage ‘the last vestiges of the idea of a university’ (p. 10). But we’ve rolled over so readily, so far and for so long that standing up makes us feel dizzy. So, take your time, breathe slowly, kneel up carefully and ... consider your options. Good night. And good luck. Andee Jones is an author and retired psychologist and academic. Her essays and creative nonfiction are published in

Thornton, M. (2008a). The retreat from the critical: social science research in the corporatised university. Australian Universities’ Review, 50(1), 5–10 Thornton, M. (2008b). The decline of the humanities. The Journal for the Public University, 5. Wilkinson, R. (2011). How economic inequality harms societies. TEDGlobal talk. Retrieved from http://www.ted.com/talks/richard_wilkinson.html. Wilkinson, R. & Pickett, K. (2009). Spirit Level: Why equality is better for everyone. London: Allen Lane/The Penguin Press.

mainstream, literary and scholarly journals. Her most recent book is Barking Mad: Too much therapy is never enough. Jones’ 2010 memoir, Kissing Frogs, has been adapted for the stage by AFI-winner Annie Byron.

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

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Why write book reviews? Franklin Obeng-Odoom University of Technology, Sydney

The pressure to publish or perish or, more recently, to be visible or vanish, marginalises a culture of critical reading and reflection that has historically been the province of book reviews. Today, book reviews are roundly rejected by academic bureaucrats as unimportant, easy to write and hence, easy to get published, mere summaries, uncritical statements of praise, marketing gimmicks and poorly cited so they are shunted to the tail-end of academic tasks. Historical dialectical analysis shows that the disdain for book reviews is implicitly related to their non-pecuniary characteristics. One contradiction in the status quo is that academics expect to be served but they are discouraged from serving and hence are led down a line of being selfish. Writing book reviews, therefore, is good not only for its many academic and social uses, but also for political and ethical reasons.

Introduction

are asked, not because they perceive any benefit (Adams, 2007). Writing book reviews is what you do after doing

Book reviews have a poor status in the academy. The

all the important things: they do not seem to be anyone’s

refrain ‘Book reviews do not count’ summarises how

first priority (Oinas & Leppälä, 2013). For journals, if there

Australian university research offices and the Australian

is a pressing need for other scholarly things, the space for

Research Council see book reviews. They are discour-

book reviews is often the first to be sacrificed.

aged because they are not research-based or because they

This essay tries to present the other side of the story.

constitute summaries, not anything new. Others see book

It is important for balance, particularly because relatively

reviews as mere commercial advertising, claiming that they

few papers have been written on book reviews and

merely praise and hence serve as a marketing tool for pub-

encouragement to do more book reviews (see, for exam-

lishing houses. For some, book reviews are easy to write,

ple, Miranda, 1996; Tobin, 2003; Leo, 2009; Oinas & Lep-

not subjected to any quality control and hence, they are

pälä, 2013). Yet, in my role as book review editor, I realise

not serious pieces (Leo, 2009). Together with their poor

that PhD students, early career researchers or even more

citation counts (East, 2011), book reviews are pushed to

senior scholars with little experience in writing book

the margins of academic activity. Indeed, the widely known

reviews usually require me to explain why book reviews

Bradley Review of Australian Higher Education (Depart-

are important and how they should do it.

ment of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations,

This essay developed from a small note that I usually

2008) did not include book reviews in its list of ‘weighted

include whenever I send out book review invitations to

research publications’ and the Australian Research Coun-

early career researchers who are writing reviews for the

cil similarly excludes book reviews from both ‘traditional

first time. I have refined the note in four ways. First, through

(books, book chapters, conference publications and jour-

my own learning of the various reasons for writing reviews

nal articles) and non-traditional (curated or exhibited event,

and what I get from doing so. Second, I have drawn on my

live performance, original creative work, recorded/ren-

discussion with PhD students at my institution about why

dered work)’ outputs (Australian Research Council, 2012).

they read reviews.Third, my reflections on advice from my

In turn, book reviews are overlooked and editors typi-

PhD supervisor on doing reviews, a short discussion with

cally beg or twist their colleagues’ arms to get them to

him on why he has consistently written book reviews in

write reviews, knowing that even then, actual writing

his career, and fourth a discussion with other book review

might never happen.When they do, it is only because they

editors on various issues relating to book reviews.

Why write book reviews? Franklin Obeng-Odoom

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For this study, I use the historical materialist approach,

in book reviewing that commenced with the publication

drawing selectively on the Marxian method of dialectics.

of The Edinburgh was in the purpose of the review. No

It contrasts with the existing non-political economic anal-

longer were reviews just summaries, but they became

ysis of the status of book reviews. The strength is that it

another avenue for scholarly work to be appraised for

highlights change and continuity, and the internal contra-

quality: a post-publication review. Many reasons can be

dictions they generate in the process of capitalist develop-

adduced for these two main transformations, namely the

ment. Precisely, ‘dialectics imply that every phenomenon

increasing interest of the public in what was happening

has an origin and an end, that nothing is either eternal or

in the ivory tower and hence an increase in interest in

finished once and for all’ (Marx, 1990, p. 20). It is differ-

reviewing for newspapers. The second reason was the

ent from the Hegelian approach, which sees history as a

increase in the number of books and hence the need to

series of events, and hence calls history change (Marx &

know which ones were of good quality (Miranda, 1996).

Engels, 1888), and substantially different from approaches

Historically, the motive behind post-publication review

adopted in the existing limited papers on the topic, the

has been protecting the public from unmeritorious work

latest being the contribution by geographers Oinas and

or ideas (Gould, 2012), so, encouraging critical assessment

Leppälä (2013). The historical materialist approach places

of books seems to be for the public good.

emphasis on evolution and hence eschews a static view

Yet, book reviews are currently poorly appreciated. The

of history. Its historical specificity, that is, interest in con-

reasons given for such a poor image are varied. They range

text and challenge to unbridled universalism, implies that

from being easy to write, and easy to get published, to

its use must be grounded in a particular social time and

being mere summaries, uncritical statements of praise and

location, while the analyst draws out dynamic rather than

a mere marketing gimmick. Carefully viewed, these would

static ideas (Sherman, 1993).

seem to be part of a bigger shift towards using economic

The essay argues that the book review serves an impor-

criteria to evaluate scholarly efforts (Stilwell, 2003). Book

tant role for the reviewer, the author of the book, the

reviews do not generate research money for universities

scientific community and the general public. It contests

and do not make universities competitive enough to get

the claim that book reviews are mere praise singing docu-

external research grants. It can be inferred that academic

ments, non-research pieces and mere summaries.

managers are unlikely to be interested in supporting such unrewarding efforts. It is this money determines every-

A long history of the book review

thing orientation that Stilwell (2003, p. 58) calls ‘academic capitalism’. This obsession with economic criteria has led

Post-publication peer review has a history that predates

many academics to adopt coping strategies such as steer-

the establishment of the academy in 1650s Paris and Bolo-

ing off scholarly activities that do not count (Cooper &

gna. The church played a pioneering role in this practice

Poletti, 2011), or exit strategies, such as leaving the acad-

of judging quality and rebuking poorly constructed argu-

emy because they do not obtain sufficient time to read and

ments, thinking, or non-standards conforming publications.

reflect. A long-term consequence of this trend is that some

The emphasis on publication, then criticism, is a long cher-

academics have expressed interest in becoming librarians

ished human practice that predates formal academic insti-

(Peterson, 2011). The culture of careful reading and reflec-

tutions (Gould, 2012). The academic culture of reviewing

tion that the book review embodies is at the heart of schol-

books started in Athens in 140 BC, but the practice was

arly efforts and as such requires more careful attention.

institutionalised much later in Paris in 1665 when the journal Journal des Scavans was founded. In the early days, a

Writing a review

book review meant drawing the attention of the scholarly community to the state of play in the field. Reviewers tried

Book reviews are not mere summaries or mere praise state-

to be comprehensive in their reviews and the journal did

ments (Oinas & Leppälä, 2013). Rather, they are evalua-

so in its selection of books (Miranda, 1996).

tive commentaries in which reviewers demonstrate their

All that transformed in 1802 when The Edinburgh was

knowledge of the books, where they stand in the scholarly

published. It chose only a few books for its reviews. In

literature and what contribution they make. Reviews may

turn, getting one’s book reviewed was not just a matter

also evaluate books against their stated objectives. They

of course but it also became a mark of distinction or pres-

typically make informed analysis rather than merely heap

tige, although debates also ensued on what criteria had to

praises on books. Praise for books is normally seen on their

be fulfilled to get one’s book reviewed. Another change

back covers and is sometimes referred to as ‘endorsements’

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or ‘in praise of the book’. Book notes summarise and do

reviewer will start with an overview, demonstrate how it

not usually evaluate. While book reviews may praise, their

compares with existing work, evaluate the evidence and

function is mostly evaluative.

the arguments, and close with a balanced and as civil a ver-

A couple of examples. International Sociology Reviews

dict as possible that can engage with the broader field. One

(IS, 2013) (formerly International Sociology Review of

way to judge the contribution of a book is to determine

Books – ISRB), notes that ‘ISRB is a vehicle for considering,

whether it introduces new material, synthesises old mate-

examining, analysing, appraising, assessing, and evaluating

rial in a new way or offers a new interpretation of already

books by sociologists all over the world’. The Journal of

known phenomenon. To Tobin (2003), this is a key feature

Australian Political Economy (JAPE, 2013) combines two

of a good book review. Doing so will inevitably lead the

genres, book notes and book reviews, but each is clearly

reviewer to engage with scholarship on the topic, it also

marked as such.While book notes summarise, book reviews

tends to draw more citations (Oinas & Leppälä, 2013). The

evaluate (see, for example, the current issue of JAPE).

format I have described is not formulaic.The reviewer can,

These examples challenge the view that reviews are not

for instance, provide an overall judgement at the outset.

serious pieces. Indeed, to do a good review, one would have

However arranged, what I have offered are some of the key

written a book on a similar topic, be involved in research

elements in a book review. So, contrary to the view that

leading to or that has already led to the publication of a

reviews are easy to write, to do them well, the reviewer

number of articles on the topic, or be writing a doctoral

ought to expend significant intellectual effort.

(or other) dissertation on the topic (Leo, 2009). There is

Writing reviews may be less of a task than writing a

a judgement to be made not only about the quality of the

full research paper, but producing a good review is not as

book but also how the review will be received and read.

easy as critics suggest. Reviews are usually reviewed inter-

Some scholars, especially of French training, would typi-

nally by the reviews editor or externally by experts on

cally offer a summary of the book, then show that the book

the book’s topic. Capital and Class and African Review

has failed, and then try to demonstrate a superior thinking

of Economics and Finance, for example, review book

while still thanking the author. Others, particularly English-

reviews internally, but Review of Radical Political Eco-

trained scholars, tend to move straight to attack, reflecting

nomics and Journal of Urban Health will usually review

a competitive and combative model of reviewing in which

the reviews externally. Either way, the reviewer is checked

the reviewer tries to win the duel (Tobin, 2003). In fields

and required to demonstrate integrity and knowledge.

such as philosophy, apparently the tendency is to find con-

African Affairs requested my CV the first time I asked to

trary evidence to write a brutal review. Indeed, it has been

review, implying another quality check. For all these rea-

suggested that for some philosophy departments, the more

sons, a published review will usually have some informed

ruthless the review, the better it is for the career of the

ideas, even if it is quite ordinary (Oinas & Leppälä, 2013).

reviewer (Leo, 2009). One reviewer is said to have written

In the hands of an experienced reviewer, a book review

that a book under review was beyond ‘the boundaries of

can be properly placed in a long conversation or used to

permissible ignorance’ (Tobin, 2003, p. 48). Here is a review

establish or detect gaps in the literature – a substantial

that uses rather harsh language to draw attention to appar-

service to the scholarly community.

ent problems in a book, but other reviewers might achieve the same end by rigorously demonstrating the import of

The many benefits of book reviews

the book’s limitations (Nord, 2006). Either way, thoughtful evaluation is the vision.

By contesting some of the misleading impressions about

As a reviews editor, I prefer a more balanced review.

book reviews, I have implicitly shown some of their

Book reviews may be about 1,000–1,200 word long,

benefits. It is also important to be explicit about other

shorter or slightly longer. I prefer a review that typically

merits, from the perspectives of the writer, the broader

adopts a critical but civil stance throughout and as much as

scholarly community and the public. As a first submission,

possible is thorough without denigrating the book author.

the reviewer gets the book for free and, for PhD students

Generally, the review will set the stage by highlighting

and early career researchers with limited funds or senior

the conversation that the book joins, introduce the book,

scholars in developing countries who struggle to obtain

describe the structure, content and argument, assess the

books published by the major presses, this material ben-

book’s strengths and weaknesses, and make an overall

efit is even more substantial.

statement about whether the book is worth reading by

When I review, I find that I am forced to critically read

reflecting on the implications of the total appraisal. The

the whole book, a practice I might not otherwise be able

Why write book reviews? Franklin Obeng-Odoom

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to do in today’s tight academic schedule, although doing

and to know the success or failure of their books (see, for

so helps to get more out of the book. Besides, creating a

example, Leyshon, 2013). Reviews can also help course

permanent documentation of the salient points raised in

teachers to choose one book over another or warn them

the book is useful for future study and reference. Writing

off certain books. Gillian Hewitson’s (2012) review for the

reviews helps me to enhance my research as I learn how

African Review of Economics and Finance does this well

others present and evaluate evidence. In a world of publish

by encouraging lecturers to adopt the book she reviewed,

or perish, it is easy to forget that without reading and doing

with additional materials, as a teaching text. Also, reviews

so critically, quality research can suffer. Book reviews can

bring to the attention of the scholarly community what

help sharpen our own writing and develop our ideas.

it is that has been added to the body of literature. Librar-

Reviews help to develop the skills of evaluating substantial amounts of research, projects, or programmes, a

ians can be persuaded to obtain books thath ave receoved excellent reviews.

skill that might not otherwise be developed, especially

For the general public, reviews can be a way to deter-

when such a skill is not always taught in PhD programmes,

mine how people should perceive newly published books.

particularly if the PhD deals with research questions that

To be sure, this service is not only about whether to acquire

do not deal with evaluation. It is also a skill that can be

certain books. But, rather, reviews can also warn the public

transferred to the evaluation of a global position state-

against the uncritical acceptance of certain theses. In a

ment and the state of literature for one’s thesis or other

review for the Bulletin of the School of Oriental and Afri-

studies, a theory or conceptual framework. I have encour-

can Studies, Adam Selby (1988) tried to draw the public’s

aged my own PhD students to consider reviews of books

attention to the inattention paid to the radical meanings

from which they are borrowing concepts, frameworks, or

of the rentier state theory. More recently, reviews in the

theories. I know some PhD students who find reviews of

African Review of Economics and Finance by Thomas

such books very useful, although reading the special issue

Glendinning (2013) and Danielle Spryut (2012) have pro-

of Australian Universities’ Review on doctoral education

vided important qualifications to analyses that the general

(54[1]), I got the impression that not many PhD supervi-

public may otherwise not know. Eric Yeboah (2012) and

sors encourage the practice.

Kim Neverson (2013) in the same journal have strongly

Writing reviews is a great way to become known as

recommended certain books not yet widely known by the

a specialist or researcher in the field. A persuasive and

public. Reviews help to correct factual problems, contest

comprehensive review evokes a feeling of respect for the

simplistic accounts and offer other perspectives to those

reviewer, if the reviewer is not already known. The benefits

contained in recently published books. Others can encour-

of being known as an expert are numerous; they give one

age interest in books which the general public may not

visibility, impact and attention, among other things.

ordinarily be willing to welcome. To emphasise, reviews

Writing reviews helps the writer to get some ideas.

can be used to engage the public, especially when done

Book reviews submitted to the Review of Radical Politi-

for open access journals or newspapers to that access is

cal Economics are refereed by at least two experts on

free. These reasons for writing reviews do not only apply to

the topic and, in my experience, they give great feed-

recently published books or books hot off the press. They

back. Agriculture and Human Values will have the book

also apply to reviews of classics or seminal books pub-

review editor referee the submitted book review and give

lished several decades ago. It has been established that this

helpful feedback. The editor of African Review of Eco-

‘deferred review’ can have the added advantage of deter-

nomics and Finance tries to get book reviewers to join

mining what impact a book has had on scholarship, policy

the conversation of books reviewed in the journal and

and societal practices (Nord, 2006, p. 197). In short, reviews

broader field as well as give feedback on effective writing

– whether they are of new or old books – are mightily

and joining a bigger conversation.

useful and hence very worthy of writing.

Beyond helping the reviewers, reviews also support the scholarly community. The reviewer provides an invaluable

Conclusion

service to book authors. Reviews can help book authors when seeking promotion or block the rise of others not

In spite of the pecuniary-based reasons for the rejection of

as yet sufficiently qualified for promotion. According to

book reviews, perceived broadly within a historical mate-

Adams (2007, p. 202), reviews play a significant role in

rialist context, they offer immense contributions to the

the decision to promote academics. Reviewers help book

reviewer, the scholarly community and the public. They

authors to get feedback, useful for future development,

may not be as tedious to write as research papers, but it

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

Why write book reviews? Franklin Obeng-Odoom

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References

sharpen research and writing skills, develop evaluative skills

Adams, M.( 2007). In the profession: re-viewing the academic book review. Journal of English Linguistics, 35(2), 202–205.

and get known in one’s discipline. These benefits accrue

Australian Research Council (ARC) (2012). ERA 2012. Canberra: ARC.

at no cost, and should provide good incentive to review.

Cooper, S. & Poletti, A.( 2011).The new ERA of journal ranking: the consequences of Australia’s fraught encounter with ‘quality’. Australian Universities’ Review, 53(1), 57–65.

Besides, book reviews help the scholarly community to appreciate the significance of new books, or the ways new books break new ground. In turn, they constitute one of the elements that promotion committees may consider in elevating a scholar. For the public, book reviews, especially those published in newspapers or open access journals, can help to warn against or draw attention to new books. Paradoxically, the present state of affairs generates immense contradictions. Academics are discouraged from writing book reviews, but reviews of their books help in making their promotion decisions. Additionally, book reviews help the author to become more informed and

Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (2008). Review of Australian Higher Education – Final Report. Canberra: Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations. East, J.W. (2011). The scholarly book review in the humanities: an academic Cinderella? Journal of Scholarly Publishing, 43(1), 52–67. Glendinning, T. C. (2013). Review of ‘Millennium Development Goals: Looking Beyond 2015’. African Review of Economics and Finance, 4(2), 300–304. Gould, T.H.P. (2012). The church and peer review: was ‘peer’ review fairer, more honest then than now? Journal of Scholarly Publishing, 44(1), 36–60. Hewitson, G. (2012). Review of ‘Food and Development’. African Review of Economics and Finance, 4(1), 126–128.

sharpen their ideas, but academics are cajoled into pub-

International Sociology Review of Books (ISRB) (2013).Call for submissions to the ISRB. Retrieved from http://iss.sagepub.com/site/misc/isrbcall.xhtml.

lishing mainly journal articles. PhD students can benefit

Journal of Australian Political Economy (JAPE). (2013). 72 (summer).

from writing and reading book reviews, yet reviews are discouraged. And, members of the public, whose taxes are used to fund research, also benefit from reviews, but

Leo, J.R.D. (2009). The fate of the book review. Journal of Scholarly Publishing, 40(2), 166–177. Leyshon, A. (2013). Why edit handbooks? Regional Studies, 47(9), 1613–1614.

benefit. Pursued, the current orientation will continue to

Marx, K. & Engels, F. (1888). The Communist Manifesto: A road map to history’s most important political document, P. Gasper (ed.), Chicago: Haymarket Books.

encourage selfish behaviour among academics, who will

Marx, K. (1990). Capital Volume 1, London: Penguin Books.

expect their books to be reviewed but will not wish to

Miranda, E.O.Y. (1996). On book reviewing. Journal of Educational Thought, 30(2), 191–202.

the current policy context threatens to remove this social

extend the same service to the community of scholars. We should write book reviews for all these reasons, benefits, tensions and contradictions. The writing of book reviews will need to be encouraged across the different sections of the academy. PhD supervisors have a role to play and editors have a role to play, too, as do disciplinary associations. PhD supervisors can encourage their students to read reviews of the concepts and theories they propose to use and write reviews of books in their fields. Editors should encourage the citation of book reviews in their journals and/or elsewhere to help improve the visibility of reviews and thereby enhance their greater nonpecuniary uses. Disciplinary associations can be more active in encouraging members to write reviews to be published in association journals and newsletters. Publishers, whose role I have not highlighted in this essay, can help by making reviews free. Scholars ought to review only books that touch very directly on their own research, present or future. That way, the benefits of writing book reviews will be maximised.

Neverson, K.S. (2013). Review of ‘Microfinance: Perils and Prospects’. African Review of Economics and Finance, 4(2), 305–310. Nord, W. (2006). Reviewing scholarly books, in Y. Baruch, S.E. Sullivan & H.N. Schepmyer (eds), Winning Reviews, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 196–202. Oinas, P. & Leppälä, S. (2013). Views on book reviews. Regional Studies, 47(10), 1785–1789. Peterson, E.B.( 2011). ‘Staying or going?’, Australian early career researchers’ narratives of academic work, exit options and coping strategies. Australian Universities’ Review, 53(2), 34– 42 Selby, A.K. (1988). Review of ‘The Rentier State’. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 51(3), 555–556. Sherman, H.J. (1993). The historical approach to political economy. Review of Social Economy, 53(1), 302–322. Spruyt, D. (2012). Book Review: ‘Adaptive Collaborative Approaches in Natural Resource Governance: Rethinking participation, learning and innovation’. African Review of Economics and Finance 4(1), 114–121. Stilwell, F. (2003). Higher education, commercial criteria and economic incentives. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 25(1), 51–61. Tobin, R.W. (2003). The commensality of book reviewing. Journal of Scholarly Publishing, 35(1), 47–51. Yeboah, E. (2012). Climate change and sustainable urban development in Africa and Asia. African Review of Economics and Finance, 3(2), 129–134.

Franklin Obeng-Odoom is a Chancellor’s Post-doctoral Research Fellow at School of the Built Environment, University of Technology, Sydney.

Why write book reviews? Franklin Obeng-Odoom

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REVIEWS

Hold on, ELP is on its way! English Language Standards in Higher Education: From entry to exit by Sophie Arkoudis, Chi Baik and Sarah Robertson. ISBN 9781742860640 pb, 186 + xii pp., ACER Press, Melbourne, 2012. Review by Jim McGrath The title is misleading. The book (ELSHE) is not about the

might teachers do their best to keep AU’s promises to all of

language skills of the general run of students, graduates

these students? What are the ethical obligations of teaching

or academics. Instead it addresses the more limited but

staff, some of whom are appointed for only a year at a time,

still important question of how English as an Additional

and a few of whom are also less than proficient in English?

Language (EAL) students might acquire English Language

Can someone who can’t explain a subject be said to under-

Proficiency (ELP) in the course of their tertiary education.

stand it? And (a question that has been asked before) what

At present, of course, a great many of them don’t, as the

does ‘education’ mean?

authors freely acknowledge and the world ought to know.

ELSHE addresses some of these questions.

Consider this scenario. Chang, Ng, Rocca, Moro and

It attempts to address them systematically. The table

Wilson are Australians. Chang’s family arrived in Australia

of contents is totally logical, and fully justifies the ‘From

when Chang was eight, and the other four were born here.

entry to exit’ subtitle. I wish that more book authors

All five are newly enrolled in a business course at the Uni-

would offer, as these authors mean to do, a half page to

versity of Australia (AU) on the strength of their respective

one page summary at the end of each chapter.

ATAR scores, all of which are respectable, and a couple of

The authors often address reality. They declare that uni-

which are impressive. Enrolled in the same course are Lee

versities have sometimes greedily enrolled (and charged)

and Saraster, who have each come from overseas with an

students who were not fit to be enrolled. They also imply

acceptable school record, International English Language

that more of the money that international students pay

Testing System (IELTS) scores of 6.5, the ability to find

ought to be spent on them and not on other university

$n in fees and ambitions of getting – in turn – a degree, a

causes that they don’t specify but which we can guess

degree-related job and temporary or permanent residency.

at. They acknowledge that the effect of a student’s poor

Only fortune tellers can predict the future. But there

English on that student’s assessment is often left to the

are a couple of predictions that you could safely put a

potentially idiosyncratic discretion of an individual lec-

little money on. One is that Lee and Saraster will have to

turer. They point out that many international students

work harder than the others to get degrees. The other is

don’t mix with the locals, and so don’t improve their Eng-

that, unless their ELP improves, the two of them will strug-

lish. And there’s more – much more.

gle to find degree-related employment. So the authors are

There are some delicate moments. The crunch comes

concerned with Lee and Saraster and, if Chang needs help

in Chapter 6, where ELSHE’s authors recommend that

(or ELP), with Chang as well.

teachers arrange their classes into syndicates, each of

This scenario and its many variations raise several ques-

which comprises a mixture of native and EAL speakers,

tions. What does the total landscape look like? What is AU

with the former supporting the latter. ELSHE suggests that

selling? Does the market (of potential students and employ-

the benefit for the natives is that they gain experience

ers) continue to accept AU’s claim that its first degrees are

in multicultural communication. But you might well sus-

proof of fitness for professional employment and its higher

pect that Chang (and possibly others) already have real

degrees proof of expertise? What are the ethical obliga-

and continuing experience of multicultural communica-

tions of AU to EAL students and to students who are native

tion, and have no great need for more. And you might

speakers of English, to its teaching staff, to employers? How

also understand it if a couple of the natives declare that

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multicultural communication isn’t what they signed up

notes of academic authors are rewritten by profes-

for. This is heavy stuff – or would be if the authors wanted

sional scribes so that they fit students of a given read-

to deal with the ethical complications of their proposal.

ing age. The best textbooks are not only instructional

There are, however, real disappointments.

media but are also models of exposition; ELSHE –

1. Some of the writing is below the standard that one

had its authors known anything about the subject –

should expect of authors and publishers producing a

might have talked about how to choose a textbook

book about proficiency in English:

and about the possibility of recommending different

a. Disciplinary teaching staff, for example, may be

books to different streams within the same class.

unsure of the best way to fulfil their roles as edu-

7. There is, at best, a little, but possibly nothing, about

cators and to facilitate students gaining the Eng-

differentiated (or differential) teaching – the idea

lish language skills and knowledge their studies

that has been around in primary schools for nearly a

demand of them (p. 3).

century and in secondary schools for nearly as long

b. In this book we address the issues raised for higher

– where a teacher takes pupils of different abilities,

education when they are using English to teach stu-

with different learning styles, from different starting

dents for whom English is not their first language. (p.3)

points, and tries to help all of them forward. 8. There is material that I don’t understand. As commu-

c. Fundamentally, ensuring that English language

nicative events are socially situated within discourse

improvement is centralised in the curriculum

communities that have an agreed structure and pur-

is becoming increasingly essential (p. 3). (How

pose (Swales, 1990), potential members must learn

unique.)

the structures and conventions to become accepted

2. There are many malapropisms, most of them chosen

into these communities in which they are based. (p.

because the authors are trying too hard to impress

64.) Perhaps it’s just me. But perhaps not. Are the

– or over-egg the pudding: ‘commonplace’ for

ELSHE authors saying merely that every academic

‘common’, ‘enhance’ for ‘increase’ or ‘improve’, ‘cru-

field has its own style and jargon? (The statement is

cial’ and ‘essential’ instead of ‘important’ or ‘neces-

largely true.) Or are they saying that I, and people

sary’,‘refutes’ as a synonym for ‘denies’,‘reflexive’ and

such as me, who are not members of their particular

‘reflective’ used as alternative spellings of the same

discourse community’are not fit to read their book?

word, ‘facilitate’ used as in 1.a (above), ‘critical’ used

I am reminded of Bunthorne in Patience:

with gay abandon to mean all sorts of things.

And everyone will say, as you walk your mystic way, ‘If this young man expresses himself in terms too deep for me, Why what a very singularly deep young man this deep young man must be.’

3. Some chapter summaries are unsatisfying – because they either comprise mere afterthoughts, or foreshadow issues to be dealt with in later chapters. 4. The authors use dot points (as they and their students

Anyone who runs an institution or faculty or department

should) but not always well. Indeed, they breach the

should order an underling to read this book and extract

three major rules:

what is useful and relevant. (The authors are explicit about

• the dots should be followed by parallel constructions (p. 55) • the introductory sentence or paragraph shouldn’t swallow the first of the points (p. 54)

the fact that different academic fields need different solutions, and are well aware that some solutions will strain some budgets.) The people in charge should, if they are not inner-directed, be inspired by the fear that a branch of

• subsets of a point should be further indented (p. 67)

government will one day intervene. They should be espe-

5. There are only two mentions, which take up less

cially inspired by the thought that the branch most likely

than a dozen lines, of web-based facilities (blogs, the

to intervene is not a department of education or a quality

intranet) when – given the authors’ determination to

agency but the ACCC – the agency that enforces the Trade

end the isolation of the international student – you

Practices Act and punishes false advertising.

might well have expected more. 6. There is only one mention of reading matter (in the

The book is useful, but there are more things to be said and better ways of saying them.

chapter on offshore teaching) and no specific men-

tion of textbooks or textbook supplements. But it

Jim McGrath began his (full-time) working life as a teacher

is nearly 50 years since major textbook publishers

of secondary school English, and finished it as Manager of

started producing managed textbooks, in which the

Monash University Bookshop.

Why write book reviews? Franklin Obeng-Odoom

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Sense out of chaos On the Purpose of a University Education by Luciano Boschiero (ed.). ISBN 9781921875854 pb, 137 pp., Australian Scholarly Publishing, Melbourne, 2012. Review by Giles Pickford

This book ought to be read by anyone who works in a university and who is wondering what it is all about. By their nature, universities can be very confusing places to work. Soldier are left in no doubt about the sole aim of their organisation, but universities seem to have as many aims as there are people who work in them. That is why university staff should steady themselves by reading Boschiero’s collection of essays, because they make sense out of a seemingly chaotic situation. The dichotomy between a classical education and a utilitarian education, which still characterises tertiary education today, began a long time ago. John Henry Newman (1852) espoused the classical view: A habit of mind is formed which lasts through life, of which the attributes are freedom, equitableness, calmness, moderation and wisdom … This then I would assign as the special fruit of the education furnished at a University, as contrasted with other places of teaching or modes of teaching. In contrast, Locke espoused a more vocational role in

There are still voices raised in protest of this decline. Recently, Michael Roth (2013), President of Wesleyan University, Connecticut, noted that: Totalitarian regimes embraced technological development, but they could not tolerate the free discussion that led to a critical appraisal of civic values. Here is the president of Harvard, James Bryant Conant, speaking to undergraduates just two years after Hitler had come to power in Germany: ‘To my mind, one of the most important aspects of a college education is that it provides a vigorous stimulus to independent thinking ... The desire to know more about the different sides of a question, a craving to understand something of the opinions of other peoples and other times mark the educated man. Education should not put the mind in a straitjacket of conventional formulas but should provide it with the nourishment on which it may unceasingly expand and grow. Think for yourselves! Absorb knowledge wherever possible and listen to the opinions of those more experienced than yourself, but don’t let anyone do your thinking for you’. This was the 1930s version of liberal learning, and in it you can hear echoes of Thomas Jefferson’s idea of autonomy and Ralph Waldo Emerson’s thoughts on self-reliance.

which universities were charged with training the new professional classes. These included merchants, lawyers,

Boschiero’s book begins with the first essay by Con-

doctors, mechanics, and people involved in agriculture,

stant J Mews on how it all began in 1125 with the Didas-

military tactics, engineering and technology.

calicon, Hugh of St Victor’s book on how to study. This is

In Australia, a vocational view of universities was emphasised by the John Dawkins reforms of the 1980s. The divide between education (universities) and training (colleges of advanced education) was broken when those colleges were designated as universities or merged with each other or existing universities to form Australia’s unitary higher education system.

ancient medieval history indeed. Hugh’s advice is encapsulated below: Eagerness to inquire means insistent application to one’s work; scrutiny means earnestness in considering things. Hard work and love make you carry out a task; concern and alertness make you well-advised. Through hard work you keep matters going; through love you bring them to perfection.

This marked the beginning of the current era, in which universities are expected to be all things to all

I am sad that the word ‘love’ is nowadays confined very

people. Because there was at this time (and for the

much to sexual relations, which is a pity because it really

foreseeable future) no extra money, something had to

applies to almost everything that matters.

give. It is early days yet, but it appears that the classi-

The second essay, ‘Integration’, by Stephen McInerny,

cal humanities subjects, including subjects such as Latin,

discusses the need to understand the connectedness

Greek, philosophy, pure mathematics, history and litera-

of things. It is not possible, for instance, to understand

ture, are in a forced decline.

biology without having some understanding of physics

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Sense out of chaos Review by Giles Pickford

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and chemistry. He draws on the experience at Campion

Gare’s warnings. It is not sufficient for them to confine

College, which asserts that ‘there is interconnectedness

themselves to training because, as Gare says, it is now the

between the disciplinary areas and that a synthesis can

top bureaucrats who run the university. The power of the

be attained by seeing the interconnectedness of ideas and

professoriate has gone. The new managerial class needs

perspectives in the different subjects’.

to understand and uphold the 2,300 year old traditions of

Geoffrey Sherington and Hanna Forsyth, authors of the

the university from Socrates to the present day.

third essay, take us back to the dichotomy mentioned earlier.

The manager who thinks that the gross domestic prod-

It deals with the dichotomy between elite and mass educa-

uct is the only thing that matters has completely missed

tion. The dichotomy is illustrated in the subtle difference

the point of their existence.

between the elite University of Sydney and the more prag-

The last essay, by Gregory Melleuish, is entitled ‘After

matic University of New South Wales, both top institutions

the Fall: Standing in the Ruins of Liberal Education’. Mel-

in their own right, but with differing aims. However, these

leuish examines the struggle that a liberal education,

early differences are slowly disappearing as the relentless

which focuses on the perfection of the human being, has

onward march of Locke’s utilitarianism continues.

when confronted by the commercial and bureaucratic

The fourth essay, by Arran Gare, is ‘The Liberal Arts, the

juggernaut peopled by closed minds and technocratic

Radical Enlightenment and the War Against Democracy’. It

thinking. He concludes:‘There is no justification for giving

brings us right into the modern era with the ‘nightmare in

up. Even in the face of history we have no option but to

store’ for all universities if they fail to resist the transforma-

continue doing what we love.’ There is that word again.

tion of their institutions into transnational organisations, bureaucracies deploying top-down management controls

Giles Pickford, for his sins, worked in various university

such as Business Process Engineering, Total Quality Man-

administrations from 1964. He is now retired.

agement, Benchmarking, and Management by Objective. This is the longest essay and the most hard-hitting. It is full of dire warnings that demand the attention of academics and professional administrators from the vicechancellor down. Training organisations, staff associations and trade unions need to think long and hard about

Sense out of chaos Review by Giles Pickford

References Newman, J.H. (1852). The idea of a university. Discourse, V. Roth, M. (2013). Learning to think for ourselves. Huffington Post, 14 November. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/michael-roth/learning-to-thinkfor-our_b_4262982.html.

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Ideologically speaking … Teaching in the Age of Ideology by John von Heyking & Lee Trepanier (eds). ISBN 9780739173596 pb, 256 + xvii pp., Lanham, USA, Lexington Books, 2013. Review by Thomas Klikauer

Heyking and Trepanier’s edition of Teaching in the Age

The book’s non-inclusion of ideology and the lack of at

of Ideology has 11 chapters without a conclusion. It is

least a close approximation of what ideology is while at

divided into three sections:

‘Thinking and Teaching

the same time making use of ideology, is a serious short-

against Ideology’, ‘The Teacher’s Search for Order’ and

coming. This is especially so when ‘the activity of think-

‘The Teaching of Natural Rights Today’. In the introduc-

ing [is seen] as an antidote to ideology [and] the ideal

tion, Heyking and Trepanier write that ‘ideology is a par-

subject is not a committed loyalist, but people for whom

ticularly modern phenomenon. We shall not attempt to

the distinction between fact and fiction (i.e. the reality of

provide a definition’ (p. x). It appears odd that a book with

experience) and the distinction between true and false

‘ideology’ in its title has no chapter on ideology, no defini-

(i.e. the standards of thought) no longer exist’ (pp. vi–xii).

tion of ideology (Žižek, 1989; Hawkes, 2012), not even a Wikipedia extract. Perhaps 12 ingredients of an ideology can be named.

For a book on ideology, the Heyking and Trepanier edition makes surprisingly favourable use of the German philosopher Heidegger (Nazi party membership no. 312589),

Ideologies:

who was part of a system that gave history its single

1. are generated in organisations governed by a Hege-

worst ideology: Nazism. ‘Heidegger joined the Nazi Party

lian Master vs Slave divide 2. create sympathy for those in power and their ideologies (e.g. market capitalism) 3. are never based on science but must include other elements 4. create the illusion of an inverted upside-down camera obscura like view

in a public ceremony on 1st May 1933’ seeking ‘to lead the leader’ (Glover, 2012, p. 368). As a university rector, Heidegger proclaimed to his students, ‘Let not doctrines and “ideas” be the rules of your being. Today and in the future, only the Führer himself is German reality and its law.’ Heyking and Trepanier continue with ‘the task of education in the age of ideology consists in the efforts to

5. establish a false consciousness and belief systems

regain reality’ (p. xiii). Wasn’t the reality of the 1930s Hei-

6. are misleading but at the same time linked to reality

degger and his Nazi friends who burned books first and

7. are mystifying while using beliefs, values, rituals, fan-

people later, exterminated nearly anyone with an educa-

tasies and symbols 8. represent a particular interest – of capitalism, for example – as a universal interest 9. justify, legitimise, and maintain the status quo

tion in their race war in Eastern Europe, cleansed German universities of Jewish educators and drove many educated people into exile or gas chambers? As Heyking and Trepanier note, ‘German students stop

10. defend the interest of domineering groups

coming to lectures by Jaspers … because of SS agents in

11. mitigate against human well-being and emancipation

the hall outside of class periodically looking in and writing

12. claim to be ahistorical asserting eternal and unchain-

down names’ (p. xiv). Those were Heidegger’s Nazi hench-

ing values (Peffer, 1990). In Managerialism – Critique of an Ideology (Klikauer, 2013, p. 3), ideologies are defined as: the means by which the predominant situation is instilled in the hearts and minds of the individual with a twofold aim: ideologies adhere to a common set of ideas where conformity already exists. This is done through normative thought processes. The task of an ideology is to cloak the reality of a given institution that, for example, is based on contradictions. vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

men, placed in power by German conservatism and capitalism. The book frequently notes ‘the collapse of Weimar Germany’ (p. xv, 47, 184) and ‘Hitler came to power’ (p. 117, 165, 183). The first quote sounds like a blame the victim ideology because it tends to blame Weimar for its collapse. In reality, Weimar did not collapse but was violently ended with SA and SS thugs on streets, an anti-democratic and Nazi supportive police and judiciary system, a Nazi party well financed by German capitalism, and evenIdeologically speaking … Review by Thomas Klikauer

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tually a six party coalition consisting of conservatives who

The book’s detailed discussion of intellectuals in Nazi

placed Hitler into the position of Reichskanzler, thereby

Germany lacks any notion of what really occurred and

effectively ending democracy in favour of fascism. Hitler

of Horkheimer’s famous dictum, ‘Those who do not wish

did not come to power but was deliberately and willingly

to speak of capitalism should keep quiet about fascism’

installed by a staunchly anti-democratic ruling coalition of

(Klikauer, 2013, p. 116). It is unsurprising to find many

conservatism and capitalism that had ran Germany ever

conservative scholars in this book, while it fails to estab-

since its conversion from feudalism.

lish the link between capitalism and the development of

Heyking and Trepanier’s edition discusses German his-

Nazi Germany and how capitalism profited from it (Black,

tory and philosophy at length. The chapters depict sev-

2001, 2009). It also lacks any notion of an awareness of the

eral German scholars who have escaped Nazi Germany.

link between conservatism and the rise of the ideology

But on the book’s real subject of ideology and teaching,

of fascism/Nazism. Perhaps, more importantly, the system

Heyking and Trepanier note that one of the ‘teaching

that financed Italian fascism, German Nazism, Spain’s

responsibilities [is] to combat the prevailing ideologies

Franco and others is the same system that also financed

of modernity’. This becomes clear in the book’s key

Pinochet, Joseph McCarthy, Barry Goldwater, the Tea Party,

chapter, ‘Transcending Ideology’, focusing on German

the Republican Party and many others. Aligned to that, the

philosopher Edmund Husserl. The difference between

Heyking and Trepanier edition never links conservatism

philosophy and ideology is most notable in Husserl’s

to ideology, even though it is one of the prime ideologies

‘transcendental philosophy, a very useless art, that does

of modernity, as the chapter on Lonergan outlines: con-

not aid the lords and masters of this world, the politi-

servative ‘ideological thinking cares little for self-correct-

cians, industrialists’ (p .4). Unlike ideology that has a

ing, self-appropriate dynamic. It arbitrarily restricts the

purpose and serves – as Marx would have said – the pre-

scope of thinking, and creates structures that resist the

vailing class interest, philosophy – as Hegel would have

formation of unpopular, political questions’ (p. 80).

said – serves only itself. While ideology can be seen as

The structural avoidance of conservatism as an ideol-

knowledge in the service of power, philosophy ‘seeks to

ogy continues in this chapter with yet another German-

live up to truth’ (p. 5). Truth is indeed a very dangerous

speaking migrant to the USA.Voegelin depicted ‘resistance

idea for ideology because ideology believes that ‘there is

against Hegel and Marx’ but was ‘inspired by medieval

no true world … just a multiplicity of opinions’ (p. 15).

mysticism, ancient Egyptian mediations on death and

As Václav Havel once said:

prehistoric cave paintings’ (p. 87). Voegelin saw ideology

to the wondering mankind it [ideology] offers an immediately available home; all one has to do is accept it, and suddenly everything becomes clear once more, life takes on new meaning, and mysteries, unanswered questions, anxiety, and loneliness, vanish. Of course, one pays dearly for this low-rent home: the price is abdication of one’s own reason, conscience, and responsibility (p. 23).

as ‘representing a fundamental corruption of reason, and

One of the book’s most interesting chapters is on

ideology’ (p. 119; e.g. Heidegger’s ‘anti-Semitic wife’, p.

Hannah Arendt, who noted ‘Heidegger is a mixture of

29). Interestingly, most of the names portrayed in the

vanity and deceitfulness, noting that he lies notoriously

book rejected two of the three governing ideologies of

always and everywhere, and whenever he can’ (p. 32) – a

the 20th century – fascism and Soviet communism – but

formidable trait of any Nazi. Arendt viewed Heidegger’s

none is presented that also rejected the third and per-

bedfellow Eichmann ‘as the incarnation of the novel form

haps most dangerous ideology, namely, freemarket and

of evil made possible by the bureaucratic, technologi-

consumer capitalism. Despite this shortcoming, there

cal, and ideological structure of the totalitarian state’ (p.

still was a cohort of German migrants who highlighted

35; cf. Bauman, 1989). The chapter also emphasises that

all three ideologies. Many of them were associated with

‘anyone who holds on to deterministic theories of unfold-

the Frankfurt School of critical theory (p. 165) represent-

ing essence – biological determinism, globalisation enthu-

ing the extreme opposite of ‘Hitler’s Philosophers’, such

siasts – is an ideologue’ (p. 37). In today’s universities, the

as Heidegger (Sherratt, 2013).

one’s willingness to exercise reason’ (p. 88), hence his ‘lifelong work and act of resistance against dehumanising ideologies of the twentieth-century’ (p. 90). The same can be said about the next German migrant. Niemeyer ‘found life in Nazi Germany asphyxiating’ (p. 118) rejecting ‘Nazism with its attendant barbarity and vulgar racist

ideology of managerialism and free markets can be added

Not surprisingly, Voegelin was among the deniers of

as both represent deterministic ideology used by ideo-

capitalist and conservative ideology. He was asked to teach

logues (Klikauer, 2013, p. 136).

‘Communist Ideology at Notre Dame University’ (p. 120) –

Ideologically speaking … Review by Thomas Klikauer

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

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not capitalist ideology. Nonetheless, Voegelin ‘would have

– was carried forward when Strauss stated that the ‘liberal

been “ontophilia”, the love of being…exposing ideologies

democratic experiment had proven a failure’, even con-

for the travesties of reality, the hatred of being, that they

tradicting himself with ‘Strauss identifies liberal education

are and as a teacher it was to open his students’ minds

as “education to perfect gentlemanship, to human excel-

to the truth’ (p. 124). Aligned to that, Voegelin believed

lence”’ (p. 187). This carries connotations to misogyny

that ‘conservatism’ is a ‘name for rational man’s resistance

(e.g. Gillard’s misogyny speech; see www.youtube.com).

to encroaching disorder. And he was deeply concerned

Even more obscure is Strauss’ notion of pairing education

with the increasing disorders of American society’ (p. 126)

and culture with agriculture. He writes ‘Culture is under-

not seeing that the conservative call for order represents

stood on the model of agriculture, in this case as the cul-

one of the vital ingredients of ideology’s quest to maintain

tivation of the mind’ with the ‘natural end of the products

status quo. German conservatism meanwhile was at times

of agriculture’ (p. 189). This ideology is a romantic illu-

more than interested in maintaining the status quo – it

sion of agriculture that has in reality taken out ‘culture’

was outright reactionary. ‘Hollowell argued that National

and replaced it with ‘business’, thereby creating agribusi-

Socialism in Germany was the product of a decadent lib-

ness. Indeed, once aligned with modern agribusiness and

eralism’ (p. 165) while denying that Hitler’s own deputy,

industrialised factory farming the result of industrialised

Franz von Papen, was a member of Zentrum, a political

education does indeed depict all the hallmarks of Strauss’

party widely regarded as liberal. There was and is an ideo-

‘product’ – an educational end product ready to be con-

logical link between liberal capitalism and fascism.

sumed by capitalism (Bowles & Gintis 1976).

The final ‘émigré from Germany’ (p. 184) presented

Strauss was the teacher of Stanley Rosen who ‘has con-

in the book is one of the key pinup-academics of con-

sistently been critical of irrationalism’ (p. 208). The Rosen

servatism. Strauss carried forward the conservatism and

section is followed by ‘Mansfield, who has earned a reputa-

racism Nietzsche and Heidegger mixed with Husserl (p.

tion as America’s archconservative academic intellectual’

184). ‘In the 1930s Strauss set off on a similar path – a

(p. 218).While he advocated ‘to combat the prevailing ide-

return to ancient political philosophy’ (p. 184), depicting

ologies of modernity, part of Mansfield’s teachings is to

a common currency of German conservatism challenged

tenaciously affirm the truth of various facts that problema-

by modernity. When Enlightenment challenged German

tise the wishful thinking characteristic of his opponents’

conservatism, some became forward-looking (Kant,

(p. 229) relying on Strauss, and ‘Machiavelli’s third great

Hegel, Marx, Adorno, Marcuse, Horkheimer, etc.), while

pupil, Thomas Hobbes’ (p. 230). These are three writers

others romanticised a mythical past found in ancient phi-

whose lives were defined by war and destruction.

losophies, mediaeval spirituality, and even Aryan mysti-

In the end, Heyking and Trepanier’s edition on Teach-

cism such as, for example, ‘a strong superhuman leading

ing in the Age of Ideology is an odd collection of themes.

the weak’ (Nietzsche) mixed with authoritarianism and

While the title suggests a debate on teaching and ideol-

racism (Heidegger) united against morality, Enlightenment

ogy, the book is rather weak on both. Instead, it focuses

and democracy. Strauss is part of the latter tradition ‘chal-

at length on some – but not other – German émigrés,

lenging the liberal/enlightenment thought that inspired

excluding, for example, one of the most important ones,

Weimar’ (p. 184) while claiming that ‘only a movement of

Adorno’s Erziehung zur Mündigkeit (1971), The Jargon

the right … could fend off the shabby Nazis’ and declaring

of Authenticity (1973) and, above all, his Minima Moralia

that the ‘liberal democratic experiment had proven a fail-

(1944) and The Culture Industry (1973) that extensively

ure’ (p. 185). It appears that the more pragmatic stream of

discuss education and ideology. Despite this rather odd

German conservatism assisted fascism while the confused

inclusion of some while excluding some of the main émi-

and ideologically motivated conservatism propagated the

grés, the book includes two additional disappointments,

ideology that the right could save us from the Nazis.

namely the inability to discuss key elements of ideology,

This is the same Right – Leo Strauss – that assisted

such as, for example, because the ruling class controls

George W. Bush’s neo-cons (Palast, 2006) in trying to

the society’s means of production, the superstructure

make us believe that one can massacre Muslims by tell-

of society, the ruling social ideas are determined by the

ing a good story (e.g. weapons of mass destruction), as

best interests of the said ruling class. In Marx’ German

outlined by Bush’s speech writer, main spin doctor, and

Ideology, ‘the ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch

Strauss disciple Luntz (2007). On top of that, the ideol-

the ruling ideas, i.e. the class which is the ruling material

ogy of conservatism’s anti-democracy – ‘finding an aris-

force of society, is, at the same time, its ruling intellectual

tocracy within democratic mass society’ (Strauss, p. 195)

force’. The second and perhaps even more discomfort-

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ing problem is the book’s inability to see conservatism

Bauman, Z. (1989). Modernity and the Holocaust. Oxford: Blackwell.

as an ideology. If one seeks to understand Teaching in

Black, E. (2001). IBM and the Holocaust: The strategic alliance between Nazi Germany and America’s most powerful corporation. New York: Crown Publishers.

the Age of Ideology one is better off with Marcuse’s OneDimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Societies on ideology and Bowles & Gintis’ Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life on teaching. These two classics have not only withstood the test of time but also contribute more to Teaching in the Age of

Black, E. (2009). Nazi Nexus: America’s corporate connections to Hitler’s Holocaust. Washington: Dialog Press. Bowles, S. & Gintis, H. (1976). Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational reform and the contradictions of economic life. New York: Basic Books. Glover, J. (2012). Humanity: A moral history of the twentieth century (2nd ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press.

Ideology than the current book that carries this as its title.

Klikauer, T. (2013). Managerialism – Critique of an ideology. Basingstoke: Palgrave

Thomas Klikauer teaches human resources management at

Hawkes, D. (2012). Ideology. London: Routledge.

the University of Western Sydney, Sydney.

Luntz, F. (2007). Words That Work – It’s not what you say, it’s what people hear. New York: Hyperion Press.

References

Marcuse, H. (1966). One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the ideology of advanced industrial societies. Boston: Beacon Press.

Adorno, T.W. (1944). Minima Moralia: Reflections from damaged life (trans. Redmond, D. 2005): www.efn.org/~dredmond/MinimaMoralia, trans. E. F. N. Jephcott, 1974. London: New Left Books.

Palast, C. (2006). Armed Madhouse, Sydney: Allen & Unwin.

Adorno, T.W. (1971). Erziehung zur Mündigkeit (Education to Maturity). Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Publishing. Adorno, T.W. (1973 [2003]). The Jargon of Authenticity. London: Routledge.

Peffer, R. G. (1990). Marxism, Morality and Social Justice. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Sherratt, Y. (2013). Hitler’s Philosophers. New Haven: Yale University Press. Žižek, S. (1989). The Sublime Object of Ideology. London: Verso Press.

Adorno, T.W. (2005). Minima Moralia: Reflections on a damaged life (trans. E. F. N. Jephcott). London: Verso.

Ideologically speaking … Review by Thomas Klikauer

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Emancipatory education: a review essay Corporatism, Social Control, and Cultural Domination in Education: From the radical right to globalization: The selected works of Joel Spring by Joel Spring. ISBN: 9780415534352 hb, viii + 246 pp. Routledge, New York, 2013. Review by Thomas Klikauer

For over 40 years Joel Spring has been publishing on

towering presence in emancipatory education. After Freire

education, with ‘corporatism, social control, and cultural

had read Spring’s book, Libertarian Education (1975), he

domination in education’ being the latest instalment of

‘said it was an accurate account of his [Freire’s] ideas’ (p.

an extensive list of critical emancipatory reflections on

6). But Spring’s view on emancipatory education wasn’t

education. His work might be classified as ‘emancipatory

shaped by Freire alone. German philosopher Max Stirner

education’ (Adorno, 2005) for two reasons: first, Spring’s

(1806–56) had a decisive influence. Stirner’s philosophi-

perspective on education seeks to emancipate the field

cal thoughts, expressed in his book The Ego and its Own

of formal education – schools and universities – from all

(1845), have often been seen as the frontrunner for existen-

forms of domination; second, his educational philosophy

tialism and anarchism. Spring notes that ‘Max Stirner, a 19th

focuses on the self-reflective ability of people to become

century rival of Karl Marx, proclaimed that public schools

emancipatory individuals (Adorno, 1971). Spring’s most

were the new means by which rulers maintained control

recent book comprises selected works, giving a compre-

over their population’ (p. 5). It appears that this might also

hensive overview of his emancipatory educational con-

be the case for today’s universities. Meanwhile, the Austrian

cepts. For that, the 11 essays that have been selected start

philosopher Ivan Illich (1926–2002) noted:

with an introductory note on the book’s rather long title Corporatism, social control, and cultural domination in education: from the radical right to globalisation. Joel Spring has even influenced one of the best known books on education, namely Bowles and Gintis’ Schooling in Capitalist America (1976) while Spring views Giroux’s

after following Spring’s account, only the ingénue or the callous will miss his point: the primary purpose of the school system is social control for the corporate state, and for an economy which has as its goal the efficient production and the disciplining of growing amounts of goods and services’ (p. 6; cf. Illich, 1971; Ballantine & Spade, 2012).

more recent work, On Critical Pedagogy (2011), as more mainstream when compared to his (Spring 2013). All of

Against that, Max Stirner ‘warned in the 1840s that

this sets the scene for Spring’s ‘Anarchist critics of public

public schools were implanting ideas (wheels in the

schools’ as well as ‘Free schools and deschooling’. These

head) in minds as a means of controlling behaviour’ (p. 8).

sections are followed by two rather personal and noneducational parts on Spring’s ‘Choctaw Tribal Roots’ and ‘Alaskan Island’. But before moving to his final section on global education, Spring discusses ‘the politics of knowledge’. The final essays deal with what Joel Spring (2012) is perhaps most known for, namely, global issues which range from education and globalisation to consumer capitalism and schools, new goals for global schools and

But Spring might be slightly off the mark when highlighting that: Max Stirner argued that schools would be the mechanism by which political elites could maintain their power by influencing the ideas held by the population. But the advent of modern media – movies, radio, television, and later the internet – displaced the school as the central institution to disseminate ideas to the public mind (p. 12).

global educational rights. Early in his career, Joel Spring met Paulo Freire (1970)

While Stirner is certainly correct, Spring on the other

whose book Pedagogy of the Oppressed still commands a

hand sees schooling and corporate mass media as mutu-

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of translating economic differences into differences in schooling (p. 64).

Perhaps schools and corporate mass media rather flank

To achieve that:

each other, parallel each and feed off each other in an

the poor, according to Illich, are told that school provides an equal opportunity for all people to improve themselves economically. The schools convince students that they are fair and benign institutions. Consequently, when children of the poor do not advance economically and do not experience social mobility as a consequence of their education, they blame themselves for failing to achieve in school (p. 64).

overall interest symbiosis between corporate capitalism, mass media, and schooling. Rather than Spring’s modern media displacing schools as ‘the central institution to disseminate ideas to the public mind’, it is actually more like modern media support schools as ‘the central institution to disseminate ideas to the public mind’. The basic theme of Spring’s essay 2, ‘Corporate state

But old-fashioned and anti-emancipatory universities

and schools’, is that ‘the corporate image of society

and schools with traditional teacher/lecturer vs pupil/stu-

turned … schools into a central social institution for

dent relationships do more than just that:

the production of men and women who conform to the needs and expectations of a corporate and technological world’ (p. 31). This, of course, cannot be restricted only to schools and should include universities, with business schools being the prime contender (Klikauer, 2013a). In ‘Anarchist critics of public schools’ (essay 3), Spring focuses on textbooks and the historical distortions prop-

The traditional teacher–student relationship, Illich argues, teaches students to depend on expertise (the teacher) before acting. This relationship reinforces the patterns of dependency of modern society. People are taught not to act until they are told the correct way to act by some expert. Rather than believing in their own power to make choices, people are taught they should make choices only after consulting and paying experts (p. 65).

agated through them when noting that a sort of one-

As a consequence, universities, for example, train those

dimensional history (Marcuse 1966) ‘leaves out radical

experts who ‘have to be’ [sic] asked before acting because

criticism that existed in the past [and] becomes mere

they are training in the ways and means of corporate capi-

propaganda to support the status quo’ (p. 47; cf. Jobrack,

talism (Benson & Kirsch, 2010; Brand, 2013). Hence, the

2011; Klikauer, 2013b, pp. 95f). The essay highlights this

function of traditional schools and universities can never

point by discussing William Godwin (1756–1836), Fran-

be directed towards the emancipatory goal of people

cisco Ferrer (1859–1909), Max Stirner (1842), Leo Tol-

‘believing in their own power to make choices’ but is

stoy (1852), Emma Goldman (1906), and anarchist and

directed towards hierarchy, domination and asymmetrical

communists (Eduen, 2013).

power relationships (Diefenbach, 2013). As an outcome

Overall, Spring notes that:

‘the function of traditional schools [and universities; TK]

Stirner believed that one had to distinguish between a free man and an educated man. The free man uses knowledge to facilitate choice. If one awakens in men the idea of freedom, Stirner wrote, then the free men will incessantly go on to free themselves; if, on the contrary, one only educates them, then they will at all times accommodate themselves to circumstance in the most highly educated and elegant manner and degenerate into subservient cringing souls (p. 51).

is primarily that of job training and certification’ (p. 66).

Perhaps one of the most interesting essays is on ‘Free

the victim approach while simultaneously diverting atten-

schools and deschooling’ in which Spring notes that

tion away from the structural violence and inequality of

schools reinforce the social class structure of society’ (p.

education (Farmer, 1996). Spring notes:

61). The deschooling concept originated from Ivan Illich’s Deschooling Society (1971), in which he wrote that: deschooling represents his efforts to rid society of all traditional forms of schooling’ [because] education holds out the hope of equality of opportunity, but in the end it does not fulfil this hope but only provides another means of ensuring that people are kept in their economic place [and] schools serve the function

Spring’s rather short essays on ‘Choctaw Tribal Roots’ and ‘Alaskan Island’ are not directly linked to education but consist of more personal reflections of Joel Spring. Spring returns to education in ‘The politics of knowledge’ that might perhaps better be called ‘The political economy of knowledge’ by highlighting George W. Bush’s ‘No Child Left Behind’ policies. To enhance corporate capitalism, the Bush policy followed the infamous blame

since these religious-oriented Republicans were associating poverty with a failure in individual character and values it was logical that No Child Left Behind would contain programmes for character education. The character education and religious sections of the No Child Left Behind policy directly support compassionate conservative ideology. ‘Character education’, according to a press release from the US Department of Education, ‘is a key feature of No Child Left

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Behind, the landmark education reform law designed to change the culture of American schools (p. 107).

countries, and on it goes. Spring mentions one episode in

In his essay on ‘Education and globalisation’ – or

‘Catholic priests were awed and shocked by the Tairona’s

better, ‘corporate’ globalisation – Spring notes that ‘today,

large gold pieces depicting phallic and sexual motives

national governments are proclaiming education as the

[hence] the Spanish needed to save the Tairona from

key to success in the global economy’ (p. 127) thereby

the hands of the Devil by teaching Christian piety while

reducing education to a functional auxiliary of the econ-

taking their gold’ (p. 132). Sexual repression, authoritar-

omy while simultaneously annihilating its humanising

ian education, religion, imperialism, and capitalism have

and emancipatory potentials. Under managerialism and

never been distant from one another.

which church, capitalism and imperialism merged when

its bedfellow neo-liberalism, human beings are reduced to

Meanwhile, what remains equally hidden is the fact that

human resources. This converts human beings into what

many people are totally ‘left out of the global economy

Poole (2006, p. 66; cf. Bolton & Houlian, 2008) calls Men-

[such as] large parts of Africa facing a future of mass

schenmaterial or human material when noting:

starvation and epidemics [hence] the global economy is

the template of ‘natural resources’ must, further, be to blame for the modern barbarism of the corporate term ‘human resources’. To call human beings ‘resources’, firstly, is to deny their existence as individuals, since any one person will not spring up again once worn out; people are ‘resources’ only insofar as they are thought of as a breeding population, like rabbits or chickens. ‘Human resources’, first recorded in 1961, eventually succeeded the term ‘manpower’ in business parlance; the effect was merely to replace a crude sexism with a more generalised rhetorical violence. People considered as ‘human resources’ are mere instruments of a higher will. Compare the Nazi vocabulary of ‘human material’ (Menschenmaterial) and ‘liquidation’ (liquidieren, recasting murder as the realisation of profit); if ‘natural resources’ evinces merely as blithe disregard for the environment, ‘human resources’ contains an echo of totalitarian Unspeak. Meanwhile outside of managerial regimes, human beings are downgraded to human capital. ‘Under human capital theory, education is a social investment that, in the more efficient manner, prepares human resources (students) to contribute to economic growth’ (p. 128). Asphyxiated inside the eternal treadmill of mindless managerial and equally mindless consumptive regimes, former

leaving millions of disaffected workers in its train. Inequality, unemployment and endemic poverty have become its handmaiden’ (p. 128). And this not only in the global periphery but also in the centres of, for example, Europe with its mass unemployment – even starvation – which has become a common occurrence in European countries (Cookburn, 2012). Next to globalisation as a preferred ideology, civilisation has long been a similarly favoured ideology and this not only when the Coalition of the Willing [or killing] brought civilisation and the rule of law to recalcitrant countries such as, more recently, Iraq. In short, civilisation is when: arrogantly, Romans, and later Europeans and Americans justified Western expansionism as necessary for civilising the world … for Romans, those who lived by Roman law and within the limits of the Roman empire were human; those who lived outside Roman rule were less than human. The word ‘civil’ means a form of law and the very act to civilise meant to bring a people under the control of the law. In other words, to bring people under Roman law was to civilise them (p. 130).

human beings can perpetually oscillate between both

The same justification was used when invading Iraq. In

regimes. This is justified by relying on one of capitalism’s

that way, the rule of law not only meant torture in Abu

main ideologies, namely globalisation that is framed as a

Ghraib and Guantánamo Bay, and the shipping of prison-

historyless given of Star Trek Borg-like dimensions: ‘We

ers to distant locations a practice deceptively labelled

are the Borg. Lower your shields and surrender your ships.

‘rendition’, but the bringing of Western civilisation made

We will add your biological and technological distinctive-

it also possible that more than ten years after the invasion,

ness to our own. Your life as it has been is over. Your cul-

bombs could still kill 11 Iraqi people in December 2013

ture will adapt to service us. Resistance is futile’ (Klikauer,

(AP, 2013).

2013b, p. 73).

Perhaps the epiphany of the hidden criminal history of

The mindless acceptance of corporate globalisation

corporate globalisation occurred when ‘on December 31,

deletes the very origin of globalisation, namely imperial-

1600, Queen Elizabeth I issued a charter to a group of

ism with all its hideous trimmings from Spanish rape, tor-

English merchants granting them monopoly right to trade

ture, and death of millions of South Americans, to ‘Great’

in India and Asia with the stipulation that the company

Britain’s Triangle of Death during the slave trade, the con-

support missionary efforts … the East India Company’

quest and pilfering of Africa, US invasions of numerous

(p. 133; cf. Petras & Veltmeyer, 2002). But after more than

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Emancipatory education: a review essay Review by Thomas Klikauer

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300 years of colonialism,‘political freedom has not meant the disappearance of the colonial frame of mind, which regards everything indigenous as inferior and everything foreign as inherently superior’ (p. 137). But, as has been so often the case, the internal contradictions of imperialism enforced an ideological change towards corporate globalisation when, for example, ‘the British struggle with the American colonists was costly and futile. Many

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But consumer capitalism also links this to news and newspapers in general when: newspapers not only sold news, but they also sold advertising. The more copies a newspaper sold, the more its publisher could charge advertisers. Cheap newspapers could only be sustained through advertising revenues. The sale of news was linked to the sale of advertising. News became a commodity to sell other commodities (p. 173).

began to wonder if the whole enterprise was becoming a burden rather than a source of wealth. Free trade was the

While this model worked for some time, it is currently

alternative. After all, the real wealth of colonialism was

undergoing very serious challenges to printed newspa-

through commerce’ (p. 144). Hence, many ideologies of

per, but not consumer capitalism (Nichols & McChesney,

imperialism – empire, colonialism, civilisation, patriotism,

2013; Ott, 2013). The rise of consumer capitalism has not

nationalism, the rule of law, etc. – could be unified under

only created pathological consequences for consumers

a single and conceivably even more powerful ideology:

but it is also that ‘Americans held the honour of working

globalisation.

more hours than any other industrial nation’ (p. 178) with

Perhaps the triumph of free trade can be seen in the fact that 96 per cent of American school children can identify Ronald McDonald, while ‘the only fictional character with a higher degree of recognition is Santa Claus’ (p. 155; cf. Spring, D., 2012). Hence, ‘consumerism is the

average working time on the increase in most ‘advanced’ countries. In the final two essays, Spring discusses globalisation in greater detail starting with:

take them to the mall” ’ (p. 155). And this is exactly what

new goals for global schools outlining that by global school system, I am referring to the similarity of school structure. More than 90 per cent of the world’s children and 20 per cent of the world population are enrolled for varying lengths of time in national school systems sharing a common structure of age-graded classrooms divided into primary and secondary education (p. 183).

many Americans did when I lived in Detroit. In Spring’s

Spring contrasts the promise of school achievement to

terminology I was becoming a consumer-citizen. ‘By

happiness, noting that this is why ‘British citizens are no

consumer-citizen [Spring] means a person who accepts

happier, according to objective measurements, than they

any political situation as long as there is an abundance

were 50 years ago despite increasing personal income’

of consumer goods’ (p. 155). This represents an eternal

(p. 184). Perhaps consumer capitalism’s unspoken equa-

treadmill because ‘the process of accumulation of prop-

tion of one television equals happiness and two televi-

erty had to be kept moving forward, energised by the

sions equal twice the happiness did not quite work out.

restless desire of purchasing rather than the pleasure of

For Spring, ‘overall happiness is the degree with which

possession. In the modern culture of abundance desire is

an individual judges the overall quality of their life as a

curiously dematerialised’ (p. 159). For that university and

whole favourably. In other words, how much one likes

school attendance are vital because they:

the life one leads’ (p. 185). Compared to Britain, the situ-

dominant ideology … and the driving force of the global economy’ (p. 155). It is not at all surprising that ‘when I [Joel Spring] asked current American college students how they would introduce an immigrant to American culture, the response without exception was “I would

help to establish the foundations of a mass-consumer culture. School attendance promised everyone an equal chance to consume property, and it linked school success with good character and good character with accumulation of property. Failure in school supposedly limited income, the school could perpetuate the idea that poverty was often a sign of failed character (p. 163).

ation is even worse in the USA, where a ‘tremendous rise

Outside of schools and universities, consumerism is fur-

piness is related to the nature and degree of individual

ther supported by what Spring calls ‘consumer news’. ‘By

involvement in religious practises’ (p. 194), a standard

the 20th and 21st centuries, consumer news – that is, infor-

measure on happiness would argue that something else

mation about new products and price trends – became an

is the case. The World Happiness Report notes that Den-

accepted part of local and world news’ (p. 171).

mark remains the happiest country (WHR, 2013, p. 22).

in average purchasing power was reflected in almost all households having an indoor toilet, a washing machine, telephone, colour television as well as a car [but] this tremendous rise in material well-being was accompanied by a modest decrease in average happiness’ (p. 188). While Spring explains happiness with ‘a person’s hap-

Emancipatory education: a review essay Review by Thomas Klikauer

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

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Problematic for Spring’s argument on religion is that Danish people are not particularly religious. Perhaps a more powerful indicator for the existence or non-exist-

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branch of government, with the same protection from outside influence that is given to the Supreme Court and the Federal Reserve Bank (p. 213).

ence of happiness is absolute and relative poverty. Coun-

For Spring, this policy shift can guarantee that ‘freedom

tries with absolute poverty – people on starvation levels

of ideas requires a diversity of ideas to think about, oth-

– are not happy places. Equally, countries with relative

erwise freedom of thought is meaningless’ (p. 234). In his

poverty and large discrepancies between the haves and

conclusion, Spring warns that ‘if current trends continue,

have nots – USA, Brazil, South Africa, India, etc. – are not

then public schools will primarily serve the interests of

happy places either. Denmark has no absolute poverty

business and the most active special interest group influ-

and still limited levels of relative poverty, despite recent

encing politicians’ (p. 237). This marks a clear depar-

inroads of neo-liberalism.

ture from anarchist values when faced with the current

In other words, absolute poverty and the Gini coef-

onslaught of neo-liberalism directed against schools and

ficient are better predictors of happiness than religious

universities. Perhaps for Spring this is a possible way out

practice. Not surprisingly, Spring delivers his own coun-

of the double quagmire. On the one hand, there is a neo-

ter-argument against religious practices and for Gini when

liberal assault on schools and universities from above, on

stating ‘subjective well-being has not risen since Russia

the other there is also a typically American religious inter-

adopted free elections in 1991’ (p. 205). In Russia, reli-

est group enforcing its irrationalities onto schools and

gious practice has in fact gone up after communism was

universities from below. Perhaps predicament has forced

defeated and therefore, according to Spring, happiness

an anarchist such as Spring to offer schools and univer-

should have gone up as well. But the Gini coefficient has

sities protection in a governmental refuge untouchable

also gone down in Russia with more rich and many more

by the ideological imperatives of Herrn von Hayek’s eco-

poor people. Therefore, the rich–poor divide can predict

nomic irrationalism and religious power groups. Perhaps

a decrease in happiness and wellbeing, while religious

if schools and universities are well financed in the way

practice cannot, at least as the case of Russia appears to

that Supreme Courts and Reserve Banks are, and remain

indicate.

independent of the ups and downs of political mood

Spring’s final essay offers a surprisingly non-anarchistic

swings and prevailing ideologies, while simultaneously

solution to the current problems in education. But before

being protected from a politician’s ill will by being based

this, Spring correctly notes that ‘as a human right, educa-

on Supreme Court-like tenured positions, schools and uni-

tional rights are justified by their contribution to human

versities will have a chance to be what they should be.

welfare’ (p. 217) rather than to neo-liberal economic ide-

In that way, schools and universities can exist under the

ology (Hayek 1944, 1960). But there is also a more funda-

maxim that education is a human right and educational

mental issue at work: ‘if education is considered a duty

right, justifying their existence by their contribution to

and right necessary for human welfare, then all people

emancipatory education and universal human welfare.

should receive equal benefits from this right. In other words, all people should have equal educational oppor-

When he is not reviewing books, Thomas Klikauer still

tunities’ (p. 217). Hence, if this is the case, anything that

teaches Human Resources Management at the University of

hinders this – from private schooling to university fees

Western Sydney, Sydney.

– should be abolished. Furthermore, ‘the relentless march to human capital education may stifle the growth and development of human thought through its high-stakes texts, its commitment to linking education to economic development, and its support of mass consumption’ (p. 223). The only word wrong in Spring’s statement is ‘may’. If this is exchanged with ‘will’, the statement increases its correctness. Seeing these looming pathologies of the current education system on the increase, Spring offers a surprisingly non-, if not outright anti-, anarchist but highly Hegelian strong state solution: one possible solution is to make public schooling, through a constitutional amendment, the fourth vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

References Adorno, T.W. (1971). Erziehung zur Mündigkeit (Education to Maturity), Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Publishing. Adorno, T.W. (2005). Education after Auschwitz. In Critical Models – Interventions and catchwords, New York: Columbia University Press. AP. (2013). Blasts hit gathering of mourners in Wajihiya, and two policemen killed in roadside bombing in Abu Ghraib, Baghdad: Associated Press: 1 December. Ballantine, J. H. & Spade, J. Z. (eds.). (2012). Schools and Society: A sociological approach to education (4th ed.). Los Angeles: Sage/Pine Forge Press. Benson, P. & Kirsch, S. (2010). Capitalism and the politics of resignation. Current Anthropology, 51(4), 459–486.

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Bolton, S. C. & Houlian, M. (eds.). (2008). Searching for the Human in Human Resource Management. Basingstoke: Palgrave.

Marcuse, H. (1966). One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the ideology of advanced industrial societies. Boston: Beacon Press.

Bowles, S. & Gintis, H. (1976). Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational reform and the contradictions of economic life, New York: Basic Books.

Nichols, J. & McChesney, R. W. (2013). Dollarocracy: How the money-andmedia election complex is destroying America, New York: Nation Books.

Brand, R. (2013). ‘We no longer have the luxury of tradition’ – But before we change the world, we need to change the way we think, New Statesman, 24 October.

Ott, B. L. (2013). Critical Media Studies: An introduction (2nd ed.). Chichester: Wiley.

Cookburn, P. (2012). Starved of funds, now starved of food: pain bites at Greek hospital, The Independent (14 June). Retrieved from www.independent.co.uk.

Petras, J. F. & Veltmeyer, H. (2002). Globalization Unmasked: Imperialism in the 21st century (2nd reprint), Halifax: Fernwood Publishing; London: Zed Books and Palgrave.

Diefenbach, T. (2013). Hierarchy and Organization. London: Routledge.

Poole, S. (2006). Unspeak, London: Little Brown.

Eduen. (2013). Education. Retrieved from wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Eduen/ Anarchism_and_education.

Spring, D. (2012). Advertising in the Age of Persuasion: Building brand America, 1941–1961. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Farmer, P. (1996). On suffering and structural violence: a view from below, Daedalus, 125(1), 261–283.

Spring, J. (1975). A Primer of Libertarian Education. New York: Free Life Editions.

Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed (trans. Myra Bergman Ramos). New York: Continuum.

Spring, J. (2012). Research on Globalization and Education. In J. H. Ballantine & J. Z. Spade (eds) Schools and Society – A sociological approach to education, (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Goldman, E. (1906). The child and its enemies, Mother Earth, 1(2), 7–14. Giroux, H. A. (2011). On Critical Pedagogy, New York: Continuum. Hayek, F. A. (1944). The Road to Serfdom, London: Routledge. Hayek, F. A. (1960). The Constitution of Liberty, London: Routledge. Illich, I. (1971). Deschooling Society, New York: Harper & Row. Jobrack, B. (2011). Tyranny of the Textbook: An insider exposes how educational materials undermine reforms, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. Klikauer, T. (2013a). Managerialism and business schools – a review essay. Australian Universities’ Review, 55(2), 128–132.

Spring, J. (2013). Schooling in capitalist America & on critical pedagogy, personal email communication, 9 December. Stirner, M. (1842). The False Principles of Our Education. Retrieved from www.theanarchistlibrary.org. Stirner, M. (1845 [1995]). The Ego and Its Own (Einzige und sein Eigentum.). D. Leopold (ed). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tolstoy, L. (1852). The Path to Education. Retrieved from www.ibe.unesco.org. UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network (2013). World Happiness Report 2013.

Klikauer, T. (2013b). Managerialism – Critique of an ideology, Basingstoke: Palgrave.

Emancipatory education: a review essay Review by Thomas Klikauer

vol. 56, no. 1, 2014

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