AUR 56 02 by NTEU

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014 Published by NTEU

ISSN 0818–8068

AUR

Australian Universities’Review

AUR Editor Dr Ian R. Dobson, Federation University Australia

AUR Editorial Board Jeannie Rea, NTEU National President Professor Timo Aarrevaara, University of Helsinki Professor Walter Bloom, Murdoch University Dr Jamie Doughney, Victoria University Professor Leo Goedegebuure, University of Melbourne Professor Jeff Goldsworthy, Monash University Professor Ralph Hall, University of New South Wales Meghan Hopper, CAPA National President Professor Dr Simon Marginson, University of London Mr Grahame McCulloch, NTEU General Secretary Dr Alex Millmow, Federation University Australia Dr Neil Mudford, UNSW@ADFA Professor Paul Rodan, Swinburne University of Technology Dr Leesa Wheelahan, University of Toronto

Production Design & layout: Paul Clifton Copy editor & proofreader: Sandra Goldbloom Zurbo Cover photograph: John Curtin School of Medical Research, ANU, Canberra, by Dirk HR Spennemann ©2012. Reproduced with permission.

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References References to be cited according to APA Publication Manual 6th edition (with minor exceptions). References in the text should be given in the author–date style: King (2004) argues ... or as various authors (King, 2004; Markwell, 2007) argue ... Two co-authors should be cited in the text as (Smith & Jones, 2013). More than two authors cite as (Jones et al., 2011). Page references should be thus: (King, 2004, p. 314). Page references should be used for direct quotations. The reference list should be placed in alphabetical order at the end of the paper, utilising the author–date system. For a reference to a book: Gall, M., Gall, J. & Borg, W. (2003). Education Research: An introduction (7th ed.). New York: Allyn & Bacon. For a journal reference: King, D.A. (2004). What different countries get for their research spending. Nature 430, 311–316. For a reference to a chapter in a collection: McCollow, J. & Knight, J. (2005). Higher Education in Australia: An Historical Overview, in M. Bella, J. McCollow & J. Knight (eds). Higher Education in Transition. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. For a web reference: Markwell, D. (2007). The challenge of student engagement. Retreived from http://www.catl.uwa.edu.au/__data/ page/95565/Student_engagement_-_Don_Markwell_-_30_Jan_2007.pdf Do not include retrieval dates for web references unless the source material may change over time (e.g. wikis).

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014 Published by NTEU

ISSN 0818–8068

Australian Universities’ Review 3

Letter from the editor Ian R. Dobson

ARTICLES 4

Democracy and international higher education in China Andrys Onsman & Jackie Cameron

There is substantial evidence that supports the theory that higher education and democracy are highly correlated. This study investigates why a Western-style education in China has done little to inculcate revolutionary movements. 14 Indigenous employment and enterprise agreements in Australian universities Cath Brown

Considering the benefits that enterprise agreements can bring to Indigenous employees, this paper considers the question of whether respectful cultural policies that are aligned with reconciliation and included in agreements can reduce Indigenous disadvantage. 20 Students’ early departure intention and the mitigating role of support Hamish Coates

In many higher education systems around the world increasing retention is vital if institutions are to produce the number of graduates identified through government projections to meet industry needs. 30 Is there a correlation between US university presidential pay and performance? Laura Risler & Laura M. Harrison

This paper scrutinises the escalating salaries of US college and university presidents, discusses them in the broader socioeconomic context and suggests ways institutions might strengthen the link between pay and performance. 36 Universities and the public good: A review of knowledge exchange policy and related university practice in Australia Michael Cuthill, Éidín O’Shea, Bruce Wilson & Pierre Viljoen

Australia needs a clearly articulated national knowledge exchange policy, along with enhanced university capacity to implement knowledge exchange initiatives. 47 Towards postcolonial management of transnational education Peter Ling, Margaret Mazzolini & Beena Giridharan

Responsibilities and opportunities to exercise management and leadership in the provision of transnational education depend on the organisational model adopted and whether the academics involved are on home or international campuses.

OPINION 56 Love, fear and learning in the market university Raewyn Connell

In a recent lecture at the University of Sydney, Raewyn Connell explained the issues that are leading to overworked and demoralised staff in contemporary Australian higher education. 64 Confronting academic snobbery Brian Martin & Majken Jul Sørensen

Snobbery in academia can involve academics, general staff, students and members of the public, and can be based on degrees, disciplines, cliques and other categories. Though snobbery is seldom treated as a significant issue, it can have damaging effects on morale, research and public image. 69 A poem and two senryu ¯ Arthur O’Neill

REVIEWS 70 You say you want a revolution. The Dawkins Revolution 25 Years On by Gwilym Croucher, Simon Marginson, Andrew Norton & Julie Wells (Eds.). Reviewed by Paul Rodan

72 At last count … The Rise Of Data in Education Systems: Collection, visualization and use by Martin Lawn (Ed.). Reviewed by Neil Mudford.

75 What’s up, Doc? Developing Generic Support for Doctoral Students: Practice and pedagogy by Susan Carter and Deborah Laurs (Eds.). Reviewed by Pam Herman.

77 Be mobile Internationalisation of Higher Education and Global Mobility by Bernhard Streitwieser (Ed.). Reviewed by Andrys Onsman.

80 Another season, another reason, for makin’ policy Making Policy in Turbulent Times: Challenges and prospects for higher education (Queen’s Policy Studies) by Paul Axelrod, Roopa Desai Trilokekar, Theresa Shanahan and Richard Wellen (Eds.). Reviewed by Andrys Onsman.

85 The Gender Gap: Still a schism? Generation and Gender in Academia by Barbara Bagilhole and Kate White (Eds.). Reviewed by Carroll Graham.

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87 Diversity 101 Managing and Supporting Student Diversity in Higher Education. A case book by Robyn Benson, Margaret Hegney, Lesley Hewitt, Glenda Crosling & Anita Devos. Reviewed by Georgina Tsolidis.

88 More diversity Diversity and Inclusion in Higher Education: Emerging perspectives on institutional transformation by Daryl G. Smith (Ed.). Reviewed by Dennis Bryant.

90 Hearing voices? Student Voices On Inequalities in European Higher Education: Challenges for theory, policy and practice in a time of change by Fergal Finnegan, Barbara Merrill & Camilla Thunborg (Eds.). Reviewed by Dennis Bryant.

92 Beware all ye who enter here! Academic Life and Labour in the New University by Ruth Barcan.

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94 Rhizomatic learning rules, OK? Educating the Postmodern Child: The struggle for learning in a world of virtual realities by Fiachra Long. Reviewed by Andee Jones.

96 A capital idea? Seventeen Contradictions and the End of Capitalism by David Harvey. Reviewed by Thomas Klikauer.

98 Help! I need somebody / Help! Not just anybody… Helping Doctoral Students Write: Pedagogies for supervision by Barbara Kamler and Pat Thomson Reviewed by Franklin Obeng-Odoom.

100 The knowledge profession? Knowledge, Expertise and the Professions by Michael Young and Johan Muller (Eds.). Reviewed by Andrys Onsman.

Reviewed by Janin Bredehoeft.

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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Letter from the editor Welcome to Round 2 for 2014. In this issue we present a

equate practice constrain the effective use of knowledge

wide range of papers on China, Indigenous employment,

in socioeconomic development and national innovation’.

early departing students, universities and the public good,

The solution will come with ‘a clearly articulated national

transnational education and an interesting article on how

knowledge exchange policy, along with enhanced univer-

much US university presidents (aka vice-chancellors) are

sity capacity to implement knowledge exchange initiatives’.

paid. We have opinion pieces that cover the market uni-

Peter Ling, Margaret Mazzolini and Beena Giridharan

versity and academic snobbery, and we also have a poem

have written a paper on transnational education, particu-

or two.

larly the impact of Australian universities’ offshore cam-

Andrys Onsman’s presence in this issue of Australian

puses. Reporting on a funded major study, they examine

Universities’ Review is considerable; he collaborated in

‘good practice in allocation and exercise of management

writing a paper on Chinese higher education students

and leadership responsibilities’, and how a balance might

and democracy, and prepared no fewer than three book

be struck between quality assurance obligations and the

reviews. He is a well-read man, one might say. In the paper

degree of local control that should be provided to the local

with Jackie Cameron Hadland from Scotland’s University of

academics involved.

Stirling, the authors note that although there is ‘substantial

Raewyn Connell clearly explains the issues that are lead-

evidence that supports the theory that higher education

ing to staff in contemporary Australian higher education

and democracy are highly correlated’, they find that despite

feeling overworked and demoralised. Brian Martin and

the increased availability of Western-style education within

Majken Jul Sørensen walk us through academic snobbery,

and without its borders, China has bucked the trend. Their

which, they note, ‘is seldom treated as a significant issue,

study investigates why a Western-style education in China

[but] can have damaging effects on morale, research and

has done little to inculcate revolutionary movements.

public image’.They introduce us to ways snobbery can best

Cath Brown’s paper runs the microscope over the enter-

be tackled. In our opinion section, Arthur O’Neill tells how

prise agreements at several universities and considers the

it is, waxing lyrical in forms poetic:‘There once was a man

question of whether respectful cultural policies that are

called Arthur, etc.’

aligned with reconciliation and included in these agree-

One of the briefs handed to me as the new editor (not

ments can be a path towards reducing Indigenous disad-

so new any more) was to beef up the book reviews section.

vantage. See what you think.

On that basis, this issue is a triumph, because it includes

Hamish Coates, who has written about student retention,

reviews of 14 books by 11 reviewers. An editor is depend-

finds that there are major disjunctions between the sup-

ent on material coming in, and for this issue, all the books

port used by students and the support they need. Evidence-

provided to potential reviewers have resulted in completed

based practice can do much to resolve these disjunctions,

reviews. Well done to all concerned. There is, however, no

he says, and in the paper makes research-driven suggestions

truth in the rumour that AUR will henceforth be known as

about how institutions can increase student support and

the NTEU Review of Books. I expect we’ll see a decline in

thus, retention.

our contributors’ literary critiques by the next issue.

Looking at presidents’ salary packages, would it surprise

My thanks go to the members of the editorial board, the

anyone to learn that ‘pay rates of top executives are largely

NTEU production team and Sandra Goldbloom Zurbo for

explained by factors that have little or nothing to do with

enabling this issue to hit the streets.

performance’? Lauras Risler and Harrison take us through the literature, performance indicators and other data to tell

Ian Dobson is an Honorary Senior Research Fellow at the

us how it really is in the US. Could someone write an equiv-

Federation University Australia, an Adjunct Professional Staff

alent paper that describes the Australian scene?

Member at Monash University and editor of AUR.

Michael Cuthill and his colleagues have prepared a paper on knowledge exchange policy, primarily focusing on the knowledge exchange policy–practice nexus in Australia. They observe that, ‘taken together, poor policy and inadvol. 56, no. 2, 2014

Letter from the editor

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Democracy and international higher education in China Andrys Onsman University of Melbourne

Jackie Cameron University of Stirling

There is substantial evidence that supports the theory that higher education and democracy are highly correlated. Throughout modern history, students have been at the forefront of democratic movements, including the 1989 pro-democracy uprising in China. Since then, and despite the increased availability of Western-style education within and without its borders, China has bucked the trend. Using system justification theory as its theoretical framework, this study investigates why a Western-style education in China has done little to inculcate revolutionary movements. Findings indicate that a Western-style education does not facilitate student desire for democratisation in China because of the control imposed on student behaviour by Chinese authorities, including student subscription to Chinese Communist Partyendorsed notions of national pride and student ambition for postgraduate socioeconomic reward. Culturally grounded notions of social harmony were less evident than might have been expected.

Democracy is usually understood to be a human rights-

membership is allowed into the decision-making pro-

oriented system of government based on universal suf-

cess and contestation of either the Congress or its

frage. Democracy is generally assumed to refer to rule

membership is officially discouraged. Public criticism is

by the people through direct and secret representation

not allowed; when it does occur, it can result in severe

and is historically defined as being opposite to any form

punishment. In December 2011, for instance, Chen Xi

of authoritarianism and totalitarianism (Popper, 1971).

was jailed for 10 years for writing a series of essays,

Hence, mainland China fits the definition of a non-

published on websites outside China, criticising the Chi-

democratic state because National Party Congress dele-

nese government. At the same time another democracy

gates are not elected by secret popular vote (Miles, 2011)

campaigner, Chen Wei, was sentenced to nine years in a

but are, for all intents and purposes, decided by Commu-

similar but unrelated case (Hennock, 2011). But while

nist Party allocation.

China cannot be said to be a democracy by any accepted

Moreover, China could also be construed as being a

definition, Chinese officials occasionally use such terms

totalitarian state because its leaders conduct themselves

as ‘socialist democracy’ (China Daily, 2012), an oxymo-

under the ideological banner of communism, and while

ron that ex-Premier Wen Jiabao used to describe a form

not everyone in the National Party Congress is a member

of ersatz democratic government that does not guaran-

of the Communist Party of China (CCP), no other party

tee basic human rights, doesn’t require the separation

Democracy and international higher education in China Tim Battin, Dan Riley & Alan Avery

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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of powers, doesn’t ensure freedom of speech and is not

2012). The number of students who return after studying

based on universal suffrage.

abroad has also been exponentially growing. According

There exists a growing body of scholarly work to sup-

to the Chinese Ministry of Education, in 2011 a total of

port the proposition that more universally available and

186,200 Chinese students, or about 55 per cent of the

more internationally focused higher education within a

total, returned to work in China – an increase of 38 per

non-democratic state may lead to increased student-led

cent compared to 2010 (Zhu, 2012). There are no studies

agitation for democratisation (Glaeser et al., 2006; Lipset,

that report these students show a greater inclination to

1959, 1960). More specifically, in their meta-analysis of

agitate for political reform.

survey data on the effectiveness factors of civic education,

One subset of foreign educated Chinese students is

Gainous and Martens (2012) considered education to be

comprised of those who complete their course in a Sino–

the most important in creating attitudes and values vital

foreign joint-venture university. Whereas at first glance it

for a participant governance. Earlier, and somewhat pro-

may be presumed that these providers engender a more

phetically, Zehra Arat (1988, p. 22) posited the idea that

actively pursued notion of social justice and democracy

education with urbanisation and media growth are the

among its cohorts, it is in fact just as possible that they

essential factors for the creation of a desire for democracy

are complicit in preventing Chinese students’ access to

in the Middle East:

democratic principles. It may be that their very presence

Using survey data from Middle Eastern countries, Lerner identified urbanisation, education, and media growth (or communication) as the essential factors for the process of democratic development. He considered urbanisation to be a factor stimulating education, which in turn accelerates media growth and eventually democratic development.

in China indicates compliance with the CCP’s requirement of tight control of student behaviour while maximum educational and economic benefits are extracted (Gow, 2012). It is undoubtedly true that the primary purpose of incountry transnational universities is educating the best and brightest Chinese and international students to high

Not all media commentators agree that youth use social

undergraduate and postgraduate standards; not to incul-

media to create a self-directed political force (Bratich,

cate revolutionary fervent, particularly as the overseas

2011) and the outcomes of the various uprisings in the

partners in these ventures acknowledge potential and

region continue to be mixed in terms of democratisa-

actual financial gain, albeit usually couched in terms of

tion (Dalacoura, 2011). Nonetheless, there is a general

mutual benefit (Greenaway & Rudd, 2012; Gilbertson

acknowledgement that disempowered young people are

2011). Nonetheless, this does not comfortably explain the

increasingly using social media to demand social justice

lack of revolutionary movement among Chinese students.

(Vadrevu & Lim, 2012).

The intentions, per se, of the executives and managers at

Contemporary China has so far bucked this trend.

the helm of Western universities in China do not necessar-

Since the 1989 Tiananmen Square uprising was quashed,

ily preclude students’ political activity: in fact, historically

there have not been any significant attempts by students

speaking, Chinese students have been remarkably resil-

to push society towards a democracy that values human

ient in the face of state intervention.

rights such as freedom of speech, freedom of associa-

The current lack of student enthusiasm for political

tion and the right to vote for political leaders, despite

revolt may be attributed to the state having too close a

Chinese students having a reputation for being socio-

control over them to allow dissent and/or ambition to

politically active and at the forefront of Chinese politics in

foment. The fact that China is allowing Western-style edu-

the 20th century (Zhao, 2002). It is noticeable that there

cation to be delivered within its borders suggests that

does not appear to be any visible or significant appetite

the state is confident in its control mechanisms. These

for democracy among the contemporary student popula-

mechanisms operate on the micro level as ubiquitous

tion in China, even among those students who have had

surveillance within the campus and on the macro level

significant exposure to Western ideas through tertiary

by referring to Confucian notions of social cohesion and

education abroad or at home. Although those numbers

national identity (Onsman, 2012), a strategy that works as

are relatively small compared to the total Chinese popula-

an underlying psychosocial mechanism acting as a coun-

tion, they are growing. China’s Ministry of Education sta-

terforce to the desire for democratisation sweeping the

tistics indicate that a total of 339,700 Chinese students

world (Huntington, 1991).

went abroad for graduate and undergraduate studies in

In the recent past, Chinese students have shown that

2011, an increase of 19.32 per cent over that of 2010 (Yu,

they are not averse to protest when the cause is mean-

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

Democracy and international higher education in China Andrys Onsman & Jackie Cameron Hadland

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ingful to them, which suggests that students may be less

per cent of all projects are directly related to the Party.

predisposed towards overt political action in this instance

The remainder are indirectly related to the Party and all

because the idea of democracy is less appealing to them

are related to facilitating information gathering, record-

than the West assumes. In simple terms then, students may

ing and monitoring of students for political purposes.The

show little interest in pushing for democracy because

social structure of the university and the work carried out

they are constrained by strictures within the university

by the Student Affairs Office are specifically designed to

or they do not see democracy as an intrinsically worth-

ensure that students do not develop revolutionary move-

while goal. This study explores the relationship between

ments. Rather, the structures are specifically designed to

the two factors.

cajole or coerce the student population into supporting or justifying the rule of a political elite.

The study

May 2012 in the University of Nottingham Ningbo China

Table 1. Student Affairs Office functions identified as factors ensuring student compliance

(hereafter UNNC), the first officially sanctioned Sino–for-

Description

Reporting lines

Diary of activities

The study was comprised of three parts: a qualitative

Psychological counselling

examination of the organisational structure of UNNC,

Student Union management

semi-structured interviews with six individuals, con-

Career guidance

ducted with the assurance of complete anonymity, and a

Disability support

Student enrolment

Student card

Student transport concession

The study was conducted between 1 February and 31

eign university in China (Onsman, 2011). UNNC offers a wholly British education and encourages international student mobility; about one-fifth of Chinese students spend part of their degree programs in Western countries.

questionnaire, translated into Chinese and distributed to 200 students: 100 at UNNC and, for comparison purposes, 100 university-age Chinese students not affiliated to the university. Ethics clearance was provided by UNNC.

Compliance impact rating

10 Student insurance

Analysis of UNNC’s student support structure

11 Student record

12 ‘Party Work Handbook of UNNC implementation’

Much of student activity in UNNC is controlled and

13 Party membership management

14 Lost property

15 Student ‘emergencies’ plan (including demonstrations)

ensuring that students justify the social system and 5 =

16 Assigned roles in emergencies

major factor in ensuring that students justify the social

17 Incident reporting systems

system). Of the 25 identified features, seven were rated as

18 Response plans for all emergencies, led by Party secretary

not being a factor in maintaining the sociopolitical status quo, which suggests that most of the work of the Student

19 Graduation ceremony

Affairs Office is entirely devoted to ensuring political con-

20 Monitoring of student organisations

21 Sports events: selection of participants.

22 Assigned roles in cultural activities

student support is peripheral to the primary duties for-

23 Party recruitment

malised in the student affairs manual. The work of the

24 Preliminary calendar of events (mostly CCP-related activities)

monitored by the Student Affairs Office. To gain an initial impression of how far-reaching its influence is, the main features and functions of its work were classified and rated on a Likert scale of 1 to 5 (1 = not a factor in

trol of the students. In addition, this is specifically CCP control, as opposed to general control by the authorities. The analysis of function and purpose indicated that

20 or so employees is, specifically, to build and entrench the power and control of the Party among the student body. The unit’s work calendar indicates that at least 40

Key: 1 = not factor in ensuring student compliance; 5 = major factor in ensuring student compliance

Democracy and international higher education in China Andrys Onsman & Jackie Cameron Hadland

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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In compliance with China’s Archives Law, the Student

same people coordinate Party meetings and make recom-

Affairs Office gathers information and keeps detailed files

mendations for the recognition of outstanding Party mem-

on every student, including contact information for friends

bers as well as for outstanding academic achievement.The

and relatives, as well as ideological issues in connection

intertwining of the three functions – educational, political

with students’ families and social groups.These files arrive

and career development – reinforces the impression for

at the university from schools and are passed on to future

students that membership of the Party and employment

employers and other government departments when stu-

opportunities are directly related.

dents graduate or drop out. Student Affairs Office officers

Further supporting the argument that Student Affairs

are required to include information about each student’s

Office officers primarily serve a political function for

health, grades, rewards and punishments, and details

the Party are the details of how emergencies at the uni-

related to Party affiliation and interest. The presence of

versity are prioritised. Along with major health epidem-

these files – and the knowledge that whatever one says

ics, such as SARS (a highly contagious and potentially

or does that is non-routine will be immediately reported

deadly virus), pulmonary anthrax and radiation damage,

to an authority and stay on your record for life – serves

‘student group incidents’ is cited as an ‘extremely major

as a mechanism to keep students very cautious about airing their views on political issues or, indeed, acting to make any change. The fear of being punished later, by, for example, not being awarded employment on the basis of a student misdemeanour, is a major factor in ensuring that

incident’, scoring the highest

Shortly after the start of the academic year in September, students are actively encouraged to join the Party or be promoted within its ranks. They are first introduced to the class leadership structures and then class party leadership structures. There is little that is subtle about the encouragement.

people err on the side of cau-

grade of emergency. Student group incidents are defined as ‘[u]ncontrollable gathering incidents of students, unapproved large-scale demonstrations, rallies, hunger strikes, sit-ins, petitions, and other incidents that seriously affect social stability; on-campus student group incidents

tion in giving their opinions

which interrupt the normal

and acting in a way that may seem as if they are opposed

teaching and administrative work’. Protest action, even

to the Party or not be supportive of it.

for minor causes, is not permitted at UNNC. Were they to

Shortly after the start of the academic year in September, students are actively encouraged to join the Party or

occur, they would be stopped and offenders reported to Party authorities.

be promoted within its ranks. They are first introduced

Also worth noting is that the leader in times of emer-

to the class leadership structures, and then class Party

gency is not the Provost and Chief Executive Officer of

leadership structures. There is little that is subtle about

UNNC, a secondment from University of Nottingham

the encouragement. Party loyalists are rewarded with

(UK). According to the manual, responsibility for han-

accolades and positive notes on their records; only ath-

dling emergencies falls under the Student Affairs Office,

letes who are Party members are chosen for competitive

with the Party Secretary ultimately accountable for all

sporting events. Peer pressure is utilised as a social con-

issues, ranging from food poisoning on campus to major

trol tool, with students acting as agents to help Student

catastrophes. Heads of the Student Affairs Office, logis-

Affairs Office officers gather detailed information about

tics and student apartment security are on the ‘leading

each student. The Student Affairs Office keeps a tight

team’. The controversial point arises when the emer-

rein on student organisations by establishing leadership

gency would not be deemed an emergency in another

groups of trusted students and effectively controlling all

country – for example, a student sit-in or protest activ-

student activities. It is evident that the pressure to join the

ity. Democratic freedom of speech activities are not per-

Party comes from a formalised structure implemented by

mitted, the ban being enforced by the Party through its

UNNC together with the Party.

agents at the university.

Although UNNC has a career development office in its

Student Affairs Office officials, as agents of the Party,

administration, much of the career-oriented student sup-

are very powerful in influencing the future lives of stu-

port is managed by the Student Affairs Office. At least 15

dents; as a result, students treat them with healthy respect

per cent of its time is allocated to student employment

and obedience, referring to them as their ‘leaders’ and

issues, such as arranging internship opportunities. The

‘bosses’. The contents of the operational manual indicate

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that although the university is labelled a UK university in China, it is only the academic provision that is British. The university experience and all other facets of the university are Chinese and are under the control of the Party – effectively, a ruling elite in a totalitarian state. This works as an effective counterweight to the development of a revolutionary movement and, in addition, serves to counteract academic experiences that might lead to a

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2. Why don’t students here show any desire to change the way things work at the university or in China? 3. Do you think that students in China are interested in democracy? 4. Do you think that students think about the social system in China? 5. How important is Confucianism, in terms of its principles, in China today?

change in social attitude or behaviour. However, as has

If the interviewee indicated discomfort with being

been evident in social upheavals elsewhere, institutional

recorded, answers were recorded in writing, either in situ

and administrative constraints are unlikely to be effective

or post hoc.

at suppressing revolt if the desire for change gains enough traction among the student population. In light of this, the

Interview responses

paper turns to the question of whether such a desire for change to democracy is evident among Chinese students

A common thread among all the recorded responses was

in a transnational university. Where there is no will, the

that Party-constructed situational factors at UNNC out-

way becomes irrelevant.

weigh individual dispositional factors likely to motivate Chinese students towards seeking political change and

Interviews

developing social movements. For example, one interviewee noted that the computer and internet systems

Ten individuals were invited to participate in semi-struc-

accessed by students are specifically set up to prevent the

tured interviews; six agreed. Given the sensitivity of dis-

development of protest action. She said:‘In our university

cussing political issues in China and that indicating a lack

we have to log in via software; it was produced by secu-

of support for the governing CCP can lead to censure

rity services … if students want to organise protest, the

and even harsh penalties in extreme cases, the interviews

internet can be disrupted immediately. It’s not difficult.’

were conducted on the basis of strict anonymity and all

Another highlighted the Party spectre over the lives of

candidates were informed that they could end the inter-

students by noting: ‘Every Chinese university head of Stu-

view at any stage. The aim of the interviews was to assess

dent Affairs must know everything; they are very power-

the extent to which the list of factors identified by Jost

ful. They can meet parents. They can access information.

and Hunyady (2002, 2005) might be directly applicable to

Even those from the education bureau say to them: “You

Chinese individuals. In order to prevent any interviewee

could control this”, like who moves to a single room, for

discomfort with overtly political terminology or judge-

priorities and other privileges.’ These responses illustrate

ment-laden terms such ‘conservative’ and ‘protest’, the

a perception that control is ultimately located in the Party

descriptors of the categories were removed.

and other state organs.

Each interview began with respondents being asked to

Most interviewees believed a system involving ‘moni-

identify the category they most identified with by circling

tors’ is effective in diffusing any political tension at the

the letter next to the description that best fits their world-

university. Interviewees who expressed support for the

view. A series of questions followed, phrased according

Party suggested that the Student Affairs Office monitors

to context, about the perceived likelihood of student atti-

encourage individuals to air grievances and, in so doing,

tude moving in favour of Western democracy in the long

act as a political pressure valve.

run, as well as whether there was any likelihood in the

All interviewees made comments alluding to the

near future of political activism that had the introduction

Party machinery becoming more rather than less perva-

of democracy as an objective.The focus was on resistance

sive and constrictive as UNNC had evolved since it was

to change (‘I would be reluctant to make any large-scale

established in 2003. The pervasiveness of the Party was

changes to the social order’ and ‘I have a preference for

cited as a factor in students failing to show any interest

maintaining stability in society, even if there seem to be

in student political activities, or any criticism of the state

problems with the current system’). Specific questions

or authorities. Said one interviewee:‘Many, not all, student

included:

activities are organised by the Party. You are brainwashed,

1. Why do you think students at UNNC don’t engage in

you are living surrounded by the Communist Party, the

political behaviour?

Youth League. The question then is: Why are you protest-

Democracy and international higher education in China Andrys Onsman & Jackie Cameron Hadland

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ing against it? Those are your friends.’ This attitude sug-

used to it’, and ‘The people have to just learn how to sur-

gests that the notion that Western education leads to a

vive within the system, even though the system is harm-

change in social attitudes is not applicable in the context

ful to the people. The system is too harsh ... but Chinese

of this study because, in this instance, a Western education

people have got used to living within a harsh system …

has not succeeded in breaking down the attitude towards

unlike Western society they aren’t trying to build a better

the Party.

society but survive.’

Fear of the state and punishment for not being openly

When asked why students don’t even protest about

supportive of the Party were cited as major reasons for

minor issues or non-political issues such as poor food

students failing to exhibit any overtly political behaviour.

quality in the face of a lack of action by the university,

One said students were worried about anything con-

which is a common social and social media complaint, one

strued as ‘misbehaviour’ being ‘put into files that go along

interviewee said: ‘The Students’ Union doesn’t support

with you your entire life’, a reference to record keeping

this idea to protest in front of the administration building,

by the Student Affairs Office. One interviewee summed

because it isn’t within their culture.They think if a protest

up the approach of Chinese people thus:‘In China there’s an old saying that “A bird who stands out from other birds will be shot by the hunters”. So, if you are really outstanding someone will attack you or hurt you. You aren’t sup-

is organised it will become

The main patterns that emerged from the interview data included that there are distinct encouragements and rewards in place for students who unflinchingly toe the Party line, and many financial and social disadvantages for those who don’t.

a big issue for the Ningbo government. The

Ningbo

government will intervene. They [students] don’t have the courage. Protest in China is seldom. You will be put in prison. Even if you apply for

posed to be rebellious. You

a protest you may be har-

are better to keep a low key,

assed by police officers.’ The

a low profile [sic].’

fear of retribution for what would be regarded elsewhere

Another theme recurring in most interviews is that

in the world as a minor political protest was echoed by

students do not believe UNNC is a safe environment in

other interviewees.Whether the recent social protest con-

which to openly share intellectual views that are not

cerning environmental issue in Ningbo impacts on this

compatible with the latest views of the Party leadership.

attitude remains to be seen.

Despite institutional rhetoric to the contrary, not all stu-

The main patterns that emerged from the interview

dents and staff regard UNNC as a proper UK educational

data included that there are distinct encouragements and

institution – linking this to the Chinese structural aspects,

rewards place students who unflinchingly toe the Party

or characteristics, as well as the quality of the academic

line, and many financial and social disadvantages for those

delivery. Opined one interviewee: ‘Maybe the system

who don’t.There is the overwhelming belief that the Party

limits the university’s ambition to help. It is not a fully

is ultimately in charge at UNNC. Said one interviewee:

Western university. The university is helping students to

‘This university is not totally Western; the administrative

think in various ways, but it is not doing its best.’

staff are all controlled by Chinese people. British leaders

Significantly, all respondents picked up on the theme

can’t influence Chinese staff’, indicating that administra-

of individuals feeling overwhelmed at the enormity of

tive employees are controlled by the Party. Evidently, the

the task of making any changes. This response resonates

design of the system has been effective in ensuring that

with Jost and Hunyadi (2005), who recorded that, for

a Western-style education provider operating in China

many individuals justifying the status quo in the US, it was

does not actually provide a Western education beyond its

a case of it being easier to do nothing than to resist or

academic curriculum. If Jost’s theory holds, it could be

change a situation and it is easier to make a mental adjust-

expected that Chinese people exhibit a similar psycho-

ment in favour of the status quo than in opposition to it.

logical pattern as American people do in supporting a

System-justifying ideologies ‘serve a palliative function in

non-beneficial political elite.

that they make people feel better about their own situa-

Finally, and counter to expectation, there was overall

tion’ (Jost & Hunyady, 2002 p. 37).This thought process is

agreement that, despite Party rhetoric, an additional cat-

illustrated by comments such as: ‘Many people are telling

egory that focused on Confucian principles would be

me: You can’t change the world. You must recognise the

inappropriate: ‘Confucianism is not embedded. This is the

big situation, the big trend of society.This is the world; get

traditional past.’

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evant to the current study. Question 8 sought to establish whether students were concerned about social justice

The conclusions reached from the theoretical and quali-

issues in China. A concern is acknowledged here regard-

tative research focused the student survey on disposi-

ing the variation between Chinese and English students

tional aspects. On the assumption that justification of the

in perceived meanings of the term ‘ashamed’ (Liu, 2012;

social order is implicit or subconscious, the questionnaire

Wong & Tsai, 2007; Li et al., 2004), but for the purposes

aimed to test attitudes towards democracy and demo-

of the current study an indication of general concern

cratic principles without specifically referring to the core

was sought. Question 13 attempted to establish whether

political concepts. Despite the interview data indicating

Chinese students have formulated a social framework for

a reluctance to ascribe significant agency to it, questions

acceptance. The final question aimed to elicit whether

about Confucianism and the extent to which individuals

students were optimistic about their future. A commonly

believed the principles still apply in modern China were

purported view is that Chinese citizens will not revolt

included because nationalism and Confucianism are seen

against the current government if living standards keep

by some as forces counter to democracy (Hu, 1997; Chen,

improving. As Zhu (2012) notes on the state-controlled

2013; Mitter, 2013).

Global Times website: ‘Economic development is the

The questionnaire was adapted from Pillay et al. (2006),

fundamental factor for social stability … A social stabil-

who used a rating scale structure designed to gauge social

ity risk assessment mechanism requires the government

attitudes among a group of respondents whose primary

serve its people by making use of its economic achieve-

language is not English. The structure minimises time

ments.’ If students believe living standards will continue

spent and increases completion rates. Response time

to improve, they will be less likely to engage in demands

was less than two minutes. Preceding the main section of

for social reform.

the survey were five demographic questions: gender, age, nationality, level of education and university affiliation.

Student survey findings

A bank of questions that surveyed attitudes and opinion Table 3 shows that the sample size of UNNC students

followed. While all questions polled feelings of patriotism, ques-

was (n = 100). Demographic data indicated that 83 per

tions 8, 13 and 16 sought to elicit specific attitudes rel-

cent were female, 99 per cent were older than 18 and

Table 2: Survey Items

for non-UNNC students was (n = 108). Demographic data

1 I am proud of China’s economic achievement

indicated that 65 per cent were female, all were older

2 I am proud of China’s political achievement

than 18 and 52 per cent were postgraduate students. All

3 I am proud of China’s social achievement 4 I am proud of China’s scientific achievement

respondents were Chinese. In general, the survey results (Tables 3 and 4) indicate that Chinese students at UNNC are overwhelmingly proud of China and of being Chinese

5 I am proud of China’s artistic achievement

citizens and that their Western-style education has not

6 I am proud of China’s military achievement

dampened their loyalty towards the state. The items that

7 I am proud of China’s history

drew the most positive responses were, in order: pride in

8 China treats all its people fairly and equitably 9 I would rather be Chinese than anything else

China’s international sporting success (93 per cent), pride in China’s history (86 per cent strongly agree/agree) and pride in its economic achievement (63 per cent). It is

10 China makes the world a better place

notable that pride in sport and history are fairly neutral

11 I am ashamed about some things in China

and uncontroversial social indicators.

12 China is a better country than most others

It is also noteworthy that although students generally

13 Chinese people should support China even if it does something wrong

supported the notion that Chinese people should support

14 I am proud when China has international sporting success

that their government was far from equitable and fair

15 I am often less proud of China than I would like to be 16 China will continue to improve over the next five years

40 per cent were postgraduate students. The sample size

their government no matter what, they also recognised when it came to dealing with its citizenry. The pattern of responses was similar for UNNC and non-UNNC respondents. The only significant difference between the two sets of students was whether they felt

Democracy and international higher education in China Andrys Onsman & Jackie Cameron Hadland

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Table 3: Questionnaire Responses SA

Mean

UNNC

3.54

18.53

State

3.76

20.65

UNNC

3.23

18.16

State

2.73

22.48

UNNC

2.99

13.63

State

3.05

20.00

UNNC

3.28

17.53

State

3.23

20.68

UNNC

3.77

11.11

State

3.44

14.46

UNNC

3.02

17.89

State

3.61

16.32

UNNC

4.11

22.00

State

4.32

19.38

UNNC

1.81

15.72

State

2.43

17.28

UNNC

3.61

19.17

State

3.73

19.17

UNNC

3.29

16.03

State

3.08

16.03

UNNC

3.22

13.06

State

3.23

13.06

UNNC

3.06

15.91

State

3.15

15.91

UNNC

3.92

18.33

State

4.08

18.33

UNNC

3.92

23.50

State

4.34

23.50

UNNC

2.57

12.75

State

2.38

12.70

UNNC

3.51

23.07

State

3.89

25.08

Item number and descriptor 1. Proud of economic 2. Proud of political 3. Proud of social 4. Proud of scientific 5. Proud of artistic 6. Proud of military 7. Proud of history 8. All of its people fairly 9. I would rather be Chinese

1 0. Makes the world better 1 1. Ashamed some things 1 2. China better country 1 3. Support China, even if wrong 1 4. Proud of sporting 1 5. Often less proud 1 6. China improve in next 5 years

SA = Strongly agree; A=Agree; N + Neutral; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly disagree

ashamed of some things in China (Item 11). The signifi-

tations may well mitigate the desire for any major shift

cantly higher level of strong agreement with the statement

in social attitudes. As one respondent in the interviews

among UNNC students may be due to their exposure to

said:‘Many students come from rich families; they are very

a broader range of information on such topics. In both

happy with their lives.’

cases, less than 15 per cent of the 200 students surveyed

The most significant difference between UNNC stu-

expect living conditions to decline over the next five

dents and students at a mainstream Chinese university

years (Item 16), with a vast majority (> 70 per cent) indi-

was in their responses to Item 11. Whereas more than

cating that they expect things to improve. Such expec-

83 per cent of UNNC respondents indicated that they

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were ashamed or very ashamed of some things in China,

tution, the Party maintains a visible physical presence.

the proportion in the case of the non-UNNC students

This is hardly surprising, as the Party at the national level

dropped to just over 53 per cent. It may be that UNNC stu-

controls the recognition of foreign degrees, while at pro-

dents are exposed to more unpalatable events in Chinese

vincial level it controls operational accreditation of the

current affairs than are their non-UNNC counterparts,

institution. The notion that a foreign university operating

that they are simply more aware.This difference becomes

as a joint venture within China can deliver Western-style

even more significant for Item 13. Non-UNNC students are

education without acceding to Party demands is unrealis-

four times as likely to believe that people should support

tic. Still, there is little evidence to indicate that Confucian

their country right or wrong than are UNNC students.

thought is central to the preference for social harmony

Yet this difference is insignificant in comparison with

among Chinese students. Rather, there seems to be a com-

their response to Item 9, in which more than half of all

plex interplay between increasingly self-centred ambition

respondents indicated that they would rather be Chinese

and social justification, as proposed by Jost and Hunyday

than anything else. Overall, it suggests that, while they

(2002, 2005).

are aware of their country’s failings, they nonetheless are

The notion that the emphasis on social harmony over

proud to be Chinese, a similar psychological pattern to

democracy is national policy rather than a matter of indi-

that found in democratic countries.

vidual choice is far more elusive to confirm.While it seems

In general, initial findings of the surveys confirmed that,

that, in practical terms, Confucianism may be less influen-

regardless of the style of higher education, State-sponsored

tial as a framework for social cohesion than suggested by

patriotism and national pride form significant factors in

Party rhetoric and theoretical analyses, a great deal more

acting against the motivation to develop a pro-democ-

work needs to be done in this area before any worthwhile

racy movement. The pattern of responses was similar for

understanding can be reached. For the purposes of this

UNNC and non-UNNC students, a predictable result, given

study, the focus was to ascertain whether a general social

that the monitoring of students is, in effect, similar in local

ethos contributed to the lack of demand for democracy

and transnational institutions. This may indicate that the

among the students. Results from the survey indicate that,

restrictive structure of the institution and the increasingly

regardless of whether any particular social or political

better personal circumstances are factors consolidating

theory influences the apparent disinclination for democ-

the belief that China’s government warrants their support,

racy, Chinese students are less inclined to overthrow

which is essentially system justification.

what is essentially an oppressive regime because they are essentially happy with their personal circumstance. This

Conclusions

may of course be due to the fact that as students in an international university they are among the nation’s most

This study investigated potential factors influencing

privileged.While they acknowledge that there are aspects

why a Western-style education in China appears to have

of the Chinese regime that are undesirable, they expect

done little to inculcate socially constructed demands for

their own lives to keep improving in terms of material

democracy among Chinese students. Two possible inhibi-

wealth. This lack of empathy with less fortunate compa-

tory factors were deduced from a literature scan. First, it

triots, at odds with the notion of social responsibility that

may be that the administrative structure of the institution

lies at heart of Confucianism, may be explained by the

actively precludes the freedom to protest. Second, it may

suggestion that the desire for democracy is only loosely

be that the sociopolitical constructs of the circumjacent

tied to social justice and far more strongly to the desire for

society focuses on social harmony, with a corollary that

personal opportunity for social advancement. However,

the focus is fuelled by reference to Confucianism as a tra-

that notion is beyond the scope of this paper.

ditional characteristic of Chinese society. It is apparent that the factors are intertwined, with a distinct likelihood

Andrys Onsman is a lecturer and researchers at the Centre for

that the second, as a more pervasive trend, will be made

Studies of Higher Education, University of Melbourne.

manifest in the first. Findings indicate that the administration of Western-

Jackie Cameron is a postgraduate research student in Com-

style higher education providers is structured so that the

munications, Media and Culture, University of Stirling, UK.

Chinese Communist Party maintains overt and covert control over student behaviour. Even in transnational universities that deliver curricula from the overseas insti-

Democracy and international higher education in China Andrys Onsman & Jackie Cameron Hadland

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Bratich, J. (2011). Pox populi, network populism, network sovereigns, and experiments in people-powers cultural studies. Critical Methodologies, 114: 341–345. Chen, J. (2013). A Middle Class Without Democracy: Economic Growth and the Prospects for Democratization in China. New York: Oxford University Press. China Daily. (2012). Premier Wen meets the press, 15 March 2012, Ministry of Commerce, People’s Republic of China. Retrieved from http://english.mofcom. gov.cn/aarticle/counselorsreport/europereport/201203/20120308015992.html. Dalacoura, K. (2011). Islamist Terrorism and Democracy in the Middle East. New York: Cambridge University Press. Gainous, J & Martens, A. (2012). The effectiveness of civic education: are ‘good’ teachers actually good for ‘all’ students? American Politics Research, 402: 232–266. Gilbertson, B. (2011). UK universities ‘a catalyst’ in China’s economy – diplomat, University of Nottingham Ningbo China. Retrieved from www.nottingham.edu.cn/en/news/2011/uk-universities-catalyst-china-economy.aspx. Glaeser, E. L., Ponzetto, G. & Shleifer, A. (2006). Why does democracy need education? Working Paper 12128. Cambridge, Massachusetts: National Bureau of Economic Research. Greenaway, D. & Rudd, C. (2012). Western academia has place in corporate China. China Daily Europe. Retrieved from http://europe.chinadaily.com.cn/ epaper/2012-03/02/content_14739913.htm. Gow, M. (2012). Damning article on Sino-foreign cooperative education. The Daxue. Retrieved from www.thedaxue.org/2012/12/damning-article-on-sinoforeign.html. Hennock, M. (2011). China jails dissident Chen Xi for 10 years, The Guardian. Retrieved from www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/dec/26/china-jails-dissidentchen-xi. Hu, S. (1997). Confucianism and Western democracy. Journal of Contemporary China, 615: 347–363. Huntington, S. (1991). The Third Wave: Democratisation in the Late 20th Century. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Jost, J. T. & Hunyady, O. (2005). Antecedents and consequences of system-justification theory. American Psychological Society, 14: 260–265. Jost, J. T. & Hunyady, O. (2002). The psychology of system justification and the palliative function of ideology. European Review of Social Psychology, 13: 111–153.

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Indigenous employment and enterprise agreements in Australian universities Cath Brown James Cook University

Considering the benefits that enterprise agreements (EAs) can bring to Indigenous employees, this paper considers the question of whether respectful cultural policies that are aligned with reconciliation and included in EAs can be achieved to Close the Gap on reducing Indigenous disadvantage. A document analysis of EAs at eight Australian universities was conducted to conceptualise and compare information about Indigenous staff needs and remuneration. A number of specific sections relating to Indigenous employment and leave arrangements were identified.

Introduction

and conditions of employment for an organisation’s staff, including pay rates, penalties, allowances, standard hours,

Enterprise bargaining agreements, the colloquial name

leave, deductions and issues concerning the relationship

given to enterprise agreements (EAs), were regulated

between the employer and the staff (Commonwealth of

again under the Fair Work Act 2009 to create improve-

Australia, 2011).

ments in workplace employment (Commonwealth of

Since 2010, the Fair Work Commission has approved

Australia, 2011). Enterprise bargaining agreements were

EAs once it is satisfied they passed the ‘better off overall’

first introduced in 1991 under the Prices and Income

test. This test ensures that each staff member or prospec-

Accord Mark VII by the Hawke Labor Government (ACTU,

tive staff member would be better off under an EA than

1993). The National Tertiary Education Union (NTEU)

under the generic provisions of a modern award (Com-

National Indigenous Claim was first introduced in Round

monwealth of Australia, 2011).

3 bargaining in 2000 (NTEU National Council 99, 1999).

A document analysis of eight Australian Round 5 EAs in

Because the EAs can make allowances for differences in

Australian tertiary institutions was conducted to concep-

cultural needs, improvements offered potential employ-

tualise and compare information (Starks & Brown Trinidad,

ment opportunities for Indigenous people. In addition,

2007) regarding Indigenous staff needs and remuneration.

they can contribute to each institution’s commitment to

The aim of this study was to consider the benefits that

Indigenous Australian people’s cultural obligations (Taylor,

EAs bring to Indigenous employees. The research exam-

Gray, Boyd, Yap & Lahn, 2012). EAs document the terms

ined any reference to Indigenous rights and benefits

Indigenous employment and enterprise agreements in Australian universities Cath Brown

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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within EAs. It also explored any discourse reflected in the

first week of July,;however, some NAIDOC activities co-

selected EAs and how they support or hinder the cultural

incide with other organisations’ calendars. Reconciliation

values and obligations of Indigenous people.

within EAs is a commitment to recognition, healing and

The Council of Australian Governments (COAG) mem-

helping all Australians move forward with a better under-

bership comprises the prime minister, state premiers, ter-

standing of the past and how the past affects the lives

ritory chief ministers and the president of the Australian

of Indigenous people today. A Reconciliation Action Plan

Local Government Association; it is the highest Australian

(RAP) can assist businesses and companies to formulate

intergovernmental body (Commonwealth of Australia,

plans to action what they will do within their capabilities

2012). COAG agreed in March 2008 to the establishment

to bring Indigenous and non-Indigenous people together

of targets for Indigenous reform through the Closing the

in the spirit of reconciliation in Australia.

Gap reform agenda (Council of Australian Governments,

Coding procedures adopted for this study were based

2009). Halving the gap in employment outcomes between

on content analysis. These were used to scrutinise infor-

Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians within a

mation, content and material from the selected sample

decade is one of the six targets of Closing the Gap and

(Neuman, 2000). Using summative content analysis, key

it requires attention if Indigenous people are to attain a

words from each of the eight documents were counted

prosperous life.

and compared. The primary context was then understood (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). After scanning and examining

Method

the eight EAs, searches were conducted within each document to identify the areas of the EA that would separate

Using discourse analysis to study and examine the use of

specific information for Indigenous staff. A brief scanning

language as a qualitative tool (Robson, 2011) uncovered

of the documents revealed sections allocated to Indigenous

valuable and beneficial research from publicly accessible

employment. Key words were noted from these areas and

documents, such as EAs. Convenience sampling as a quali-

used to quickly find relevant information. The key words

tative approach was chosen for this study as a technique

searched included ‘Aboriginal’, ‘Indigenous’, ‘culture’, ’cul-

that provides good accessibility to the sample (Marshall,

tural’, ‘reconciliation’ and ‘language’. After searching the

1996). The data generation and collection strategies have

key words, sections were identified and similar patterns

been opportunistic. The driving factor for convenience

found. All the EAs searched included sections dedicated to

sampling was using easily and readily available EAs from

Indigenous employment strategies and leave arrangements.

the internet. Eight EAs, one from each state and territory,

Leave arrangements for cultural purposes were included

were selected from the NTEU website. Publicly accessible,

under areas such as personal, additional, ceremonial and

the NTEU webpage is structured with EAs listed under

special leave.The collection of key words, themes and areas

each state and territory. While this selection process did

obtained from the EA documents was a valuable aid in for-

not guarantee that all issues within all EAs would be

mulating a research question (Yegidis & Weinbach, 2006).

explored, the convenience sampling approach provided an indication of some key issues addressed by EAs across

Results

Australia impacting on Indigenous staff (Berg, 2004). Several terms relevant to this paper are defined here.

A key finding that emerged from the EAs examined was a

‘Cultural leave’, or leave taken for cultural purposes, is

lack of consistency and clarity within the Round 5 docu-

defined differently in each of the EAs studied. It is avail-

ments to include Indigenous people’s representation. It

able for cultural and ceremonial obligations (sometimes

is understandable that consistency varied in each EA as,

defined for use with activities at the National Aboriginal

under the Act (Fair Work Act 2009), pattern bargaining is

and Islander Day of Observance Committee (NAIDOC)

prohibited by bargaining representatives from modelling

or other significant cultural events to comply with tra-

or using templates from other EAs. However, clear goals,

ditional customs, laws or official celebrations and activi-

such as employment targets, were not clearly defined in

ties. ‘Indigenous or Aboriginal Employment Strategy’ is

the EAs. Cultural leave, Indigenous employment strategies

defined as a strategy to increase workplace participa-

and RAPs emerged as the significant key themes in this

tion the Indigenous people. ‘Language allowance’ is paid

study. Although the Indigenous language allowance was

to an Indigenous employee if they are required by their

not supported by the majority, it presented as a theme

employer to use an Indigenous language in the course of

to be explored. The similarities and differences of eight

their employment. NAIDOC is usually celebrated in the

Australian university Round 5 EAs are depicted in Table 1.

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Table 1: Similarities and differences of eight Australian university Round 5 Enterprise Agreements [EAs] Cultural Leave

Indigenous Employment Strategy (IES) Staffing Targets

Language Allowance

Reconciliation Action Plan (RAP)

James Cook University (Qld) 2010–2012

5 days paid + exceptions

Yes, 7. 4%

University of Ballarat (Vic) 2010–2012

5 days paid, 10 days unpaid

Yes, n = 15

Yes

University of Tasmania (Tas) 2010–2012

2 days paid, 1 day paid NAIDOC Yes, n = 20 by 2010 (IES) No + exceptions

No RAP, but reconciliation mentioned

University of South Australia (SA) 2011–2013

2 days paid, 10 hours paid NAIDOC

Yes, 2%

Yes, max $3489 p/a

No RAP, but reconciliation mentioned

Charles Sturt University (NSW) 2010–2012

10 days paid NAIDOC + exceptions

Yes 3% by 2011 (IES)

Charles Darwin University (NT) 2011–2013

5 days paid, 10 days unpaid

Yes*

Australian National University (ACT) 2010–2012

10-25 days paid

Yes, 2. 2%

Curtin University (WA) 2009–2012

5 days paid, 2 days unpaid

Yes, 50 full-time employees by 2012 (IES)

* The proportion of Indigenous staff at the university shall equal or exceed the proportion of Indigenous higher education students; the proportion of Indigenous staff should not reduce (Charles Darwin University, 2011).

Cultural leave

tural leave was specifically named as such by three EAs

In the eight EAs cultural leave requirements were named

(Charles Darwin University, 2011; University of South Aus-

and described in different ways. The University of Tasma-

tralia, 2011; University of Tasmania, 2010). In the remain-

nia EA states that ‘an employee shall be entitled to use

ing two cases it was described as carer’s leave and special

accrued annual leave or long service leave to follow and

leave (University of Ballarat, 2010; Charles Sturt University,

practice [sic] the requirements of cultural, spiritual or

2010).

religious beliefs to which they adhere’ (2010). Australian National University stipulates that ‘personal leave is

Indigenous Employment Strategy

provided for cultural circumstances’. Australian National

All EAs in this study included dedicated information

University’s Indigenous staff are allowed between ten and

detailing an Indigenous Employment Strategy, Aboriginal

25 days on full pay for cultural leave.Taking cultural leave

Employment Strategy or Indigenous Employment Attrac-

was prescriptive with long advance notice requirements

tion and Retention Strategy (Australian National Univer-

for Australian National University Indigenous staff (2010).

sity, 2010; Charles Darwin University, 2011; Charles Sturt

The aforementioned requires four weeks’ notice to be

University, 2010; Curtin University of Technology, 2010;

given for cultural leave. However giving notice to meet

James Cook University, 2010; University of Ballarat, 2010;

traditional law, custom, cultural and family obligations, or

University of South Australia, 2011; University of Tasmania,

to participate in ceremonial, cultural and religious activi-

2010). Charles Darwin University’s Indigenous employ-

ties cannot always be planned, especially if, for example,

ment target indicated a percentage of equivalent full time

the need for it arises out of a family tragedy.

staff (2011); other universities’ targets were indicated by

Most EAs examined for this study state that every effort should be made to advise as soon as practicable where

a finite number and recorded, such as 15 in University of Ballarat (2010).

personal leave is taken for cultural or ceremonial pur-

Charles Darwin University’s Indigenous Employment

poses. Cultural leave was not always named or stated as

Strategy target indicated ‘the proportion of Indigenous

such. In three cases it was specified as personal leave, per-

staff shall equal or exceed the proportion of Indig-

sonal and carer’s leave, and non-accruing personal leave

enous Higher Education students’ (Charles Darwin

(Australian National University, 2010; Curtin University

University, 2011). Charles Sturt University’s equity sec-

of Technology, 2010; James Cook University, 2010). Cul-

tion described one of the university’s aims as being

Indigenous employment and enterprise agreements in Australian universities Cath Brown

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to ‘increase the overall representation of Indigenous

EAs, and only three mentioned reconciliation in their

employees as a proportion of equivalent full time staff,

agreement. University of Ballarat (UB) indicated that their

with the aim of achieving the employment targets of the

RAP is its key Indigenous policy document and includes

Indigenous Employment Strategy’.

reconciliation as part of its operational aims of the agree-

Charles Sturt University (CSU) did not prescribe a target

ment and linked it to its Indigenous Employment Strat-

for Indigenous staffing levels in its EA.Although not speci-

egy. University of Ballarat stated in its EA that it ‘share[s]

fied in the collective agreement, its target was detailed in

the vision of Reconciliation Australia for recognising the

the CSU Indigenous Employment Strategy (2010, 2012).

special place and culture of Aboriginal and Torres Strait

Two per cent Indigenous staff was University of South

Islander peoples as the First Australians’ (University of

Australia’s target (University of South Australia, 2011).

Ballarat, 2010).

James Cook University’s (JCU) Indigenous staff target

Universities of South Australia and Tasmania made a

was 7.4 per cent (James Cook University, 2010). How-

commitment in their EAs to reconcile and partner with

ever, 4983 staff were employed by JCU in 2011 (James

Indigenous people (University of South Australia, 2011;

Cook University, 2012). For JCU to reach its Indigenous

University of Tasmania, 2010). The EAs of the remaining

employment target they would have needed to employ

five institutions made no mention of reconciliation or

368 Indigenous staff. According to the Commonwealth

RAPs with Indigenous people (Australian National Uni-

Department of Industry data, in 2011 JCU had 45 Indigenous staff (2011a). The Indigenous staffing targets varied from as low as 2 per cent to a high of 7.4 per

versity, 2010; Charles Darwin

Inclusive and respectful cultural policies that are aligned with reconciliation and included in EAs will reduce Indigenous disadvantage.

cent, with an indefinite pro-

University,

2011;

Charles

Sturt University, 2010; Curtin University

of Technology,

2010; James Cook University, 2010); however, RAPs may exist independently of

portion at Charles Darwin

EAs. RAPs can be useful in

University, whose target is to have equal percentages of

setting tangible goals that work towards reconciliation

Indigenous staff and students (Charles Darwin Univer-

across the institution. While the NTEU encourages the

sity, 2011; James Cook University, 2010; University of Bal-

development and implementation of RAPs, they are not

larat, 2010; University of South Australia, 2011). Three EAs

enforceable outside EAs. The NTEU branch at University

did not indicate a designated target, but the same three

of Ballarat specified that when RAPs are being developed,

indicated that their targets were contained within other

broad community engagement and consultation that

strategic documents (Charles Sturt University, 2010, 2012;

use meaningful, respectful and inclusive processes must

Curtin University of Technology, 2007, 2010; University of

occur (2008).

Tasmania, 2008, 2010). The University of Ballarat’s vicechancellor biennially determines an overall target for the

Discussion

university’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Employment Procedure (Federation University Australia, 2011).

Inclusive and respectful cultural policies that are aligned with reconciliation and included in EAs will reduce Indig-

Language allowance

enous disadvantage.A flexible work arrangement that will

An Indigenous language allowance was supported by only

enable Indigenous employees to meet their cultural obli-

one of the universities explored in this study. University

gations is imperative to overcoming Indigenous disadvan-

of South Australia’s allowance to Indigenous staff who are

tage (Gray, Hunter & Lohoar, 2012). Having the freedom

required to use an Indigenous language as part of their

to express cultural identity and practices is an important

employment are renumerated between $2091 and $3489

social determinant for Indigenous people’s health and

per annum (2011). If increasing Indigenous scholarship in

wellbeing (Henderson et al., 2007). The effects on health

tertiary institutions is to be achieved, tangible recognition

of culture, income, education and employment are inter-

for Indigenous proficiencies needs to be acknowledged.

dependent (Mowbray, 2007). Having access to cultural leave is a benefit; applying for it four weeks in advance

Reconciliation Action Plan

to access it for family, sickness, funerals or unexpected

Indigenous reconciliation was commonly added as an

cultural business is not always possible for Indigenous

addendum. Reconciliation was not acknowledged in five

employees. Once respect for and support of Indigenous

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Australians’ cultural obligations is acknowledged, a pro-

plans should go beyond action plans to be embedded

cess of justice, recognition and healing can begin.

into policy documents and EAs. Nuances and differences

Mention of an Indigenous Employment Strategy was

between cultures that are included in EAs can add to the

included in each of the eight EAs examined, but on close

vision for a more reconciled country. They can also help

scrutiny, each revealed very different targets and measures.

to bring important institutional and organisational change

An Indigenous Employment Strategy can be a dynamic

to universities.

tool that stimulates better prospects and jobs for Indigenous people and sustains their commitment (Australian

Acknowledgements

Chamber of Industry and Commerce, 2005). It might be more feasible to use a percentage target than numeric tar-

I would like to acknowledge the support, mentoring and

gets as percentage targets can be aligned with Indigenous

advice from colleagues at James Cook University and the

populations or, to a lesser degree, to Indigenous enrol-

Empowerment Research Program. For their many valued

ments.A problem might then be created if enrolments are

comments on drafts I would like to thank Ms Lisa Crouch,

not sustained, leading to Indigenous staffing requirements

Dr Brian McCoy, Ms Melody Muscat, Ms Julie Parison and

not being sustained.The myriad measures used to identify

Dr Janice Wegner.

Indigenous Employment Strategy targets could indicate of a lack of common understanding and agreement, and any

Cath Brown is a research assistant at The Cairns Institute,

university EA without an Indigenous Employment Strat-

James Cook University, Cairns, Australia, and is currently

egy target makes it difficult to make comparisons. Indig-

completing a research master’s degree in Aboriginal advocacy

enous Employment Strategies are a sound foundation to

at Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia.

creating organisational changes towards the successful achievement and maintenance of employment opportunities among Indigenous Australians (Parish, 2002). Reconciliation Australia introduced RAPs in 2006 to help employers advance reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. Since then, more than 358 RAPs have been incorporated in businesses’ organisational plans across Australia (Reconciliation Australia, 2012). Linking key Indigenous policy documents with EAs should provide transparency and assurance if institutions are serious and committed to reconciling with Indigenous Australians.

Conclusion EAs can enhance employment opportunities for Indigenous people by recognising culture as an important determinant. Culture, income, education and employment are reliant on each other for people’s lives to prosper. In order to be more inclusive of Indigenous people’s cultural needs,Australian universities need to implement improvements to Close the Gap on Indigenous employment, and to commit to reconciliation. Indigenous employment strategies do exist and are embedded in all the EAs within this study, but what is not known is whether the targets that are being proposed are being met and, more importantly, being sustained. If they are not being sustained, will the unions take action by declaring disputes? Reconciliation action plans have the ability to advocate institutional and organisational action for change. Reconciliation action

References Australian Council of Trade Unions. (ACTU). (1993). Putting Jobs First: Accord Agreement 1993–1996. Accord Mark VII. Melbourne: ACTU. Australian National University. (2010). Australian National University Enterprise Agreement 2010–2012. Canberra: National Tertiary Education Union. Retrieved from www.nteu.org.au/rights/agreements. Berg, B. (2004). Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education. Charles Darwin University. (2011). Charles Darwin University and Union Enterprise Agreement 2011. Casuarina: National Tertiary Education Union. Retrieved from www.nteu.org.au/rights/agreements. Charles Sturt University. (2010). Charles Sturt University Enterprise Agreement 2010–2012. Wagga Wagga: National Tertiary Education Union. Retrieved from www.nteu.org.au/rights/agreements. Charles Sturt University. (2012). CSU Indigenous Australian Employment Strategy 2012–2015. Wagga Wagga: Charles Sturt University. Commonwealth of Australia. (2009). Council of Australian Governments. Closing the Gap in Indigenous Disadvantage. Retrieved from www.coag.gov. au/closing_the_gap_in_indigenous_disadvantage. Commonwealth of Australia. (2011). Fair Work Australia Guide: Making an Enterprise Agreement. Retrieved from www.fwa.gov.au/documents/factsheets/ making_agreements_guide.pdf. Commonwealth of Australia. (2011a). 2011 Staff Indigenous. Canberra: Department of Industry. Retrieved from www.industry.gov.au/HigherEducation/ HigherEducationStatistics/Pages/Library%20Card/Publications/2011StaffIndig enous.aspx. Commonwealth of Australia. (2012). Council of Australian Governments (COAG) website. Retrieved from https://www.coag.gov.au/ Curtin University of Technology. (2007). Curtin University of Technology Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island Employment Strategy 2007–2012. Perth: Curtin University of Technology. Curtin University of Technology. (2010). Curtin University of Technology

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Academic Staff Enterprise Agreement 2009–2012. Perth: National Tertiary Education Union. Retrieved from www.nteu.org.au/rights/agreements.

Neuman, W. L. (2000). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Fair Work Commission. (2009). Fair Work Act, § 412 (2009).

Parish, L. (2002). Indigenous Employment Strategies – What Works. Newcastle: University of Newcastle. Retrieved from www.adcet.edu.au/StoredFile. aspx?id=1225&fn=parish.pdf.

Federation University Australia. (2011). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Employment Procedure. Ballarat: Federation University,Australia. Henderson, G., Robson, C., Cox, L., Dukes, C., Tsey, K. & Haswell, M. (2007). Social and Emotional Wellbeing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People Within the Broader Context of the Social Determinants of Health, in I. Anderson, F. Baum & M. Bentley (Eds.), Beyond Bandaids: Exploring the Underlying Social Determinants of Aboriginal Health, pp. 136–164, Casuarina: Cooperative Research Centre for Aboriginal Health.

Reconciliation Australia. (2012). Reconciliation Action Plan – Impact Measurement Report 2012. Canberra: Reconciliation Australia. Starks, H. & Brown Trinidad, S. (2007). Choose your method: a comparison of phenomenology, discourse analysis, and grounded theory. Qualitative Health Research, 17(10), 9, doi: 10.1177/1049732307307031.

Hsieh, H.–F. & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277–1288, doi: 10.1177/1049732305276687.

Taylor, J., Gray, M., Boyd, H., Yap, M. & Lahn, J. (2012). Higher Education and the Growth of Indigenous Participation In Professional and Managerial Occupations. Canberra: Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research, ANU College of Arts and Social Sciences.

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Students’ early departure intentions and the mitigating role of support Hamish Coates

University of Melbourne

In many higher education systems around the world, increasing retention is vital if institutions are to produce the number of graduates identified through government projections to meet industry needs. Taking Australia as an example, the analysis uses results from a large-scale survey of undergraduate students to review rates and rationales for students giving serious consideration to departing before graduation. Demographic, educational and contextual concomitants of departure intention are explored. From there, the analysis looks at the role played by student support in mitigating departure intentions, showing that effective provision and use of support is strongly correlated with retention. Yet there are major disjunctions between the support used by students and the support they need, disjunctions that evidence-based practice can do much to resolve. In closing, the paper makes research-driven suggestions about how institutions can increase student support and retention.

Supporting student retention A focus on attrition

foreshadowed a suite of economic reforms intended to cement growth even further. With such expansion ambitions and a broadening stu-

Over the last few decades Australia has explicitly sought

dent cohort comes increasing focus on student retention

to expand higher education participation and outcomes

and the reduction of attrition. Student retention is vital to

so as to get more students into the system and keep them

any increase in the quality, size or productivity of higher

engaged in effective learning through to graduation.

education. While various arguments can be mounted in

Mirroring developments in Europe (European Commis-

favour of attrition, or at least to cast it as neutral – as do

sion, 2013) and the US (Lumina Foundation, 2013), for

basic funding arrangements in Australia that fail to encour-

several years the Australian government set attainment

age retention or penalise dropout – in general attrition

targets (40 per cent of 25 to 34 year olds having a bach-

can be considered a ‘bad thing’ (Tinto, 1993). A range of

elor degree or above by 2025) that were coupled with

adverse consequences flows for individuals, institutions

explicit policies to diversify the student mix, in particu-

and the broader economy from students leaving higher

lar by balancing the inclusion of people from disadvan-

education before graduation (Norton, 2012; Adams, Banks,

taged backgrounds (raising participation to 20 per cent

Davis & Dickson, 2010).

by 2020) (Commonwealth of Australia, 2009). A recent

Compared with other countries, Australian higher edu-

national review (Kemp & Norton, 2014) affirmed the war-

cation has relatively low attrition, though this should not

rant and implications of this expansion agenda;Australia’s

be considered either success or grounds for complacency.

most recent Budget (Commonwealth of Australia, 2014a)

Attrition rates for domestic first-year students in Australian

Students’ early departure intentions and the mitigating role of support Hamish Coates

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universities sit at around 13.5 per cent (Commonwealth

dent support services have lower levels of attrition (Chen,

of Australia, 2014b).While a portion of these students may

2011). In Australia, recent analyses have revealed that stu-

return to complete their study at a later time, a sizable

dent support would appear to be one of the more impor-

number still fail to complete their degree. Internationally,

tant correlates of early departure, and hence is likely to

around 30 per cent of undergraduate university students

play an important role in its prevention (see, for exam-

leave higher education and fail to complete their study

ple, Coates, 2008; Coates & Radloff, 2010; James, Krause &

(OECD, 2013). Though Australian rates compare favour-

Jennings, 2010; Coates & Ransom, 2011).

ably with other systems, the costs of attrition remain real and serious for all concerned.

This paper contributes to our understanding of this complex field by focusing on the mitigating role of stu-

Of course, attrition is a complex and multifaceted phe-

dent support. Of course, terms such as ‘attrition’, ‘student

nomenon that incorporates a range of different move-

support’ and ‘student services’ are broad concepts that

ments, change rationales and destinations. Example

mean different things in different contexts.The definition

transitions include cross-institutional mobility, dropout

of services and support used in this paper is thus broad

from higher education, course transfer, temporary defer-

and focuses on individuals’ perceptions of formal and

ral and academic failure. The current analysis focuses

informal support provided by academic and support ser-

on intentions for early departure, defined as departure

vices staff, as well as by fellow students. Many interactions

from an institution before the completion of a qualifica-

and activities support student learning, thereby enhanc-

tion. Analysis of such intentions is important, for it offers

ing students’ engagement and motivation to study. Student

insights on the space prior to any actual departure into

support can, therefore, be the difference between an aver-

which institutions might intervene.

age experience and an excellent one, between dropping

A preventative focus on support

out or staying in. Specifically, this paper uses results from a large multi-

Much research has been conducted on why students drop

institution survey to explore links between perceptions

out from higher education. Lobo (2012), for instance, sug-

of support and current students’ departure intentions.

gests that the main factors research has uncovered include

Groups of students who may be at greater risk of drop-

a mismatch of student expectations and experience,

ping out are identified.The impact of their perceptions of

course unsuitability, teaching, learning and assessment

support on their intentions to depart is investigated. The

styles, academic difficulties and student preparedness,

survey results reveal a strong link between students’ per-

personal factors such as student age, sex, employment,

ception of support and their departure intentions, with

finances, health and familial responsibilities, and social and

students reporting that high levels of support provided

academic support from the university community. Such

by their institution make it less likely that they will have

factors have been well charted in the research and policy

seriously considered leaving before finishing their study.

literature, including by, among others, Astin (1975), Tinto (1975), Pascarella and Chapman (1983), Dobson, Sharma and Haydon (1996), Yorke (2000a; 2000b), Powdthavee

Research approach

gess and Sharma (1999). Clearly, the reasons are many and

The Australasian Survey of Student Engagement (AUSSE)

varied, and ultimately, individual in nature.

This paper uses data from the Australasian Survey of Stu-

and Vignoles (2007), Harvey and Luckman (2014) and Bur-

Comparatively less research has focused on strategies

dent Engagement (AUSSE) to analyse students’ percep-

that could be developed to mitigate attrition. It is known

tions of institutional support and whether they have

that a lack of support from fellow students and staff, and

seriously considered leaving their institution before com-

the amount of contact students have with academic staff,

pleting their studies. First deployed in 2007, the AUSSE

influence students’ decisions to withdraw from study

was administered in 2010 to students in 55 Australian and

(Yorke, 2000; Yorke & Longden, 2008). Research also

New Zealand tertiary education institutions, making it the

shows that personal adjustment and social integration

largest survey of its kind conducted (until recently) in

seem to be as important to retention as academic integra-

these countries (Coates & Radloff, 2010).

tion (Gerdes & Mallinckrodt, 1994). Recent research sug-

The AUSSE is derived from the US National Survey of

gests that an institution’s expenditure on student services

Student Engagement (NSSE, 2013), a collection that has

is significantly related to retention and attrition, and that

been replicated in a dozen or so countries, including

institutions placing a higher priority on provision of stu-

Canada, China, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand and South

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Table 1: Items included in analyses Scale

Question text

Item text

Response scale

Supportive Learning Environment

Which of these boxes best represent the quality of your relationships with people at your institution?

Relationships with other students / Relationships with teaching staff / Relationships with administrative personnel and services

1 Poor / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 Excellent

To what extent does your institution emphasise each of the following?

Providing support to succeed academically / Helping cope with non-academic responsibilities / Providing support to socialise

1 Very little / 2 Some / 3 Quite a bit / 4 Very much

In this academic year have you seriously considered leaving your current institution?

Not considered change (reverse coded) / Graduating 0 Not selected / 1 (reverse coded) / Academic exchange / Academic Selected support / Administrative support / Boredom/lack of interest / Career prospects / Change of direction / Commuting difficulties / Difficulty paying fees / Difficulty with workload / Family responsibilities / Financial difficulties / Gap year/deferral / Government assistance / Health or stress / Institution reputation / Moving residence / Need a break / Need to do paid work / Other opportunities / Paid work responsibilities / Personal reasons / Quality concerns / Received other offer / Social reasons / Standards too high / Study/life balance / Travel or tourism / Other: Please specify

What are your plans for next year?

Continue with current study (reverse coded) / Move to vocational education and training / Leave university before finishing qualification

Departure Intentions

Africa (Coates & McCormick, 2014). The AUSSE’s ques-

institution. They were to complete one of three rotated

tionnaire measures around 100 different aspects of stu-

item versions of the online questionnaire. A further two

dent engagement; it also includes several context and

email reminders were sent to students. A subset of 39,400

demographic questions. Many of these questions group

students at 20 Australian institutions was also sent a paper

together to form a number of different scales related to

survey form. Of the 26,582 respondents, 3395 students

student engagement and outcomes. The AUSSE has been

(13 per cent) responded using the paper survey and the

well validated as a tool to measure student engagement

remaining 23,187 (87 per cent) responded online, giving

and education quality (Coates, 2010). This paper focuses

an overall response rate of 21 per cent.

on the AUSSE’s Supportive Learning Environment and

Paper questionnaires were scanned after the close of

Departure Intentions scales. The items that make up each

fieldwork, data were cleaned and coded, and a data file

of these scales and form the basis for analysis are detailed

was built and verified.To compensate for potential bias in

in Table 1.

responses, sampling weights were calculated and applied

Production of the evidence

to the data. As in all large-scale survey research, such sampling weights help to ensure that the response yield

Students studying at higher education institutions in Aus-

matches the population in terms of key characteristics,

tralia are the population of interest in this paper. In their

thereby enhancing the representative of results. These

first or later year of undergraduate study, 125,013 students

sampling weights took account of institution, students’

were invited to participate in the AUSSE between late July

year of study, students’ mode of study (internal or mixed

and early September 2010. These students were sampled

and external) and student sex. All results presented in this

from 226,283 students enrolled in one of 34 Australian

paper have been weighted.

higher education institutions who opted to participate in

As noted, the questionnaire was completed by cur-

the survey. Institutions could choose to run a census of

rent undergraduate students, not by students who had

all students in the target population or draw a sample of

already withdrawn from their studies. This means that

students to survey.A census was conducted at 14 of the 34

respondents who indicate that they have seriously con-

participant institutions.

sidered leaving or plan to leave their institution before

Students sampled to participate in the 2010 AUSSE were

completing their qualification may not actually drop out

emailed a unique, individualised internet link by their

of study. Because of this, the results provide an indication

Students’ early departure intentions and the mitigating role of support Hamish Coates

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of whether students are at risk of dropping out and their

had significantly higher levels of departure intention, with

reasons for having departure intentions.As the survey was

34 per cent of students aged 25 or older seriously consid-

conducted at the start of the second semester, it is impor-

ering leaving. Students with a self-reported disability had

tant to note that students might have already withdrawn

much higher rates of departure intention than other stu-

from study in first semester.

dents, with 44 per cent indicating that they had seriously considered leaving or planned to leave before finishing

What students say – findings and insights The incidence of departure intentions

study compared with only 30 per cent of students who did not report a disability. These large-scale results affirm the outcomes of research in Australian and international contexts (see sources cited above).

The following analysis focuses on the rates and reasons

Very few differences appeared for students in different

for students’ departure intentions and explores the poten-

socioeconomic groups, although students from provincial

tial role of student support in preventing early departure.

areas had slightly higher levels of departure intention than

The results further emphasise the need for higher edu-

students from remote and metropolitan areas. Aboriginal

cation institutions to focus on providing tailored group

or Torres Strait Islander (Indigenous) students reported

and, if possible, individual support. Note that, given the

significantly higher levels of departure intentions than

large number of responses, all results that are noted in this

non-Indigenous students, with 40 per cent indicating

paper as significant are statistically significant to a level of

that they had seriously considered leaving or planned to

p<0.05 unless otherwise stated.

leave before completing their undergraduate studies. Not

Overall, 26 per cent of first year students and 32 per

surprisingly, students with high demands on their time

cent of later year students indicated that they had seri-

through caring responsibilities and paid work were more

ously considered leaving their current institution prior

likely to have seriously considered leaving. Students with

to completing their studies. Levels of departure inten-

a self-reported overall average grade of less than 60 per

tion ranged from lows of 21 and 25 per cent of students

cent were much more likely to have departure intentions

in around one-quarter of participating institutions to a

(39 per cent) than students with an average grade of 60

higher level of between 34 and 52 per cent in around one-

per cent or higher (29 per cent).

quarter of institutions.

Attitudes do not translate directly into behaviour.There

In terms of explanatory power, demographic and con-

is a difference between seriously considering or planning

text factors explained a relatively small amount of vari-

to discontinue study and actually doing so, but these rates

ation in early departure intentions for reasons that are

still highlight the high number of students who could be

clarified in the analysis of causal factors below. Focusing

considered at risk of leaving. The diversity in rates among

on first year students, the institution, narrow field of study

different student groups also suggests that there are spe-

and average overall grade are the strongest correlates,

cific groups of students who are at greater risk of with-

respectively explaining around 2.1 per cent, 1.4 per cent

drawing from study.

and 1.0 per cent of the variance in departure intentions. For later year students, the strongest correlates are narrow

Rates and reasons for departure intention

field of study (5.8 per cent), institution (2.9 per cent),

Students who indicated that they had seriously con-

working for pay off campus (1.1 per cent) and average

sidered departing early were asked to indicate reasons.

grade (1.0 per cent). Interestingly, there is little covaria-

Students were presented with a large array of possible rea-

tion between rates for first year and later year students.

sons (synthesised from literature reviews and open-ended

While demographic characteristics explained rela-

responses given in prior AUSSE administrations) and could

tively little overall variation in departure intention, there

select as many of these options as were applicable, as well

was certainly variation across subgroups and statistically

as being given the option of providing an open-ended

significant differences were evident between different

response to explain their departure intentions. Open-

subgroups of students. Departure intentions were higher

ended responses given were coded into these categories

among students studying externally, or by distance or via

of reasons or into the category Other. The capacity for

mixed mode (35 per cent of students had seriously con-

each student to select multiple reasons and the coding

sidered leaving) rather than fully oncampus (30 per cent),

of open-ended comments to Other accounts for the large

and higher among part-time students (33 per cent) than

portion of responses in this category and, indeed, affirms

full-time students (30 per cent). Mature-aged students also

the need for sustained empirical work in this area.

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Table 2: Reasons given for considering leaving before completion, by student year

sonal reasons, health or stress, difficulty with workload,

Reasons

paid work, financial difficulties, quality concerns, going on

needing a break, having a change of direction, needing

First year (%)

Later year (%)

All students (%)

Boredom

Study–life balance

The above list of around 30 discrete factors have been

Personal reasons

grouped by five composite measures: quality factors, psy-

Health or stress

chosocial factors, financial factors, practical factors and

Difficulty with workload

academic factors.A score for each of these composite mea-

Needing a break

Change of direction

Needing paid work

puted. Hence, a higher score corresponds to this reason for

Financial difficulties

departure being selected by more students. The fields of

Quality concerns

study were sorted in terms of the average total across all

Academic exchange

Career prospects

Academic support

factors helped highlight patterns that underpinned student

Family responsibilities

departure. Replicating this kind of analysis within institu-

Commuting difficulties

tions would provide enormous insight into the factors

Social reasons

linked to student departure.

Institution reputation

Gap year or deferral

Paid work responsibilities

time, have very different experiences and often different

Travel

demands on their time than those of full-time students

Other opportunities

studying on campus. External students’ top reason for seri-

Administrative support

High standards

Difficulty paying fees

Moving residence

reasons include family responsibilities, paid work respon-

Graduating

sibilities and academic support. While boredom was the

Receiving other offer

most commonly cited reason overall, this was only the

Government assistance

Other reasons (or elaboration)

an academic exchange, concerns about career prospects, academic support and family responsibilities. Table 3 reports departure reasons by field of education.

sures (or factors) has been produced by taking the simple average of the percentage score for each of the constituent factors.The average score for each field has then been com-

composites. Of all fields of education, physics and astronomy had the highest aggregate score for departure, computer science the lowest. For each field, looking across the

Focusing on first year students, Table 4 reveals the variation that exists between different groups. Students studying externally or at a distance, and students studying part

ously considering leaving is due to difficulties balancing study and offcampus life (22 per cent), difficulty with the workload (20 per cent), health or stress (18 per cent) and needing paid work (17 per cent). Other frequently cited

eleventh most common among external students. Part-time students are also far less likely to cite boredom (15 per cent) than are full-time students (23 per cent). The most frequently given reasons by part-time students include issues with balancing study and offcam-

Three-quarters of students with departure intentions

pus life (22 per cent), health or stress (23 per cent), diffi-

gave up to four reasons for seriously considering leaving

culty managing the workload (19 per cent), needing paid

their study, indicating that departure is a complex rather

work (17 per cent), family responsibilities (18 per cent)

than simple phenomenon. As Table 2 shows, the most

and financial difficulties (16 per cent). Boredom also was

cited reason (leaving aside Other reasons) was ‘boredom/

mentioned far less by students from non-metropolitan

lack of interest’; 22 per cent of students cited this as a

areas and from low or middle socioeconomic status back-

reason they had seriously considered leaving their current

grounds. Among students with a self-reported disability,

institution. Reasons given by more than 10 per cent of stu-

the most commonly given reason for seriously consider-

dents included issues with their study–life balance, per-

ing leaving was health or stress (37 per cent).

Students’ early departure intentions and the mitigating role of support Hamish Coates

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Table 3: First-year student departure reasons by field of education Field of education

E S

â&#x20AC;&#x2122;

E V

Departure intentions are very

Financial Practical Academic factors factors factors

high among Indigenous students,

Quality factors

Psychosocial factors

Physics & astronomy

Indigenous peers. The top reasons

Geomatic engineering

given for having departure inten-

Biological sciences

Optical science

Earth sciences

Political science & policy studies

Students with caring responsibili-

whose reasons for considering leaving are quite different from non-

tions are shown in Table 4. Further analysis of the engagement of Indigenous students is given by Asmar, Page and Radloff (in press).

Public health

ties were much more likely to indi-

Architecture & building

cate that family responsibilities were

Mechanical & industrial eng.

Law

Engineering & related technologies

(5 per cent). Similarly, students work-

Nursing

ing more than 20 hours per week are

Health

much more likely to cite paid work

Business & management

responsibilities (22 per cent) as a

Medical studies

Mathematical sciences

Natural & physical sciences

A large proportion of students with

Creative arts

low grades indicate that boredom is

Society & culture

a reason for seriously considering

Teacher education

Behavioural science

Studies in human society

per cent), personal reasons (25 per

Management & commerce

cent), health or stress (25 per cent)

Philosophy & religious studies

and issues balancing study and life

Agriculture & environmental studies

(23 per cent).

Pharmacy

The role of support

Sales & marketing

To explore the relationship between

Information technology

studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perceptions of support

Language & literature

and

Human welfare studies & services

explicitly students were divided into

Accounting

two groups by using a median split

Economics & econometrics

Chemical sciences

Dental studies

Environment less than the median,

Veterinary studies

39 per cent, reported seriously con-

Civil engineering

sidering departing before complet-

Electrical & electronic engineering

Computer science

a reason for considering departure (25 per cent) than students caring for dependents for five hours or less

reason for considering withdrawing than are students working fewer than 20 hours per week (4 per cent).

leaving (27 per cent). Other reasons given by students with low grades include difficulty with workload (26

departure

intentions

for Supportive Learning Environment scale scores. Among students with scores for Supportive Learning

ing their study, compared with only 21 per cent of those students who had higher than the median level of support.

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Table 4: First-year student departure reasons for selected subgroups Mode of study Departure reasons

Part time or external

Government assistance

Receiving other offer

Administrative support

Home location

Family background

Provincial

Remote

Low

Middle High Not 1st in family

High standards

Moving residence

Paid work responsibilities

Difficulty paying fees

Other opportunities

Institution reputation

Travel Academic support

Yes

Quality concerns

Family responsibilities

Gap year or deferral

Social reasons

Commuting difficulties

Career prospects

Financial difficulties

Needing a break

Academic exchange

Needing paid work

Health or stress

Difficulty with workload

Personal reasons

Study–life balance

Change of direction

Boredom

Students’ early departure intentions and the mitigating role of support Hamish Coates

1st in family

Indigenous No

Full time Metroand on politan campus

Socioeconomic status

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80 70 Other students

Departure Intention (per cent)

Teaching staff Administrative personnel and services Student support services

50 40 30 20 10 0

Unfriendly, unsupportive, sense of alienation

Friendly, supportive, sense of belonging

Quality of relationshiops

Figure 1: Departure intentions by the supportiveness of relationships Correlations between students’ scores on the Supportive Learning Environment scale and their Departure

Challenges for enhancement

Intentions score also suggest a moderate and statistically

Summary observations

significant relationship between these two phenomena

To recap, attrition is a major issue and a challenge to

(r = –0.28, n = 163,315, p<0.01). In addition, students’ per-

individuals, institutions and national policy. Results from

ceptions of support are linked closely with overall satis-

a large-scale cross-institutional survey of undergraduate

faction with the educational experience.

students showed that a significant number of students

Figure 1 emphasises the importance of relationships,

have seriously considered discontinuing bachelor degree

showing the percentage of students signalling departure

study before graduation. This is concerning, not least

intentions in terms of the quality of relationships with

given expansionary policies seeking to boost graduate

members of the institutional community. The same broad

numbers. This paper has also showed that intentions to

trends were notable for all four types of relationships.

depart vary among different groups of students. Depar-

Students who rated the quality of their relationships with

ture intentions were higher among students with a dis-

other students, teaching staff, administrative staff and stu-

ability, students with lower grades, Indigenous Australians,

dent support services as poor were much more likely to

mature-aged students and students studying part time or

signal serious early departure intentions than students

at a distance. With reference to results from a large-scale

who rated their relationships highly. The impact of poor

survey, this highlights certain groups of students who, due

relationships with other students and teaching staff is

to contexts or demographics, are at a greater risk of drop-

particularly notable.

ping out than others.

Students’ perception of the support that their institution

This paper has also explored the reasons given by stu-

provides them is closely linked with departure intentions.

dents for seriously considering leaving. Students seem

Close to two-thirds of students who feel that their institu-

influenced to withdraw from study for numerous reasons,

tion provides little support for them to succeed academic-

many of which are psychosocial and not related clearly

ally have intentions to withdraw. Students who feel little

to tangible practical or financial reasons. This makes solv-

support from their institution to cope with non-academic

ing the attrition puzzle much more difficult, for it appears

responsibilities also report higher departure intentions (39

that a large part of the solution resides in providing more

per cent), as do students with little support to socialise

nuanced and directed forms of support. The most com-

(42 per cent). Students who report that they receive very

monly cited reason was boredom or lack of interest, but

much support to succeed academically, to cope with non-

again reasons given varied among different groups of

academic responsibilities or to socialise have much lower

students. Difficulty balancing study and life was the most

levels of departure intention.

common reason given by students studying externally

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or part time and by Indigenous students. Students from

value proposition of support services is often not clear,

remote areas were most likely to cite difficulties with the

or well promoted.The range of support offered is also not

workload.

always obvious. Most learning skills services, for example,

In addition, this paper has explored the relationship

offer programs that further students’ academic skills, but

between student perceptions of institutional support

many academics still perceive learning skills only as a

and their departure intentions. The results show a very

remedial service or are unaware that they can request a

clear relationship between students’ perceptions of sup-

workshop tailored to their subject. Clearly, support ser-

port and their intentions to depart. Student ratings of

vices need to consider how to more effectively promote

their relationships with fellow students, teachers, admin-

themselves. Similarly, academics need to take greater

istrative staff and support services are all linked with stu-

responsibility for understanding and using these services.

dent intentions to depart, as are student perceptions of

The narrow definition of teaching activities that many

the level of support provided by their institution. This is

institutions employ – something that happens only by

a clear indication that support and departure intentions

academics in a classroom – can also blur the integral role

are interrelated, and that students who perceive a lack

of support services and activities. Counselling services,

of support are much more likely to have also seriously

for example, offer workshops for managing study-related

considered leaving.

stress, arguably an important service for students strug-

Read together, these findings suggest that support

gling to keep on top of their studies.Yet this would not be

is very likely an important factor in mitigating attrition.

considered as a teaching and learning activity. For these

The different rates of departure intention and differ-

perceptions to change, the connection between support

ent reasons for seriously considering leaving suggest

and retention needs to be better understood and taken

that addressing attrition will require nuanced and often

more seriously. Data such as those presented in this paper

individually directed forms of support. A one size fits all

are also influential, which suggests that more research

solution is unlikely to be effective.

into the benefits of student support should be a priority.

In reporting this empirical evidence regarding the importance of support to student success, it is essential to

Conclusion

note caveats and directions for further research. The definition of support used in this paper is expansive as the

Integration is a key concept here. Read from a students’

questionnaire items are necessarily broad. The analyses

perspective the results show that academic and student

focus on self-reported perceptions of support. These per-

services need to work together to support students, not

ceptions are reported at a high level of analysis and with-

in isolation. This can be difficult in the hierarchical uni-

out reference to particular or actual support practices. It

versity culture, where boundary issues and competing

is hoped that these scholarly findings impel further insti-

responsibilities do not necessarily facilitate collaboration,

tutional research into specific support interventions and

and where research can take precedence over teaching.

the role that these might play in retaining students.

Increasing workloads have the potential to prevent even

Prospects for improvement

the most well-intentioned academics from prioritising student support.

What can be done to boost support, stem attrition and

Developing a more collaborative and holistic approach

improve learner and graduate outcomes? The above dis-

to student support requires leadership at all levels of the

cussion carries diverse insights for improving practice.An

institution, from senior executives to course coordinators.

obvious way to improve student support is to increase

Where there is vision and leadership, increased coop-

resourcing in this area, particularly in line with the criti-

eration follows. Examples of effective faculty–service

cal nature of retention and national objectives for expand-

relationships are the inclusion of support service person-

ing participation. If institutions are mandated to increase

nel on faculty teaching and learning committees, faculty–

enrolment to students who may be unprepared for

service collaborations in the development of subjects, and

tertiary study, it is common sense to increase funding to

co-teaching and referral practices between services and

student support initiatives.

faculties.

Services can be vulnerable because they are often not

Finally, it is a basic but necessary point to make that

well understood. The results demonstrated in this paper

effective student support is about the student, so we need

affirm the core value of support services to one of the

to focus support in terms of students’ situations and their

academy’s core missions – graduating people – but the

needs. This calls for greater flexibility and innovation.

Students’ early departure intentions and the mitigating role of support Hamish Coates

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Support comes in many guises, and we need to consider alternative methods to deliver it so that students located at remote campuses, part-time students studying in evening courses or students with tight timetables can access relevant and timely support – even it if is out of normal business hours. Getting support should not be difficult. Equally important, we need to educate students about the value of enrichment activities: to seek out assistance, take advantage of the range of services provided and get involved in campus life.

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Commonwealth of Australia. (2014a). Higher Education and Research Budget Information. Retrieved from https://education.gov.au/higher-education-andresearch-budget-information. Commonwealth of Australia. (2014b). Appendix 4: Attrition, Success and Retention Rates for Commencing Bachelor Students. Canberra: Department of Education. Dobson, I., Sharma, R. & Haydon, A. (1996). Evaluation of the Relative Performance of Commencing Undergraduate Students in Australian Universities. Adelaide: Australian Credit Transfer Agency. European Commission. (2013). Europe 2020 Targets. Retrieved from: http:// ec.europa.eu/europe2020/europe-2020-in-a-nutshell/targets/index_en.htm. Gerdes, H. & Mallinckrodt, B. (1994). Emotional, social, and academic adjustment of college students: A longitudinal study of retention. Journal of Counseling & Development, 72: 281–288.

Acknowledgements The author is deeply grateful to Ali Radloff, Laurie Ransom and several reviewers for feedback on earlier versions of this paper. Hamish Coates holds a chair in higher education at the Centre for the Study of Higher Education, University of Melbourne.

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Harvey, A. & Luckman, M. (2014). Beyond demographics: Predicting student attrition within the Bachelor of Arts degree. International Journal of the First Year in Higher Education, 5(1), 19–29. James, R., Krause, K.-L. & Jennings, C. (2010). The First Year Experience in Australian Universities: Findings from 1994 to 2009. Melbourne: University of Melbourne Publishing. Kemp, D. & Norton, A. (2014). Review of the Demand Driven Funding System. Retrieved from https://education.gov.au/report-review-demand-drivenfunding-system. Lobo, A. (2012). Will We Meet Again? Examining the reasons why students are leaving first year university courses and moving towards an approach to stop them. International Journal of Learning, 18(7): 199–212. Lumina Foundation. (2013). A Stronger Nation Through Higher Education. Indianapolis: Lumina Foundation. Retrieved from www.luminafoundation.org. National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE). (2013). National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE). Retrieved from http://nsse.iub.edu. Norton, A. (2012). Graduate Winners: Assessing the Public and Private Benefits of Higher Education. Melbourne: Grattan Institude. Retrieved from http://grattan.edu.au/static/files/assets/4c182f07/162_graduate_winners_report. pdf.

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Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). (2013). Education at a Glance 2013: OECD Indicators. Paris: OECD.

Burgess, Z. & Sharma, R. (1999). Issues in Attrition and Retention in an Australian University. Paper presented at the Educators and Planners: Symphony or Discord AAIR Conference, 1–3 December. Retrieved from www.aair.org.au/app/ webroot/media/pdf/AAIR%20Fora/Forum1999/burgess1.pdf.

Pascarella, E. T. & Chapman, D. (1983). A multi-institutional, path analytic validation of Tinto’s model of college withdrawal. American Education Research Journal, 20: 87–102.

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Powdthavee, N. & Vignoles, A. (2007). Succeeding in Higher Education: A Widening Participation Issue. Retrieved from www.powdthavee.co.uk/resources/ dropout+paper+27+March.pdf.

Coates, H. (2008). Attracting, Engaging and Retaining: New Conversations about Learning. 2007 Australasian Student Engagement Report. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research.

Tinto, V. (1975). Dropout from higher education: A theoretical synthesis of recent research. Review of Educational Research, 45(1): 89–125.

Coates, H. (2010). Development of the Australasian Survey of Student Engagement (AUSSE). Higher Education, 60(10): 1–17. Coates, H. & McCormick, A. (2014). Engaging University Students: International Insights from System-wide Studies. Singapore: Springer. Coates, H. & Radloff, A. (2010). Doing More for Learning: Enhancing Engagement and Outcomes. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research. Coates, H. & Ransom, L. (2011). Dropout DNA and the genetics of effective support. AUSSE Research Briefing. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research. Commonwealth of Australia. (2009). Transforming Australia’s Higher Education System. Canberra: Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations. vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving College: Rethinking the Causes and Cures of Student Attrition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Yorke, M. (2000a). Smoothing the transition into higher education: What can be learned from student non-completion? Journal of Institutional Research, 9(1). Retrieved from www.aair.org.au/app/webroot/media/pdf/JIR/Journal%20of%20 Institutional%20Research%20in%20Australasia%20and%20JIR/Volume%209,%20 No.%201%20May%202000/Yorke.pdf. Yorke, M. (2000b). The quality of the student experience: What can institutions learn from data relating to non-completion? Quality in Higher Education, 6(1): 61–75. Yorke, M. & Longden, B. (2008). The First-Year Experience of Higher Education in the UK: The Final Report. York: The Higher Education Academy. Retrieved from http://jisctechdis.ac.uk/assets/documents/archive/FYEFinalReport.pdf.

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Is there a correlation between US university presidential pay and performance? Laura Risler & Laura M. Harrison Ohio University

This paper scrutinises the escalating salaries of US college and university presidents (vice-chancellors, or rectors, as they might be known in other parts of the world). Some research suggests that presidential pay is largely correlated with factors that have little or nothing to do with performance and may, therefore, overstate the benefit that presidents bring to their institutions while giving too little consideration to the costs. The paper also discusses presidential pay in the broader socioeconomic context, summarises available research findings and suggests ways institutions might strengthen the link between pay and performance in order to broaden the talent pool of capable institutional leaders.

Introduction

packages for top executives can actually have a detrimental impact, damaging institutional morale and public

Within US higher education, the escalating salary pack-

relations, and tempting senior executives to fabricate

ages of college and university presidents (the US equiv-

outcomes or otherwise prioritise perception over per-

alent of vice-chancellors) claim a not trivial proportion

formance (Core, Holthausen & Larcker, 1999; Harris,

of their institutions’ resources in comparison with most

2009; March, 1984; Yermack, 2006).

other staff, and most of that money ultimately comes from the pockets of students and taxpayers.

The rapidly escalating pay of college and university presidents, therefore, appears likely to overstate the ben-

Unfortunately, the preliminary findings from research

efit that presidents bring to their institutions, while giving

on US college and university presidents – and their cor-

too little consideration to the costs. If for no other reason,

porate counterparts – suggest that, at the very least, pay

then, presidential pay merits closer scrutiny.

rates of top executives are largely explained by factors that have little or nothing to do with performance.

Socioeconomic context

This fact may not be surprising when considering that, at the upper levels of an organisation, causal relation-

Across the US, college and university presidents are facing

ships between actions and outcomes often become

mounting criticism over the rapid growth in their salary

less clear and more ambiguous (Cohen & March, 1974;

packages. In 2009, the Chronicle of Higher Education

March, 1984). Other research suggests that lavish salary

reported that 36 presidents of private (i.e., independent)

Is there a correlation between US university presidential pay and performance? Laura Risler & Laura M. Harrison

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institutions earned more than US $1 million (Stripling &

rest of Americans, who had more of their wealth invested

Fuller, 2011a). By the 2011–12 academic year, four presi-

in the still-faltering housing market (Peck, 2011). These

dents of public (i.e. state-assisted) institutions also met

factors, combined with job losses and wage pressures

that threshold (Stripling & Newman, 2013).

exacerbated by globalisation, have contributed to a ‘hol-

This growth in pay at the top has far outstripped salary gains by academic staff. Between 1997 and 2007, presi-

lowing-out of the middle class’ (Jurek, 2012; Peck, 2011; Weissmann, 2012).

dential pay grew by an inflation-adjusted 35 per cent,

The growth in college and university presidents’ pay

compared with a mere 5 per cent increase (also inflation-

somewhat parallels that of their private sector counter-

adjusted) for academics (Stripling & Fuller, 2011a). Worse,

parts. Some corporate chief executive officers (CEOs) in

in 2010–11 the average salary of full-time academic staff

the financial industry, in particular, drew public ire during

members actually lost ground, increasing only 1.4 per cent

the downturn for taking huge bonuses, even as their

versus an inflation rate of 1.5 per cent (June, 2011). Uni-

companies were being bailed out by taxpayers. College

versity of Central Florida, for example, paid its president

and university presidents have invited similar outrage by

$741,500 in 2010–11 (Stripling & Fuller, 2012), while its

approaching legislatures for public financial support to

full, associate and assistant professors were paid on aver-

stave off institutional ruin while simultaneously defend-

age $116,100, $78,700 and $66,000, respectively (Ameri-

ing their own raises (Stripling & Fuller, 2011b).

can Association of University Professors, 2011). These

Yet not everyone believes that escalating presidential

comparisons do not even take into consideration the pay

pay is a cause for concern. Defenders note that college

of part-time academic staff, a fast-growing segment of the

and university presidents still make considerably less

higher education instructional workforce. These workers

than CEOs of comparably sized companies (Cotton, 2012;

are paid an average of $2987 per three-credit hour course

Huang & Chen, 2013). Some even argue that presidents

in the US (June & Newman, 2013). While this article

should earn more due to the complexity of their jobs, the

focuses primarily on the issues resulting from the grow-

pressures of high expectations, and the intense market

ing pay disparity between presidents and academic staff

competition from other institutions and the private sector

in the US, this trend may have implications more broadly.

for scarce talent (Cotton, 2012; Stripling & Fuller, 2011b).

Fenton’s (2014) article describes the recent resignation of three UK university vice-chancellors amid growing

Research findings

criticism about their pay packages. One vice-chancellor is reported to have earned twice the prime minister’s salary,

So, are salary levels for college and university presidents

having received large pay increases between 2011 and

too high, too low, or just right? Pfeffer and Ross (1988)

2014, while other university workers have seen a 13 per

analysed data on more than 600 presidents to examine

cent pay decrease in real terms since 2008 (Fenton, 2014).

what determinants (including personal characteristics

Disparities such as this fomented unrest across Europe, a

and context) have impact on presidential pay.They found

trend that mirrors sentiments of growing disillusionment

that institutional size, resources and Carnegie classifica-

with the US.

tion, as well as gender and length of tenure in position,

The widening gap between top administrators and

were among the strongest predictors of presidents’ pay

everyone else on US campuses mirrors the broader socio-

(Pfeffer & Ross, 1988). (Carnegie classifications in US

economic divide that galvanised Occupy Wall Street and

higher education refer to the extent to which an insti-

other protests against levels of income inequality not seen

tution is ranked as high research vs. high teaching in its

in the US since the Gilded Age (Eichler & McAuliff, 2011).

orientation. The higher the research ranking, the higher

In most recessions, income inequality decreased, but in

the pay tends to be.) Furthermore, tenure in office and

the aftermath of the financial crisis (the so-called Great

the size of institutional budgets were directly correlated

Recession) of 2007–08, the nation’s wealth inequality

with presidential pay. Similarly, Langbert’s (2006) analysis

has increased (Peck, 2011), earning the US the dubious

of presidential pay at more than 450 institutions found a

distinction in 2010 of having the highest income inequal-

strong positive correlation with expenditure per student

ity of any advanced economy (Noss, 2010; OECD, 2013).

as well as total spending, which suggests that pay struc-

The richest Americans typically have more of their wealth

tures may actually reward presidents for increasing total

invested in stocks (Alvareredo, Atkinson, Piketty & Saez,

spending and, ultimately, student tuition fees (p. 74).

n.d.), which have rebounded strongly since 2008 and

Tang, Tang & Tang (2000) analysed the salary packages

helped the so-called 1 per cent pull well away from the

of 190 university presidents in relation to additional

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variables, including geographic region, Scholastic Assess-

idly as options comprise more than 76 per cent of [CEO

ment Test (SAT) scores and institutional reputation.Their

pay]’ (p. 361).

study found the strongest predictors of presidential pay

While not-for-profit higher-education institutions lack

to be size of the institutional budget, institutional type

triggers such as stock prices, they are not immune to

(particularly research or doctoral institution), tuition

the temptation to shade the truth in the pursuit of good

fee levels and institutional reputation. Huang & Chen

scores. Claremont McKenna College, Emory University,

(2013) similarly found that the size of college and uni-

Villanova University’s law school, Bucknell University

versity presidents’ salary packages is mainly associated

and George Washington University have all recently been

with institutional prestige, quality of the students, overall

caught reporting false data such as student GPAs, accept-

revenue, the number of degree programs and enrolment.

ance rates and test scores in order to boost their institu-

They found some variation between types of institu-

tional rankings in U.S. News & World Report (Associated

tions; private institutions showed a strong correlation

Press, 2012; Diamond, 2012; Hoover, 2012; Jaschik, 2013;

with size and reputation, while public research institu-

Mangan, 2011). Whether or not these actions originated

tions showed the strongest correlation with enrolment

from the president’s office, they provide evidence that

(Huang & Chen, 2013, p. 3043). The size and enrolment

such manipulation takes place, even in higher education.

variables could be considered to be a general proxy for

Presidents can engage in other efforts to present their

job complexity, though the strength of this relationship

performance in the most favourable light – what March

is uncertain and, unless the president has been in office

(1984) calls ‘reputation management’. A typical strat-

for a meaningful length of time, unlikely to be a perfor-

egy is to emphasise process or input metrics instead of

mance indicator.

outcomes. As March (1984) notes, ‘If one can claim to

Langbert (2006) argues that none of the factors identi-

have done the things a good manager should do, bad

fied by Pfeffer and Ross (1988) or Tang et al. (2000) shows

outcomes can be seen as irrelevant to evaluation’ (p.

a meaningful relationship between pay and performance.

58). Presidents might, for example, tout the number of

While factors such as size of the budget and reputation

programs launched, students served, grants won, patents

might appear to be proxies for performance, they are at

secured or donors courted. While the actual relationship

best imperfect measures and at worst can create nega-

between a president’s actions and any of these outcomes

tive incentives or even be manipulated. As March (1984)

may be ambiguous or virtually nil, process metrics has

observes:

the advantage of being readily quantifiable and can be

A system of rewards linked to precise measures is not so much an incentive to perform well as it is an incentive to obtain a good score, and it is often easier to manage the accounts of managerial or organisational performance than it is to manage the organisation (p. 57).

cherry picked to present the most positive impression of effectiveness. Presidents may also engage in more subtle efforts to create the perception of success through personal brand building. As with a private corporation, branding involves creating positive, widespread name recognition and the perception of superior quality. Personal brand building

Unintended behavioural effects of incentives

efforts, such as interpersonal networking and media outreach, do not in themselves represent impropriety; however, particularly quirky or expensive efforts can raise

In the corporate world, large stock options and other

eyebrows. A former president of Ohio State University

incentives tied to share prices can tempt CEOs to take

earned notoriety for spending millions of dollars on lavish

actions that lead to short-term gains at the expense of

parties, and luxury travel and accommodation; he also

the organisation’s long-term interests (Harris & Bromi-

spent tens of thousands of dollars of university money on

ley, 2007; Harris, 2009; March, 1984). Harris and Bromiley

bow ties and bow tie-shaped biscuits and pins, items that

(2007) have researched this behaviour by examining how

directly reference his signature neckwear (Bischoff, 2012),

often companies must make accounting restatements to

while a past president of University of Connecticut drew

correct irregularities ranging from the unethical to the

criticism for, among other things, purchasing life-size

illegal, including ‘aggressive’ accounting practices, the

cutouts of himself to be displayed around the campus

misleading use of facts, oversight or misinterpretation of

(Kiley, 2013).

accounting rules and outright fraud. They found that ‘the

Langbert (2006) argues that, in general, institutions

probability of [financial] misrepresentation … rises rap-

appear to make their salary decisions based not on per-

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formance but on mimicry, approximating the pay rates of

Even the corporate world occasionally bends in the

institutions similar to their own in type, size and region.

face of such negative public attention. Due to shareholder

In fact, some institutions overtly adopt this strategy. The

backlash, the practice of grossing up, in which employers

University System of Maryland, for example, has a formal

provide executives with additional money to cover the

policy of setting pay for its senior administrators at the

taxes incurred on bonuses and other benefits, has lost

75th percentile of peer institutions (Stripling & Fuller,

popularity among boards of many publicly traded com-

2011b). This approach yokes its pay levels to those of

panies. Yet in 2010, half of the 50 highest-paid presidents

other institutions in a perpetually escalating bidding war.

of private institutions still received this kind of benefit

As March (1984) observes in relation to private sector

(Stripling, 2012). Supporters may argue that it is only fair

enterprises, the practice is not limited to peers; institu-

to offset taxes on benefits that presidents are compelled

tions may also follow the lead of their aspirational peers

to accept (such as housing and cars); however, the prac-

in an effort to raise their own institutional status. Such

tice risks perpetuating the image that presidents, abetted

external signals can appear to be a logical proxy for qual-

by their boards of trustees, are enriching themselves at

ity, given the difficulty in evaluating candidates’ job per-

the expense of the institutions they run. This negative

formance based on the ambiguous causal relationship

image provides further fuel to growing public discontent

between their performance and organisational outcomes

with the spiralling overall cost of higher education and

(Langbert, 2006; March, 1984).

student debt burdens (Stripling & Fuller, 2011b; Stripling & Fuller, 2012; Webley, 2013).

The hidden costs of high presidential pay

Within the institutional community, the growing pay disparities can also erode morale among staff. At private

Beyond the consideration of whether market forces ration-

universities in 2009 the average president made 3.7

ally price college and university presidents according to

times as much as the average full professor, and at six

their performance or create positive incentives, presiden-

institutions that ratio reached 10:1. Meanwhile, most

tial pay may have other less quantifiable impacts worth consideration. In the language of economics, these impacts are referred to as ‘externalities’, secondary or unintended

consequences

of an action that affect third

academic staff nationwide

When high pay-outs go to presidents widely regarded as poor performers ... outrage is particularly intense. Pay for even wellrespected presidents, however, can invite criticism when those same presidents plead for taxpayer support for their institutions

are seeing their own salaries lag behind inflation (June, 2011).To add insult to injury, many are also seeing the gap between their pay and that of new academic staff hires shrink (termed

parties and are not consid-

‘salary compression’), even

ered when determining the

to fall behind that of new

action’s cost.

hires (‘salary inversion’) (June, 2011).The consequences

Publicity over high presidential salary packages, for example, can have a negative impact on an institution’s

of morale erosion can include lower performance and loss of talented individuals to other institutions.

reputation, especially in the current economic climate.

No universally accepted standard exists for the optimal

When high payouts go to presidents widely regarded as

ratio between presidents’ and academic or other staff sala-

poor performers (former Penn State President Graham

ries, and indeed, the corresponding multiples in the pri-

Spanier, for example, who was fired in connection to

vate sector far exceed these when stock options are part

the Jerry Sandusky child-abuse scandal), the outrage is

of the salary package. While presidents may view them-

particularly intense (Stripling & Newman, 2013). But

selves as analogous to corporate CEOs, the traditional

pay for even well-respected presidents can invite criti-

academic staff culture views the corporatisation of higher

cism when those same presidents plead for taxpayer

education with hostility and resents being relegated to the

support for their institutions (Stripling & Fuller, 2011b).

role of underling. As John Curtis, director of research and

This outrage has led some state legislators, particu-

public policy at the American Association of University

larly in California, Florida and Texas, to introduce bills

Professors, stated: ‘The problem – in terms of the priority

to limit presidential pay (News-Press Staff and Wire,

message being sent – [is] if there’s such a large investment

2013; Stripling & Fuller, 2011b; Stripling & Fuller, 2012;

in a single individual, it negates the idea that you have

Webley, 2013).

shared governance, which is a basic principle in colleges

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and universities’ (quoted in Burnsed, 2011). Morale can

To address the acute shortage of capable candidates

also suffer when presidential pay increases and bonuses

that is often cited as the reason institutions feel com-

coincide with furloughs and layoffs among instructional

pelled to engage in presidential bidding wars, trustees

and non-instructional staff.

need to consider the key competencies they require in

Students are also protesting against what they see as

their top executive and invest more resources in develop-

the shifting of the burden for generous presidential salary

ing talent from within. A deeper understanding of the job

packages onto them in the form of increasing tuition fees

requirements could also help boards of trustees design

and student debt (Stripling & Fuller, 2011b). As Trotter

salary packages with incentives strategically tailored to

(2013) notes in coverage of the outrage over New York

realistic and desirable outcomes. Boards must also interro-

University’s (NYU) provision of ultra-low interest mort-

gate their own preconceptions about what makes a good

gages to top administrators for vacation homes:

presidential candidate. At most institutions, board mem-

Stories of NYUers graduating with crushing student debt are legion … The idea that even a small portion of their loan payments is directly funding the Fire Island getaways of the School’s well-paid faculty and administrators is the kind of picture that NYU probably wants to avoid (para 4).

bers are predominantly white males with backgrounds in business, law or finance (Minor, 2008). These individuals are likely to have been socialised to similar norms of what good leaders look like. To the extent that other boards share similar norms and perceptions, they may find themselves engaged in a bidding war over an unnecessarily

Clearly, these campus constituencies are sensing a dis-

small pool of candidates. Such bidding pressure may also

connection between their fortunes and those of the lead-

foster an unjustified perception that this narrow field of

ership.That loss of community good will has consequences

candidates is demonstrably superior to others and a sense

that may be difficult to quantify but nevertheless have real

of urgency that leads them to bid more than they other-

negative impacts on higher education institutions. By failing

wise might.

to factor such costs into their salary deliberations, boards risk basing their decisions on inflated perceptions of the

Conclusion

benefits a president may bring to their institution. Getting boards to think critically about presidential pay

Recommendations and cautions

may be a difficult proposition. To raise the issue is, after all, to criticise the way the board has been handling it.

The topic of presidential pay can evoke strong emotions,

When faced with criticism of any kind, perhaps the most

particularly in the current economic climate. No one size

common human response is to resist it. If board members

fits all formula exists, and no approach is likely to win uni-

perceive that they are being attacked, they may react by

versal approval, yet most disinterested observers would

siding with the president against their critics. The chal-

probably conclude that there is room for improvement

lenge in such a situation is to frame the issue in a way that

in the way that presidential pay packages are developed.

does not imply blame or provoke an adversarial response.

Accordingly, the following are some very broad recom-

This approach holds the most potential to foster a recep-

mendations for future research and practice.

tive frame of mind in which board members can objec-

Langbert (2006) suggests that trustees should reconsider their strategies for setting presidential pay in order

tively consider the criticisms of current presidential pay practices and explore alternative approaches.

to strengthen the link between pay and performance. In

College and university presidents’ burgeoning pay may

light of the strong correlation he found between current

possibly be justified by an as yet unproven combination of

presidential pay and institutional and per student spend-

factors, including the demands of the position, job perfor-

ing levels, he particularly recommends creating incentives

mance and market forces. The limited evidence currently

for presidents to hold down spending instead of increas-

available, however, suggests otherwise. Further research

ing it. Langbert also recommends developing systematic

will ultimately be needed in order to make a more confi-

measures for other vital but elusive institutional quality

dent distinction between fact and fiction.

measures such as student achievement, academic research productivity, student engagement and talent development.

Laura Risler is doctoral student and Laura M. Harrison is

If institutions across the board were to adopt these mea-

an assistant professor at the Department of Counseling and

sures and disclose their metrics, it would facilitate a more

Higher Education, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio.

rational assessment of performance.

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Universities and the public good A review of knowledge exchange policy and related university practice in Australia Michael Cuthill & Éidín O’Shea University of Southern Queensland

Bruce Wilson RMIT University

Pierre Viljoen Central Queensland University

Australian policy relating to knowledge exchange has never been well articulated, notwithstanding that the nexus between knowledge, engagement and higher education in Australia has been on the national agenda for several decades (Grattan Institute, 2013). In universities, this policy deficit is reflected in a lack of project management and collaboration skills, and the limited motivation of researchers to engage in collaborative knowledge exchange processes. Taken together, poor policy and inadequate practice constrain the effective use of knowledge in socioeconomic development and national innovation. This paper primarily focuses on the knowledge exchange policy–practice nexus in Australia. We adopt the term ‘knowledge exchange’ while acknowledging many other related concepts, such as knowledge transfer, university community engagement, integrative applied research and engaged scholarship. We draw attention to international contexts in which universities, governments, industry and funding agencies are now explicitly supporting and facilitating collaborative knowledge exchange activities. Our review suggests that Australia needs a clearly articulated national knowledge exchange policy, along with enhanced university capacity to implement knowledge exchange initiatives.

Introduction

versities are under increasing pressure to clearly demonstrate their societal benefits while producing high-quality,

The idea that universities have an obligation to the public

high-impact scholarship, and operating as astute business

good dates back to at least 1200 AD with the advent of

managers.

the earliest European universities, such as Bologna, Paris

The increasing demands on universities have prompted

and Oxford (Cuthill, 2012; Brown & Muirhead, 2001). As

calls for new kinds of university, those that are responsive

such, universities have long promoted themselves and

to the needs of society and are prepared to adopt col-

justified public funding on the grounds that they serve

laborative approaches to their scholarship (Barber et al.,

this public good (Collini, 2012). This is currently subject

2013). These universities have been variously described

to debate in forums across the world at a time when uni-

using terms such as ‘open university’ (Miller & Sabapathy,

Universities and the public good Michael Cuthill et al.

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2011),‘innovative university’ (Christensen & Eyring, 2011),

(Cuthill 2011, p. 22, for example, identifies 48 interrelated

‘engaged university’ (Petter, 2013), the new ‘public univer-

terms).These include, for example:

sity’ (Burawoy, 2011) and Goddard’s (2009) concept of a

• knowledge transfer (Varga, 2009)

‘civic university’.The core concept here is that all publicly

• integrative applied research (Bammer, 2013)

funded higher education institutions have a civic duty to

• university community engagement (Holland, 2005)

engage with the wider society – at local, national and

• engaged scholarship (Cuthill & Brown, 2010;)

international levels – on issues of public relevance.

• third mission (Watson et al., 2013).

The focus of public good universities is presented in

As Bammer (2013, p. 5) argues in responding to ‘com-

different ways:

plex real world problems … [we need to address the

• addressing the so-called grand challenges of the 21st

existing] … combination of fragmentation, unorganised

century (Barber et al., 2013) • increased public policy focus (European Commission, 2012)

diversity and dogma’ evident within this proliferation of related terminology and approaches. The international literature on knowledge exchange and

• scholarly interaction with industry, focusing on the val-

related concepts has blossomed, all with an explicit focus

orisation of intellectual property (Breznitz & Feldman,

on partnership, collaboration and engagement with exter-

2012)

nal partners, (Kajner, 2013; Jones, 2012; Breznitz & Feldman,

• scholarly engagement involving public, private and

2012; Schuetze, 2010).This signals a shift from a sole focus

community sector stakeholders that contributes to

on the academic as an ‘expert producer of knowledge’,

social justice and development (Kajner, 2013; Cuthill,

to a much stronger focus on ‘collaborative knowledge

2012).

processes’ (Cuthill & Brown, 2010, p.129). Gibbons et al.

Each of these centres in one way or another on the

(1994) describe this shift as a move from the more tradi-

sharing – the exchange of knowledge – between univer-

tional model of segregated knowledge production, which

sity researchers and public actors who wish to contrib-

they call Mode 1, to a new broader approach – Mode 2 – in

ute to new knowledge and to use it. This paper presents

which universities are identified as one stakeholder among

a review of knowledge exchange policy and practice in

many knowledge producers in a new, more fluid and inter-

Australia. Four underlying components are commonly

dependent approach to scholarship (Table 1).

seen to define the broad concept of knowledge exchange

The collaborative approach to knowledge exchange

(for example, Davis, 2013; Dwan & McInnes, 2013; Cuthill,

is supported through recent methodological initiatives

2012; Australian Universities Community Engagement Alli-

(Cuthill, 2012; McIlrath & Lyons, 2012). Holland (2005, p.

ance [AUCEA], 2006; Carnegie Foundation, n.d.; Boyer,

11), for example, describes how an ‘engaged’ approach to

1996).These include:

scholarship is being increasingly embraced by universi-

• a focus on high quality scholarship

ties around the world, ‘as an expression of contemporary

• stakeholder collaboration

research methods and as a reinterpretation of the role of

• mutually beneficial outcomes

higher education in creating public good’. Hence, collabo-

• public good intent.

ration and exchange should be seen as supporting new,

In combining these four components, knowledge

more flexible approaches to intellectual enquiry – meth-

exchange moves the application of scholarship past

odology based on the development of strong and genuine

the narrowly conceived historical notion that scientific knowledge originates in the university and is passed downstream to various communities who absorb it and

Table 1: Characteristics of Mode 1 and Mode 2 scholarship

put it to a practical use (Varga, 2009). Rather, as Austral-

Mode 1

Mode 2

ian Primary Health Care Research Institute (APHCRI)

Disciplinary

Transdisciplinary

Hierarchical

Participatory

has an “applied” focus into either decision-making or prac-

Pure or applied

Applied

tice settings.’ International knowledge exchange policy

Linear

Reflexive

initiatives provide some direction as to how Australian

Quality is academically defined

Quality is academically defined and socially accountable

(APHCRI, 2011, p. 5) states,‘Knowledge exchange is a process that aims to get research knowledge into action; it

national policy might respond. While we have adopted the term knowledge exchange, we also acknowledge many other related concepts vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

(Cuthill, 2010; Gibbons et al., 1994) Universities and the public good Michael Cuthill et al.

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knowledge partnerships. As the Association of Commonwealth Universities stated (2001, p. i): Increasingly, academics will accept that they share their territory with other knowledge professionals. The search for formal understanding itself, long central to the academic life, is moving rapidly beyond the borders of disciplines and their locations inside universities. Knowledge is being keenly pursued in the context of its application and in a dialogue of practice and theory through a network of policy advisers, companies, consultants, think-tanks and brokers as well as academics and indeed the wider society. This points to a policy challenge in which, in today’s competitive marketplace, the viability and sustainability of much Australian business, and the subsequent regional and national flow-on benefits, heavily rely on a diverse range of collaborative knowledge exchange partnerships (Ernst & Young, 2012). As previously noted, these partnerships

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responding to national policy and global social challenges, new competitive regimes for national universities are also now related to the increasing globalisation of student flows, funding resources and faculty. Higher education institutions have developed strategies relating to engagement, industry and community partnerships, research commercialisation and international development in response to these challenges. Goddard (2009, p.4) stresses the importance of such strategies within institutions arguing that there has to be an institution-wide commitment, not confined to individual academics or projects. It has to embrace teaching as well as research, students as well as academics, and the full range of support services. All universities need to develop strategies to guide their engagement with wider society, to manage themselves accordingly and to work with external partners to gauge their success …

extend beyond a sole industry focus, and include ongoing

The move beyond piecemeal or disparate activity to

calls for publicly funded research to contribute more to

a more coordinated approach to knowledge exchange

public policy, social development and economic prosper-

is a recurring theme within the literature. Both explicit

ity. Yet the policy framework to support such allocation of

national policy and structured institutional capability are

public resources is fragmented and contradictory. Australia

necessary for effective coordination to be achieved. To

is not alone in this context. Moore, Hughes and Ulrich-

support these developments, a variety of local, national

sen (2010, p. 22) argue that in the US, there is ‘evidence

and international networks have sprung up to support

of coordination failure of the knowledge exchange system

the various emerging knowledge exchange processes

as a whole, although component parts may be functioning

(Community–Campus Partnership for Health, 2012;

well’. Other international examples provide further con-

Global University Network for Innovation, 2011; Hall,

text to inform Australian developments.

2009; Australian Universities Community Engagement Alliance, 2006;Talloires Network, 2005).

Exploring international perspectives on knowledge exchange policy and practice

Internationally, there are examples of strong policy support for and direction to collaborative knowledge exchange processes. The European Commission, for

Recent reports (Brewer, 2013; McKelvey & Holmen, 2009)

example, promotes a modernisation agenda for univer-

have mapped the changing role of universities and their

sity reform, defining the role of universities as being to

contribution to economic prosperity, social develop-

exploit the so-called ‘knowledge triangle of research,

ment and national innovation systems. This role has been

education and innovation’ (Lund Declaration, 2009;

discussed in the aftermath of the global financial crisis

European Commission, 2007). Funding streams to sup-

where governments have directed attention to universi-

port this agenda are emerging and the European Com-

ties and their potential to support recovery (Hughes &

mission will soon launch Horizon 2020, organised to

Mina, 2012). However, Deiaco et al., (2012) note that

address societal challenges rather than disciplinary

while a collaborative knowledge exchange role for uni-

fields. This funding instrument (2014–20), with a budget

versities has been increasingly emphasised, so too have

of more than €70 billion, aims to deepen the relationship

other pressures been raised.

between science and society by favouring an ‘informed

Clearly, the competitive business of higher education

engagement of citizens and civil society on research

and the demands for more collaboration and relevance is

and innovation matters’ (European Commission, 2012, p.

proving challenging for senior managers. As Deiaco et al.

4). Horizon 2020 will support good practice in public

(2012, p. 523) describe:

engagement by focusing on the need for new tools and

Universities are thus increasingly being pressed to act strategically in relation to external pressures and funding streams. In addition to the strategic imperatives of

Universities and the public good Michael Cuthill et al.

methods to foster public engagement at the work program and individual level across all areas of Horizon 2020, and appropriate monitoring activities that can vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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differentiate between the simple transmission of results

responding to the national government agenda (Kuar-

approaches and those involving full engagement with

Gill, 2012, p. 31). These are:

the public at all stages of the program cycle (European

• leadership at senior and middle management level

Commission, 2012, p. 15–16).

• clarity of conceptualisation

The United Kingdom has also established funding

• institutionalisation

streams supporting knowledge exchange in higher

• quality assurance

education. This funding was facilitated by the Beacons

• capacity building programs

for Public Engagement, who were charged with pro-

• incorporating reward and recognition systems

moting, facilitating and embedding public engagement

• funding streams.

across universities (Watermeyer, 2011; PACE, 2010). A

In Canada, recent collaborative knowledge exchange

review study, with input from 22,000 UK academics,

programs such as the Community–University Research

found scholars from all disciplines were engaged in

Alliances (Social Science and Humanities Research Coun-

knowledge exchange processes with a diverse range of partners (Abreu et al., 2009).

supporting

broad knowledge exchange agenda, the National Coordinating Centre for Public Engagement, the Beacons for Public Engagement and the

cil, 2013a), Imagining Cana-

Both explicit national policy and structured institutional capability are necessary for effective coordination to be achieved. To support these developments, a variety of local, national and international networks have sprung up to support the various emerging knowledge exchange processes

da’s Future (Social Science and

Humanities

Research

Council, 2013b), Knowledge Mobilization Strategy (Social Science

and

Research

Council, 2013c)

Humanities

and Engagement as a Key Priority (Social Science and

Research Councils UK devel-

Humanities Research Coun-

oped the Vitae Researcher

cil, 2013d) have been initi-

Development Framework (see Vitae, 2011) in support of

ated through the Social Science and Humanities Research

capacity development in the sector. This is an overarch-

Council (SSHRC). All these programs look to promote

ing framework that identifies the wide range of knowl-

‘fruitful engagement with SSHRC partners in the aca-

edge, behaviours and attributes of excellent engaged

demic, public, private and not for profit sectors’ (SSHRC,

scholars.

2013a). Canadian universities have responded to this

Institutions have followed this policy lead. University

agenda. For example, Petter (2013, pp. 1–2), President

College London (UCL) provides one such example. Pro-

of Simon Fraser University, argues that the SFU focus on

fessor David Price, UCL’s Vice-Provost for Research, in an

public good outcomes can be conceived

interview to the Times Higher Education, argued that research-intensive universities can justify their high levels of funding only if they address major challenges and by applying knowledge ‘for the good of humanity’ (Jump, 2012). Accordingly, UCL has identified four multidisci-

as an approach that can inform every aspect of how a university operates, educates and serves its students and its communities … not as an exercise in altruism, but in the belief that this engagement also pays enormous dividends for students, faculty and staff – and for the university itself.

plinary institutional-wide ‘grand challenges’ to facilitate public issues research.These are global health, sustainable

He argues, in the face of perhaps our most daunting

cities, intercultural interaction and human wellbeing. Pro-

global and local challenges, that universities have a critical

fessor Price stressed that, by addressing societal problems

role to play in helping build just and sustainable commu-

in this way, UCL emphasises the development of ‘useful

nities, and that the ‘ “engaged university” might in future

knowledge’ (Jump, 2012).

be seen less as an anomaly to be noted and observed,

In Malaysia, a recent national policy initiative allocated significant funding to four major universities to develop

[than] more as a prototype to be adapted and improved upon’ (Petter, 2013, p. 5).

stronger industry and community partnerships. Profes-

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and

sor Kaur-Gill, Deputy Vice-Chancellor for Industry and

Development (OECD) (2013), through the Institute for

Community Partnerships at the National University of

Management of Higher Education, has also promoted

Malaysia (UKM), in outlining the UKM process of insti-

greater engagement between universities and regional

tutionalising such partnerships within the university,

and city authorities. It has also sponsored three waves

identifies critical initiatives implemented by UKM in

of reviews that have analysed how the higher education

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

Universities and the public good Michael Cuthill et al.

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system impacts upon regional and local development, and facilitated stronger collaborative work and capacity building. These reviews are: • 2005–07

Higher Education and Regions: Globally Competitive, Locally Engaged

• 2008–11 • 2010–12

Higher Education in Cities and Regions –

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Innovation is not an abstraction. Nor is it an end in itself. It is how we make a better Australia, and contribute to making a better world – a prosperous, fair and decent world, in which everyone has the chance of a fulfilling life (Foreword by Kim Carr, Minister for Innovation, Industry, Science and Research). The department’s conception of a ‘scientifically engaged

for Stronger, Cleaner and Fairer Regions

Australia … comprising the natural and physical sciences,

Higher Education in Regional City

the humanities, arts and social sciences’ (Commonwealth

Development

of Australia, 2009 p. xiii) is directed by a national strategy

Historically, the US has had a strong focus on policy

for a result of which, the Australian knowledge exchange

and practice in knowledge exchange. Moore, Hughes

policy response still remains thinly spread.

and Ulrichsen (2010, p. 7) report that the ‘US knowledge

In Australia the breadth and quality of knowledge

exchange (KE) system has experienced significant cultural

exchange activity is still largely unknown (Grattan Insti-

changes over the past decade, with positive changes in cul-

tute, 2013; Bammer, 2013; Charles & Wilson, 2012; Brad-

ture towards KE, and increased acceptance of KE related

ley et al., 2008), with little understanding of research

activities as a valued part of an academic’s role’. This brief

impact from collaborative knowledge exchange. This

international review has merely skimmed the surface with

continues to be an issue, despite useful current ini-

regards to the many countries currently in the process of

tiatives to assess research impact (Addis et al., 2013;

strengthening their knowledge exchange arrangements.

Brewer, 2013; Regional Universities Network, 2013; Kelly & McNicoll, 2011). A recent Group of Eight report on

Exploring Australian perspectives on knowledge exchange policy and practice

measuring innovation, for example, concludes that there are compelling stories to be told of impact arising from knowledge exchange activities at Australian universities

The notion that higher education can contribute broadly

(Group of Eight, 2012).

to the public good is compatible with historical national

In another attempt to understand research impact, the

policy directions in Australia (Grattan Institute, 2013;

Regional Universities Network (2013, p. 4) developed a

Group of Eight, 2013; Commonwealth of Australia, 2012,

conceptual framework (Figure 1) that illustrates

2009; Bradley et al., 2008; Department of Education Science and Training, 2006). Public good and the role of higher education institutions was, for example, central in 2002 in the Crossroads discussion papers, with recognition that universities need to be socially responsive and foster a more active engagement with their various communities: Higher education institutions are expected to be responsive to the diverse needs of students and the demands of other stakeholders, including staff, employers of graduates, clients of consulting services, industry, venture partners and regional communities. They need to meet the expectations of the Australian community and government and the changing needs of the economy. Higher education institutions need to develop an outward looking perspective, not an insular one (Department of Education, Science and Training, 2002, p. 32).

the process of leveraging university assets (students, staff and facilities) through operational activities (teaching and learning, research and service) centred on an engagement paradigm to produce economic, social, cultural, environmental, and individual ‘value’ outcomes to the specific region and more broadly for Australia. These value outcomes, in a self-reinforcing, reciprocal and mutually beneficial process, provide feedback to support the university core mission. This conceptual framework is yet to be empirically tested and overall there is a critical lack of understanding of collaborative knowledge approaches to dealing with society’s complex challenges. Other efforts to promote the benefits of collaborative approaches are emerging in Australia. Engagement Australia (EA) is committed to leading, developing and promoting an integrated and collaborative approach to university–community engagement in Australia.They have

There have been other initiatives, including a stream

argued that engagement built on trust and reciprocity is

of inquiries into innovation, and new initiatives such as

a multifaceted and multidimensional process and critical

Commercialisation Australia, the Innovation Precincts and

enabler of all university endeavours, including research,

Cooperative Research Centres. The Commonwealth of

and that it has the potential to provide mutually benefi-

Australia (2009) argued that

cial outcomes and value for universities and participating partners. More recently, EA responded to the draft paper

Universities and the public good Michael Cuthill et al.

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Figure 1: The value of regional universities. Source: Regional Universities Network, 2013, p. 4

Assessing the wider benefits arising from university-based

cations rather than practical outcomes for industry or

research: Discussion Paper (Commonwealth of Australia,

community.

2013). In its comments, the EA board broadly supported the paper’s focus on the impact of research on society. It was also proposed that the scope could be expanded to include a broader definition of research engagement: a definition that more strongly shows the role of science and society in responding to the critical social, economic, technological and environmental challenges communities are confronted with today (Engagement Australia, 2013).

Academics on the edge: challenges confronting Australian knowledge exchange policy and practice Despite the increasing emphasis on collaborative knowledge exchange, recent Australian policy debate has been disjointed, drawn thinly across at least five interrelated but distinct policy areas.These are: • research commercialisation (ACIP, 2012) • university community engagement (AUCEA, 2006)

Encouragingly, ambitious expectations have been set out by the Commonwealth government on the role of

• third stream funding (Australian Council of Learned Academies, 2012)

Australian universities, with an explicit focus on increased

• knowledge transfer (PhillipsKPA, 2006)

collaborations between the public and private sectors

• widening participation and access (Bradley et al., 2008;

(Coaldrake & Stedman, 2013; Australian Government

Department of Education, Science and Training, 1990).

Advisory Council on Intellectual Property [ACIP], 2012).

This approach encourages fragmented and incoher-

However, Australia currently ranks 22nd out of 28 OECD

ent effort at collaborative knowledge exchange. As Intz-

countries for public expenditure on tertiary education,

esiloglou et al. (2011, p. 1) argue, while ‘the benefits of

spending only 1 per cent of gross domestic product (Aus-

knowledge exchange between universities and enter-

tralian Innovation System Report, 2011). In April 2013

prises have been documented in various cases, there is

the Australian government announced the biggest funding

still a long way to go considering the identification of

reductions to the university system and student support

the best-suited policy framework for the enhancement of

since 1996, with an additional $2.3 billion to be stripped

this process, on national and regional levels’. Rather, it has

from the university system over the next four years (Uni-

been left to higher education institutions themselves to

versities Australia, 2013).

support effective transmission and application of higher

More significant have been the policy contradictions

education research to public, private and community

that still encourage universities to adopt segmented, com-

needs, even where there are several universities work-

petitive and internally focused approaches to learning and

ing in the same space. As a result, Australia has fallen well

teaching, and to research, with no explicit encouragement

behind overseas examples (Grattan Institute, 2013).

for engagement. Australian universities’ academic recogni-

This leaves a practice environment within universities

tion and rewards tend to emphasise and support the more

that is characterised by a lack of engagement, project man-

traditional focus on competitive research funds and publi-

agement and collaboration skills, and the limited motiva-

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Table 2. Priorities and constraints under which research users and producers work Priorities and constraints

Research producers

Research users

Knowledge

Depth

Breadth

Documents

Long, prose

Short, multiple headings, dot points

Timeframes

Medium–long

Short–medium

Outputs

Few and far between

Regular

Responsibility

Individuals and freedom

External parties and processes

Rigor versus pragmatism

Rigor

Pragmatism

Authorship

Personal

Usually anonymous

tion of researchers to engage in collaborative knowledge

Prime Minister and Cabinet, published an article titled

exchange processes (Universities Australia, 2013; ACIP,

‘Seen but not Heard’ in The Australian (4 May 2011), in

2012). An ACIP report (2012) on the role of intellectual

which he was critical of what he perceived was a distinct

property in collaborations between public and private

lack of any sustained, constructive contributions by Aus-

sectors supports this assertion of a capacity deficit. It

tralian academics to ‘real world’ development of public

argues that, despite the potential benefits to be had, many

policy. In another example, Hil (2012, p. 14) suggests that

publicly funded research organisations’ (PFRO) current

‘academics have become, at least in policy discourse,

performance metrics did not sufficiently encourage the

shadow figures in the public eye’. The recent ACIP report

formation of collaborations with industry. In turn, PFRO

generally confirms this negative perception, identifying

researchers were concerned that they lacked capacity

researchers’ lack of motivation to engage in collaborative

to effectively collaborate, and that the reward structure

knowledge exchange processes (ACIP, 2012). Yet as ACIP

did not encourage such collaborations in the first place.

explain, this situation can be largely attributed to a lack

Indeed, in many institutions, there are direct contradic-

of capacity and support for university staff who focus on

tions between the institutional requirements associated

collaborative knowledge exchange processes.

with teaching and research, and the requirements of part-

In itself, assumptions about the collaborative capacity

nership development and effective knowledge exchange.

of researchers and research users require critical review

As a result, knowledge exchange remains on the periph-

(O’Shea, 2014). When exploring international research

ery of mainstream Australian academia, despite the ongo-

collaborations, Billot, Goddard & Cranston (2006, p. 43),

ing rhetoric that positions it as integral to a university

for example, found that ‘there is limited research that

mission (Bradley et al., 2008).

provides guidance on how to undertake research col-

This situation is further exacerbated by the continuing

laboratively’. So, is it reasonable to assume that academ-

chorus of dissatisfaction, frustration and capacity short-

ics and external research stakeholders, all with diverse

falls expressed by knowledge workers within universities

timeframes, skill sets and deliverables, can just come

(Coaldrake & Stedman, 2013; Metcalfe, 2013; Hil, 2012;

together and effectively collaborate? Such an assumption

Petersen, 2011; Chubb, 2013; Lynch et al., 2012; Australian

would suggest a smooth ride with high expectations of

Council of Learned Academies, 2012; Collini, 2012; Fred-

successful collaboration between academic researchers

man & Doughney, 2012; Matthews et al., 2012; Professor

and their industry partners. But experience shows that

X, 2011). Bexley et al. (2011) describe an academic work-

when forming research collaborations, challenges arise

force in transition. Their recent report, which analyses

between researchers and external stakeholders if compet-

responses from 5525 participants across 20 Australian uni-

ing agendas are not recognised and negotiated (Cuthill et

versities, finds the sector grappling with an ageing work-

al., 2011). Dwan and McInnes (2013, p. 195, expanding on

force in which many workers are struggling to manage

Wiseman, 2010) provide examples of potential points of

workloads. Respondents argue that there is little oppor-

difference that might challenge successful collaborations

tunity or incentive to undertake knowledge exchange

(Table 2).

activity, which incorporates time-intensive relationship development and collaboration.

Even when collaborative knowledge exchange processes are clearly visible and can be easily tracked, such

Furthermore, Australian academics are often portrayed

as research commercialisation and patents, ACIP (2012)

in a negative way. Notably, Peter Shergold, Australian aca-

argues that enhancing practice capacity is still required.

demic and former Secretary of the Department of the

Opportunities for greater emphasis on knowledge

Universities and the public good Michael Cuthill et al.

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exchange processes and capacity building in less visible

unless they radically overhaul their current operating

areas, such as regional development, public policy, urban

models (Ernst & Young, 2012). Urgent discussion around

design, community health and social justice, are evident,

responses to this changing environment are required.

yet underutilised. Career advancement is another challenge confront-

Conclusions

ing Australian academics, especially when collaborative knowledge exchange processes generally are more time

The contemporary Australian university is now one stake-

intensive than other forms of research. Much focus has

holder among many knowledge producers in a new, more

been given to the Australian Council of Learned Academies

fluid and interdependent approach to scholarship. Schol-

(ACOLA, 2012) report on career support for researchers.

arship is being redefined, with a move from ivory tower

The aim of this study was to identify the pressure points in

conceptions of the academic as an expert producer of

research career pathways and identify possible solutions.

knowledge, to a much stronger focus on collaborative

Of the 1203 participants, 80 per cent reported that they

knowledge processes. This will support Australian univer-

found a career in research as ‘very’ or ‘reasonably’ attrac-

sities to successfully adapt to their increasingly competi-

tive, but not the research system in which they had to

tive market environment through development of strong

work.They cited the lack of certainty of employment, the

and genuine knowledge partnerships with diverse stake-

overly competitive race for grants, fellowships and jobs,

holders.

and the onerous burden of administration. Respondents

International

experience

suggests

that

national

reported that interaction with partners was often looked

knowledge exchange policy, and institutional strategy,

down on or largely disregarded; the need for support and

operational management and reporting are all challeng-

recognition when developing collaboration and partner-

ing tasks, but achievable. Policy development in coun-

ships was continually stressed.Academics across all levels,

tries reviewed for this paper has had a positive impact

from early career to professor, indicated that Australian

on directing and supporting collaborative knowledge

universities do not encourage research mobility between

exchange processes within those countries’ universities.

university, government, industry and community sectors.

In consequence, many universities are reinvigorating

ACOLA suggested the need to look at the interactive

their focus on the public good through a new schol-

nature of the US system (ACOLA, 2012). Research training

arly approach that is collaborative, socially account-

pathways have come in for similar criticism.

able, applied and transdisciplinary. The investments

Formal research training, especially doctoral candi-

being made in various countries and/or regions, and the

dature, is a key area of investment for knowledge crea-

potential socioeconomic and innovation benefits aris-

tion and a valuable opportunity to develop knowledge

ing (described in our international case studies review),

exchange partnerships. Australia’s chief scientist Profes-

present a strong argument for strengthening Australian

sor Ian Chubb’s recent speech (Chubb, 2013) to the Aus-

knowledge exchange policy and practice.

tralian Mathematical Sciences Institute argued that more

Without national policy direction and appropriate sup-

reflection was required in relation to the ‘work-readiness’

port, the current university business model, already under

of PhD students. Stressing the importance of industry

pressure from government cutbacks, is unlikely to be able

engagement and national productivity as being critically

to respond constructively and consistently to the col-

important in Australia, Chubb stated that ‘unfortunately,

laborative knowledge exchange agenda. There is now a

there is a large divide between our most academically

pressing need to address national policy arrangements to

qualified citizens (our PhD graduates) and the industries

support collaborative knowledge exchange in Australian

that fuel our economy’. More attention is needed to sup-

universities.

port a more structured PhD program that offers a defined path, including generic training in communications skills

Acknowledgements

and entrepreneurship, as well as a focus on transferable skills and greater flexibility (Council of Australian Post-

The authors are grateful to anonymous referees for their

graduate Associations, 2012; Commonwealth of Australia,

helpful comments.

2011a, 2011b). Overall, Australian higher education institutions are on the cusp of profound change, with warnings that some

Michael Cuthill is chair of the Regional Community Development at the University of Southern Queensland.

universities will not survive the next 10 to 15 years vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

Universities and the public good Michael Cuthill et al.

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Éidín O’Shea is a postdoctoral research fellow at the University of Southern Queensland. Bruce Wilson is director of the European Union Centre at RMIT and co-director of the PASCAL International Observatory. Pierre Viljoen is PVC Community and Engagement at CQU and President of Engagement Australia.

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Towards postcolonial management of transnational education Peter Ling Victoria University & Swinburne University

Margaret Mazzolini Victoria University

Beena Giridharan Curtin University, Sarawak

Increasingly, universities in developed countries are engaging in transnational education. Responsibilities and opportunities to exercise management and leadership in the provision of transnational education depend on the organisational model adopted and whether the academics involved are on home or international campuses. Models range from neocolonial control to transnational partnerships. In the Australian Office for Learning and Teaching study that informs this paper, good practice in allocation and exercise of management and leadership responsibilities was identified and recommendations developed. A balance was struck between the home institutionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s quality assurance obligations, which imply a high level of home-based control, and the value of a degree of local control to the commitment of local academics involved, to their career opportunities, and to the educational experiences of their students.

Introduction

The study on which this paper is based was a part of a project entitled Learning Without Borders, which focused

More and more universities in developed countries are

on branch campuses. The Observatory on Borderless

engaging in international partnerships (Warwick, 2014),

Higher Education has defined a branch campus as

including transnational education (McBurnie & Ziguras, 2007). Transnational education here refers to an arrangement in which a student studies for an award granted by a university based in a country other than the country the student is studying in (Global Alliance for Transnational Education, 1997). Numerous organisational arrangements

A higher education institution that is located in another country from the institution which either originated it or operates it, with some physical presence in the host country, and which awards at least one degree in the host country that is accredited in the country of the originating institution (Lawton & Katsomitros, 2012, p.7)

for transnational education are possible, from branch campuses to partnerships, franchises and mutual recognition of awards. vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

The branch campuses in this study were substantial physical entities, employing hundreds of academics to

Towards postcolonial management of transnational education Peter Ling et al.

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offer multiple undergraduate and postgraduate pro-

foreign institution making an academic award and the

grams of the home institution to thousands of students.

local agent. This can have shades of colonialism about it

The campuses offer programs in business, engineering,

in the sense that colonialism involves a set of unequal

science, information technology and design. The pro-

relationships between a foreign power and the local pop-

ject was funded by the Australian Learning and Teaching

ulation. As Osterhammel (2005) demonstrates, colonial-

Council in the category of leadership and reported to

ism does not imply total imposition of foreign ways but

the Australian national Office for Learning and Teaching.

involves a blend between the societies of the colonised

The Australian Learning and Teaching Council and the

and the colonialists. The authors explore here whether

Office for Learning and Teaching are Australian govern-

some arrangements for transnational education might

ment agencies established to advance learning and teach-

meet the requirements for an academic award of the

ing in the higher education sector. This paper provides

home institution but operate with a more equal balance

a review based on one element of the project – good

of decision making, whether some arrangements for trans-

practice in recognition, reward, development and sup-

national education are not only postcolonial in a temporal

port of people with management and leadership roles in

sense (Gilbert & Tompkins, 2002) but also come closer

transnational education, both those based at home cam-

to being postcolonial in terms of balance of power and

puses and those in international locations. In the case of

decision making.

the branch campuses investigated here the bulk of aca-

The concern in this paper is with management and

demics employed are employed by the branch campus

leadership of transnational education. Management here

at local rates of pay and under local conditions, which

is taken to refer to managing people and other resources

are inferior to those that apply to academics on Austral-

to get results, where managers ‘are accountable for attain-

ian campuses.

ing goals, having been given authority over those work-

It was found that responsibilities and opportunities to

ing in their unit or department’ (Armstrong, 2012, p. 24).

exercise leadership in the provision of transnational edu-

‘Leadership can be described as the ability to persuade

cation depends on the model adopted and whether the

other people willingly to behave differently. It is the pro-

academic managers and leaders involved are on home or

cess of influencing people – getting them to do their best

international campuses.

to achieve a desired result’ (Armstrong, 2012, p. 4). Both are pertinent to this study as there are university goals,

Questions addressed

strategies and resources applied to transnational education that must be managed and people who need to be led

This paper is, then, concerned with academic management

in the endeavour to attain desired ends.

and leadership in transnational education. Consequences

This raises the question of underlying assumptions

for students are tangential to the central question here,

about the nature of management and leadership within

which is: Are some models of transnational education

an organisation – in this case, a university. The under-

preferable to others from the point of view of recogni-

standing of organisations employed here is informed by

tion, reward and support of academic managers and lead-

the writings of Thomas Greenfield and Anthony Giddens.

ers involved at home and abroad? The answer may vary by

Greenfield rejects the dualism that separates people and

the criteria employed, so there are a number of second-

organisations (Lane, 2007). Giddens’ writing is consistent

ary questions that need to be addressed. These include:

with Greenfield’s in the sense that organisations for Gid-

What are the organisational features of the various models

dens are constituted by people, that is, they are framed by

transnational education encountered? Do some involve a

the perceptions of people who see themselves as interact-

set of unequal relationships between local academics and

ing with organisations. Giddens accommodates a duality

home campus academics? What are the consequences of

of structure to the extent that people have an understand-

adopting a particular model for the home-based and local

ing of organisations as structures comprising rules and

academics involved? Can best practice be identified?

resources (Craib, 1992). These theories remind us that goals, policies, procedures and organisational roles are not

Key concepts and related literature

impersonally determined by an institution but are determined by those who constitute the organisation and can

The term ‘postcolonial’ has been used in the title of this

be ‘instruments of power which some people can control

paper because the management of transnational educa-

and use to attain ends which seem good to them’ (Lane,

tion involves balances in decision making between the

2007, p. 6). These concepts lead to probing participants’

Towards postcolonial management of transnational education Peter Ling et al.

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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understandings of the rules and resources that relate to

(Leask, 2004) and the preparedness and experiences of

activities in the organisation and their sense of enable-

Australian academics engaged in transnational teaching

ment and constraint in pursuit of activities.

(Dunn & Wallace, 2006).

In this paper, being concerned with transnational

There are also articles that address cultural issues in

operations, the authors confront a further dimension –

transnational education operations with consequences

organisational relationships – or, more precisely, the

for management and leadership. Lane observes that the

relationships between people in organisations. Gid-

current growth of transnational activity by educational

dens observes that in the modern era there are complex

institutions ‘appears more akin to international busi-

relationships between local involvement and interac-

ness than traditional academic expansion’ (Lane, 2007, p.

tion across distance where relations become stretched

119). While this development can be seen as a response

(Giddens, 1991). In these circumstances ‘we see the

of educational institutions to doing business in the con-

strengthening pressure for local autonomy and regional

temporary globalised environment, arrangements for the

cultural identity’ (Giddens, 1991, p. 65).The transnational

local management of the enterprise may share features

education setting raises questions about the appropri-

of a colonial past. One element addressed in the present

ateness of management – the exercise of power – by

paper, concerned as it is with the balance of educational

people based at a home campus in the endeavour to

decision making between home institutions and local

achieve the purposes of the enterprise at a transnational campus, which operates in a foreign context, an exercise of power that can be styled colonial. In reviewing the data obtained in the present study, attention is paid to the understandings

providers, is whether the

[M]any Australian universities have entered transnational education arrangements with Chinese universities paying too little attention to cultural differences ... ‘to administer these programmes better academics need to understand the differences’.

of respondents at the home

arrangements are perceived as neocolonialism by those engaged at the local level. This is an issue implicit in Leask’s (2004) critique of fly in/fly out provision of transnational education. Leask discusses a model in which Australian staff pro-

campus and at transnational

vide intensive face-to-face

locations about the organisations in which they are

blocks of teaching time and local staff act as tutors, a

employed, their roles, and their agency and authority in

‘ground force’ who ‘finish off and clean up’ (Leask, 2004,

decision making about curriculum, learning and teach-

p. 3). Leask notes that under this arrangement power rela-

ing activities, design of learning resources and assess-

tionships do not allow for local tutors to take on more

ment of student work.

equal roles. Leask argues for the integration of local aca-

The project on which this paper is based was funded

demics as ‘full members of the teaching team, fully and

as a study of distributed leadership. Pertinent literature

equally engaged in curriculum planning and delivery’

includes that relating to management and leadership of

(Leask, 2004, p. 5). Eldridge and Cranston (2009) exam-

academic programs and literature relating to provision of

ined the effect of national culture upon the management

programs through transnational education. The first cate-

of Australia’s provision of transnational higher education

gory included the role of unit coordinators within univer-

in Thailand. Their findings suggest that, in the case of

sities (Cohen & Bunker, 2007), developing and valuing the

transnational education partnerships between Australian

role of unit coordinators as informal leaders of learning

and Thai universities, both Thai and Australian managers

in higher education (Roberts, Butcher & Brooker, 2010)

believe ‘national culture affects both the academic and

and distributed leadership in higher education (Jones,

operational management of their transnational higher

Applebee, Harvey & Lefoe, 2010). In the latter category,

education programmes’ (Eldridge & Cranston, 2009, p.

most writing focused on arrangements for teaching off-

67).They point to differences between Thai and Australian

shore rather than on management and leadership issues.

approaches to hierarchy, spiritual concerns, competition,

This literature includes articles related to the challenge

procedures and regulations, and face and feelings in com-

of sustaining academics teaching offshore (Debowski,

munication (Eldridge & Cranston, 2009).

2003), predeparture training for lecturers in transnational

A further study, which related to British transnational

programs (Gribble & Ziguras, 2003), reconstructing the

education in China, also concluded that ‘managers of a

offshore teaching team to enhance internationalisation

Sino–UK transnational education partnership on both

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

Towards postcolonial management of transnational education Peter Ling et al.

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Table 1: Models for control of transnational education decisions 1. Home campus control

2. Limited transnational campus control

3. Distributed control

4. Transnational campus control

Curriculum design and assessment determined by home campus only. Maybe fly in/fly out delivery.

Opportunities for contextualisation of learning activities and/ or assessment items. Assessment or sample moderated by home campus.

Transnational campus decisions constrained only by attaining the same learning outcomes. May include sample assessment moderation by the home campus.

Units of study or programmes offer only on transnational campus but with the qualification awarded by the home campus institution.

The unit, learning activities and assessment are the same, whoever delivers the unit.

The unit and assessment are the same, whoever delivers the unit. Learning and teaching activities may be contextualised.

Unit learning outcomes are the same. Learning and teaching activities and assessment are contextualised.

The program/unit is subject to quality assurance processes consistent with home campus national protocols.

sides need to be open about the language and culture

design and grading of all assessment by home campus

induced challenges facing the sector and be committed

academics, to simply requiring comparable learning expe-

to addressing them in the long term if they are to con-

riences and learning outcomes on home and transnational

tinue their operation’ (Zhuang & Xueying Tang, 2012, p.

campuses.

218). Likewise, Heffernan, Morrison, Basu & Sweeney

An online survey addressed operational aspects of trans-

(2010) have pointed out that many Australian universi-

national education. The survey was designed for academ-

ties that have entered transnational education arrange-

ics who were program coordinators and unit convenors

ments with Chinese universities pay too little attention

for programs offered at a transnational education location,

to cultural differences and suggest that ‘to administer

including but not confined to the Malaysian branch cam-

these programmes better, academics need to understand

puses.The questionnaire investigated experience in work-

the differences’ (p. 27). The recommendations arising

ing in or working with offshore locations and views on

from these studies help inform the conclusion to the

what worked well and what did not. Sixty-four responses

present paper.

were received.

Methodology

to further explore staff experiences of working in a trans-

Individual and focus group interviews were conducted national education context. In particular they addressed This study involved two Australian universities that

staff views on how transnational education and interna-

have branch campuses in Malaysia: Swinburne Univer-

tionalisation policies and procedures can best support

sity of Technology and Curtin University. Addressing the

academics undertaking program coordination or unit

research questions as they related to home campus and

convening roles.

transnational campus staff required data on the organisational arrangements for transnational education and staff perceptions of the way they played out on the home

Findings

in exploring the research questions included review of

The models of transnational education encountered

policies and procedures, surveys, individual interviews

Each of the institutions adopted more than one arrange-

and focus groups. For the sake of consistency academics

ment for the management of transnational education pro-

with leadership responsibility at whole of program level

grams offered. For the purposes of the Learning Without

are referred to as program coordinators in the reporting

Borders project the management arrangements were cat-

below; those responsible for individual units of study are

egorised (Table 1) as

referred to as unit convenors.

• home campus curriculum control

and transnational campuses. The methods employed

Transnational education policies and procedures of

• limited transnational campus curriculum control

the institutions were designed to ensure that programs

• distributed curriculum control

met with Australian and local accreditation requirements.

• transnational campus curriculum control.

A variety of models was adopted within each institution,

The authors have styled the differing arrangements for

ranging from specification of all curriculum content and

the management of transnational education as models.

learning activities, provision of all learning resources,

The possible arrangements could be seen as a contin-

Towards postcolonial management of transnational education Peter Ling et al.

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uum from home campus control to local control, par-

venor of a unit with large enrolments as an example stated:

ticularly as arrangements adopted were not universally

I am prescriptive. Not just sample marking. I provide a teaching guide and revision notes. I make sure that teachers are on the same page. I provide a marking grid down to half a mark (interview).

applied by an institution and were dynamic.The arrangements sometimes varied not only between programs but also between units of study within programs; they also varied over time with changes in staff. In some cases

At a branch campus a local unit convenor stated:

local responsibility increased where local academics

The package comes with all the outcomes, assessment, PowerPoint slides and other documents … I went over the whole thing and modified it just a little bit (interview).

had more experience in teaching a unit of study. Nevertheless, there are distinct conceptual categories that are clear at either end. In the middle categories, the authors claim that there is a conceptual distinction between

One issue for home campus program and unit man-

allowing some contextualisation of learning and teach-

agers was recompense for their transnational educa-

ing activities and requiring only that learning outcomes

tion responsibilities. Arrangements varied widely, even

be the same.

within faculties. At one end of the scale, coordinators

The way the models played out in practice and the con-

were granted a workload allowance for this responsibil-

sequences for academics involved are described below

ity, which one deputy dean reported ‘equates to about a

and summarised in Table 2. Particular attention is given to

day a week’ (interview). At the other end of the spectrum

the first model as it is a common approach for Australian

a programme coordinator reported that ‘Time taken in

universities.

meeting, unusual problems, coordination and teaching was done as overload outside term time’ (Interview). For

Home campus curriculum control

academics with unit convenor responsibilities who were

In the first case, for offerings on the transnational

employed on a casual basis there was sometimes little rec-

campus, curriculum design and content, teaching and

ompense. As one commented:

learning resources and activities, and assessment instruments were the responsibility of home campus program coordinators and unit convenors. Assessment of student

As a sessional [staff member], it is difficult to establish, or negotiate clear working guidelines, procedures, and payment for this work (survey)

work was either conducted by academics on the home

For some managers, part of the compensation for their

campus or moderated by home campus academics. This

transnational education responsibilities was a potential

arrangement, designed to ensure consistency between

contribution to a case for career advancement. A home

sites at which programs are offered, was typically

campus academic asked whether it does your career any

adopted where programs were offered on multiple sites,

good to have been involved in transnational education.

or were offered at the transnational campus for the first

Management responded:

time or by new staff. Sometimes this model was adopted on the grounds that programs taught by Australian academics who teach it in Australia are attractive to students at the transnational campus. For this reason one deputy dean reported of a transnational education partnership arrangement:

Most certainly … because it’s been about managing key relationships. It’s about student management. It’s been about facilitating and managing academics who go to deliver that program (interview). On the other hand, a home campus deputy dean, questioned on involvement in transnational education

The partners wanted Australian lecturers up there delivering it. They didn’t want a franchised approach (interview).

management, said: ‘I don’t think it’s a negative thing for

This category includes the fly in/fly out format as

transnational education could in fact be seen as a career

described by a home campus program coordinator:

your curriculum vitae, but I don’t think it’s a promotion’ (interview). The educational administration demands of disadvantage. As one home campus unit coordinator

We fly our staff up there to do all of the lectures and we’ve run one of the small groups and the partners will provide some tutors to run the other small groups. We developed and managed all of the assessment. We did all of the marking (interview).

observed:

Whether or not home campus academics teach offshore,

sibilities that they could cite but under this model they

the model involves tight control. The home campus con-

were of an administrative rather than academic nature,

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

Involvement in transnational education does not do an academic career any good. If you want to get on, it is research here. I don’t agree, but that’s it (interview). Convenors at transnational campuses also had respon-

Towards postcolonial management of transnational education Peter Ling et al.

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including, as a deputy dean reported, activities such as

home campus academics. This arrangement was adopted

room bookings, assessment arrangements and organis-

where the number of sites was limited and the academ-

ing meetings with visiting academics. As one program

ics at the transnational campus had some experience in

coordinator at a branch campus put it:‘It’s not very clear

teaching the program.

what my role as the coordinator is, to be honest’ (inter-

As an example, a home campus associate dean reported:

view). A transnational campus unit convenor did see

We moderate student work if a unit’s been taught for the first time. We have independent cross marking of exams, assignments and research projects. But now these units are in a steady state. We look at their assessment sheets but we don’t actually do any cross marking (interview).

association with teaching an Australia qualification as a career benefit. I have on my resume, the name from, say, Australia, which is known for quality education; that does have a value’ (interview). On the other hand, he continued: The fact that we don’t have much involvement in curriculum, I would try to cover it up. I can’t present a very strong case for my future career (interview). One teacher on a transnational education campus viewed the provision of all learning resources and assessment items by the home campus as making his life easier, but from academic managers on branch campuses

For a marketing education program the home campus convenor reported: Because of equivalency, we control the curriculum part, the assessment … and when I say we control this, it’s within reason that we allow them to actually change a certain percentage … They follow the same sort of textbook for the theory, but for the practical aspect we actually encourage their convenors to give local examples (interview).

responses were typically negative. The host country’s institutions engaged in this kind of transnational education are recruiting low-skilled staff to merely deliver content decided in Australia. This appears to breed a whole class of ‘academic coolies’ … It has revealed the dangers of academic colonialism (survey). Another stated: This whole business about being equals and being culturally sensitive and all this kind of stuff, they’re just using the words and it’s really not there (interview). Several home campus managers were uncomfortable with this arrangement. A home campus unit convenor conceded: I found it quite awkward because I’ve had applications from [transnational campus] staff members who are really more senior than me, for me to write them a reference based on my visit to Malaysia (interview). A home campus program coordinator saw the management arrangement as ‘the real master–servant relationship and it was just awful’ (interview).

Limited transnational campus curriculum control

For a business law unit a home campus convenor stated: My role was to make it consistent but to allow for a localisation of content. Instead of making overseas students learn Australian consumer law, they can do international law in this area or they can do their own jurisdiction (interview). In this model local input may be modest. In the experience of a branch campus unit convenor: Staff may introduce their way of presenting but by and large the content of the teaching material comes from [the home campus]. Staff are free to present it in their own way … but must conform with material and content (interview). For academic managers based on the home campus their experiences were much as reported for Model 1. For transnational academic managers the additional responsibilities could make a difference. Some transnational academic managers saw operating in a transnational education context as positive for their careers. One program coordinator stated: My involvement has enhanced my career greatly. Working for a few years with counterparts at the main campus has strengthened my understanding and improved my professionalism (survey).

Limited transnational campus curriculum control arrange-

Academics with program management responsibilities

ments permitted adaptation of some learning and teach-

on branch campuses saw career advancement opportuni-

ing activities to take account of the context in which the

ties, even where the extent of their educational decision

students operated. Transnational campuses academics

making was limited. One stated:

might also be allowed to suggest some assessment items,

I think there is limited power from our side to do

though assessment outcomes would be moderated by

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Table 2: Models and the consequences for managers on home and transnational education campuses 1. Home campus control

2. Limited transnational campus control

3. Distributed control

4. Transnational campus control

Managers can demonstrate leadership in curriculum design and implementation in a transnational education context. Managers may be relieved of some of the assessment load of Model 1 but still the load may limit opportunities for career advancement through research and publication.

Managers can demonstrate some understanding of curriculum design and implementation in a transnational education context. Managers are relieved of some of the responsibility for design of learning student assessment, providing more opportunities for other career development.

Managers may have a modest opportunity for demonstrating some understanding of curriculum design and implementation in a transnational education context. They have more opportunities for other career development activities.

May be able to cite management and leadership in curriculum design, and in assessment.

Can cite management and leadership in curriculum design, and in assessment.

For home campus managers Managers can demonstrate leadership in curriculum design and implementation in a transnational education context and cross-cultural experience. The management load may limit opportunities for career advancement through research and publication.

For transnational education campus managers Enables demonstration of teaching ability but not management.

May be able to cite contribution to curriculum design, learning and teaching activities, and in assessment.

something. It is positive in that I learn a lot of things (interview).

Distributed curriculum control

practice there, but [they will] also cross reference with our ones as well. They’ll use some of the design examples that are more about the Malaysian context than an Australian context (interview). A local campus unit convenor described the operation

Where the number of sites through which the program was provided was limited and the academics at the transnational campus had considerable experience in teaching the program, distributed control might be adopted. This might involve transnational campus determination of some elements of curriculum, contextualisation of

this way: I get some material from Australia, like unit outline, slides, etc. I generally just take it as guideline, and then I get it approved, get suggestions from my counterpart. Teaching method also; I adopt my own (interview).

learning and teaching resources, and activities and con-

For home campus academic managers, where Model

tributions to assessment. In its most liberal form all that

3 was adopted, some of the positives of models involv-

was prescribed by the home campus was the learning

ing tighter home campus control still applied. In addition

outcomes that were to be attained by students. Home

some home campus academic managers see the arrange-

campus moderation of assessment of student work still

ment as having mutual benefit:

applied. Interviews with home campus deputy deans provide a picture of the way this plays out. Before the start of semester we each swap our unit outlines across to ensure, for example, that our assessment is compatible, our learning objectives are compatible. They will provide us with what their major assignment is, or what their exam is and we’ll just QA [quality assure] that and say ‘Yep, that’s OK’ (interview). For engineering, a deputy dean on the home campus stated:

Sharing responsibility was often seen to be appropriate. As a home campus program coordinator stated: I have a lot of professional respect for them. We’re working on this together. They know their students, I know my students, they know what the end point is and if we get there differently, it doesn’t really matter (interview). From an educational point of view, local academic mangers also see this model as desirable.As one unit convenor

We’re really striving to say that the two programs are equivalent but you don’t have to be identical. So, for example, in engineering, codes of practices are quite important and the Malaysians will use their codes of vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

It is seen as a two-way learning opportunity for the academics – not someone looking over another’s shoulder (interview).

put it: Basically, I like to take the responsibility on my own … because here in Sarawak, it is me who is teaching the course … [I have] direct interaction with

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students; my counterpart sitting in Australia cannot actually have direct interaction with my students (interview)

features of the various models of transnational education

For transnational campus academic managers this

program and unit of study decisions being made at the

model enabled them to claim experience in design of

home campus of the institution, through the possibil-

curriculum, learning resources, learning and teaching

ity of some local contextualisation of teaching to local

activities, and assessment. Nevertheless, a focus group

decision making constrained only by the need to assure

conducted at a branch campus pointed to a desire for

the same student outcomes at transnational locations

recognition and reward. High teaching loads along with

as those attained at the home campus. Additionally, in

management responsibilities meant little time was avail-

a few cases, units of study were developed and offered

able for research in a context in which research is highly

only on a transnational campus. The model adopted has

valued in applications for promotion. One branch campus

consequences for academic managers at home and in

program coordinator observed:

transnational locations.

It is negative for my research career, definitely, because I’ve got no time whatsoever to research. I think [that is why] I’m not an established professor yet (interview).

encountered are.The opportunities for the locus of decision making in transnational education ranged from all

The authors asked whether some arrangements for the management of transnational education produced a set of unequal relationships between local academics and home campus academics and what the consequences

Transnational campus curriculum control

were of adopting a particular model for the home-based

In a few cases, academics at the transnational campus

and local academics involved. A high degree of home

took full responsibility for curriculum, teaching and learn-

campus control enables home campus academics to exer-

ing activities, as well as for assessment of student work.

cise and demonstrate a range of educational management

This applied where the program or units of study counted

functions but places a workload burden on them. A high

towards a home university award but were offered only

degree of home campus decision making limits manag-

on the transnational campus. A major entitled ‘Borneo

ers on transnational campuses to administrative decisions

Studies’ and an environmental engineering degree devel-

rather than substantial academic decisions; it also limits

oped on the Curtin University Sarawak campus provide

their ability to demonstrate academic leadership, thus lim-

examples (see http://archive.handbook.curtin.edu.au/

iting their career opportunities.This is sometimes seen as

october2012/courses/31/312657.html).

neocolonialism by those engaged at the local level. While

One

branch

campus unit convenor reported:

it is not the focus of this study, which is concerned with

We do have specific electives units that we have developed ourselves so we are not entirely free of curriculum development responsibilities (interview).

arrangements for management, it might be noted that a

In this case, academic managers on the transnational

eign to the context and experiences of students in trans-

campus can claim experience in all aspects of program management and at a level recognised for Australian quality assurance purposes.

high degree of home campus control may also result in learning and teaching activities and assessment tasks fornational settings. Finally, the authors asked if best practice can be identified. As the definition of transnational education adopted here involves an academic award granted by a home insti-

Conclusions

tution, a major consideration is assurance that the learning outcomes of transnational students are commensurate

To hark back to Giddens’ concept of organisations being

with the learning outcomes for students studying on the

constituted by people, the authors have cited here some

home campus. Many Australian awards will also qualify

of our participants’ understandings of the rules and

students for recognition by professional associations in

resources that apply to their roles in the organisation and

Australia, so the standard of students graduating from

their sense of enablement and constraint in undertaking

transnational education campuses needs to satisfy their

these roles. We have classified these responses to identify

requirements as well. This can suggest that a high level

consequences of the balance between home campus and

of home campus control is required and imply a subsidi-

transnational campus decision making for academic man-

ary role for local academics. On the other hand, there are

agers involved. No differences by academic disciplines

local governmental and professional quality assurance

offered were observed.

requirements to be satisfied. The branch campuses that

In our key questions we asked what the organisational

were the focus of this study had to satisfy the require-

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ments of the Malaysian Qualifications Agency along with requirements of Malaysian professional associations such as Engineers Malaysia and professional bodies in accounting. It becomes a matter of satisfying home and local

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References Armstrong, M. (2012). Armstrong’s Handbook of Management and Leadership (3rd ed.). London: Kogan Page.

to input to program content and program management.

Cohen, L. & Bunker, A. (2007). Exploring the Role of Unit Coordinators Within Universities. Paper presented at the 30th HERDSA Annual Conference, Adelaide, 8–11 July.

In the event, the authors found that addressing quality

Craib, I. (1992). Anthony Giddens. London: Routledge.

requirements and meeting with multiple agencies occupy

Debowski, S. (2003). Lost in Internationalised Space: The challenge of sustaining academics teaching offshore. Paper presented at the 17th IDP Australian International Education Conference, Melbourne.

requirements. This means that some local campus have

a considerable portion of program managers’ workloads on transnational campuses. An approach based on students attaining equivalent outcomes from their study at home and on local campuses may constitute the most satisfactory relationship. Within an obligation to achieve the equivalent learning outcomes it enables learning activities to be locally designed and for

Dunn, L. & Wallace, M. (2006). Australian academics and transnational teaching: An exploratory study of their preparedness and experiences. Higher Education Research and Development, 25(4), 357–369. Eldridge, K. & Cranston, N. (2009). Managing transnational education: does national culture really matter? Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 31(1), 67–79.

assessment to be tailored to suit. This approach acknow-

Giddens, A. (1991). The Consequences of Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press.

ledges the differing environments of home campus and

Gilbert, H. & Tompkins, J. (2002). Postcolonial Drama: Theory, Practice, Politics. London: Routledge.

transnational education students. It gives the possibility of ‘globalisation, a meaningful integration of local and global forces, [which] can help educational leaders inform and enhance their pedagogy and practice’ (McBurnie & Ziguras, 2007). It is closer to a postcolonial arrangement operating with a more equal balance of decision making between local academics and home campus academics. It provides opportunities for transnational education academics to take some management responsibilities and to exercise some leadership. It may also enable them to attract immediate reward for their effort and to further their careers. It can relieve management demands on

Global Alliance for Transnational Education (GATE). (1997). Certification Manual. Centenial, CO: GATE. Gribble, K. & Ziguras, C. (2003). Learning to teach offshore: Pre-departure training for lecturers in transnational programs. Higher Education Research & Development, 22(2), 206–216. Heffernan, T., Morrison, M., Basu, P. & Sweeney, A. (2010). Cultural differences, learning styles and transnational education. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 32(1), 27–39. Jones, S., Applebee, A., Harvey, M. & Lefoe, G. (2010). Scoping a Distributed Leadership Matrix for Higher Education. Paper presented at the Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia annual conference, Melbourne, 6–9 July.

home-campus academics.

Lane, J. (2007). Transnational education: issues and trends in offshore higher education (review). Review of Higher Education, 31(1), 119–120.

Acknowledgements

Lawton, W. & Katsomitros, A. (2012) International Branch Campuses: Data and developments. Observatory on Borderless Higher Education. Retrieved from www.obhe.ac.uk/documents/view_details?id=894.

The support of the Australian Office for Learning and

Leask, B. (2004). Transnational Education and Intercultural Learning: Reconstructing the offshore teaching team to enhance internationalisation. Paper presented at the Australian Universities Quality Forum, 2004, Adelaide.

Teaching for the Learning Without Borders project along with the contributions to the project of Shelley Yeo,Veronica Goerke and Gillian Lueckenhausen are acknowledged. Peter Ling is engaged in academic development at Victoria University and Swinburne University Australia and was project officer for Learning Without Borders. Margaret Mazzolini is pro vice-chancellor Learning and Teaching at Victoria University Australia and was project leader for Learning Without Borders. Beena Giridharan is the dean, Teaching and Learning at

McBurnie, G. & Ziguras, C. (2007). Transnational Education: Issues and Trends in Offshore Higher Education. New York: Routledge. Osterhammel, Jürgen (2005). Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview. trans. Shelley Frisch. Princeton: Markus Weiner. Roberts, S., Butcher, L. & Brooker, M. (2010). Clarifying, Developing and Valuing the Role of Unit Coordinators as Informal Leaders of Learning in Higher Education. Sydney: Australian Learning and Teaching Council. Warwick, P. (2014). The international business of higher education – A managerial perspective on the internationalisation of UK universities. International Journal of Management Education, 12(2), 91–103. Zhuang, L. & Xueying Tang, A. (2012). Sino–UK transnational education in China: Rhetoric versus reality. Journal of Technology Management in China, 7(2), 218–234.

Curtin University, Sarawak, Malaysia, and was a member of the Learning Without Borders project team.

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OPINION

Love, fear and learning in the market university Raewyn Connell University of Sydney

This is a lightly edited and updated transcript of the NTEU Occasional Lecture given on 24 April 2013 at the University of Sydney. My thanks to the NTEU University of Sydney Branch for the invitation to give this lecture, and to Leslie Marsden for making this text possible.

Introduction

The problem

I will start by thanking the Union for defending staff in the

There has been a remarkable set of responses to these

current industrial struggle, and for hosting this and other

initiatives, showing the relevance of the arguments

discussions of the state of Australian universities and the

that were raised. Sometimes these responses have criti-

future of universities. I wish I could thank our university

cised my formulations, which I’m also glad to have, and

management for the same. Perhaps I will be able to, a little

sometimes they have extended them in new directions.

further down the track.

I’d like to read you passages from three of the letters

I’d also like to thank the colleagues who were involved in making the Dear Michael video, both those who appeared in it and those behind the camera. It wasn’t my idea, I hasten to say. It was the product of intense work by a small group, with a really wonderful result. There have now been over 8300 viewings of that video on YouTube (see www.youtube.com/watch?v=_A9219QQ20A) , and I think it has got around in other ways too

I’ve received. The first is from a now retired academic colleague, who says: I can’t remember university morale being so low in the last 60 years, and your letter tells us why it’s so low, and what might help us to lift it significantly … a very sad set of circumstances. It is painful to watch a fine institution declining in this way, victim of a management ideology with little relevance to educational objectives and standards.

I’d also like to thank the colleagues who contributed open letters to the discussion at this university. (There are

The second letter is from a current full-time academic.

now 11 open letters available on the NTEU Sydney Uni-

Thank you for putting into words what many of us feel, Raewyn. I feel incredibly disappointed by the University’s lack of faith in me, and that dis-incentivises me to give anything back in the future. Where once I was happy to volunteer for all kinds of service activities, now I won’t do it unless it’s workloaded or will help me get published. This is a direct result of management’s treatment of the staff.

versity Branch website.) I admire the people who have done this. I’m towards the end of my academic career, but that’s not the case for everyone, and I admire their courage, strength and engagement. I hope this is a genre of debate that will develop around the country in future.

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And the third is from a casually employed member of

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Here I want to broaden the discussion beyond our own

staff.

beloved institution, to think about Australian universities

I have recently been so disheartened by working at the university that I’m searching desperately for other options. I feel like there is no way for me to sustain a job at the university and sustain a life with my family that is as meaningful as my work. I can see that this could be possible if I was able to focus on the work at hand, but instead I find that I’m constantly talking to accountants about [tiny discrepancies] ... I also feel this would be possible if I wasn’t negotiating relationships with my colleagues that are hostile, competitive and combative. Even as an outsider, someone who is not yet fully immersed in this world, I feel emotionally exhausted witnessing fights about publications, requirements and places to put our energy so that we’re better placed for the next grant.

in general and more widely. Over time, universities have

Well, this is anecdotal evidence, of course. I’ve had only

civilisations had organised bodies of knowledge, which

108 letters on this subject. When I was trying to get my

we now sometimes encounter in other forms. A Central

ideas together for this talk, I read through all these let-

Desert painting, for instance, is now experienced by the

ters and tried to identify the key themes, and that’s really

settler population as a fine artwork, but in the traditional

where the title of my talk comes from. Because the three

designs, it in fact embeds social knowledge, environmen-

themes that leaped out at me from these communications

tal knowledge and economic knowledge.

changed. They have always been contested institutions; there has never been a complete consensus about what they should be or how they should work. There have been different historical possibilities for what universities might become, how we might do knowledge work and advanced teaching. It is something of a miracle that we got universities in Australia when we did, back in the 1850s. The first two were set up at the time settler Australia was a raw and violent frontier colony – from the British point of view, an outpost at the end of the world.There were, of course, already existing Aboriginal civilisations in Australia. These

– not only from this university, but also from other Sydney

When universities were set up in the 1850s by the colo-

campuses, from other parts of Australia, indeed, from five

nists, they involved the obliteration of Indigenous know

or six other countries – were these.

ledge. A choice was made to disregard Indigenous culture

First of all, love: for the calling, for the task about know

and Indigenous science, and to make the curriculum of

ledge and teaching, and love for the institution of the

Australian universities completely dependent on classical

university.

European culture. That was an early fork in the path that

Second, fear: fear for livelihood, fear for health, fear of

defined the kind of institution we now have. It led Austral-

bullying and fear for the future of the institution.

ian universities to a dependency that is still an issue today.

And third, concern for learning: an emphasis on the

This was actually thematised by the founders of the

university as a knowledge institution, as an educational

University of Sydney when they adopted the university’s

centre at its core and concern that that is now deeply

coat of arms and the university’s motto: Sidere Mens

at risk in the circumstances that my correspondents are

Eadem Mutato. Those of you old enough to have studied

living in.

Latin at school will immediately grasp this, but for those

From that and other sources of evidence, I come to the

who didn’t, I’ll translate. It means – as near as I can get

conclusion that the institution is in some kind of trouble.

it – ‘Under Changed Skies, The Same Mind’. Or, as I mod-

In this session I invite you to think with me about how

ernise it for my first year students, ‘We Aren’t Going To

we got to this state, what the problems are, the situations

Learn Anything New Here’.

of the different groups involved and where we might go next.

So we got a Eurocentric curriculum from the start. The universities, quite small institutions at the start, set out on a double task. First, to bring classical European culture

A golden age?

to the otherwise drunken louts who were the sons of the colonial bourgeoisie, the propertied classes in these

There is now a critical literature about the neoliberal uni-

remote colonies, to uplift the life here. Second, to develop

versity, both international and Australian, I’m sure that you

professions: to provide training for professions such as

will be familiar with. This literature often has a nostalgic

law, teaching and medicine.

tinge, a longing for a golden age of the university that we

The uplift and teaching were done by folk such as

are no longer in. I don’t exactly agree with this. I do think

Anderson Stewart, the first professor of medicine here,

it’s right to look back to the history of universities, but I

and a notable example of the social character that came

have a different take on that history.

to be called the God–Professor. In Stewart’s time, the

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university had a small workforce of permanently estab-

ties and made university education free, from the point of

lished staff. Provided they didn’t do anything socially

view of the students.

unacceptable, they had jobs pretty much for life. It is

These were moves that might have set the university

surprising that such a conservative institution became

on a seriously democratic course. Then, in the late 1980s,

involved in a kind of social revolution, but it did.Australia

under another Labor government, there was another shift

had, in the late 19th century, a relatively strong feminist

that had the same potential. It was the policy change that

movement and we were among the pioneers of higher

amalgamated the mass research university with the other

education for women, I’m pleased to say. My great-aunt

higher education institutions that were not research insti-

Maude was one of the beneficiaries, one of the first of

tutions, mainly, colleges of advanced education (CAE) and

her generation of women to go to university in Australia,

technological institutes.

indeed, in the world.

There was again a dramatic increase in the number of

In the mid 20th century Australian universities also

students in the university system, which had a very con-

began to get a significant number of working-class

siderable potential for democratising higher education.

students. This came in the context of war and postwar

This was certainly the intention and the rhetoric of John

reconstruction, and an important shift in state policy. Gov-

Dawkins, the minister who was principally responsible

ernments began to see the university as one of the tools

for this change under the Hawke government.

of economic and social development, that is, modernisa-

However, this occurred at a time when a radical shift in

tion. At the time, the Australian economy was on a path

Australian public policy in general was taking place, the

of industrialisation, government was supporting it, and

shift that, in Australia, was first called economic ration-

secondary and higher education were vehicles of mod-

alism. In Latin America it was called neoliberalism; now,

ernisation. So in the 1950s and 1960 we began a dramatic

that’s probably globally the most commonly used term.

expansion of the number of students, with increasing

[Economic rationalism] involved a change in the relation-

recruitment of working class youth.

ship between governments, capitalists and intellectuals.

At the same time, and for very much the same develop-

It involved increasing levels of inequality, shifts in social

mentalist logic, Australian universities shifted from being

power towards business and away from labour, increas-

essentially undergraduate teaching institutions to being

ing accumulation of wealth in the hands of the privileged

also research institutions. That was the specific mission

groups, and it produced the stunning concentrations of

of the ANU when it was set up in the 1940s to provide

wealth that we see at the top of the Australian distribution

a kind of research top to the Australian university scene.

scale right now.

Soon, other universities very rapidly the got in on the act.

That’s a global change, of course. We are familiar with

We thus began to essentially get a new kind of institution,

the names of Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher, and

very different from the colonial finishing schools.We might

their ideologues such as Milton Friedman. But the first

call it a mass research university, a research-driven univer-

neoliberal head of government was General Augusto

sity operating on a very much larger scale. The system was

Pinochet, military dictator of Chile. The global story of

increasingly funded by the Commonwealth government, a

neoliberalism includes many other figures from the world

development sponsored by no less a politician than Bob

periphery, from Roger Douglas to Thabo Mbeki, Fernando

Menzies. With that funding came an expansion of staff and

Henrique Cardoso and Carlos Menem. In our own local

a differentiation of groups of staff. University employment

history, it includes Paul Keating, John Howard and Julia

was not exactly a mass occupation, but it did involve a sig-

Gillard.

nificantly larger professional workforce. That was the context of struggles to democratise the universities. Student protest actually began in the 1940s,

In the wake of all of this, we came into a new phase in the history of Australian universities, the phase we are now in.This is the era of the market, or neoliberal, university.

as far as I know, but developed on a larger scale in the 1960s.There followed attempts to democratise access and

The world of the market university

the internal workings of the university. In the 1970s there was a shift towards participation in the running of the

I want to talk about the nature of the market university by

institution, even experiments in democratically controlled

looking at the situation of the major players in the tussles

departments. The God–Professor was going into eclipse.

around what will happen to Australian universities: gov-

Under Gough Whitlam’s Labor government the federal

ernments, university managements, university staff, and

government took over full funding of Australian universi-

students and their families. I will take these in turn.

Love, fear and learning in the market university Raewyn Connell

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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Governments as principal funders

are expected to pay. The principal form that has taken in

First of all, governments, the principal funders of univer-

the university sector is student fees, brought in through

sities. In Australia the federal government sets policy for

the ingenious HECS system.As the user pays principle has

the whole system, although anachronistically, universities

gained a grip, there has been a dramatic shift in the fund-

actually exist under state law.

ing of Australian universities. Over 30 years, the direct con-

Since the 1980s, Australian federal governments have

tribution from central government to university budgets

essentially followed neoliberal policy regimes. With a

fell from about 90 per cent to about 45 per cent. It’s a

restructured global economy and changed power rela-

colossal shift in the nature of university funding.You soon

tions internationally, they have had to contend with global

begin to understand why university managements have

shifts towards neoliberalism. They’ve had some room for

become paranoid about things that will affect, or seem to

manoeuvre in this, they’ve had policy choices. But the

affect, market position.

policy choices Australian governments have actually made

The third important change in the governmental

have persistently led in neoliberal directions.

approach to universities is a specific feature of neoliberal-

So, increasingly, higher education has been conceived

ism in the global south, which is not the same as neoliber-

of as a market or, strictly speaking, a set of markets. Uni-

alism in the global north. In the south, neoliberalism has,

versities have increasingly been perceived of by govern-

more than anything else, meant a shift in development

ments on the model of competitive firms operating in that

strategy from industrialisation in the search for economic

market and contesting with each other for the benefits to

autonomy to a search for comparative advantage in global

be gained from it. This has led inevitably to a concern on the part of governments with ways of measuring the competitive success and failure of these firms. In the realm of school

markets

Universities have increasingly been perceived by governments on the model of competitive firms operating in that market, and contesting with each other for the benefits to be gained from it.

education, this has led to My

through

export

industries. In Australia, the search

for

comparative

advantage led straight to the coal and iron ore deposits. We have de-industrialised; our economy is now heavily dependent on mining for

School and NAPLAN, and all the apparatus of competi-

export. Increasingly, that has been the approach govern-

tive testing that teachers in schools loathe and policy

ments have taken to universities too: higher education is

makers love.

defined as an export industry, the moral equivalent of iron

In the university world, where it is rather more dif-

ore. It’s a distinguished position in the world.

ficult to give everybody tests of arithmetic and English,

So Australian universities were pushed to sell their ser-

the policy regime has led to an increasing preoccupation

vices overseas, and some became heavily dependent on

with league tables. It is not long since Julia Gillard, our

this income. From another point of view, this means that

then PM, announced as a national policy objective – as if it

Australian governments are expecting to make Asia pay

were a meaningful goal – getting 10 Australian universities

for the expansion of the Australian university system.That

into the top 100. She was careful not to specify which of

is a dramatic shift, moral as well as cultural, from the rela-

the rival lists we had to win gold on.The inevitable conse-

tionship that existed a generation and a half ago, when

quence of the league table game is not market differentia-

we gave free education to a certain number of students,

tion and diversity, but a convergence on the market leader.

especially from southeast Asia, as a form of development

That means, for Australian universities, a reinforcement of

aid from a rich country to poorer countries.

the old pattern of academic dependence. That’s because we only do well in this kind of competition if we are look-

Management

ing more like Harvard, Yale and the other market leaders,

Turning now to management. University managers have

and thus become attractive in terms of the kind of compe-

had to cope with these shifts in government policy, to

tition those universities dominate.

contend with a new set of pressures. But university man-

A second feature of government involvement in the

agement has also been advantaged by some of these

university world is a core theme of neoliberal policy gen-

shifts in policy. The Dawkins moment of expansion and

erally – shifting from public provision of public services

amalgamation with CAEs was a moment when manage-

to a user pays principle. Increasingly, public services are

rial authority and power in Australian universities dramati-

commodified. The people to whom services are supplied

cally increased. That was when the capacity of managers

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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to determine the future of universities reached its con-

1. Log into IRMA.

temporary level. And as managers have become more the

2. Click on ‘Researcher Profile’ at the top right.

source of authority, the key determinants of events, other

3. Navigate to the ‘Human Ethics’ tab.

forms of decision making in universities have declined.

4. Click on the ‘Create’ button.

We haven’t returned to the God–Professor, thank heaven,

5. Select the form titled ‘Annual & Completion Report’.

but there has been a decline in academic democracy, local

6. Link to your project.

decision making within universities.

7. Fill in the questionnaire in the ‘Questionnaire’ Tab.

At the same time, the top level of management in universities increasingly resembles the top level of management in the corporate world in terms of pay levels – the actual form of pay, the award of bonuses to top managers in universities, is a striking feature of this – in terms of the language they use and in terms of their way of running an

8. Return to the ‘Coversheet’ tab to submit. Any researcher listed on the protocol is able to complete and submit this report, followed by approval from the Chief Investigator. Failure to do so may result in your project no longer having ethical approval. The Chief Investigator will be sent a separate email with instructions on how to approve the submission.

organisation, including their approach to industrial relations, as we have been seeing over the last year. From a

And then what will happen? Actually, nothing. This is a

sociological viewpoint, the elite levels of power in univer-

completely pointless exercise. It is fake accountability. It

sities have come to be assimilated with those in the cor-

won’t affect anything at all except to waste my time. And,

porate economy. This happens in the context of a wider

of course, to reinforce some system’s internal logic.

convergence of public-sector institutions on private-sec-

But let me call your attention to one sentence: ‘Fail-

tor models, which we also see in the CSIRO, indeed, in a

ure to do so may result in your project no longer having

whole range of formerly public-sector institutions.

ethical approval.’ Implied here is a cancellation of official

It involves an important shift in the relationship

approval, perhaps voiding insurance, at worst implying

between university management and university staff. In

that my student won’t get the degree. There’s usually a

broad terms, this relationship used to be grounded on a

some threat involved in these surveillance mechanisms:

mutual understanding of the professional character of uni-

sometimes quite a serious threat, sometimes a minor or

versity staff – a professionalism that meant that staff could

silly one.

be trusted to do their jobs, to know what they were about

That’s the kind of thing that leads me to say there is an

and to get on with it. University staff were understood to

institutionalised mistrust now in relations between man-

be self-directing to a large extent, not just as individuals

agement and staff, partly mediated through these anony-

but also through professional and occupational cultures

mous systems. I’d like to read an extract from the open

and mutual learning.

letter written by Robert van Krieken:

That assumption has been very much in decline. Management now proceeds on the assumption that the practices, behaviour and performance of the staff need to be managed, meaning monitored, documented, recorded and directed. We now have in Australian universities, as in the corporate economy, a very significant shift to audit culture in place of professional culture. The mistrust of staff on which audit culture is built is now pervasive in university life. Everyone in this room will be familiar with the kind of thing I mean, in the tremendous expansion of performance management and documentation and reporting requirements. Here’s an extract from an email I got a week or two ago from an anonymous computer, telling me I was overdue

There’s no ceiling to how much we can – and therefore in a sense are required to – say about our past, present and future performance. One of my fields of interest is the sociology of organisations, and it’s very clear that the design of systems for performance management and organisational auditing has become an industry in itself, with no signs of university managers having any sense of where to place the boundaries around that industry’s constant expansion and proliferation. I think everyone in this room will know what he means. Staff have to contend with these changes in management practices as well as the background changes in state policy. And things have been happening in the lives of staff too.

with a required piece of reporting on behalf of a graduate student.You will recognise the style, I’m sure. Please log into IRMA to submit an annual report form to record the progress of your study; ongoing or completed by following the instructions below:

Love, fear and learning in the market university Raewyn Connell

Staff dispersement and casualisation One thing I’m very much concerned about is the way that restructurings of universities under neoliberal policy vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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pressures have tended to separate staff from each other. There has been a tendency to separate academic staff from general staff. Sometimes this has meant relocating general staff in rooms away from academic staff, and away from students. Sometimes it has meant concentrating nonacademic staff around the senior managers themselves, in units that are increasingly remote from the chalkface of the university’s operations.

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I can tell you that our lives offer us no such flexibility – rent still has to be paid, bills still have to be paid, and food has to be put on the table. No one I know has a casual life, nor do they have a casual attitude to their work. Giving those of my generation no choice other than to accept precarious work conditions in order to have work at all, marginalises and devalues our contribution to the collective knowledge that all of us benefit from. And that’s a message I wish our management, the man-

Sometimes it is more radical than that, in the case of

agement of other Australian universities, and our policy

when general staff functions that used to be performed

makers, would hear.

by university permanent staff have been outsourced. It

The students

is a typical neoliberal move, to turn such tasks into commodities and decide that it’s cheaper to outsource them, whether it be printing, security, ICT or whatever.Thus the

Now the students. Students, of course, have to contend

university management gives up its responsibility for the

with the changes in the lives of the staff and the chang-

workers involved, for their welfare and conditions; they’re

ing circumstances in which the staff are doing their

now employed by another company, which is just con-

work. The key change here is that students in the neo-

tracting to provide the service. But this manoeuvre also

liberal regime are increasingly redefined as customers,

deeply separates the different groups of staff who actually

as people who are buying a service on the market. That

do the work of the university. It makes it more difficult

has been the logic of the reorganisation of the whole

for staff to learn from each other, to exchange knowledge

system, since 1987.

and cooperate in the deeper ways that actually make a

Not long ago I was at a conference on teaching and

knowledge institution work well.

learning, organised by the NTEU in Melbourne. It included

Under pressure for performance, general and aca-

a session organised by students, who aren’t often heard

demic staff are to have greater output for the given set

in the policy discussions. I remember vividly one of the

of resources. I’d like now to quote another of the open

speakers started by saying:

letters, this one from Mark Johnson, speaking of the expe-

I’m not a client. I’m not a customer. I’m actually a student.

rience of general staff in one of the faculties. We are among the most productive university workers in the whole country. This doesn’t happen by accident. It happens because we work hard, we cooperate and we apply our imaginations as well as elbow grease to advance the mission of the university. Throughout the university, there are general staff members who routinely work beyond their paid hours and duty statements. We all know that the university would not function without that extra effort.

That is a message we need to hear. The redefinition of students as customers, and the demand on students and their families to provide increasing amounts of the funding of the higher education system, places stress on the families. It has driven large numbers of students to compromise and limit their learning because they have to get jobs. A large proportion of our undergraduate students now, even

He is absolutely right in that.

when they are enrolled full time, are actually supporting

In the lives of academic and non-academic univer-

themselves with part-time jobs, which impacts not only on

sity staff, the level of stress is undoubtedly increasing,

their learning in courses, but also on the richer social and

nowhere more than among the group who now do half

cultural learning that is part of being a student at a univer-

of the teaching in Australian universities, not only without

sity, an important part of university life.

having permanency, but also without much prospect of

Even when it’s not being directly attacked, as it was

having secure jobs.

by the Howard government not too long ago, student

Casualisation is one of the main consequences of the

culture has been thinned out by these processes. Here I

neoliberal policy regime and managerial decision making.

give Brownie points to Sydney University management,

I’m not going to labour this, because it is something

who responded to the Howard government’s attempt to

people are very familiar with, but I want to read from an

destroy student unions by providing some university sup-

open letter about this point, from Nour Dados, who her-

port for student organisations.They got that one right, but

self is on a fixed-term contract:

across the board, student life too is under pressure, and some of its richness is at severe risk of being lost.

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I want to end this section with some remarks about the organisational culture of the market university.

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Some Utopian thoughts for Australian universities

We see within universities the things we see more widely in societies that have taken a neoliberal turn.There

What are we going to do about this? Twenty-five years of

is a growth of concern with competition, something very

neoliberal policy settings, and managerialism within the

clear in the letters I have read from.There is also a growth

universities have quite strikingly failed to produce a con-

in hierarchy, that is, greater distance between the more

cept of the university, an identity for universities that com-

privileged and the less privileged. In universities, that

mands respect and enthusiasm in society and even within

is partly a matter of growing inequality in the national

the universities themselves.

system epitomised by the GO8, partly a matter of the divi-

That is one reason for the current policy debacle, the

sion between management and staff within universities

so-called efficiency dividend that is to be extracted from

and partly a matter of the division between permanent

Australian universities in the 2013 Budget with Labor and

and casual staff; it takes other forms too.

Liberal support. Now there’s slippery language for you –

At the same time as we see greater hierarchy and ine-

calling funding cuts an efficiency dividend. But we don’t

quality in the sector, we have less and less of the language

have a good answer. We don’t have a convincing narrative

through which we can talk about that, through which we

of what a university is, what it should be and what it is

can formulate questions of justice and purpose and direc-

doing for society, that will enable us to resist that kind of

tion. The public language of the universities is becoming

policy reversal.

increasingly slippery, increasingly concerned to produce favourable market effects.

We cannot wait for the current ruling groups in Australian society to solve that one for us. If we wait for Gina,

We see this on the websites, in the glossy misrepre-

Clive, Rupert, Julia or Tony to produce a new model of the

sentation of what universities are actually like and in the

university, we will be waiting a long time. University staff

exclusion of contradictory voices. It’s quite impressive

and students have to generate our own narrative of what

that the online face of University of Sydney managed to

a university should be, and what it could be, in the future.

ignore – almost completely – the fact that it was in the

The starting point for that is exactly stated in another of

middle of the biggest industrial upheaval in the history

the open letters, by Rowanne Couch, who argues for

of the institution. The rebranding of Sydney University, which was actually officially called ‘re-branding’ (did they forget the literal meaning of the word?), also fascinates me. One reason is that in going from the university’s coat of arms to its current corporate logo, it dropped the motto, thereby abandoning one of the best jokes in the Australian university system. Damn it.

responding directly in outlook to our public value proposition rather than simply to our potential for profit generation and capacity to compete on merit. A purely corporate approach is not the only available response to the challenges we face. In that spirit, I want to end this talk with a little Utopian thinking. I’ll be brief.This is my attempt to characterise the

More seriously, Australian universities are now some-

kind of university I would like to be in and would want

times operating in real double speak. I will quote

to pass on to the next generation. It’s a kind of graduate

another of the open letters on this, this one from Laleen

outcomes statement for university managers: any moves

Jayamanne.

you make in these directions will make a better university.

Recently, we were told by senior research and management staff that what was needed NOW was ‘quality’ not ‘quantity’. This comes within months of all academic members of staff being threatened with redundancy if they did not meet an arbitrary and retrospective quantity of research, with little or no consideration of quality. This kind of double talk, unaccountable capricious rhetoric to which we are ceaselessly subjected, makes me feel that I am a minor player in a very badly scripted absurdist play, perhaps Ionesco.

First, I want a university that is educationally confident. By that I mean a university that owns its own curriculum, that doesn’t depend on Harvard, or league tables, to validate what we’re doing.A university that is able to respond to that statement: ‘I’m not a client. I’m not a customer. I’m actually a student.’ We should have the confidence to build on that identity. We should participate in global knowledge systems with strength, not dependency. Second, I want a university that’s socially plural and

This suggests that a deep cultural problem is develop-

socially engaged. By socially plural I mean seriously inclu-

ing in institutions that, in principle, are dedicated to truth,

sive; it should have within it the full range of social groups

clear thinking and open debate.

and social experiences, it should draw on the whole society. An individual university may not always be in a

Love, fear and learning in the market university Raewyn Connell

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position to manage that, which means we have to fun-

accept curricula, texts and research agendas, from other

damentally think at the level of a cooperative university

sources. I want an institution that’s concerned not with

system, not at the level of a competitive individual firm.

PIs – performance indicators – but with DIs – depth in

We need to think about the new populations that should

ideas. This means being concerned with the cultivation

be present in the university, and about inclusive curricula.

of imagination, because research involves imagination as

We have a monocultural curriculum in Australian univer-

well as patient work with data.

sities, practically speaking, but we live in a multicultural

Above all, this means a concern for truth. That should

world.

be the core of our presence in the culture and in the soci-

Third, I want a university that’s a good place to work

ety – an institution that is centrally concerned with the

in. We are not going to solve the cultural and intellectual

promotion and development of truth. That’s why I’m hor-

problems of universities unless we have a decent place

rified by the shift into advertising and boasting, the glossy

for their workforce. I don’t think it’s all that hard to do.We

misrepresentations of reality that the market university

can have a workplace that is cooperative, that’s respectful

has now got into.

and provides security for its workforce. That’s a conceiv-

Combining a concern for ideas, multiple knowledges,

able thing to do in the society we now have. It’s a task fit

cultivation of imagination and a discipline of truth, that

for management to work towards.

is not easy to do. That’s hard, as anyone who’s had hands-

Fourth, I want a democratic institution. I want a univer-

on experience of serious research, or anyone who’s done

sity that doesn’t split groups of staff from each other, but

much university teaching, will know. It’s why the staff of

rather, builds connections between them.A university that

an institution such as this do need the support of their

is concerned with participatory decision making on the

managers – support, not the endless creation of difficul-

serious issues, not elite decision making that’s validated

ties – for dealing with that complex and difficult work.

afterwards by a little bit of consultation, and one where

The idea of meeting challenges has become a neoliberal

the Gini index, the measure of inequality, within the insti-

cliché, so one hesitates to use this phrase, but there are

tution falls rather than increases.

worthwhile challenges for managers here.

Fifth, I want an institution that is epistemologically mul-

To return to the themes I started with, drawn from the

tiple. Universities are multidisciplinary places, in a deep

letters I received. If we can move in the directions just

sense; there are different institutional cultures in different

outlined, and get enough support for that difficult intel-

parts of the university and they should be valued. I want

lectual ambition that should be the heart of university life,

an institution that recognises Australia as a continent with

then it will be possible for the element of love – love for

two civilisations, Indigenous and settler–colonial, and that

knowledge, for the institution and for our fellow work-

recognises the many ancestors of our cultural and intel-

ers – to rise. It will be possible for the widespread expe-

lectual world. I want a university that is capable of deal-

rience of fear and anxiety in contemporary universities

ing with the postcolonial revolution in knowledge that is

to decline. It will be possible for learning to flourish, not

happening world-wide, though it is slow to get a grip in

only within the institution, but also more widely in the

Australia.

society, with the university as a node and support for a

My sixth point is about the cultural presence of the uni-

wider cultural process.That, I think, would be a university

versity. This will sound old fashioned, but I’ll stick to it:

not only worth working for, but also worth living for.

I want a university with a modest demeanour. We don’t need to be boasting in the way universities now habitually

Raewyn Connell is university professor at the University of

do, even if they call it marketing. We don’t need to build

Sydney.

glitzy palaces to teach and think well in. We don’t need managerial salaries in the stratosphere. We don’t need to be running around with the rich and famous. We are a knowledge institution, a service, a service to the society, and we can do that well, without claiming privilege and without wasting public resources. Finally, although I argue for a modest demeanour, I also think we should be ambitious – intellectually. Indeed, Australian universities are not ambitious enough in this way. We tend too easily to accept definitions of the situation, to vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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Confronting academic snobbery Brian Martin & Majken Jul Sørensen University of Wollongong

Introduction

next to them in the lunch queue. Academics in the social sciences or humanities who work together with natural

Story 1

scientists soon realise that what they are doing is not con-

Academic speaking to a member of the public: ‘What would you know about it?’

sidered real science, just as sociologists using qualitative

Story 2 A prominent researcher visited a university to give a public lecture. When a local teacher dared to ask a question, the visitor responded, ‘That was the wrong question, from the wrong person, at the wrong time. Better luck next time.’

methods are treated as less scientific than those who use statistics. Scholars on short-term appointments are potential targets of academic snobbery from those with permanent jobs (DeSantis, 2011). In this article, the authors introduce the topic of academic snobbery, using stories to illustrate its different forms. The authors’ special interest is in the seldom-inves-

It is not unusual to hear people who have encountered

tigated challenge of how to expose and oppose academic

academics and the university environment telling about

snobbery.

the scorn coming down on them from above. Nonacademics may feel what they say is considered of little

Varieties of academic snobbery

value just because they don’t know the right jargon or have a degree. When their questions are dismissed with-

Story 3

out serious consideration, they may think: Are my ques-

dor. Going to international conferences in their discipline

A junior academic, who could find only short-term work, felt she was invisible. Her head of school did not respond to her emails. When others entered a room, they were greeted, but she was ignored. Then, one day, she brought a friend, a famous local figure, to give a seminar. For a change, everyone said hello to her, and her head replied to her latest email. However, within a couple of weeks she was invisible again.

to present a paper for the first time, doctoral students

Story 4

tions stupid? or, Why won’t the academics answer? Many undergraduates find that their opinions are not respected by their teachers. Research students feel overlooked when their supervisors cannot remember their names or don’t greet them when they meet in the corri-

might encounter an inner circle of highly regarded professors who do not look in their direction, and hardly ever

At a university, academics met to discuss a planned relocation of their organisational units within a common

bother to introduce themselves if they happen to end up

Confronting academic snobbery Brian Martin & Majken Jul Sørensen

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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building, which had a pompous main entrance. The representative of one of the social sciences, who obviously considered his discipline superior to the others’, said: ‘We can’t accept any proposal where we will be located away from the main entrance. That entrance is part of our brand.’

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towards entire disciplines. Academic snobbery resembles other types of discriminatory or unpleasant behaviour involving status and hierarchies. What appears to one person to be snobbery might be better interpreted as gender stereotyping, racism, ageism, bullying or ignorance. Similarly, what some see as gender discrimination might

Story 5: A group of junior academics developed a new research area. Those in mainstream disciplines ignored the junior academics and their research – until the group managed to secure a very large research grant. Suddenly, everyone was eager to cooperate with them and went to great lengths to make their own research projects include a perspective on the area.

be better interpreted as snobbery. Although remarks might be hurtful, academic snobbery is seldom as harmful as bullying that systematically targets an individual. There is a bigger picture too.The competition between universities to improve their reputations and to rise within national and international rankings is a breeding ground for snobbery. The increasing attention given to

Story 6:

celebrity intellectuals encourages striving for fame rather

At a seminar, the head of a research institute was presenting his latest research. A PhD student asked a question about the professor’s data collection method, and received this reply: ‘I have written my PhD thesis and had it approved. I now have my driving licence for doing research.’

than the satisfactions of service to scholarship and the

Story 7 In a unit where nearly all the academics had PhDs, people called each other by their given names. However, one of the academics, doing a PhD, was regularly addressed by a particular colleague as ‘Ms Jones’.

community. At elite universities and within disciplines whose members feel superior to others, cultures of contempt for lesser orders can develop and fester.

Does academic snobbery matter? Some people might think: So what? Snobbery is everywhere, but if you think academic snobbery is especially annoying, find another job.This type of snobbery has consequences beyond the effects on people’s emotions. It

Story 8

might mean that relevant questions and concerns are not

A highly productive scholar was leaving the men’s toilet and encountered a scientist who (believing his own discipline was superior) said: ‘Leaving your office, are you?’

addressed because they don’t come from the right kind of

These stories here are samples of those told to us

innovative teachers and researchers may turn their back

during informal conversations in Australia and Sweden.

on academia if they don’t feel respected and valued, and

It seems as if everyone who has spent just a little time

instead put their energy and initiative into other endeav-

within academia has a snobbery story to share. Details

ours. Research findings might be ignored because they

that would identify a particular university or individual

came from the wrong discipline.

have been removed or altered to keep the identity of the sources of the stories confidential.

people. Innovation can be stymied when leading figures treat ideas from newcomers with contempt. Individuals who might have become passionate and

The scholarly system of peer review of publications is designed to promote quality independent of the status of

As illustrated above, snobbery can be directed towards a

the authors. Status considerations, which are hard to avoid,

number of targets: non-academics, students and colleagues

even in peer review (Epstein, 1990; Wenneras & Wold,

with lower status, including those working in disciplines

1997), play a major role in other facets of academic life.

or on topics considered inferior, those on temporary con-

Senior figures, for example, can use their influence over

tracts and those with degrees from ‘inferior’ universities.

appointments, tenure and promotions to give priority to

Sometimes snobbery is revealed by a scornful remark or

people who support their line of academic thinking.Within

glance; in other instances, it is manifested through behav-

small academic environments, people curry favour with

iour, as with the junior academics developing a research

their superiors to maximise their chances of promotion

area. Sometimes snobbery is revealed by the absence of

and funding.

attention or politeness; the insult is in being treated less well than others.

In a Danish study on emotions within academia, Charlotte Bloch (2012) interviewed 54 people in academic

Academic snobbery can be directed towards particular

positions, ranging in status from PhD students to profes-

individuals; it can also involve condescending attitudes

sors. Although her book is first and foremost concerned

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Table 1. Possible responses to academic snobbery, with advantages and disadvantages Method

Advantages

Disadvantages

Avoidance

Reduced exposure to snobbery

Not easy with colleagues and superiors, snobbery not challenged

Private feedback to individuals

Behaviour change possible while saving face

Some individuals will not respond or will be offended, risk of an increase in snobbish behaviour

Direct challenge in public: serious/rational

Behaviours confronted, witnesses potentially empowered

Increased antagonism

Direct challenge in public: humorous

Behaviours confronted, witnesses potentially empowered, antagonism limited, difficult to respond to

Problem perceived to be treated as not serious

Formal complaints

Behaviours confronted

Complaints not addressed, complainant seen as over-reacting

Reverse snobbery

Snobbery countered

Snobbery entrenched as mode of interaction

with emotions and how staff within academia deal with

and on more recent analysis of the dilemmas of strategic

them, it provides plenty of examples that can be inter-

encounters by James Jasper (2006). Studying men’s domi-

preted as academic snobbery. For Bloch’s informants,

nation of women in political parties and organisations,

doing good science for the benefit of society does not

Berit Ås (1979) identified five ‘master suppression tech-

come across as a high priority. Instead, researchers spend

niques’, ranging from ‘making invisible’ and ‘ridiculing’ to

much energy positioning themselves to have their work

‘withholding information’; however, little of such work

recognised by the right people and to secure a job in a

looks specifically at snobbery.

competitive working environment.

The authors drew up a list of possible responses to

When success in academia depends more on navigating

snobbery inspired by tactics used to oppose other sorts

the system than developing and communicating useful

of injustice, such as unfair dismissal and police beatings

knowledge, society can lose out. So it is in the general

(Martin, 2007). Another source of ideas was a set of coun-

interest to combat academic snobbery. Few people like to

ter strategies and validation strategies proposed to deal

think of themselves as being snobs – after all, they think

with each of Ås’s master suppression techniques (Amnéus

they really are superior and are deserving of more atten-

et al., 2004). We circulated the resulting list to others to

tion and respect than others.

obtain feedback, including examples and other types of responses (see Table 1). In all this, our aim is to discover

Dealing with snobbery

effective ways to challenge snobbery rather than to justify, continue or increase it.

There is considerable research on the social and psycho-

Broadly, strategies can be classified into ‘exit’ and ‘voice’

logical dynamics relevant to snobbery, such as on hierar-

(Hirschman, 1970): either avoid snobbish behaviours or

chies in animal and human groups (Chase, 1980), scorn

speak out about them. ‘Exit’ in this context means avoid-

and envy (envy being the obverse of scorn) (Fiske, 2011),

ing people or situations where snobbery is likely to occur.

class analysis and social stratification (Scott, 1996), narcis-

This is possible at, for example, a large conference where

sism (Twenge & Campbell, 2009) and the corruption of

there are many people to talk with, but avoidance is more

power (Kipnis, 1976; Robertson, 2012). This research can

difficult when faced with snobbery in your research team

provide insight into what is going on when a person is

or by your department head. Snobbery is not usually seri-

snobbish. Here, though, our interest is in a more practical

ous enough to warrant changing supervisors or jobs; how-

matter: what you can do when confronted by academic

ever, even if you are not personally bothered by snobbery,

snobbery.This is a matter of strategy and tactics.

it may be causing damage to learning and research in your

Research into strategy and tactics occurs in some fields,

area.

such as business and warfare, but interpersonal interac-

‘Voice’ means expressing criticism or complaint.

tions are rarely studied from a strategic point of view. To

There are many ways to do this, and it can be done by

do this, it is possible to draw inspiration from the classic

individuals, a concerned group of colleagues or through

work by Erving Goffman (1970) on strategic interaction,

an already established organisation, such as a union. The

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most discreet approach is to speak to individuals in pri-

is to use humour. This leads to more options, given that

vate, encouraging them to reflect on their behaviour. This

humour can be diversionary, subtle and/or aggressive.The

can be effective in some cases, but those most likely to be

following comments need to be accompanied by appro-

responsive are probably least likely to be offenders.

priate facial expressions and gestures, and delivered with

Another method of speaking out is to make a formal complaint using, for example, a grievance procedure. While there might be rules against sexual harassment and bullying, there are no rules against snobbery, so

just the right timing. Option 5 ‘Back to the caves? Does that mean joining you?’

making a formal complaint is unlikely to be effective.

Option 6

Complaining to a boss is possible, but what can a boss

‘Back to the caves? Isn’t that where Plato obtained inspiration?’

do except have a private conversation with the alleged offender? The most promising form of voice is some sort of public

Critique expressed in an ironic frame is likely to be

challenge to snobbish acts. ‘Public’ here means in front of

taken as less severe than open criticism; the non-serious

the person concerned and/or others who are potentially

framing takes the edge off the criticism (Dews et al.,

aware of the behaviour. Most strategies are verbal, and for

1995). In addition, since having a sense of humour is so

this it is possible to draw on responses to verbal abuse

highly valued in most societies, anyone considered unable

(Elgin, 2009; Horn, 1996;Thompson & Jenkins 1993).

to take a joke is considered to be over-reacting. Many feminists and targets of bullying have heard remarks about

Story 9: Smith, a junior researcher, has just given a seminar and not done especially well. A senior figure in the audience comments to a colleague, loud enough for you and several others to hear: ‘That was pathetic. Smith ought to go back to the caves.’ This is accompanied by a facial expression of disgust.

their lack of humour; those who are snobbish are just as vulnerable to this criticism. Because humour is often situation specific, preparation and practice are needed to develop the capacity for effective responses. People who anticipate encountering snobbery might benefit from practising with a friend or trusted colleague. Story 10

What can you say? What can you do? Option 1 ‘Smith is new to the game. I’m going to suggest how the presentation could be improved.’ Even though the speaker is demonstrating a supportive approach, it is an implicit reproach.

After a centre of excellence was set up in a department, which involved just a few academics, one of those left out put a sign on his door: ‘Peripheral mediocrity.’ When exposing snobbery, there are two main audiences: the person exhibiting snobbish behaviour and the witnesses. Taking action in front of witnesses is usu-

Option 2

ally more powerful. Suppose an academic, Xavier Uppity,

‘I hope you’ll give Smith some helpful feedback.’ This is more explicit.

when walking by, says hello only to those he thinks are worthy of consideration. If you are one of those he snubs, you can draw attention to his behaviour by pointedly by

Option 3 ‘When did you start thinking that sneering is a scholarly sort of response?’ This is stronger.

saying hello to Xavier, given that it is normally considered impolite not to respond to a greeting. If someone is accompanying you, or standing nearby, Xavier’s snub will

Option 4

be witnessed. This will be effective only if Xavier doesn’t

‘Why are you being such a snob?’ This explicitly confronts the snobbery head on.

want to be too obvious about being snobbish.

Because snobbery is seldom seen as a major issue, one

mentioned: reverse snobbery, namely, being snobbish your-

risk in challenging it is being perceived as over-reacting,

self. If academics in a clique let everyone know they think

though it is a probably a risk less for witnesses than for

they are superior, you can form your own counterclique.

direct targets. In addition to having a moral responsibil-

This strategy might be satisfying, but it has the serious dis-

ity to react, more options might also be available to the

advantage of perpetuating snobbery. Indeed, you are likely

witnesses than to the target of the scorn.

to end up scorning others who are innocent of snobbery.

For completeness, another type of response should be

One way for targets and witnesses to minimise the risk vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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Brian Martin and Majken Jul Sørensen are colleagues in the School of Humanities and Social Inquiry, University of

Higher education, formulated as an ideal, is about learn-

Wollongong.

ing in which ideas are of prime importance. If engagement with ideas is central, then it should not matter who is expressing the ideas; they should be examined on their own merits. This accords with a traditional view in science that what matters is the evidence, not who presents it.The practice of anonymous peer review is testimony to this orientation. These high-minded ideals are often violated in practice. In science, a person’s status does make a difference to how their ideas are treated, with Nobel Prize winners being accorded more credibility than non-Nobelist scientists and non-scientists, even when Nobelists speak outside their areas of expertise. Snobbery, scorn, condescension and contempt are deviations from the ideal of the primacy of ideas; they are negative attitudes about people. Snobbery is an attitude that targets people rather than (or as well as) their ideas. In this sense, challenging snobbery is important in the struggle for an egalitarian ideal, namely, the primacy of ideas in higher education. Strategies to deal with snobbery include avoiding people who are snobbish, making private comments to them, confronting behaviours in public and using humour

References Amnéus, D., Eile, D., Flock, U., Steuer, P. R. & Testad, G. (2004). Validation techniques and counter strategies – methods for dealing with power structures and changing social climates. Unpublished paper, Stockholm University. Retrieved from www.juridicum.su.se/jurweb/forskning/publikationer_files/ Validation%20Techniques%20and%20Counter%20Strategies_eng_bearbetad%20 2007GT.pdf. Ås, B. (1979). De 5 hersketeknikker. Årbog for Kvinderet, 4, 55–88. Bloch, C. (2012). Passion and Paranoia: Emotions and the Culture of Emotion in Academia. Burlington: Ashgate. Chase, I. D. (1980). Social process and hierarchy formation in small groups: A comparative perspective. American Sociological Review, 45, 905–924. DeSantis, S. M. (Ed.). (2011). Academic Apartheid: Waging the Adjunct War. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Press. Dews, S., Kaplan, J. & Winner, E. (1995). Why not say it directly? The social functions of irony. Discourse Processes, 19, 347–367. Elgin, S. H. (2009). The Gentle Art of Verbal Self-Defense. New York: Fall River Press. Epstein, W. M. (1990). Confirmational response bias among social work journals, Science, Technology, & Human Values, 15, 9–38. Fiske, S. T. (2011). Envy Up, Scorn Down: How Status Divides Us. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Goffman, E. (1970). Strategic Interaction. Oxford: Blackwell.

to expose and deflate snobbery. Countering snobbery can

Hirschman, A. O. (1970). Exit, Voice, and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

be seen as a strategic interaction, although few people

Horn, S. (1996). Tongue Fu! New York: St. Martin’s Griffin.

have studied strategies against snobbery.There is much to

Jasper, J. M. (2006). Getting Your Way: Strategic Dilemmas in the Real World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

be learnt from everyday encounters. Because much snobbery is low key and not widely seen as all that important, there is a risk in making a big deal about it. It’s possible to misinterpret an innocent comment as scorn and, as a result, be seen as overly sensitive. In the face of obviously scornful behaviours, there is a risk of being seen to over-react. When cultural differences are involved, the risk of being incorrectly seen as snobbish and the possibility of over-reacting are greater. The more common problem is that people are either unconcerned or afraid to do anything about academic snobbery.The first major step is to make any sort of a response, the second is to choose a method and the third is to learn from the interaction and become more effective in the future.

Kipnis, D. (1976). The Powerholders. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Martin, B. (2007). Justice Ignited: The Dynamics of Backfire. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. Robertson, I. (2012). The Winner Effect: How Power Affects Your Brain. London: Bloomsbury. Scott, J. (1996). Stratification and Power: Structures of Class, Status, and Command. Cambridge, MA: Polity Press. Sidanius, J. & Pratto, F. (1999). Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Thompson, G. J. & Jenkins, J. B. (1993). Verbal Judo: The Gentle Art of Persuasion. New York: William Morrow. Twenge, J. M. & Campbell, W. K. (2009). The Narcissism Epidemic: Living in the Age of Entitlement. New York: Free Press. Wenneras, C. & Wold, A. (1997). Nepotism and sexism in peer-review. Nature, 387 (22 May), 341–343.

Acknowledgements For valuable comments on drafts, we thank Charlotte Bloch, Don Eldridge, Jørgen Johansen, Stellan Vinthagen, Wendy Varney and Gordon Waitt. We also thank the many individuals who have shared their stories with us.

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A poem and two senryu ¯ Arthur O’Neill

_________________________

A Vice-Chancellor’s Announcement In times to come ‘The time has come

A plaque in bronze records

To tell the headline structure.

The fruits of labour, last:

The reasons, first:

Vertical integration for

Cut duplication and overlap;

Value-adding; a customer focus

Let scholars get on with the job

For ongoing win-win outcomes.

By removing administrative responsibilities.

¯ Two senryu ‘I’ve come today To report the taskforce’s reckoning.

Nature and season are described in seventeen syllable

Proper consultation, first:

Japanese haiku. Most of them are products of contem-

Forums and extensive discussion;

plation, owing much to Zen Buddhist appreciations. They

A collective will

may seem light but are serious, unlike senryū, the same

To build on past achievements.

hinged form (represented here by //), that seem – and are – light. In translation, two examples of their down-to-earth

‘The chance is here

and usually anonymous appreciations are:

To make the leap to glory. Lay foundations, first:

horse farting//

On resilience and sustainability;

four or five suffer

Encouraging interdisciplinarity

on ferry boat

To strengthen our distinctiveness. only dreaming// ‘Our task is now

cold the empty side

To re-shape the architecture.

of old man’s mattress

Respond to challenges, first: By pursuing rigorous review;

So here are my contributions:

With brave and bold decisions To promote efficiency and cost-effectiveness.

dream large says the sign// digging deep in the purse

‘So join me in the vision

inspires nightmares

To re-organize our structure. Establishing a framework, first:

speeches at graduation

For innovation and responsiveness;

the prelude to unemployment//

Enhancing and sharpening services

philosophers’ cares

To improve operations and functioning.’ vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

A poem and two senryu ¯ Arthur O’Neill

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REVIEWS

You say you want a revolution / Well, you know we all want to change the world / You tell me that it’s [higher] education … (Lennon, McCartney – and Dawkins) The Dawkins Revolution 25 Years On by Gwilym Croucher, Simon Marginson, Andrew Norton & Julie Wells (Eds.). ISBN 9780522864151, Melbourne University Press, 339 pp., 2013. Reviewed by Paul Rodan

It used to be said that if you could remember the 1960s,

Dawkins’ assessment of the uneven quality of the acad-

you probably weren’t there. It is possible that a similar

emy at the time may have been more accurate than I had

psychological condition may attend some memories of

given him credit for.

the reforms or revolution effected by federal Education

The first chapter, by Stuart McIntyre et al., effectively

Minister John Dawkins in the late 1980s. The value of this

paints a picture of a system that had run its race, being no

volume goes beyond its treatment of the past 25; it is also

longer able to deliver the education and training necessary

extremely useful in detailing the condition of the sector

for the nation’s economic growth. Dawkins proposed and

pre-Dawkins: what it was that was being reformed.

secured a unified national system with increased access

This is of no minor importance because misinforma-

and expanded provision, underpinned by a (deferred) par-

tion still abounds, a problem easily evidenced by a glance

tial user pays system. Vice-chancellors mostly misread the

at any web-based discussion in which the name Dawkins

political situation, aligned themselves with the moribund

appears. An earlier review of this book prompted com-

higher education bureaucracy and copped a beating. A

ments (from supposedly informed people within the

few, such as Don Watts (Curtin) and Mal Logan (Monash),

sector) that confused colleges of advanced education

had read the signs more astutely and came out ahead.This

(CAEs) with technical and further education (TAFE) col-

theme of political ineptitude and division is also taken up

leges and demonstrated ignorance of the fact that while

by Greg Craven (in his customary entertaining style) in

CAEs were not specifically funded by government for

the book’s final chapter, a recurring theme for the Austral-

research, some research was still done in those institu-

ian Catholic University vice-chancellor, who presumably

tions, a factor (among many) that had led to the blurring

excludes himself from the ranks of the politically naïve.

of the binary divide. Similarly, the flawed assumption that

Other areas covered include structures/systems, partici-

almost no one in the CAEs had any qualification above a

pation, funding, student experience, regulation, research,

bachelor’s degree overlooked the emerging glut of PhDs,

quality and international education. Chapters on the oft-

usually snapped up (especially in the social sciences) by

neglected areas of the regions and industrial relations

those colleges making new appointments.

are especially welcome. While arguments about the fair-

While one might normally rely on the grim reaper

ness or otherwise of the Higher Education Contribution

to remedy this problem, it appears that some of these

Scheme (HECS, and its subsequent nomenclature), are

self-serving myths are being handed down to new gen-

probably headed the way of the VCR, one of the system’s

erations. The tenacity with which golden age academics

least equitable feature – the advantage secured by the

cling to such misperceptions persuades this reviewer that

affluent through the up-front payment option – is only

You say you want a revolution / Reviewed by Paul Rodan

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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mentioned in passing. The playing field may be more

but some might see a superior claim for Gough Whitlam

level, but the starting lines (postgraduation) can still be

in 1972. How do we know? Has Norton counted the

some distance apart. In a case where the Australian Labor

sentences?

Party government did act in accordance with its ‘princi-

Institutional mergers, amalgamations and/or take-

ples’ – the Rudd government’s discontinuation of domes-

overs probably constituted the most dramatic symbol of

tic undergraduate student full fee places – the reversal is

the Dawkins era, certainly for those who experienced a

noted without comment or explanation (p. 99), yet this

change of employer. This area is well covered by Simon

was a clear example of the role of Labor values in eliminat-

Marginson and Ian Marshman, who observe that some

ing what the Party saw as unwarranted privilege for the

amalgamations took more than a decade to bed down,

more affluent.

but Monash University’s recent retreat from regional

Andrew Norton’s chapter deals with the Liberal–

Gippsland pushes the dust-settling from the mergers out

National coalition’s attitude to this policy area over the

to a quarter century. In his chapter, Ross Williams makes

period in question. As a right wing ideologue and activist,

the important point that while mergers led to some

Norton is well placed to plot the conservative reaction to

economies of scale, ‘diseconomies of scope were under-

Dawkins and the extent to which the Liberals were able

estimated, especially where large universities amalga-

to progress a debate about a market-based system. Ulti-

mated with colleges’ (p. 94). In reality, not all mergers

mately, missed opportunities, lost elections and a lack of

were rational and sometimes seemed more about overall

political resolve effectively rendered the coalition spec-

student numbers and the pre-empting of territorial claims

tators as much as players, certainly when in opposition.

by rivals.The inspiration may have been more Metternich

Norton concedes that the short lifespan of shadow minis-

than Newman.

ters (seven from 1987 to 1996) betrayed a lack of genuine political interest.

Importantly, Marginson and Marshman also outline the manner in which the regulatory aspect of Dawkins’ poli-

In his comments on overseas students, Norton is sur-

cies effectively narrowed the scope for ‘autonomous insti-

prisingly silent on the unintended consequences of the

tutional initiative’, with the result that ‘[T]he UNS [Unified

nexus between international education and immigra-

National System] has become one of the most homoge-

tion, which followed from changes under John Howard.

nous systems in the world’ (pp. 62–63).

The coalition government’s liberalisation enabled several

The editors are on firm ground in asserting that the

universities (and, subsequently, other providers in the

‘structures, cultural norms and practices of the UNS of

vocational education and training [VET] sector) to offer

higher education remain defining features of the system

a migration outcome disguised as education, to the detri-

in 2013’ (p. 3). Subsequent changes have been incremen-

ment of educational quality and Australia’s reputation.This

tal, student contributions have been broadly stable, as has

feature of a less regulated market might have merited a

the make-up of public institutions, the research-funding

mention.

environment has become more competitive and vice-

Norton’s chapter is distinctive in its lack of any end-

chancellors have become more powerful. For better or

notes or references, an anomaly in a scholarly publication

worse, John Dawkins and his ‘revolution’ continue to

of this nature, for which no explanation is offered, a point

define the Australian higher education environment.

made more curious by Norton’s status as one of the editors. This leads to some contentious assertions for which

Paul Rodan is an adjunct professor in the Swinburne Institute

no authority is cited. For example, John Hewson is said

for Social Research at Swinburne University of Technology,

to have offered ‘the most comprehensive policy mani-

Melbourne, and a member of the Australian Universities’

festo ever put to the Australian electorate’ (pp. 289–290),

Review editorial board.

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

You say you want a revolution / Reviewed by Paul Rodan

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At last count … The Rise of Data in Education Systems: Collection, visualization and use by Martin Lawn (Ed.), Comparative Histories of Education series, Martin Lawn & Antonio Nóvoa (series Eds.). ISBN 978-1-873927-32-8, Symposium Books, 160 pp., 2013. Reviewed by Neil Mudford

We live in an age in which numerical data and the results

summary of the contents that sets the scene for the ensu-

obtained from the analysis thereof are everywhere col-

ing chapters. Among these are case studies from Sweden,

lected, pored over, boasted about or covered up and used

Argentina, Bavaria and the City of Birmingham, each of

or abused in a multitude of ways. The making of life and

which is an engrossing tale of human endeavour and inno-

business decisions, great and small, seems to require as

vation. Enough is revealed of the character and beliefs of

much of the stuff as can be collected.

the champions of data development to make them real

The field of education, at all stages, is a prime example of this practice. In the course of their work, university and

and human to the reader, thus enlivening the tale being told. Hence it is a pleasure to read.

school staff and students must provide copious amounts

I was fascinated by many revelations in the book, such

of data on their activities to others and have statistical

as that the development of educational data gathering,

measures of it scrutinised by a wide audience, including

visualisation and analysis was significantly spurred by the

one’s supervisor/employer.

need to create education exhibits at national and world

Woe betide anyone who follows their instincts or quali-

exhibitions, fairs and expositions. Being heavily linked

tative experience and forges ahead against the advice of

with national pride and displays of quality, innovation

The Figures.

and achievement, much effort was expended in making

So, how did this state come about in the field of educa-

the exhibits impressive, partly to astound the public and

tion? Was the nature of its development inevitable? Who

partly to outdo international competitors in the form of

guided the development, and why were choices made the

other countries’ educational bureaucracies. Of course, in

way they were? This collection of essays concerns the his-

the early days, the competition was not for students, as

tory and sociology of the rise of education data collec-

it is today among universities, but for prestige and inter-

tion, analysis and use.The essays provide some fascinating

national reputation. In these conditions of intense com-

and insightful thoughts on these questions. The authors

petition, the material presented and the display methods

emphasise that the nature of these activities, then and

shifted from one exhibition to the next. Plenty of inter-

now, is strongly influenced by culture and politics and

esting accounts are presented of the arguments advanced

the twists and turns of historical development, as are all

from various quarters concerning the best approach for

human endeavours. Although the book is confined to the

capturing the essential nature of a school system and the

primary and secondary education sectors, almost all the

journey from one style to another over time.

ideas, themes and issues are relevant to higher education.

Early on, much store was set by predominantly visual

Of course, teaching is only one of the roles of universities.

evidence, such as photographs of classroom scenes, archi-

I hope to see, at some time, a complementary book pub-

tectural scale models of the school buildings and displays

lished on the rise of data in research evaluation.

of the instructional means of various kinds. These are

This book is well structured and the writing style

some of the inputs to the school instructional process.

is clear and concise. There is a well-balanced range of

Later, attention turned from educational inputs to

content that is thoughtfully composed and thought pro-

educational outputs, but the displays continued to con-

voking, and a remarkable range of issues is covered in

tain real objects and images, with examples of students’

considerable depth in its modest 160 pages. The editor

schoolwork put on display – artwork, writing, needlework,

provides us with an excellent introduction that has a clear

and so on. Sometimes these artefacts were produced espe-

At last count … Reviewed by Neil Mudford

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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cially for the exhibition and sometimes they were mate-

growth in uncertainties in the final product. Hence the

rials produced as part of ordinary classroom activities.

results are powerful but somewhat dangerous tools in

However produced, the best work was chosen so as to

public debate.

induce the most glowing impression in the public mind.

The various league tables for universities world-wide

Eventually, the standard settled on what we would now

are the equivalent offering in higher education. Apart

consider to be ‘the most important’ information, namely,

from any other consideration, the fact that universities’

educational outputs in the form of statistical information

positions in these tables markedly jump around from

with this graphically displayed.

year to year indicates either that there is very little dif-

The establishment of national bureaux of statistics and

ference in quality across the world or that the indices

national and international statistical associations in the

used in the measurement algorithm are highly sensitive

20th century also heavily influenced the development

to fluctuations in the input data. Nevertheless, the mar-

of numerical data collection and analysis. These bodies

keting units of the better-ranked universities seem not to

helped resolve the arguments, tensions and battles over

blush in using the results to crow about their rankings, as

data collection and treatment, to create a firm mathemati-

if it really is a valid measure of their university’s overall

cal foundation for the practice and to set standards that

performance.

would allow international comparisons.

For the world exhibitions, the aim was to impress the

With this background information in mind, it is interest-

public and the education industries of other countries

ing to reflect that the Australian government’s My School

about how innovative, enlightened, progressive and suc-

website of ‘detailed profiles of Australian schools’ contains

cessful one’s own country’s educational system was. The

no photographs of school grounds, classrooms or pupils

public is still an important target audience for information

receiving instruction. Nor are there examples of students’

on educational matters. There has, however, been a shift

work on the site. We would be a little surprised if there

from a showcase approach focusing on system-wide per-

were, given the attitudes of our times. Were websites in

formance to providing information on individual schools

existence 100 years or more ago, this is probably what we

and universities, designed to inform consumer choice in

would be offered, with none of the NAPLAN-style results

the education marketplace. Also, being displayed on the

and little of the other mountain of statistical informa-

internet, as it now is, the information no doubt reaches a

tion on today’s site. (Reviewer’s note: My School [www.

wider audience than would otherwise take the trouble to

myschool.edu.au/] is a publicly available internet data-

buy the equivalent in book form.

base of statistical information on all Australian schools.

One of the many issues raised in the book, with echoes

NAPLAN is the Australian government’s National Assess-

in our own time, is that, as the statistical information grew

ment Program – Literacy and Numeracy project, under

to become the measure of all things, much of the role of

which all Australian school students sit for standard tests

assessing educational progress and results passed from

of literacy and numeracy.)

teachers in the classroom to statisticians and administra-

As the book’s authors point out, in the current cultural

tors remote from the classroom.Then and now, this raises

climate, statistical information is, for most people, imbued

at least two intertwined issues. First, whether people

with an aura of objectivity and stark reality. This is rein-

who have the numerical data – course material covered,

forced when accompanying statements claim that the

test results and the like – but have no knowledge of the

results have been calibrated and moderated for external

students as people can really achieve a holistic sense of

factors. With all this in front of them, untrained observers

student achievement and potential. Second, whether

are likely to conclude that the information is unquestion-

all relevant matters can be accurately captured, or even

ably correct and, in the case of My School, say, that these

approximately, by empirical measurement.

data capture everything of relevance about the schools.

The same can be said of universities and academics. In

Those with training in survey, testing and analysis tech-

past times, the academic staff of a (university) school or

niques would be far more suspicious about the meaning

department decided course content, delivery methods

and trustworthiness of the results. Calibration and mod-

and assessment. If an academic issued a particular grade,

eration are necessary for ensuring the validity and repeat-

then the assurance that that grade was appropriate rested

ability of results, but one has to wonder how calibration

on the academic’s knowledge, experience and profes-

can be achieved and what external checks have been

sional standing. Increasingly, formulaic methods that are

made of the alterations produced by the moderation.Also,

‘defensible’ and extensive written explanations of assess-

too many corrections to the original results can lead to a

ment requirements are required by university administra-

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At last count … Reviewed by Neil Mudford

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tions for quality assurance purposes and to be provided to student customers. A multitude of other insights, which have not been touched on here, are presented in the book. For ex-ample,

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The historical and sociological works in this book are well worth reading for the lively and informative views of the past contained in them and for the perspective they provide of the events and attitudes of our own times.

the ‘visualization’ in the title refers to the early world exhibition presentation of photographic data on schools and

Neil Mudford is a visiting fellow with the University of New

schooling, as well as to the graphical presentation of sta-

South Wales, a research associate with the University of

tistical information later on.As a physicist/engineer, graph-

Queensland and a member of the Australian Universities’

ical representation seems second nature to me, but this is

Review editorial board.

probably because I simply do not know the story of the hard work and creativity of my forebears in the discipline who figured out how best to convey numerical information to others and to see it clearly one’s self.

At last count … Reviewed by Neil Mudford

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What’s up, Doc? Developing Generic Support for Doctoral Students: Practice and pedagogy by Susan Carter & Deborah Laurs (Eds.). ISBN-13: 978-0415662338 ISBN-10: 0415662338, Routledge, 208 pp., 2014. Reviewed by Pam Herman This book is not a manual on how to teach generic sessions or develop a programme … [H]ere we bring together a group of engaged reflective practitioners sharing their experience … on generic doctoral support (Introduction: Mapping this book).

The research question is identified in the Introduction: Mapping this book and Part 1 Generic support’s inception may be likened to a literature review, while Parts II and III, Developing generic support’s potential and Ensuring generic support’s sustainability respectively form the

Throughout the book Susan Carter and Deborah Laurs

core of the book. A concluding summary chapter is pre-

show how practice and pedagogical theory inform each

ceded by a chapter that attempts to answer the question

other. While it does not purport to be a teaching manual,

whether it is possible to evaluate the success or other-

nevertheless some of the more interesting parts of the

wise of a generic doctoral workshop program. The brief

book are those where the reader is given glimpses of how

participant biographies are very helpful in understanding

others have structured programs to support particular

the experiences each contributor brings to the debate on

cohorts of research candidates. In these instances enough

generic programs for research candidates, and are com-

information on the format and content of the sessions is

plemented by the very extensive bibliography, which pro-

offered to enable others to adapt and modify the frame-

vides guidance for further reading on this relatively new

work to suit the particular needs of their own students.

discipline.

One such an example is the account by Gina Wisker and

The editing prowess of Carter and Laurs is further evi-

Gillian Robinson of a PhD program for Israeli students at

dent in the structure of each chapter, which combines

the Anglia Ruskin University in the UK.

teaching vignettes and supporting discussion on the

As the editors note, by its very nature the book is a

emerging pedagogical theory that underpins such pro-

pastiche of observations from nearly 40 contributors,

grams. Key themes and contributions are identified at the

mostly from the UK, New Zealand and Australia, writing

commencement of each chapter, while within each sec-

from a range of perspectives and from a diversity of back-

tion the editors ensure that the experiences and findings

grounds.This could have led to a discordant patchwork of

of one contributor link to those of the next via a carefully

discrete ideas, only loosely connected through the under-

crafted paragraph or two. Judicious headings support this

lying theme. However, this is seldom evident. The editing

structure, while the closing section of each chapter antici-

of the book is generally excellent. True, the occasional

pates what is to be discussed in the next. In these ways a

lapse into academic jargon or unnecessarily complex text

sustained argument is maintained through the nearly 200

may be distracting, and in a few instances, contributions

pages of the book.

should perhaps have been edited more tightly to make

Parts II and III are the heart of the debate and discus-

them more succinct. Inevitably in such a work, significant

sion, with contributions from a number of practitioners

voices may be missing.

who have each developed programs to support particular

The pioneering work of Janet Metcalfe in the UK may

cohorts of students within their own institutions, such as

be a case in point, although Tony Bromley acknowledges

those enrolled through distance education or part-time

her later contribution to the debate on the methodology

candidature, international and Indigenous students. The

of assessing generic programs.

discussion continues with examples of programs that seek

The effective blending of multiple voices is always

to enhance writing and research skills, and to prepare stu-

going to be a challenge to an editor; however, in this book

dents for their subsequent careers through recognition

it is achieved in several ways. The overall layout is clear;

that skills acquired during candidature are transferrable. It

indeed, in many ways it mirrors the structure of a thesis.

is thus through such practice that the pedagogical theory

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What’s up, Doc? Reviewed by Pam Herman

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underpinning generic training for research students has

it can’t be done. In the end, the measurement framework

begun to evolve and be recognised within higher educa-

model developed in the UK by the Rugby Team and the

tion institutions.

Impact and Evaluation Group must be assessed via a

The most challenging question for doctoral training

legal beyond reasonable doubt approach. Qualitative and

advisors is how their contribution to the research train-

quantitative assessment must therefore operate within

ing process can be validly and reliably measured. The edi-

these boundaries. Thus, perhaps only by using formal

tors themselves have canvassed the opinion of others and

and informal participant feedback, including unsolicited

have drawn up a list of assessment benchmarks or good

comments, may some measure of the success of such pro-

practice criteria. A program may be judged on whether,

grams be generally determined.

for example, it

All in all, the book identifies the key issues related to

• merits positive student evaluation

the development of doctoral training programs in the UK

• exemplifies strong teaching practice

and Australasia over the last two decades, including initial

• uses its clear overview of the doctorate

development, objectives and challenges. The complemen-

• has benefits for the students’ future

tary nature of the work undertaken by research super-

• fosters academic citizenship.

visor and generic doctoral training learning adviser is

Much work on the question of assessment has been

considered. From its position in the borderlands between

undertaken in the UK in the last decade. But how does

disciplines, a generic training program’s contributions to

one tease out the particular contribution a workshop

equity and access, language acquisition, critical thinking,

series or programs may have played in, say, better quality

pastoral care and career preparation are all discussed and

theses, shorter completion times, better rates of comple-

debated. Ultimately, however, reliable measurement of the

tion, subsequent increase in successful grant applications,

contribution of such programs to the doctoral experience

higher publication rates, effective career transition, and

still remains elusive.

so on? Despite all manner of sophisticated research, the answer in the end is that, given the multiplicity of factors,

Pam Herman is a former research graduate school manager

including generic research training, that may have contrib-

at an Australian university.

uted to the achievement or otherwise of these outcomes,

What’s up, Doc? Reviewed by Pam Herman

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Be mobile Internationalisation of Higher Education and Global Mobility by Bernhard Streitwieser (Ed.). ISBN-978-1-873927-42-7,Symposium Books, 320 pp., 2014. Reviewed by Andrys Onsman

Edited by Bernhard Streitwieser, Internationalisation

I had never before considered higher education in Lux-

of Higher Education and Global Mobility is yet one

embourg – I mean, who has? – and its juxtaposition to

more collection of essays in the plethora of books on

Qatar seems at first glance to be surprising, if not spu-

internationalisation that is threatening to engulf anyone

rious. But if a nation is that small, internationalisation

with even a passing interest in the topic. This collection

isn’t an option; it’s an inevitability. Powell points out a

includes a number of chapters by well-known commen-

convincing number of similarities: small hub-centres in

tators – experts in the field such as Marginson, Knight,

their respective regions, rich, significant foreign popu-

Welch, Choudaha, De Wit and Streitwieser himself –

lations, internationally influential media (Al Jazeera and

which at least makes the collection worth scanning. But

Radio Télévision Luxembourg [RTL]), one significant

as it turns out, it is some of the lesser-known names who

national university apiece, and heavy investments in the

present some of the more interesting chapters.

STEM disciplines of science, technology, engineering and

The Foreword is by Simon Marginson, one of the most

mathematics, and, politically speaking, a grand duke isn’t

authoritative voices in the field. His summary of the cur-

so different from an emir. It leaves the reader wondering

rent state of play identifies four key issues, the headline

whether the grand duchy is thinking about buying the

developments: the OECD’s growing impact on policy

rights to host a World Cup. Powell argues that both are

and practice in secondary schooling, university rank-

investing a lot of resources and human power in creat-

ings, MOOCs and the international rise of Southeast Asia.

ing a globally significant research university. Seeing Lux-

Marginson’s capacity for analysis is without peer and even

embourg has about 300,000 nationals and Qatar about

though each issue gets a single paragraph, there is nothing

250,000, both can make education cheap for their citi-

to indicate that he is wide of the mark. My only quibble is

zens. But Qatar has about 1.5 million foreigners living

that few of the following chapters actually address any of

within its borders, while Luxembourg has fewer than

the identified issues in a meaningful way.

quarter of a million foreigners, which creates a frisson

In his Introduction Streitwieser states that his aim

in the former that the latter more or less avoids, partially

in these chapters was to discuss the notion of mobil-

because it is a member state of the EU and part of Eras-

ity within the phenomenon of the internationalisation

mus and PISA and all that. Powell makes no predictions

of higher education. Most of the papers included in the

about how things will turn out but notes that both uni-

volume fall within those parameters, but in general, few of

versities carry their respective nation’s hopes for the

them add anything that is significantly new.The other side

future – not like there’s any pressure.

of the coin is that there are some really engaging chapters

While we are in Europe, so to speak, it is striking that

by newish voices. That may be the best way to approach

there are three chapters on Erasmus in which none of the

the book – not as a sustained argument but as a collection

authors cite anything the other two have written, which,

of different voices. In any case, the fact that there isn’t an

perversely, makes them all worth reading. Thomas Nor-

index stops it being a reference book per se. In that spirit,

gaard, in ‘Liberal Education in the Erasmus Programme’,

this review will preclude a list of contents and instead

argues that the European higher education mobility pro-

pick out bits that seem to me to be particularly worthy

gram shouldn’t bear the name ‘Erasmus’ but rather that of

of comment.

the person he argues started the whole idea, Sofia Corradi,

Justin J. W. Powell’s chapter, ‘International National

or that of Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803), who

Universities: Migration and mobility in Luxembourg and

championed internationalisation, or at least being toler-

Qatar’, was always going to catch the eye. I confess that

ant of foreigners. Erasmus, according to Norgaard, wasn’t

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nearly liberal enough, that he was too much of a scholar

and money spent on Erasmus as a mechanism for inculcat-

who travelled to anywhere a university paid him.Whereas

ing a shared European identity, when Erasmus students

Norgaard sees that as a negative, to my mind Erasmus was

were quizzed about how they saw themselves, they over-

a prototypical modern mobile academic, so naming a pro-

whelmingly responded with their nationality rather than

gram that supports and encourages academic mobility

as Europeans or world citizens.And it wasn’t even a World

after him seems very appropriate.

Cup year.The authors pin the blame on how the question

Norgaard’s ruminating essay argues that the Erasmus

was phrased, and there may be some legitimacy in that,

scheme as it is now is at risk of dissolving into ‘facile

given that it seems to have been an either/or question.

cosmopolitanism’ because it doesn’t encourage students

Moreover, there is a plethora of social mobility studies that

to be deeply emerged in the culture and zeitgeist of the

argue for increased regional identification.A Walloon stud-

host culture. It’s an argument that loses a lot of its power

ying in Flanders, for example, is technically not a foreign

when the author acknowledges that the scheme was good

student. The concluding argument that suggests there is

for him personally, and that he (presumably) managed to

evidence of an Erasmus citizen is unconvincing beyond

benefit from ‘apodemica, literally the “art of going away

the acknowledgement that people who have spent sig-

from one’s people” ’ (p. 115). Overall, it seems somewhat

nificant amounts of time studying, working and living in a

condescending to suggest that, while he was able to avoid

foreign country tend to see the world differently to those

the pitfalls, others may not have been.

who haven’t.That’s hardly a consequence of Erasmus.

Bernd Wächter doesn’t cite anyone but himself in his

The obligatory chapter on China was written by Jürgen

chapter, ‘Recent Trends in Student Mobility in Europe’,

Henze. It is a fairly standard, efficient summary of what is

which could ring alarm bells, but seeing it’s mostly an

going on – massive development, state control, increasing

explication of the data published in Mapping Mobil-

intake, and so on – that presents a clear picture but adds

ity in European Higher Education, of which he was a

little new for anyone with even a cursory interest in the

co-author, it could turn out all right. He reports that, in

internationalisation of higher education. Perhaps the large

2008, there were more than 1. 5 million international stu-

quantity of high quality scholarly publications on China

dents enrolled in courses in Europe, more than half of

coming from Australia has lulled us into a belief that the

the world’s total number of international students. About

rest of the world is on the same page. Henze recites, for

500,000 of these were in the UK, and another 500,000 in

example, Jane Knight’s ‘five myths of internationalisation’,

Germany and France, which leaves fewer than 500,000

augmented by Hans de Wit’s nine misconceptions. Few of

scattered among the other 29 European states. In Spain,

those myths or misconceptions are evident in the output

Finland, Malta, Poland, Portugal and Slovakia, Erasmus stu-

of Australian commentators, Marginson and Vidovich

dents outnumbered other international students, which is

among many others. Nonetheless (and to my mind uncon-

pretty amazing seeing that only 1 per cent of European

vincingly), Henze argues that the combined list of myths

students – which isn’t a great deal – become mobile with

and misconceptions forms ‘more or less exactly’ the Chi-

Erasmus each year.

nese policy on internationalisation of higher education.

To get some rationalisation of the different pictures

Fundamentally, that strikes me as an antiquated view; the

of Erasmus presented by Norgaard and Wächter, Bernard

2010–20 plan is far more adventurous and strategic than

Streitwieser and Zachary van Winkle contribute a chapter

that. Bear in mind that China is becoming an exporter of

entitled ‘The Erasmus Citizen: Students’ Conceptions of

higher education as well as an importer: the number of

Citizenship Identity in the Erasmus Mobility Programme

high quality, joint venture higher education institutions in

in Germany’. In what seems an apparent afterthought to

China is increasing and Chinese universities are beginning

the study, these authors acknowledge Norgaard’s chapter

to establish branch campuses abroad. It will still send its

in a footnote; Wächter doesn’t rate a mention.

students to the best overseas universities, but the country

Their study looks at whether, by doing a subject, a

is no longer reticent to demand more from them in return

semester or a whole year of study anywhere abroad in

for the fees that they collect. China is tickling Atlas with

Europe (which, by virtue of the European Credit Transfer

a feather and a big sneeze isn’t far away. And what does

Scheme [ECTS], counts towards your degree), students

‘more or less exactly’ mean (exactly)?

develop a sense of Europeanness. It’s quite an interesting

I am always keen to read what Anthony Welch writes

survey of opinion, but as the authors admit, it is difficult

because he usually targets important issues. His chap-

to analyse in terms of finding discernible trends.The most

ter, ‘Seek Knowledge Throughout the World? Mobility

interesting datum for me was that after all the time, effort

in Islamic Higher Education’, is no exception. He traces

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Islamic ideas on education in broad strokes and turns

secondary education by a factor of 30. Unsurprisingly, not

his analytical eye towards Southeast Asia, which is what

having the skilled people to implement the massification,

he is more widely known for. Specifically, he juxtaposes

quality was sacrificed and the standards were impossibly

Malaysia and Indonesia, pointing out that the former is not

low. According to Amazan, the government’s current strat-

only significantly richer but also generally more fluent in

egy is to offer incentives for skilled people to return and

English and Arabic, which enables it to more effectively

for exiles with money to invest in Ethiopia under special

prepare Islamic students for study abroad. There are now

conditions. It’s far too early to gauge whether either strat-

nearly 100,000 international students studying in Malay-

egy is having a discernible effect, but Amazan’s tenor sug-

sia and, as Welch points out, the country is fast becom-

gests she is not convinced.

ing a key player in the Islamic higher education area. This

Arne Hickling-Hudson and Robert F. Arnove contribute

rapid rise is probably contingent on the country being

a chapter entitled ‘Higher Education and International

able to offer programs in English and Arabic. Malaysia is

Student Mobility: The Extraordinary Case of Cuba’, in

also becoming the holiday/honeymoon destination of

which they argue that Cuba can be seen as a regional

choice for Muslim tourists, as well as a hub for Islamic

hub. In 2009, 31,528 international students, mostly from

finance and investment. Its strategy is a carefully blended

Latin America and the Caribbean, studied in Cuba. Seeing

and targeted mix of soft diplomacy, higher education and

Cuba has a population of about 12 million, that doesn’t

international trade.

seem all that impressive. What is impressive is that 12,000

It’s also interesting that Australia has had a lot more

or so come from Africa, mostly from sub-Saharan Africa,

to do with Malaysia – probably because of the common

including Ethiopia.The main reason, it seems, is that Cuba

colonial experience – and that there is a greater degree

offers good quality higher education at affordable prices

of trust between the two, regardless of former prime min-

– socialist internationalisation. As an added bonus, the

isters Keating and Mahatir clashing over recalcitrance.

students are able to learn to speak Spanish.

Even though Indonesia is much closer geographically, and

Overall, the chapters that serve as case studies were the

disregarding Bali, it is still thought of as somewhat more

ones that I found most interesting, and I would have liked

alien and more threatening than Malaysia.Welch’s chapter

more of them. Disappointingly, there is precious little new

makes an interesting counterpoint to such perceptions

or insightful about the rise of Brazil, Russia, India, China

and, as always, it is clearly conceived and articulated.

and South Africa, the so-called BRICS countries, the omis-

Two other chapters also made for fascinating read-

sion of which is pretty glaring these days. There is very

ing, primarily, I suspect, because I knew little about the

little about the rise of Singapore as a regional hub. There

countries in question. The contribution by Rose Amazan,

is nothing specifically about Australia.There’s nothing sub-

entitled ‘When the Diaspora Returns:Analysis of Ethiopian

stantial about the broader Middle East and North Africa.

returnees and the need for highly skilled labour in Ethio-

The conceptual and theoretical contributions were

pia’, was eye opening. Amazan, a Haiti-born academic cur-

all fine, but even Jane Knight, who is usually so lively

rently at the University of Sydney, is known for her work

and enlightening, has little new to say here, despite

on gender equality. In this piece she analyses the effects

Streitwieser pumping her chapter up as talking about

of the trained and educated who leave the Federal Demo-

something ‘controversial’ (which it doesn’t).

cratic Republic of Ethiopia and the government’s strate-

Overall, Internationalisation of Higher Education

gies for bringing them back. Few people nowadays are

and Global Mobility is a fine collection, but it doesn’t

unaware that Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in

reach any great heights or generate any great debate.

the world. It’s little wonder then that it ranks first in Africa

While many lost opportunities are evident, none of the

for loss of human capital, ahead of Nigeria and Ghana.

chapters are awful and some are genuinely interesting.

In the 1980s, for example, a staggering 75 per cent of its human capital emigrated, mostly to the US and the UK.

Andrys Onsman is an academic in the Centre for Studies of

Addis Ababa’s response was to hugely expand its post-

Higher Education, University of Melbourne.

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Another season, another reason, for makin’ policy (with apologies to Khan & Donaldson) Making Policy in Turbulent Times: Challenges and prospects for higher education (Queen’s Policy Studies) by Paul Axelrod, Roopa Desai Trilokekar, Theresa Shanahan & Richard Wellen (Eds.). ISBN-10: 1553393325; ISBN-13: 978-1553393320, McGill-Queens University Press, 446 pp., 2013. Reviewed by Andrys Onsman Making Policy in Turbulent Times is a collection of 18

presents an acronym-laden history of higher education

essays on how various countries have at various times

policy making in the UK. After a while I couldn’t be both-

approached higher education. Because the editorial team

ered rechecking which acronym referred to what organi-

is Canadian, there is an emphasis on Canada, but the US,

sation, but I gather that the UK is, in higher education

Australia, the UK, China and the EU all get a turn as well,

terms, a unitary state with no regional governance but a

which gives the book an international flavour. As is usu-

number of intermediary bodies acting as buffers between

ally the case with edited volumes, some chapters are more

institutions and the funders.

fluid than others.This isn’t a book you would want to read

These bodies consist of experts and refer to them-

in one sitting: at over 400 pages it’s more of a reference

selves as brokers. Ultimately, it seems that Treasury

book to dip into than a page turner.

makes all the decisions and that higher education com-

The aim of the book is to consider whether the tur-

petes with everything else in the budget. In short, it

bulent times in which we find ourselves have had or

seems that it is a case of funding depending on what you

are having a significant and identifiable impact on how

achieve in the research assessment exercise (RAE): each

higher education policy is made and implemented, par-

of the top four universities receives an average of just

ticularly in Canada. The topic was discussed at a work-

over 6 per cent of the prize pool; the rest receive an aver-

shop conducted at York University in Toronto in 2012; the

age of 3 per cent. Interesting enough, but the RAE has

book is the result of that.The structure of the book is five

now been replaced by the research excellence frame-

segments:

work (the REF), which, according to its website, has as

• Public policy and higher education: International per-

its primary purpose the collating to inform the selective

spectives

allocation of their research funding to higher education

• The policy-making context: Global dimensions

institutions, with effect from 2016. REF assessment will

• Policy issues: Access, quality, and affordability

provide accountability for public investment in research

• Agenda-setting:The role of policy actors

and produce evidence of the benefits of this investment.

• Policy-making:The nature of the process.

It will also provide benchmarking information and estab-

Each segment has two or three chapters. By way of justi-

lish reputational yardsticks.

fication for this structure, Paul Axelrod, in his introduction

Undoubtedly, Oxford, Cambridge, LSE and Imperial Col-

runs through what each chapter is about and promises

lege will still get the lion’s share, but the shift in strategy

the reader that, put together, the collection identifies and

highlights that in the time between writing a conference

compares the challenges facing universities everywhere.

paper that later becomes a chapter in a book that is on

He also and presents ‘historically informed’ analyses of the

the shelves, the whole scenario can change. Shattock is

dynamics at play in policy makers’ attempts to steer their

well known for his insistence that academics should have

respective institutional ships out of troubled waters.

a greater say in the running of universities because, he

First cab off the rank in the first segment – the nature of

argues, there is no evidence that corporate-style executive

the process of policy making – is Michael Shattock, who

rule governance has improved the sector’s performance.

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This chapter reads like the dry evidence underpinning

more intellectual interest to some of the chapters. Moreo-

his calls for more inclusive governance, a report that is

ver, there is also more of a feeling of analysis in order to

stripped of the passion that drives the argument.

move things forward rather than reportage of what has

The next chapter picks up the pace a little but still

happened. Claire Callender’s chapter, ‘Higher Education

threatens to dull the reader’s senses with a plethora of

and Student Financial Support in England: All Change

acronyms. As an aside, I used to chuckle behind my hand

or No Change’, for example, is a cracker of a read, even

at the esteemed editor of this august journal’s pathologi-

if there is a feeling that some of her edgier contentions

cal abhorrence of acronyms (PAA), but I may well have

have been muted. Apart from arguing that valuing higher

changed my mind because it does get a bit tedious at times

education is not the same as pricing it, she scuppers the

in this essay by Trilokekar, Shanahan, Axelrod and Wellen.

notion that if you make students pay more, they will learn

As an example ‘research and development’ is followed by

to appreciate what they are getting and presumably study

(R&D), which is never again used anywhere in the chapter.

harder because of that, by pointing out that there is no

I mean, what is the point? The authors consider the con-

evidence whatsoever for that assumption.

ceptual framework for post-secondary education (PSE) in

Callender points out that, regardless of the lack of evi-

Canada, drawing on information from the Social Sciences

dence, the government maintained that student loans

and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC –

would make the students realise how much it was cost-

what happened to the second C?) and interviews with

ing to educate them, as a result of which they would all

key players in Ontario. It considers direct policy determi-

become much more fiscally responsible. The policy is all

nants (mainly people with influence, the state of affairs at

about ensuring that students become more responsible;

the time and the media) and indirect policy determinants

it has nothing to do with cutting funding, honest. And

(philosophies, research, evidence, political structures and

of course it won’t reduce access by people from lower

advocacy). It is a fairly pragmatic framework for analy-

SES groups. As usual, Callender’s engaging style of writ-

sis but it doesn’t seem to go anywhere in the context of

ing matches her clear analysis. The chapter is a joy to

the chapter. Between the lines, the implication of politi-

read – even if you don’t entirely agree with everything

cal expediency, with its drivers of spin and timing, being

she asserts.

essential and defining characteristics of higher education

The next entry in this section, Lesley Vidovic’s chapter

policy making success rings disturbingly familiar to Aus-

on the Australian context entitled ‘Balancing Quality and

tralian ears, even if the systems aren’t.

Equity in Higher Education Policy Agendas: Global and

Some of the chapters in the second section were hard

Local Tensions’, proposes a framework that promises to

going, probably because they were Canada-centred, and,

be utilitarian and contextualising. Given the fact that I

according to Axelrod, because the original workshop

haven’t actually trailed it, it looks convincing because it

(to which the contributors were individually invited

pulls the analysis of agendas into a strategic context.

to contribute a paper) would ‘permit an exploration of

Vidovic is more nuanced in her line of argument but

Canadian challenges in a global context’. And that’s pretty

basically the question she raises is what is an institution’s

much what the book is. As a result, chapters in this sec-

purpose in adopting the policies it does, and how does

tion tend to focus on the Canadian experiences, which

that affect its implementation? It’s good question because,

may not float everyone’s boats but there are nonetheless

as Vidovic argues, the official line between quality and

parts that will entertain anyone who has an interest in

equity often gets drawn according to what the institution

Canadian politics and education as part of the global sce-

decides is the most valuable to it, a decision as transient as

nario. Canadian career bureaucrat Harvey Weingarten’s

it is pragmatic. Nonetheless, it is in the first place a policy

chapter, ‘How to Influence Government Higher Educa-

decision and often one that requires manoeuvring to

tion Policy: A Manual’, for example, is quite fascinating to

get accepted. As a basis for analysis Vidovic’s conceptual

Australian readers, if only because the whole system is so

framework is also well worth considering as a framework

alien to ours. Weingarten is a past president and CEO of

for situation institutional management within the higher

the Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario, so I am

education leadership processes.

happy to take what he says at face value. Overall, the sec-

Unfortunately, the chapter suffers from having the dia-

tion is very readable and sets up the rest of the essays

grammatic representation of her argument injudiciously

quite nicely.

edited. The text discusses three points of a triangular

The third section, ‘Policy Issues: Access, quality, and

framework, but the diagram shows only two. The apex

affordability, concerns actual research’, which brings a bit

should be labelled ‘Context (including Globalisation and

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Internationalisation)’, which would make more sense of

The section is rounded off with David Dill’s ‘Design-

the base points. If you read the chapter you’ll get the gist,

ing Higher Education Policy in the Age of Globalization:

but it’s an unnecessary speed bump in an otherwise very

Imperfect Information and the Pursuit of the Public

good and straight ahead chapter.

Good’, which, as a thumbnail summary, suggests that in

Ian Clark and Ken Norrie’s chapter,‘Research and Reluc-

order to hold on to what a university is (or ought to

tance in Improving Canadian Higher Education’, argues

be), we need to get our data gathering in line. Good call.

that the higher education sector values research but does

His line of argument is that the best-known universities

little research on how to improve the performance of the

are considered to be generators of national advantage,

sector itself, particularly in Canada, which apparently lags

especially among the so-called developed nations. Gov-

behind the US, the UK and Australia. The chapter lists the

ernments and policy makers see these top flighters as

institutes and centres in those countries that are doing

potential sources of national wealth and are increasingly

high quality research (including, as a disclaimer, Centre for

keen to control their outputs, and in the process try to

the Study of Higher Education in Melbourne, with which I

massage knowledge into things that they can understand

am affiliated). Australia in particular gets a big thumbs up

and commodify. But how do you turn ideas such as ‘the

to show why Canada gets the thumbs down.

public good’ into a commodity? What does ‘knowledge’

A perusal of recent publications by some of Australia’s higher education scholars reveals how dynamic the scholarship of higher education is in that country. A cursory comparison of institutional and personal websites suggests that Australia does several times more applied higher education research than Canada to serve many fewer students. This is also reflected in the publication record of government agencies. For example, Ontario has recently created HEQCO, an agency that has conducted an impressive research program for the last five years. But Australia has the Australian Council for Educational Research, which has been operating since 1930 and has 41 current higher education research projects. The Australian Universities Quality Agency has frequent workshops and an active occasional paper series. The higher education section of the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations produces a wealth of statistics in its annual reports on staff, students, and finances, and it has a substantial list of publications on higher education, much longer than can be found on any Canadian federal or provincial government site.

mean in terms of the practical concerns of universities, such as student choice, the assurance of academic quality, the assessment of academic research, and how does it shape a university’s effect on economic development? It is a very good essay, packed with good ideas, clear writing and soundly-based research. The fourth section concerns the international dimensions of the contexts in which policies are made. There is no doubt that the various international environments in which policy shaping is happening have turbulence in common: there is a lot of chop out there. The relentless if brutally uneven progress of the globalisation of higher education, spurred on by its eminence grise of the neoliberalist free trade fantasy, has created a big, worldwide whirlpool.The decrease in public funding pulls the whole sector, like Charybdis, on one side, while the demand for tighter control of policy and output tugs like Scylla on the other. How do you make decisions about equity and access in these contexts? Is there any place for imagina-

The chapter ends with the claim that doing research on higher education is both necessary and cheap: neces-

tive visionaries who can lead without sacrifice? Does anyone have a clue?

sary for analysis of what is going on and creating useful

Nelly Stromquist usually reminds us not to ignore the

input into where it goes, cheap because, while you have

feminist perspective because without it any meaningful

to pay the wages of the researchers, you don’t need

analysis of the higher education context is incomplete.

expensive labs and equipment. The issue is essentially

She writes clearly, engagingly and usually convincingly,

one of academic research priorities. It’s not a particularly

especially about Latin and South America. Her chapter,

convincing argument because there are more universities

‘Globalization and “Policyscapes”: Ruptures and Conti-

in Australia that are doing good research on all kinds of

nuities in Higher Education’, ploughs a different furrow

higher education issues, and it isn’t all that cheap when

in that it considers how national policies that have

you think that those engaged in it could be doing real

impact beyond the borders of the state in which they

research. Yes, that’s a joke. The real point is that money is

are formulated and imposed can de-territorialise the

getting tighter and the likelihood of a return on this kind

context. Simon Marginson and various of his colleagues

of research is quite low – even if the data gathered and

have articulated clearly the nature of transglobal policy

analysed are very much worthwhile. So maybe it wasn’t

making in higher education, and Stephen Carney first

that much of a joke after all.

coined the term ‘policyscape’ as a descriptor of the poli-

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cies that can no longer be understood only in the context

The next chapter,‘The Europe of Knowledge:An Analy-

of national decision making. If memory serves, Carney

sis of the EU’s Innovation Strategy’, comes from Harry de

examined the impact of behemoth players such as the

Boer and Frans van Vught, and is restrained to the point

World Bank, and he had grave concerns. Stromquist’s

of being almost timorous.There isn’t a great deal of analy-

social consciousness pushes hard at the limitations of

sis, nothing about Horizons 2020, for example, and while

political borders and her take on regional effects is well

that may well be a personal preference, I would have

worth considering because in the concluding discus-

preferred to see what the University of Twente’s CHEPS

sion, she draws all the elements together into a satisfying

team thought about how and where things were actually

argument that alerts the reader to the fact that policy

going in Europe, even if there is a wide diversity in the

making is an unpredictable rhizomic activity and not all

how and why of transnational policy developments. De

offshoots will find equally fertile soil.

Boer and van Vught are generally upbeat; as a result, the

Stromquist’s chapter aligns well with Jean Hsieh and

chapter reads more like a summary than an analysis of

Jeroen Huisman’s ‘Cross-national Education Policy Change

the current situation, which may not be surprising as van

in Quality Assurance: Convergence or Divergence?’, one

Vught is currently president of the European Centre for

of the few chapters that seems prepared to argue for the

Strategic Management of Universities. There’s bread and

importance of maintaining a level of integrity vis-à-vis

there’s butter.

quality, that holding on to the idea of a university is really

The last chapter was a surprise because I know of

important, even if it is different in individual countries.

Sheila Embleton’s work as a linguist, especially her Finn-

It’s not an easy issue, especially for those of us who main-

ish connection, but not as a champion of international

tain a belief in universities being agents of social justice.

higher education policy strategy, so her chapter, ‘Canada–

But that makes it more important to discuss. Underneath

India Collaborations in Postsecondary Education’, was

Hsieh and Huisman’s gentle, reasonable tone, there lurk

new territory for me. According to her bio, Embleton is

some pretty contentious problems, but they manage the

a distinguished research professor in the Department of

tensions very well.

Language, Literatures and Linguistics at York University.

The fifth section describes some international per-

Currently, she is also president of the Shastri Institute,

spectives of higher education’s public policies. I

which is one of only two organisations in Canada that

confess not to have known what a path dependence

claim to have direct bilateral relationships with a foreign

analysis was before I read ‘Oscillations and Persistence

government, in this case, India. In a nutshell, the chapter

in Chinese Higher Education Policy: A Path Depend-

argues that York University has had a long and varied

ence Analysis’, but having worked in China and having

interaction with Indian higher education providers and

a nodding acquaintance with Feng Qiao Yan’s work if

that more can and ought to be done.

not Qiang Zha, I was keen to read their chapter. Wiki-

The book’s Conclusion is disappointing. Axelrod, in

pedia, bless its cotton socks, told me that ‘path depend-

his Introduction, stated that he believed the book to be

ence’ is either when your past comes back to haunt

a cogently argued summary of the challenges and pres-

you or that when a butterfly dies on a Tibetan moun-

sures that face every university around the world. As it

tainside someone in the CPC gets annoyed enough to

turns out, it actually demonstrates that within specific

annex the whole country. I paraphrase, of course, but

contexts some individuals have had some success, and

basically, that’s it and it is an analytical strategy that is

most of those have been lobbyists who have had access

mostly used in economics. Without doing it any kind

to networks that are beyond the reach (and purpose) of

of justice, their argument is that China’s current and

those who are interested in providing better education

predicted path in higher education policy terms was

rather than making a quid. It’s not much of a conclu-

set decades ago and unless something wrenches it from

sion, really.

its inevitable trajectory, it is unlikely it will achieve

Basically, the book paints a picture that suggests that

its stated objectives of world ranking and significant

much of current higher education policy, while it pur-

global influence.The argument seems both obvious and

ports to be intended to steer the ship out of troubled

inconsequential until you add the fact that Feng has

waters, is actually more like ‘hold tight, steady as she goes,

been championing the private higher education sector

let’s hope for the best’. To belabour the caught between

in China for a long time, and then it assumes a kind of

a rock and hard place analogy to within an inch of its life

free market in knowledge economy undertone, which

(don’t blame me, I didn’t start it), in these fiscally chal-

brings its own set of unanswered questions.

lenged times, when economic responsibility is trumping

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innovation and creativity in every nook and cranny of

ship up again and he could step back on board. But there

the higher education sector, if we see the university as a

was no further mention of the crew. The Greeks knew a

ship sailing in troubled international waters we ought not

thing or two about redundancies.They still do.

forget that Odysseus was quite prepared to sacrifice his men by clutching on to a root of some kind as his vessel

Andrys Onsman is an academic in the Centre for Studies of

was sucked from under him into the vortex. He hung on

Higher Education, University of Melbourne.

for dear life and waited until the next wave brought the

Another season, another reason, for makinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; policy Reviewed by Andrys Onsman

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The Gender Gap: Still a schism? Generation and Gender in Academia, by Barbara Bagilhole & Kate White (Eds.). ISBN: 978-1-137-26916-4, Palgrave Macmillan, 216 pp., 2013. Reviewed by Carroll Graham

Generation and Gender in Academia is the second book

ference between these two groups of women was their

edited by Bagilhole and White that considers issues facing

career expectations, shaped by the differences in national

women academics; it contains contributions by members

context of equal opportunity frameworks, which have

of the Women in Higher Education Management (WHEM)

changed considerably over the last four decades in all

Network, an international feminist research consortium.

countries represented in this book except Turkey.

Bagilhole and White’s first book, Gender, Power and Man-

The issues associated with organisational context

agement: A cross culture analysis of higher education,

crossed generations: each woman in this study experi-

provided an analysis of the impact and potential impact

enced a gendered organisational context that impeded

of women academics on organisational growth and cul-

their career progress, and ‘the organisational culture for

ture, and the issues facing these women in university

the younger women in this study, on the whole, does not

senior management (Bagilhole & White, 2011). Genera-

appear to have changed markedly from that experienced

tion and Gender in Academia takes those themes further

by the more senior group of women’ (White & Bagilhole,

by exploring intergenerational differences in the experi-

2013, p. 173). The personal context of family, class and

ences of and careers for a group of women academics.

geographical location has had similar impacts for the

Focusing on a select group of women academics, all of

women in this study. The class of each woman, her family

whom belong to the WHEM Network, Generation and

and her geographical mobility all impacted on her ability

Gender in Academia provides a case study of gender and

to progress her academic career. Class and family prioriti-

generation in universities. In a book of four parts, autobi-

sation of education shaped the notion of entitlement to

ographies of nine women academics from eight countries

tertiary education, while ‘strong mothers provided daugh-

illustrate four key themes: national context, organisational

ters with a sense of entitlement’ (White & Bagilhole, 2013,

context, personal context and individual agency. The

p. 176). Geographic mobility – or lack of it – features in

Introduction (Part I) sets the scene, providing context for

many of the narratives. Most of the more senior women

the countries of the women featured, for women making

were constrained in their careers due to restricted geo-

their careers as academics and for higher education more

graphical mobility, whereas for at least two of the younger

generally. Part II comprises individual stories of five more

women mobility has led to career advancement.

mature women, reflecting on their careers in academia,

The final theme identified in these autobiographies is

whereas Part III is one chapter, written by four early to

that of agency, which is considered in terms of an indi-

mid-career academics, which discusses contemporary

vidual’s choices, sponsors, cultural capital and becoming

experiences of gender issues in academia. Part IV con-

their gender aware. The younger women demonstrate

cludes by exploring generational change in the context of

greater agency, particularly through acquiring sufficient

the gendered academy.

cultural capital to believe that they are entitled to a career

The six autobiographical chapters are well written,

on the same terms as male academics. This is supported

engaging accounts of the lives of these nine women

by growing use of sponsors and by becoming gender

that provide a rich tapestry that illustrates the issues

aware at an earlier age than the more senior women.

for women academics. Similarities in the stories abound

Another strand that runs through the autobiographies

and cross the generation gap: for example, the relatively

in this book, and is positioned as a subtheme in the per-

long time taken to establish a career, and the overt and

sonal context (White & Bagilhole 2013, pp. 178–180), is

covert gender discrimination, were similar experiences

that of being an outsider.This outsiderness – or difference

for the younger and the more mature women.The key dif-

– is discussed by the authors in terms of gender, age, class

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and education in their experiences as children and/or

National Tertiary Education Union (NTEU) in addressing

adults.The experience of being an outsider transcends the

gender inequity and discrimination, such as the Blue-

generations for these women. Pat O’Connor, for example,

stocking Week events (National Tertiary Education Union,

one of the senior women, says:‘An “outsider” to university

2014), remain essential and need to be inclusive of both

in terms of class, gender and age, I had survived and was

academic and professional staff. Since gender inequity is

on my way, with high hopes and naïve optimism’ (2013,

systemic within our institutions of higher education, it is

p. 27). In a later chapter, Heidi Prozesky reflects that she

important that men and women address these matters.

‘felt trapped and powerless, and became an outsider to

Hence, I commend this book to all readers of Australian

the academic establishment’ (Carvalho et al., 2013, p. 133),

Universities’ Review.

while Teresa Carvalho acknowledged her outsiderness in wanting a tertiary education: ‘Swimming against the tide,

Carroll Graham is a third space professional who, until

I decided to keep my dream [to get a university educa-

recently, worked at the Institute for Sustainable Futures at

tion]’ (Carvalho et al., 2013, p. 154). As someone who was

the University of Technology Sydney (UTS). Carroll now has

the first in her family to attend university, who started her

an honorary appointment in the Faculty of Arts and Social

career in a non-traditional profession (engineering) in

Sciences at UTS to explore further issues in higher education,

the early 1980s, and who then moved into non-academic

particularly those relating to staff matters.

appointments in the higher education sector, I found much in the women’s stories that resonated with my selfconception of being an outsider. The outsider concept underscores the experiences of female professional staff who, when trying to move into more senior roles, face what I call the ‘double-glazed glass ceiling’ of being not academic and not male. Gender inequality and gender discrimination in academia are changing from overt to covert (Husu, cited in Carvalho, et al., 2013, p. 144). Thus, this book is a timely reminder of the systemic nature of gender inequality in higher education (White & Bagilhole, 2013, pp. 172–175), which crosses generations. As noted by White and Bagilhole in the concluding chapter, the key challenge remains

References Bagilhole, B. & White, K. (Eds.). (2011). Gender, Power and Management: A cross-cultural analysis of higher education. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Carvalho, T., Özkanli, Ö., Prozesky, H. & Peterson, H. (2013). Careers of Earlyand Mid-career Academics. In B. Bagilhole & K. White. (Eds.), Gender and Generation in Academia. London: Palgrave Macmillan. National Tertiary Education Union. (2014). Bluestocking Week. Retrieved from www.nteu.org.au/women/bluestockingweek. O’Connor, P. (2013). A Standard Academic Career?. In B. Bagilhole & K. White. (Eds.). Generation and Gender in Academia. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. White, K. & Bagilhole, B. (2013). Continuity and Change in Academic Careers. In B. Bagilhole & K. White. (Eds.) Generation and Gender in Academia. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

the need to confront ‘the assertion that the younger generation of women live in an era when the battles have been won’ (2013, p. 188). The continuing activities of the

The Gender Gap: Still a schism? Reviewed by Carroll Graham

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Diversity 101 Managing and Supporting Student Diversity in Higher Education: A case book by Robyn Benson, Margaret Hegney, Lesley Hewitt, Glenda Crosling & Anita Devos. ISBN: 978-1-84334-719-4, Chandos Publishing, 254 pp., 2013. Reviewed by Georgina Tsolidis

Managing and Supporting Student Diversity in Higher

In the final chapters, the authors link the various stu-

Education is well structured and easy to read. It pro-

dent experiences to strategies for academic success.

ceeds on the basis of a number of assumptions that are

These are illustrated in relation to the students and their

explained clearly right at the beginning, so that there are

personal attributes, for example, perseverance, pedago-

few questions left begging as you proceed through the

gies such as group work and peer review, and institutional

rest of the book. The book is about teaching to increas-

factors such as financial support and flexible delivery.

ingly diverse student cohorts within universities. Diver-

There is a list of key implications that offer a range of

sity is related to equity factors, with an argument made

how to’s for inclusive teaching. The authors include good

that socioeconomic status is critical because those who

teaching strategies that are likely to benefit all students:

fall into other equity categories are likely to be affected

‘offer feedback and encouragement’, ‘facilitate peer inter-

by socioeconomic status as well.

action’ or ‘facilitate student-centred access to information

The authors speak to those who teach in higher edu-

services’.These seem pretty straightforward.

cation. Their aim is to make us aware of the life experi-

Called ‘A case book’, this is a teacherly work that includes

ences, needs of and capacity for success of students who

discussion topics and questions for reflection. One can

may not have had the traditional pathway into univer-

imagine it being recommended for courses or professional

sity. Building on notions of participatory research, the

development for teaching in higher education.

authors present a range of case studies of students study-

The overwhelming majority of students who shared

ing social work at Monash University, who self-identified

their experiences are women. This, and the fact that

as having non-traditional pathways into university. Each

they were all doing social work, needed further explora-

of these students is different from the other but they

tion. While this absence didn’t necessarily detract from

share interrupted educational pathways. The group

the overall argument, more needed to be said about

includes those who are first in their family to attend

these issues as I suspect others would not be so readily

university, low socioeconomic background students,

convinced.

those with a medical condition and those from ethnic

Given the new funding regimes planned for higher edu-

minorities.These students were interviewed through the

cation, teaching to diversity may not be an issue into the

course of their studies. During this process, the original

future. This book is a timely reminder of what we may be

determination of success, which was linked to comple-

losing. These students are a testimony not only to how

tion, was shifted to include the potential of university

university can change students’ lives, but also the lives

study to change their lives.

of those who will benefit from a social worker, teacher,

The case studies include these students’ voices through the many quotations included, but are presented in the

doctor or lawyer who has different experiences from those of the traditional university student.

third person as the authors’ narrative of their experiences. This format enables predictable themes to emerge. The

Georgina Tsolidis is a professor of education at Federation

case studies are distilled to illustrate a particular aspect of

University of Australia, Ballarat.

inclusive teaching, which is explained at the beginning of the book. Each case study finishes with a set of questions for further discussion. vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

Diversity 101 Reviewed by Georgina Tsolidis

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More diversity Diversity and Inclusion in Higher Education: Emerging perspectives on institutional transformation by Daryl G. Smith (Ed.). ISBN: 978-0-415-52918-1 (hbk); ISBN: 978-1-315-79788-5 (ebk), Routledge, xvi + 175 pp., 2014. Reviewed by Dennis Bryant

Reading the title caused me some trepidation. I remem-

I noted was well referenced. What I found was that con-

ber asking myself several questions. Would I find an

trol of the communication in at least one place (page 5,

overpowering collection of perspectives? Didn’t diver-

line 5) was clumsy when identities were used in a cir-

sity imply inclusion? If so, was the title a tease? Could

cular fashion, as in ‘institutions … have deeply embed-

I believe that diversity and inclusion were newly emer-

ded identities associated with [a list of identities]’. Listed

gent issues, because these issues have been reported

on the next page were six research questions, which I

on for some time by authors including Brennan (2008),

initially greeted since I like to understand the book’s

Brennan et al. (2008) and Brennan and Teichler (2008).

research focus, but eventually I came to realise that each

Hadn’t Tinto (1975, 1987, 2006) and Kember (1989,

question could be researched for a lifetime. I fought off

1995), in earlier times, in their theories on student depar-

an urge to put down the book, opting instead for a read

ture, established that institutional variables could cause

of the first case study.

student departure and thus it was a given that institu-

What a sterling decision. The case study is called ‘Skin

tions needed to transform themselves in at least one

apart: On the complexities of institutional transforma-

way? So, I scanned through the table of contents to see

tion in South Africa’, by Jonathan D. Jansen. The narrative

what inspiration awaited me.

was impressively written, with passion, by a former out-

In my scan, I noticed that there were two introduc-

sider who was now an embedded insider functioning in

tions. One was written by the series editor, another by

a senior management role. There was inspiration aplenty

the editor of this book. I wondered why two introduc-

in this article, not the least of which were the ‘seven fun-

tions were necessary, why they weren’t integrated into a

damentals of deep transformation’ that formed an action

single piece. Continuing my scan, I noticed further that

plan. The action plan was grounded in the sense that it

the book editor had written the first chapter, entitled

dealt with securing ‘opportunities’(to quote from Jensen)

‘Identity and Diversity’, but did not mention inclusion.

to ensure the success of students as well as with staff,

Although I had no right to be suspicious, I was starting

even if there was an early element that some participants

to feel not inspired. Inspiration returned when I noticed

saw as apartheid-like coercion. In summary, it would be

that three-quarters of the book’s 175 pages were allocated

exceedingly difficult not be inspired by the plan and its

to five separate case studies undertaken across Europe,

rollout.

Africa, the Americas and New Zealand. The fact that there

The second case study, written by Heather Eggins, is

were five fresh authors was attractive. I started to hope

entitled ‘Institutional transformation in the UK: Diversity

that their studies might, to use Plutarch’s terms, fire my

and equity in a constantly shifting environment’. This is

inspiration. I decided to persist.

an attractive study, not just for its dispassionate approach,

Although I might have wished it to be otherwise, I

but also for the section on theoretical approaches where

found no inspiration in the first introduction. I could not

today’s diversity is shown to be explicable in terms of

give credit to the writer’s message that mass education

conceptual frameworks and cyclical theories, which read-

is a new phenomenon. While the claim was meant to

ers will enjoy. It gives structure to what might seem to

highlight the book’s importance, it detracted rather than

be erratic at times, and this delivers hope. Essentially, it

enhanced its appeal. Again seeking for the warmth of

explains higher education changes (for staff, students, soci-

inspiration, I broached the second introduction, which

ety, funding bodies) as movement from unitary to binary

More diversity Reviewed by Dennis Bryant

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systems, and, in some cases, back again. It provides figures

the merits of establishing, as viable higher education insti-

on success, and otherwise, of changes to higher education

tutions, tribal college and university models with unique

endeavours. It broaches the topics of forced redundancy

mission statements in New Zealand. There are references

and funding crises. Even though it canvasses many topics,

to tribal colleges and universities in other countries such

this case study is an inspiration to understand the meta

as Canada and the US.

forces that are having an impact on us, society-wide. In all probability, I was not expecting the next case

Dennis Bryant has a first degree in (mainly Aboriginal)

study to rise to the heights of the first two, but I was mis-

linguistics and foreign languages, graduate diplomas in

taken. I must acknowledge the editor’s acumen. If any-

teaching and computing studies, a masters in TESOL and

thing, it exceeded the first studies. It was well written,

a PhD that was premised on unearthing unintended, but

referenced and entirely grounded in educational reality. It

nevertheless real, non-beneficial institutional impacts on

deals, for example, with frameworks (which, in my experi-

student learning outcomes.

ence, are a laudable type of commitment to benchmarking), acknowledges rather than denies that the academy is at a crossroads and inspires the reader because it treats topics such as educational excellence, students and (did you anticipate it?) student learning outcomes. Too frequently, this collection of concepts is subjugated, giving rise to a criticism of Narcissus staring into the pool, at a time when ‘core activities’ (I take this term from Eggins’ article) need to be at the forefront of our concerns – in my opinion. While there is scope to disagree with some points, it would be difficult to ignore the comprehensive thrust of the paper. I recommend the scholarship in Yolanda T. Moses’ article entitled ‘Diversity, excellence, and inclusion: Leadership for change in the twenty-first century United States‘. There are two further case studies. The ‘Diversity in higher education in Brazil: Practices and challenges’ paper by Clarissa E. B. Neves makes some interesting points, such as the ratio of private to government higher education institutions in Brazil, affirmative action policies and

References Brennan, J. (2008). Higher education and social change. Higher Education, 56(3), 381–393. Brennan, J., Enders, J., Musselin, C., Teichler, U.& Valimaa, J. (2008). Higher Education Looking Forward: An agenda for future research. Synthesis report of the European Science Foundation’s Forward Look on higher education in Europe beyond 2010: resolving conflicting social and economic expectations. Strasbourg: European Science Foundation. Brennan, J.& Teichler, U. (2008). The future of higher education and of higher education research. Higher Education, 56(3), 259–264. Kember, D. (1989). A longitudinal-process model of drop-out from distance education. Journal of Higher Education, 60(3), 278–301. Kember, D. (1995). Open Learning Courses for Adults: A model of student progress. Englewood Cliffs: Educational Technology Publications. Tinto, V. (1975). Dropout from higher education: A theoretical synthesis of recent research. Review of Educational Research, 45(1), 89–125. Tinto, V. (1987). Leaving College: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Tinto, V. (2006). Research and practice of student retention: What next?, Journal of College Student Retention, 8(1), 1–19.

racial access quotas.The final case study,‘Indigenous institutions: Transforming higher education’, by Sharon Parker & Patricia M. G. Johnston, is appealing for its discussion of

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Hearing voices? Student Voices on Inequalities in European Higher Education: Challenges for theory, policy and practice in a time of change by Fergal Finnegan, Barbara Merrill & Camilla Thunborg (Eds.). ISBN: 978-0-415-82689-1 (hbk); ISBN: 978-0-203-52608-8 (ebk), Routledge, xi + 174, pp., 2014. Reviewed by Dennis Bryant

The word ‘voices’ in the title of this print book was one of

The first substantive chapter was ‘Capital Matters: Inter-

several words that caught my attention. It promised – and

rogating the Sociology of Reproduction and the Psychol-

delivered – views of student voices on striving, struggling

ogy of Transition and Potential Transformation in the UK’

and achieving success in higher education. The second

by Linden West. The editor erred in not enforcing a limit

word in the title to attract my eye was ‘inequalities’. I

on the length of the subtitle. Nevertheless, I was particu-

took this to mean that the voices were from students who

larly drawn to the theorists, especially Honneth (1995)

had overcome societal inequalities in order to arrive at

and the discussion about the social (meaning everybody

university, and this attracted me because of the implied

in the wider society and universities) struggle against

aspiration that drove them and because of the inspiration

exclusion.

that they could receive through success in higher educa-

This was followed by ‘Critical Theory and Non-

tion.These students were non-traditional students in some

traditional Students’ experience in Irish Higher Educa-

manner, whether it was class, ethnicity or gender, to men-

tion’ by Ted Fleming and Fergal Finnegan. One of the non-

tion a few. I read on.

traditional student interviewees said: ‘No one recognised

Opening the book, I saw nine interview case study

any potential in me’, which is sad because it falls outside

chapters preceded and succeeded by, respectively, two

Plutarch’s exhortation to fire student minds. As old as his

introductory chapters and two chapters of comparative

advice is, it can’t be faulted.

conclusions.That the chapters were balanced, at about 12

‘Ethnicity and Class Matters: Experiences in Swedish

pages each, which is reminiscent of research articles I fre-

Higher Education’ by Agnieszka Bron, Camilla Thunborg

quently encounter, was another reason to like the book.

and Eva Edström was built around three interviewees. It

Impressed, I felt that the editors would also have paid

was enjoyable to distinguish between the oft-used words

attention to relating their articles to theory. I was inspired

of ‘habitus’ and ‘cultural capital’, which seem to overlap

to read on, if only to renew my acquaintance with a range

and blend sometimes.

of theoretical definitions. I was not disappointed.

The chapter ‘Gender and Age: Negotiating and Experi-

Each chapter usually limited itself to two or three inter-

encing Higher Education in England’ is by Barbara Merrill.

view analyses that had been selected from a corpus of up

Apart from encountering for the first time the description

to 100 voice interviews, which had been conducted at

‘symbolic interactionism’, I liked the interplay between

two to three higher education institutions in their coun-

older, and generally childrened, women and as yet unchil-

try of research. The interview chapters consisted of stud-

drened, generally younger, women, who concurred on

ies of non-traditional students in six European countries.

one topic: university learning as a liberating space for self-

A good spectrum.

growth.

Here is a brief overview, perhaps a little terse because

Non-traditional students and barriers to participa-

of the number of voice chapters that the editors decided

tion in German universities, by Frank Schömer. There

were needed to be covered. They are in presentation

was a relentless structure here that allowed for summa-

order, not just because this is convenient, but also because

ries, both of which I very much enjoyed; however, the

it was difficult to pick a best or second best study. I learnt

Reference section was in German and therefore not

something from all the chapters.

accessible to all.

Hearing voices? Reviewed by Dennis Bryant

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In John Field and Natalie Morgan-Klein’s chapter, ‘Dis-

‘The Unwanted Students: Closure Tendencies in the

ability and Learner Identities in Scotland’, the authors

German University System’ by Peter Alheit, although intel-

noted that disability was an under-researched topic. They

lectual in style and including six figures that portray the

also highlighted some known but often not associated

relative but fluctuating positions of broad discipline areas,

conditions, as well as broadening their study by provid-

spends most of its time away from students discussing

ing some accompanying staff interviews along with the

instead gatekeepers who control student access to the

disabled student interviews.

disciplines.

‘Equality and Improving Retention Practices for Nontraditional Students in Poland, by Ewa Kurantowicz and

Dennis Bryant has a first degree in (mainly Aboriginal)

Adrianna Nizinska, was thoroughly enjoyable, not just

linguistics and foreign languages, graduate diplomas in

because it related retention to non-traditional students,

teaching and computing studies, a masters in TESOL and

but also because it was well written and began by asking

a PhD that was premised on unearthing unintended, but

why, despite little institutional support, some students in

nevertheless real, non-beneficial institutional impacts on

Poland continue their studies.

student learning outcomes.

I liked the interviews in ‘Social ineqUalities and Family Support for Non-traditional Students in Andalucia, Spain’ by José González-Monteaguda and Miguel-Angel Ballesteros-Moscosio, but three pages of conclusion made

References Honneth, A. (1995). The Struggle for Recognition: The Moral Grammar of Social Conflicts. Cambridge: Polity Press.

me think that repetition trumped analysis in this paper.

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Beware all ye who enter here! Academic Life and Labour in the New University. Hope and other choices by Ruth Barcan. ISBN 9781409436218 (hbk), Ashgate, 258 pp., 2013. Reviewed by Janin Bredehoeft

Academic Life and Labour in the New University is

calls for a serious engagement with the impact of these

an honest, deep and critical enquiry into the realities of

changes on the personal lives of academics by bringing

academic work in Australia that provides the reader with

together ‘private feelings and public contexts’. While the

hope and choices for a brighter working future in the new

author acknowledges that some of the changes to work-

university. It is a collection of essays about the transfor-

ing life were progressive and really needed, she questions

mation of the university during the last decade and also

‘how much more work can be compressed into a week’

provides an analysis of the experiences of academics and

(p. 6), critically questions the casualisation of the profes-

students from a pedagogical perspective.

sion and provides evidence of an emerging insecurity

Reading this book while on fieldwork for my PhD about

about the profession. Rather than dismissing the numer-

insecure academic work in Germany felt a little odd for

ous accounts of complaints as subjective whinging by a

two reasons. First, this book reveals unpleasant realities of

privileged workforce, as is often done in public opinion,

an industry I intend to move into, and second was, reading

Barcan stresses the importance of normalising these expe-

this in Germany, where academics seem to complain less

riences, engaging with failures, problems and limitations

about the changes to the profession than more about the

of academic work in order to combat the ‘threat to the

fact that the employment of 75 per cent of the academic

university as an institution’ (p. 15). By arguing that the

workforce is in insecure positions. In contrast with Aus-

transformation of the university sector and its working

tralia, it seems the German academic labour market has

life has produced the attitude of not being good enough

been quite resistant to changes even in times of the three

in students and academics, she advocates to regain the

big shifts stressed by Barcan (p. 6) of massification, mar-

agency of the profession (p. 12 ff.). One of the strengths

ketisation and internationalisation. Nevertheless, changes,

of this analysis is the holistic approach by which she pro-

to the nature of academic work itself and to the questions

vides a critical account of the contemporary transforma-

of ‘Who is employed?’ and ‘How are they employed?’ are

tion of the university system, through its impact on the

relevant (Farnham, 1999; Schimank, 2005; Enders & De

institution in general as well as on the individuals working

Weert, 2009; Musselin, 2010). For the German junior aca-

and learning in it.

demics the Australian academic career system, with its

The book is subdivided into seven chapters, including an

high salaries and relative job security for those in employ-

Introduction and Conclusion.The first chapter provides the

ment, is quite attractive. Hence, a prevailing question is if

background for the changes to the working lives of academ-

and how academic work in Australia has changed since

ics by dealing with the ‘Big Shifts: Massification, Marketisa-

Weber’s account of ‘science as a vocation’ (Weber, 1958).

tion and Their Consequences’ to the university sectors in

Barcan does provide the answer with her report about

Australia and the UK. Both cases show that similar develop-

the life and labour of an academic in Australia today, by

ments towards massification and marketisation have led to

demonstrating that the intensification of academic work

the dilemma of an expanding system and declining public

embedded in the mantra of managerialism is profound

funding. These cases demonstrate that the original idea of

and seems to have serious effects on the wellbeing of indi-

the university as a provider of social and public good has

viduals and thus ultimately on the future capacity of the

been brought out of balance in the name of individual and

education system itself.

national economic benefits. The expansion of university

As an insider, Ruth Barcan brings an excellent account

education might have brought diversity and equality, but

of the transformation and challenges of academic work

it has gone hand in hand with the marketisation supported

in Australia at the beginning of the 21st century and

by a free market mantra and claimed inability of govern-

Beware all ye who enter here! Reviewed by Janin Bredehoeft

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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ments to finance this politically volitional and ideologically

courage not only to reflect critically on the changes of

driven expanding system. Ultimately, these developments

academic work through marketisation and massification,

are the causes of some of the changes to working lives of

but also to remind us of the serious impact these changes

academics outlined in the following chapters.

have on the wellbeing of the scholar and the whole uni-

Chapter 2, which engages with ‘The Wellbeing of Aca-

versity education. In addition, the book gives hope by

demics in the Palimpsestic University’, gives a detailed

offering various new choices and concepts to deal with

account of what it is like to work in an institution that is,

the current employment condition while it also encour-

according to Barcan, three types in one: a scholarly com-

ages academics to unite in order to protect the profession

munity, a bureaucracy and a corporation (p. 69). More-

and the university education.

over, this chapter looks at the impact of the demands of

There are a few issues that Barcan could have addressed

this new all-encompassing organisation on personal lives.

better. I would, for instance, still argue that the academic

To work in academia today resembles many other white

profession has always been diverse, to a large extent inse-

collar professions: gone are the times of privilege and lost

cure, and has been seen as a passion more than a job. Some

seems professional morale. Driven by an outcome audit

historical engagement with the specifics of the academic

culture, productivity increase and efficiency measures,

profession, such as the career advancement system, would

academics today face the harsh realities of an alienated

have added further to the context of the various changes

labour force in modern capitalism (p. 138). This chapter

to academic life. Barcan engages with the institutional

is excellent in the way it links the present academic work

changes in the UK but does not engage with academic

reality to some of the changes in university management,

life and wellbeing. A short comparison of academic life

such as outcome measurements and bureaucratisation.

between the UK and Australia would have provided the

Barcan also engages with the consequences of marketi-

reader, unfamiliar with the institutional practices, with a

sation on work security by pointing to the new realities

deeper understanding of the transformation of academic

of academic work: the casualisation and diversification

life. I wonder if academics in the UK are equally affected

of the profession. However, as the title suggests, she does

by changes to their working life or if they might have dif-

provide some hopeful avenues for the future through

ferent strategies to deal with the consequences of institu-

some survival tips, such as a plea to the profession itself

tional shifts.

to become allies (p. 138) in the fight against the negative impacts of corporatisation and politicisation.

Needless to say, my personal wellbeing has already been affected by some of the problems Barcan is investigating,

The next two chapters deal with examples from cul-

such as casualisation, but one of the greatest achieve-

tural studies relating to teaching and pedagogy as well as

ments of this book is that Barcan manages to provide a

student experiences. She uses an empirical study to dem-

PhD student with hope.

onstrate that students find ‘utility’ in cultural studies and hence concludes that, despite some mainstream criticism,

Janin Bredehoeft is a PhD candidate at the University of

academics in the humanities are doing valuable work.

Sydney. Her research is on the transformation of the higher

Chapter 5 tackles one of the most common experiences in today’s working environment, ‘Feeling Like a Fraud: Or,

education sector and its impact on the academic profession in Germany and Australia.

the Upside of Knowing You Can Never Be Good Enough’. In this chapter, Barcan describes the feelings and experiences of academics as well as some structural problems leading to the feeling of ‘not good enough’ and argues for normalising the discussions of this experiences. Moreover, she provides ideas to develop pedagogical strategies, such as ideas to normalise the possibility of failure and limitations in scholarly work, and the courage to be intellectually honest and interesting by being true to one’s research. In this chapter Barcan refers especially to the future work-

References Enders, J. & Teichler, U. (1997). A victim of their own success? Employment and working conditions of academic staff in comparative perspective. Higher Education, 34(3), 347–372. Farnham, D. (2009). Employment Relations in Europe: A Comparative and Critical Review, in J. Enders & E. De Weert. (Eds.), The Changing Face of Academic Life. Analytical and Comparative Perspectives. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 195–217. Musselin, C. (2010). The Market for Academics. New York: Routledge.

force, and in particular, to early career academics as they

Schimank, U. (2005). New public management and the academic profession: Reflections on the German situation. Minerva, 43: 361–376.

face a transformed academic environment.

Weber, M. (1958). Science as a vocation, Daedalus, 87(1): 111–134

Barcan’s account of the academic profession in Australia is remarkably comprehensive. She does have the vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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Rhizomatic learning rules, OK? Educating the Postmodern Child: The struggle for learning in a world of virtual realities by Fiachra Long. ISBN-13: 978-1441103871 ISBN-10: 1441103872, Bloomsbury Academic, 203 pp., 2013. Reviewed by Andee Jones

Fiachra Long is senior lecturer in Education at Uni-

Expanding on his doubts about knowledge delivery

versity College Cork, Ireland. He is also a philosopher.

via virtual realities, Long contrasts the acquisition of

Educating the Postmodern Child, Long’s mostly philo-

knowledge in its conventional disciplinary sense – as

sophical treatise on education in an age of virtual reali-

‘tree-like’ – with rhizomatic learning. As Deleuze and

ties, is rich in scholarship, particularly in the form of

Guattari (1987) emphasise,‘Unlike trees or their roots, the

a dialectic among ancient, modern and postmodern

rhizome connects any point to any other point’ (p. 21).

philosophies of education.

Rhizomatic learning, says Long, reflects ‘what my clicking

As a philosopher, Long is circumspect about embracing

and clunking friends are doing … opening pages willy-

certain aspects of the postmodern project, particularly in

nilly, following hunches, attacking information which is

relation to the education of children. I have no quibbles

not pre-arranged according to some preconceived linear-

with circumspection and I applaud Long’s scholarship and

ity’ (pp. 82–83). Much as Long appears to take as given a

his informed and passionate commitment to education.Yet

certain divide between arboreal and rhizomatic learning,

while I was initially drawn to the book’s title, soon enough

he does flag the possibility of ‘a delicate interweave’ of

it began to trouble me. What is ‘the postmodern child’?

rhizomatic elements within ‘the more traditionally struc-

Long provides no working definition of his subject, appear-

tured curriculum’ (p. 87). But why ‘delicate’? After all,

ing rather to assume as unproblematic his own reading of

isn’t the massive cognitive growth fired by the infant’s

postmodern culture and the children who inhabit it. The

unstructured interactions with the environment a prod-

more I read, the more I feared that Long is mistaken about

uct of rhizomatic processes? I do not mean to imply that

the relative incontestability of his version and that read-

all learning ought to be rhizomatic, but rather that some

ers will go along with it. I tried to bracket my concerns by

of Long’s concerns may be misplaced. Moreover, I wonder

temporarily setting aside the problematics of ‘the postmod-

to what extent Long is charging postmodern culture with

ern child’ and by imagining the subject, more approach-

harms wrought by mass schooling itself, particularly given

ably, as ‘educating the child in a world of virtual realities’.

its original governmental brief to produce docile subjects.

Having partly succeeded in bracketing the most immediate

On the question of why children often prefer to avoid

obstacle, I next found myself responding to several of

thinking for themselves, for example, Long appears to

Long’s claims with, ‘Well yes … and no’, or ‘It’s an interest-

point the finger more at postmodern culture than at the

ing claim, but where is your evidence? What about this as a

long tradition of schooling for obedience.

plausible competing hypothesis?’

Postmodern culture, Long claims, assumes the child

Long’s misplaced confidence in his reader’s acqui-

has ‘achieved sufficient autonomy and indeed agency to

escence means that one must join the dots to read his

shape the world around it’. This arrangement, he says,

thesis, but on the following position he is clear: the

is ‘only softly influenced by parents and carers, who

ubiquity and nature of contemporary computer-based

themselves fall under scrutiny and could apparently be

knowledge acquisition and social media is detrimental to

replaced should their standards not be high enough’ (p.

children’s psychosocial development and education. This

17). What Long means by this is not entirely clear and he

may or may not be the case, but that case cannot be made

again fails to support his remarks with evidence. In a simi-

without sustained argument. For my liking, Long is far too

lar vein, Long contrasts televised images of 21st century

inclined to substitute anecdote and intuitive interpreta-

rioters ‘rampaging through London high streets, looting

tion for evidence.

shops’ with the diametrically opposed motivations, so he

Rhizomatic learning rules, OK? Reviewed by Andee Jones

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assumes,‘of the impoverished children of the early 1900s’

Andee Jones is a retired academic and psychologist whose

who stole food and fuel for their families.While his mourn-

published work includes four non-fiction books, one of

ing of the breakdown and loss of the social contract is

which has been adapted for the stage, and numerous articles

understandable, Long appears to be targeting postmodern

in scholarly, literary and mainstream journals. Jones’ latest

culture itself rather than the impact of, for example, neo-

book is The Gender Vendors: Sex and lies from Abraham to

liberal policies on the already marginalised. Postmodern

Freud, published by Lexington Books.

culture and neoliberalism are not coterminous and, arguably, much of what Long criticises about contemporary

Reference

practices of commodification (p. 17) is directly associated

Deleuze, G. & Guattari, F. (1987). A Thousand Plateaus, trans. Brian Massumi. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

with Thatcher–Reaganite-type policies since the 1980s. Educating the Postmodern Child is a timely and valuable contribution to the field of philosophy of education. The book contains many intriguing and sometimes contentious ideas, but these are insufficiently marshalled to constitute a convincing case.

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A capital idea? Seventeen Contradictions and the End of Capitalism by David Harvey. ISBN 978 1 78125 160 7 (hbk), Profile Books, xiv + 338 pp., 2014. Reviewed by Thomas Klikauer

Ever since German philosopher Hegel popularised the

before it, submit to its dictates and worship before the

idea that our world is best understood in terms of con-

altar of its power’ (p. 25). Perhaps the sooner one realises

tradictions, social science has used positives and nega-

this, the sooner one gets a clear picture of what today’s

tives to see how both shape education. Using Hegel’s

higher education is really about. This sort of contradic-

idea of dialectical thinking – commonly known as thesis–

tion also marks the opposition between money versus

antithesis–synthesis’ – one of Hegel’s pupils, a certain Karl

education, as well as the third contradiction, capitalism

Marx, applied it to understand capitalism. David Harvey

versus the state, when the state (and politicians, for that

employs this Hegelian–Marxian method to highlight no

matter) pretends to favour higher education while at the

fewer than 17 contradictions that scourge current capital-

same time handing it over to capitalist market forces.This

ism.This is underscored by a wealth of data and a delight-

also offloads the burden on to consumer/students to get

fully accessible writing style. Initially, one can see two

an education not for their needs, but for capital’s needs.

versions of contradictions. In Aristotelian philosophy, logi-

Hence, education is no longer life-fulfilling but has been

cal contradictions are ‘two statements held to be so totally

converted into property.

at odds that both cannot be true’ (p. 1), while Hegelian–

As a consequence, students need to ‘property them-

Marxian dialectical contradictions reach beyond that by

selves’ so that capital can function. This, of course,

offering a synthesis (p. 4). The Hegelian–Marxian version

leads to the contradiction of ‘private-appropriation vs.

is slightly complicated by the fact that there are contradic-

common-wealth’ (p. 53), where state interests once

tions between the world as it ‘appears’ [Anschein] and as

favoured common wealth while capital seeks private

it ‘really is’ (Kant’s thing-in-itself). Armed with that, Harvey

appropriation with educational consumers forced to live

starts his investigation of education under capitalism.

out these contradictions. This marks the height of the

Since education in our time occurs under conditions

labour versus capital contradiction, with labour being

of capitalism, both are inextricably linked to one another.

forced to sell the only thing it possesses when seeking

Hence, there is university education as it appears to many,

to avoid Newstart starvation levels. This structural asym-

but there is also the reality of higher education lurking

metry is carried out daily in the labour market, in which

behind the well-manicured lawns and impressive build-

no goods change hands (unlike at the commodity market),

ings sending ‘misleading surface signals’ (p. 5) about edu-

while labour is sold under capital’s conditions flanked by

cation to the bypassing consumer (formerly known as

neoliberal deregulation. Imagine running a shop in which

student). To get beyond these managerially induced but

each customer is forced to buy the goods on offer – a capi-

misleading signals, Harvey highlights three main contra-

talist paradise. But this defines the so-called labour market.

dictions, namely, ‘foundational, moving and dangerous

Once labour is sold, contradictions do not end,

contradictions’. Each has grave implications for higher

because now something called ‘the labour process’ (p.

education. The classical use value versus exchange value

62) starts with its own internal contradictions when

contradiction, for example, makes one aware why and

people, even those with university degrees, face at least

how managerialism has shifted the use value of education

three contractions:

towards exchange value.‘The aim [of education] is to pro-

1. between higher wages and management’s drive

cure exchange-values, not use-values. The creation of use-

towards lower wages that contradicts capitalism’s

value for others is a means to an end’ (p. 17).

need to sell (to make us buy things we don’t need

This also means that ‘money is the supreme God of the [educational] world and that we must all bow down

A capital idea? Reviewed by Thomas Klikauer

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To produce wealth, not only production is needed but also ‘social reproduction’ (p. 182), that is,‘free’ labour sup-

3. between better working conditions and the manage-

plied mostly by women, without which, capitalism would

rial drive towards cost cutting inside and outside the

most likely cease to exist. Corporate mass media usu-

workplace.

ally frame this as a woman’s free choice and as freedom.

Inside universities, the contradictions between technol-

Hence, there is yet another contradiction between free

ogy, work and human disposability (p. 91) continue when

social reproductive labour and being forced to sell one’s

university management seeks to replace academic labour

labour on the labour market, sitting at an office desk five

through technical means ranging from blackboards and

days a week for 40 years writing something on a piece of

internet-guided prepackaged tutorials sold by textbook

paper to give to someone at a bigger desk. The emptiness

corporations, to virtual lectures that reduce lecturers to

of an office existence is further perverted by capitalism’s

‘trained gorillas’ (p. 105) and mere instructors. But tech-

contradiction of ‘freedom and domination’ (p. 199). Given

nology also ‘shortens the turnover time’ (p. 99) so that

this, there can be no freedom under capitalism. Capital-

more educational consumers can be put through; hence

ism’s freedom can only be an ideology as it serves to

the pressure by university management to reduce study-

sustain relations of domination while camouflaging con-

ing time towards a ‘5-minute-MBA’ (amazon.com) and

tradictions.

the one year masters degree. This results in a ‘technical

All of this leads to Harvey’s ‘dangerous contradictions’

and social division of labour’ (p. 113), with its associated

(p. 217), such as the ideology of ‘endless growth’ on which

‘deskilling’ (p. 119) and McDonaldisation of academic

Harvey surprisingly argues that capitalism will not run

labour.

into a wall when having exploited all natural resources

But unlike most industries in which there is a contra-

(peak oil, peak soil, etc.), but instead will continue to

diction between ‘monopoly and competition’ (p. 131),

exist through its impressive ability to adapt.This is where

higher education favours a handful of oligopolies that

environmentalism and Marxism clash. Many believe that

have divided up markets. Higher education is ‘still’ defined

‘capital’s relation to nature’ (p. 246) will bring capitalism

by competition in which the choice between Porter’s

down when it collapses under its own weight. Harvey

cost leader (same degrees; just cheaper) and differentia-

rejects this sort of automatism, arguing in ‘Prospects for a

tor (offering unusual degrees) works relentlessly. Flanked

Happy but Contested Future: The promise of revolution-

by this is also a drive towards ‘name branding so that

ising humanism’ (p. 282) that we cannot afford to lean

monopoly prices can be charged’ (p. 139), as at Harvard,

back and watch capitalism destroying itself. It simply will

MIT, Oxford and Cambridge, for example. This has not yet

not happen. Instead, he offers clear and workable ‘ideas

happened in Australia, but it could be argued that there

for political praxis’ (p. 294). Perhaps one of the best ways

have been serious attempts by a few universities to do so.

of achieving Harvey’s political praxis is to use his work

This, of course, leads to yet another contradiction, namely,

when teaching in higher education.

‘uneven geographical development’ (p. 146) and ‘disparities of income and wealth’ (p. 164) when ‘the top 100

Thomas Klikauer is a senior lecturer at the University of

billionaires added $240 billion to their wealth in 2012 –

Western Sydney. His latest book, Managerialism: A Critique

enough to end world poverty four times over’ (p. 170).

of an Ideology, is published by Palgrave.

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

A capital idea? Reviewed by Thomas Klikauer

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Help! I need somebody / Help! Not just anybody … Helping Doctoral Students Write: Pedagogies for supervision by Barbara Kamler & Pat Thomson. ISBN 978-0-415-82349-4 (pbk), Routledge , 189 pp., 2014. Reviewed by Franklin Obeng-Odoom

The deliberate study of the best ways to mint PhDs has

what can be called the literature review imbroglio. They

been a recurrent theme in this journal (see, for example,

probe several pressing issues about the literature review:

volume 54, no. 1), and rightly so because it is a topic that

whether it is needed, how to do it, at what stage in the

strikes to the very heart of the future of research and the

thesis to do it and what to call it. Chapter 5, ‘Reconsider-

academy. Helping Doctoral Students Write: Pedagogies

ing the Personal’, is a positive and normative assessment

for Supervision joins this conversation. The book is in its

of the use of the personal pronoun ‘I’, the use of which

second edition, an indication that it was well received in

generates a dilemma for many doctoral students and

its first life.The version under review has been revised and

supervisors. Chapters 6 is ‘A Linguistic Toolkit for Super-

updated, and responds to the growing need for a book on

visors’; it provides grammatical and syntactical advice

the complexities of supervising doctoral students, so it is

for supervisors as well as students. Chapter 7, ‘Structur-

deserving of a second round of review. The authors are

ing the Dissertation Argument’, is the chapter in which

well qualified to write the book: they have huge expe-

the book strongly puts the case for an argument-based

rience in running workshops and seminars on the topic

model of the doctorate, that is, the view that the disserta-

and have published widely on the subject. While this is

tion should be framed around an argument from begin-

not the first book on supervision – indeed, Moira Peelo

ning to end. Chapter 8, ‘Publishing Out of the Thesis’,

(2011) has recently published Understanding Supervi-

responds to the current pressure to have doctoral stu-

sion and the PhD – it is unique for its main thesis.

dents publish during their candidature, and the growing

The book makes and defends the argument that doctoral

phenomenon of dissertation by research, while Chapter

supervisors should see their main role as encouraging stu-

9 closes the book by looking into ways of ‘Institutionalis-

dents to write throughout the process of supervision.This

ing Doctoral Writing Practices’ and giving examples of

implies that writing is regarded as a social practice, not as

what has worked for others.

a technique, not as a series of tricks and not as the result

Engagingly written, the book is very readable. The

of tips, but as a way of life. It is a thesis that agitates the

use of quotations from doctoral students and supervi-

established view in much social science supervision that

sors makes the book lively, and the inclusion of figures

leads students to create different stages in the disserta-

and highlighted text effectively prevents presentation

tion-producing process, usually starting from reading, data

from being monotonous. Supported by 10 pages of rich

collection, interpretation and analysis, before writing.This

and state of the art studies on the topic, this book is not

book, then, departs from others that encourage them to

only a firm platform but is also a reliable springboard for

write up after all the work is done.

supervision.

To emphasise this key proposition, the book is divided

Nevertheless, the book trips on a few occasions in its

into nine chapters. Of these, ‘Putting the Doctoral Writ-

otherwise impressive sprint. While we are served by the

ing Centre Stage’ appropriately comes first. It is followed

recent research of Fiona Timmins and her colleagues, pub-

by ‘Writing the Doctorate, Writing the Scholar’ (chapter

lished in Nurse Education Today, with the increasing call

2), in which the case for considering the writing process

for interdisciplinary and even transdisciplinary research,

as a way of developing an academic identity is forcefully

it is surprising that the book under review is silent on

put and illustrated by a number of examples. Chapters

the topic, preferring instead to be a book for most social

3 and 4 (respectively, ‘Persuading an Octopus Into a Jar’

science disciplines only in their silo forms. Also, while

and ‘Getting on Top of the Research Literatures’), address

the topics covered in the book are comprehensive, how

Help! I need somebody / Help! Not just anybody … Reviewed by Franklin Obeng-Odoom

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they support the central thesis is not always evident. The

others who are supervisors but do not have PhDs, or PhD-

argument to form writing groups, for instance, does not

holding supervisors who may be knowledgeable but who

appear to be consistent with writing as an everyday prac-

are not advanced in their own research careers. For these

tice, which the book advocates, while the omission of

categories of supervisor, the assumption of an all-knowing

book reviewing from the various writing exercises recom-

supervisor does not apply.

mended is unfortunate but consistent with current trends

Overall, the book’s thesis of writing as a social practice

in supervision, as I pointed out in an earlier contribution

and argument for highlighting questions of identity for

to AUR (2014).

the doctoral candidate, its advocacy for the institution of

More fundamentally, the book assumes that all doc-

support mechanisms for doctoral scholars, recommenda-

toral students are empty and they should be ‘helped’ and

tions and advice on how to take an argumentative stance

hence the subtitle: ‘Helping doctoral students to write’.

in the dissertation are not only highly crystallised but also

This is an alienating educational philosophy in which the

crystal clear, persuasive and irresistible. There may be dis-

know it all supervisor preaches to know little or nothing

ciplinary differences about at what stage thesis writing

students on what is right and wrong. Assuming a bank-

can begin, but the case of this book is that an integra-

ing model, to borrow from Paulo Freire’s Pedagogy of

tive and integrated approach to dissertation production

the Oppressed (1970), the doctoral student is assumed

should be adopted and this is meticulously and convinc-

to be an empty bank account into which the supervisor

ingly demonstrated. Helping Doctoring Students Write:

must make deposits. In fairness to the book’s authors,

Pedagogies for Supervision, then, is a fine addition to the

they do acknowledge that doctoral students eventually

state of knowledge on dissertation supervision.

become more knowledgeable as they advance in their candidature; however, it is questionable to suppose that

Franklin Obeng-Odoom, an early career supervisor, is the

all students are empty at the start of the process. Many

chancellor’s postdoctoral research fellow at School of the

universities in the UK and Australia insist on a developed

Built Environment, University of Technology, Sydney.

proposal that identifies relevant literatures and clear gaps, even before admission.While this proposal can change, its institution challenges the view that students are empty from the start. Besides, there are PhD students who were research-active academics or are academics at the time of enrolment. Indeed, most PhD students who win the limited scholarships in the present limited funding climate are fairly well published. For all these students, then, the assumption of empty vessels to be filled and weaklings to be helped does not necessarily apply.

References Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Herder and Herder. Obeng-Odoom, F. (2014). Why write book reviews? Australian Universities’ Review, 56(1): 78–82. Peelo, M. (2011). Understanding Supervision and the PhD. London and New York: Continuum. Timmins, F., Timmins, B., O’Rourke, P., Long, S., Ekins, R. & Coyle, E. (2014). Interdisciplinary doctorial supervision – Lessons for nurse education and practice. Nurse Education Today. doi: 10.1016/j.nedt.2014.05.018.

On the other hand, there are many doctoral supervisors who are first-time supervisors, such as this reviewer,

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

Help! I need somebody /Help! Not just anybody … Reviewed by Franklin Obeng-Odoom

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The knowledge profession? Knowledge, Expertise and the Professions by Michael Young & Johan Muller (Eds.). ISBN-978-0-414-71391-7 (pbk), Routledge, 189 pp., 2014. Reviewed by Andrys Onsman

Knowledge, Expertise and the Professions, edited by

lating, creating and applying knowledge than simply gate

Michael Young and Johan Muller, is an excellent collection

keeping it, and to be professional means having accesses

of linked essays that collectively build on Basil Bernstein’s

a pool of extant theoretical knowledge and a commingled

theoretical perspectives of professional knowledge and

pool of practical knowledge.

expertise (Bernstein, 2000, 2013). Young and Muller are

The next chapter, ‘Professions Sacred and Profane:

educational sociologists with substantial international

Reflections Upon the Changing Nature of Professionalism’,

reputations, so the reader is entitled to expect some well-

by Gerald Grace, which considers the changing nature,

considered contemporary thought and commentary. For-

purpose and definition of professions, sails perilously

tunately, the reader ill not be disappointed.

close to sounding like a plaintive cry for an antiquated

The structure of the book reflects Bernstein’s proposi-

and irrelevant bygone era when morality and ethics were

tion that professionals have access to a body of theoretical

defined by the fear of an omniscient, omnipotent and

and practical disciplinary knowledge, and that induction

omnipresent deity. Rather than celebrating the progress

into a profession involves the acquisition of access to that

of humanity in discarding its affective entrapment by a

pool of knowledge through exposure to a designed and

fabrication, Grace argues for the re-instatement of religion

delivered curriculum that incorporates elements from it

(any religion, but preferably Catholicism) as the arbiter of

and from the body of pedagogic knowledge.The decision

truth and goodness in the professions, but acknowledges

as to what is to be included, how it is to be included and

that it may be a lost cause. Equating godlessness with a

how it is to be taught is seen by Bernstein in terms of

lack of ethics and morality in the professions, and conse-

knowledge reconceptualisation. Hence, the book starts

quently a diminution of professionalism to nothing more

with the abstracted theory, argues the case in some detail,

than functional, technical expertise exempt from moral

and then moves to specific examples.

and ethical considerations, seems to me to diminish postEnlightenment humanism itself. In footnote number 15,

Part 1: Framing the issues

Grace concedes as much when he quotes Manuel Castells at some length and claims that Castells’ appeal for social

Young and Muller’s opening chapter could serve as a

responsibility and human justice ‘is clearly a Humanist

blueprint for how to go about explaining exactly what an

credo that seeks to replace earlier religious credos’. Pos-

edited volume intends to do. It presents a clearly articu-

sibly, but on the other hand maybe it’s just a wise man’s

lated and coherently argued framework for investigating

wish list for how we should all behave in the real world.

what constitutes professional knowledge and expertise in

Grace’s most salient point is that professional knowledge

the current environment, although adherents of Donald

comes (or at least ought to come) with a responsibility to

Schoen may be dismayed to read that his oft-cited propo-

use it appropriately and with a regard for its consequence,

sitions on what constitutes knowledge are discounted as

and that argument is relevant to the argument presented

inadequate when it comes to investigating future-focused

in the following chapters.

professional knowledge and expertise. Young and Muller

These two chapters form the broad conceptual skel-

prefer Bernstein’s framework and present a sound argu-

eton of the book, namely, the acceptance of Bernstein’s

ment as to why. Fundamentally, they argue that nowadays,

framework of singulars (elements of disciplinary knowl-

professions draw their knowledge elements from a vast

edge) that are combined in regions of specific purpose

array of sources and fields of enquiry. Profession-based

that combine into fields of practice (professional knowl-

knowledge, they argue, is more about accessing, manipu-

edge). As an example, we might consider understanding

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chemical reaction as a singular necessary for developing

than learning, which is basically turning data and informa-

drugs (region), which is an aspect of pharmacy (field).

tion into knowledge, which in turn transcends situational

That particular singular is also functional in other regions

capacity. Derry’s chapter is essential reading for anyone

as well. Grace adds the idea of morality and ethics into

who is seeking clarity of constructivist thinking, espe-

that mix. From here on in, it’s about explicating and exem-

cially about the importance to learning of a purposefully

plifying the points made, fleshing out the theory and, in

designed and constructed environment because, as she

the third section, analysing some practical examples.

emphasises, leaning depends on the system of judgements within which it occurs.

Part 2: Developing the theory

In his chapter entitled ‘Know-how and Knowledge in the Professional Curriculum’, Christopher Winch

Jan Derry contributes a chapter called ‘Abstract Rational-

addresses the issue of what he terms ‘epistemic ascent’,

ity In Education’, in which she steadily dismisses James

which is basically the notion that learning is a building

Wertsch’s (Wertsch, 1985) critique of Vygotsky as lacking

up process, that is, that expertise develops over time and

in rationality, or at least lacking in functional rationality. By

events. By way of disclaimer, I am one of those who cannot

drawing a link between Vygotsky and Hegel, she sets up

see how knowledge (as opposed to information or data)

Robert Brandom (1998) as the carrier of the constructiv-

can be anything but systematic. I am willing to accept that

ist torch. Wertsch, as seen by Derry, was wary of Vygot-

others may recognise delivered knowledge (most often

sky’s notion of social constructivism because it relies on

manifest in faith-based understanding), and that my inabil-

things existing regardless of their articulation or even

ity to do so is a personal failing of some magnitude, but

their conceptualisation as things. Wertsch certainly sees

that’s the way I roll. Winch is far further down the hill,

an ambivalence in Vygotsky: on the one hand, meaning

maintaining that ‘growing expertise and confidence in

is constructed within a particular environment, on the

a subject requires that a more objective justification be

other, he acknowledges a hierarchical scientific realism

available for belief’ (p. 48).

– hard science, if you will. Derry provides a measured,

Winch points out that ‘Some knowledge transmission

thoughtful analysis of Wertsch, and in doing so makes

by testimony is unavoidable and it is in many or even

clear much of what about Vygotsky’s philosophy contin-

most cases rational to believe propositions on the basis

ues to be misinterpreted in some quarters. There is a lot

of authoritative pronouncement, if the student has a good

in this chapter but one essential point is that Derry con-

reason to believe that the authority is a reliable one’ (p.

tends that while Vygotsky remained unclear about how

49). This statement on its own is enough to warrant an

human development accommodated (or was contingent

entire essay. Why, for instance, should testimony (or didac-

upon) new scientific concepts he steadfastly believed

tically presented knowledge) be avoided? How can a stu-

that the development of human thought is unavoidably

dent decide on the reliability of the lecturer? How is a

intertwined with epistemology because it is primarily a

reason good in this sense? Winch skips around such issues

socially constructed rather than an individual function.

to make the important point that one aspect of exper-

Derry suggests that to critique Vygotsky from an episte-

tise is a decreasing reliance on testimony and a growing

mological perspective therefore misses the point.

reliance on experience and procedural knowledge.Winch

Derry goes on to argue that Hegel not only influenced

has no hesitation is pointing out the danger of esoteric

Vygotsky but Robert Brandom as well, especially the

isolation in completely abandoning ‘the assumptions,

notion that grasping a concept requires ‘committing to

reactions, habits and propositions that constitute the basis

the inferences implicit in its use in a social practice of

of our commerce with the world’ (p. 50).What he is cham-

giving and asking for reasons. Effective teaching involves

pioning is that professionalism ought to include the grow-

providing the opportunities for students to operate with

ing capacity to evaluate existing and new knowledge.

a concept in the space of reasons within which it falls

For Winch, a profession-based curriculum ought to

and by which its meaning is constituted’ (pp. 41–42).

move the student from novice to expert, a development

As an educator, I would emphasise the notion that such

that adheres to itself Winch’s label of epistemic ascent,

grasping does not need to be instantaneous and total, that

with expertise being primarily the capacity to make

learning is both incrementally and temporally variable.

occupational judgements. For that, the professional needs

Brandom prioritises inference over reference in that he

much more than simply a base level of knowledge, a base

sees people as responding to reason rather than cause.

level of skill and an ability to use both purposefully in

Causal responsiveness is mechanical automation rather

situ.That knowledge, those skills and that capacity need to

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be employed with a consideration of their effect beyond

utory expertise, that is, the difference between talking

the task and occupation. This, Winch argues, is essential

the talk and walking the walk. Expertise is no longer a(n

in a curriculum that seeks to inculcate profession-based

exclusivist) status but a (specialist) capacity.

expertise.

The most interesting aspect of this chapter is the appar-

Winch is a seductive writer: articulate, broadly referen-

ent disagreement between Collins and Kotzee, as evident

tial and steadfast in his argument. But he creates a sense

in the fine print of the footnotes at the end of the chapter,

of being corralled into agreement, so it is worth occasion-

where Kotzee quietly concedes that Collins doesn’t actu-

ally stopping to draw breath and consider whether you

ally agree with his interpretation of interactional exper-

actually agree with him. What Winch sees as a devaluation

tise. Collins doesn’t see, for example, paradigm-based

of professional, for example, may simply be a restructur-

linguistic knowledge as theoretical knowledge per se,

ing apropos the changing nature of the parameters of

doesn’t agree that ‘esotericity’ is a movable feast and does

knowledge and the parameters of professions. Professional

not agree that you need to be socially recognised as being

judgement is increasingly less reliant of individual exper-

an expert; you just have to be in the club. I thought I had

tise and more on collaborative, inter-regional decision-

a reasonable grasp of Collins, but after reading Kotzee and

making. Knowledge is less and less individually constructed

trying to follow his box diagrams, I had to consult Wiki-

and more frequently a matter of purposefully processing

pedia to get my confidence back. As far as I read it, inter-

instantly accessible information and data into workable

actional expertise is the interplay of the theoretical and

solutions. As always, Winch provides a thought-provoking

practical and both are necessary.

contribution that is well worth engaging with.

According to David Guile, they are (or ought to be)

‘Differentiating Forms of Professional Expertise’, the

subject to continuous recontextualisation. In his chap-

next chapter, is written by Ben Kotzee, an emerging aca-

ter ‘Professional Knowledge and Professional Practice as

demic who has a couple of papers out on the nature of

Continuous Recontextualisation: A Social Practice’, Guile

expertise in professional knowledge. Kotzee describes

takes Jean Lave as his starting point and argues that learn-

Schoen’s reflective practice model and Dreyfus’ stage

ing as transfer should be replaced by learning as participa-

model as what Winch terms fluency accounts of exper-

tion. Few of us in education are not aware of Jean Lave’s

tise because they are both defined according to ability.

Situated Learning (1991), which advocated the notion

In terms of the Rylean dichotomy between knowing that

of context in application of information in the forma-

and knowing how, they are more about the latter than

tion of knowledge and, consequently, expertise. Etienne

that the former (Ryle, 1945). Along the same lines as

Wenger, her student, took the up baton and powered it

Winch, Kotzee argues that social realist thinking demands

home with Communities of Practice, a seminal text that

a reconsideration of theoretical knowledge, which is an

retains a great deal of traction even today. Arsene Wenger

interesting and logical overspill from the previous chap-

was never Lave’s student and, consequent to having no

ter. But then Kotzee heads for the work of Harry Collins,

understanding of the principles of situated learning and

and particularly Collins’ work on the sociology of scien-

collaborative practice, went on to coach Arsenal, chang-

tific knowledge. Kotzee posits the notion that it could be

ing them from being a trophy winning football team to

good for education as well, which may seem reasonable as

perennial bridesmaids in the English Premier League. It’s

a starting point but becomes messy later on.

all about context.

For most readers, Harry Collins, with Trevor Pinch, is

David Guile’s work on interprofessional working and

best known for his two books that liken science and tech-

learning is generally outstanding and widely cited. His

nology to a mythical Jewish giant.Anyone who hasn’t read

chapter in Reconceptualising Professional Learning

The Golem:What You Should Know About Science or The

(Fenwick & Nerland, 2014) argues convincingly that the

Golem at Large: What You Should Know About Technol-

notion of commingling of theoretical knowledge with

ogy should immediately do so if they are after a consid-

practical knowledge has direct implications for pro-

ered discussion about how to measure success in science

fessional education. In this volume, Guile again draws

and technology – and how to whip up a bit of controversy

(unsurprisingly in this collection) on Vygotsky’s cultural

to sell your books.What consistently runs through Collins’

historical activity theory to argue that the danger of

many and varied publications is his insistence on people

attaining professional knowledge or expertise is that once

taking responsibility for things that they do, create, think,

achieved, one may be tempted to breathe a sigh of relief,

promote and use. The other key proposition he cham-

undo the belt and relax, and this is the last thing experts

pions is interactional expertise as distinct from contrib-

ought to. Once in the club, one should assume one isn’t,

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and continue to strive to get in. I’m not sure Guile would

knowledge’ (p. 93). It checklists Winch, Bernstein, Vygot-

agree with my analogy but the point is that the formation

sky, Muller and Young, just in case you have forgotten

of professionalism is an ongoing process.

what the spine of the argument is, and provides a sense of

In a dense summary of his own interpretation of

coherence and cohesion by dismantling any opposition to

recontextualisation (he acknowledges the variation

the book’s position, in this instance, the work of Michael

from Bernstein at the end of the chapter), Guile argues a

Luntley (Luntley, 2009), a highly respected (but Wittgen-

number of interesting and relevant points. First in terms

steinian) voice on judgement and morals in professions. In

of pedagogy is that knowing what and knowing how do

a thumbnail, Luntley’s argument is that there is no essen-

not have a practical boundary but instead commingle.

tial difference between expert and non-expert judgement

It’s a fundamental thesis in his proposal that concep-

(that is, context-bound decision making). Shalem argues

tual/theoretical/disciplinary

intermingles

that Luntley’s argument falls short because it does not

with practical/professional knowledge, and manifests in

acknowledge a distinct conceptual or disciplinary body

context-relevant decision making and inferring conse-

of knowledge. Well, he would say that, wouldn’t he? There

quences. Guile argues that the purpose of a curriculum

being such a body is the heart of this book. Shalem reluc-

is to support professional formation rather than immer-

tantly acknowledges that Luntley actually does acknowl-

sion in a discipline, an argument increasingly relevant

edge that the quality of a judgement is highly dependent

as more professions assume a multidisciplinary nature.

on reasoning, abstracted laws and specific context, but he

Students, he argues, need to learn ‘to appreciate the

baulks at the notion that all judgement is fundamentally

norms that underpin their learning in both the contexts

the same process, because that would mean that there

of education and work’ (p. 83) so that they can reason

is no difference between the professional and the plebe-

theoretically and practically. This line of argument sets

ian, in which case professionals would be no different

up recontextualisation as three pillared: content, peda-

to simple craftspeople. But that’s not exactly how I read

gogy and workplace, or what you learn, how you learn it

Luntley. I interpret Luntley as proposing that judgement

and what you do with what you’ve learnt.

is an activity that has great capacity for refinement. It also

knowledge

Because Guile crams in a lot of ideas, his chapter, ‘Professional Knowledge and Professional Practice as Contin-

brings the question of what a professional actually is back into the spotlight.

uous Recontextualisation: A Social Practice Perspective’,

Shalem turns to Winch to confirm that professionals not

demands close reading and a deal of background knowl-

only have access to a body of normative theory, but they

edge but it is worth persisting with because it illuminates

also have a body of empirical theory to use as the basis

a number of extremely important issues for anyone con-

for judgement. From here he turns to Andrew Abbott’s

cerned with knowledge formation and curricula that

work on inferential thinking in professional work. Abbott

embrace future potential rather than cling to the past.

argues that the professions have access to two sets of

It carries on from Winch in the notion that theoretical

knowledge: academic and diagnostic.There are overt links

knowledge is intimately related to practical knowledge

here to Vygotsky’s notion of conceptual knowledge being

rather than a precursor to it, which, in turn, ought to lead

ordered into classifications and Bersnstein’s vertical dis-

to a reconceptualisation of what a 21st century curricu-

course. Shalem states that ‘the process of building a case

lum should look like.

from different information relies on having access to a res-

I read the last sentence on page 82 a few times because

ervoir of deductive propositions or theoretical concepts

it didn’t seem to make sense, but because there are quite

that directs the experts’ attention to specific features of

a few complex ideas in the chapter, I assumed that it was

the particular’ (p. 97). Diagnosis, then, is in terms of an

me being as dense as the sentences. After the fourth read-

existing framework, a logically arranged compilation of

ing, I realised that there is an extraneous ‘is’ and every-

agreed upon professionally relevant or exclusive concepts,

thing falls into place with its excision. It just goes to show

dependent on epistemic rules and professional legitimisa-

the damage that a simple typo can do.

tion.That framework excludes the professionally irrelevant

The last chapter in the second section is by Yael Shalem

and provides a guide to what is reliable. Knowledge classi-

takes the line of enquiry further by asking ‘What Binds

fication is, therefore, a necessary condition for professional

Professional Judgment?’. It assumes that you, the reader,

practice. This is pretty well what Luntley argued, without

have been convinced that ‘there is an agreement that

that framework being exclusively the domain of one or

professional judgment in teaching derives from theoreti-

other of the professions. According to Luntley, anyone can

cal knowledge (educational theories) and subject matter

reason like that in any context.

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My greatest concern with Shalem’s line of argument

to present a detailed analysis of the history of engineering

is that it ends up either with professional knowledge

as a profession, describing how the fundamental know-

being so constrained by its classificatory framework that

ledge of engineering emerged, which ends up with a set of

it becomes staid, intractable and eventually irrelevant, or

mind-bogglingly complex matrices that would have Neo

that it becomes so broad as to be impractical, undefined

spinning in his grave (if he were dead, which maybe he is,

and ultimately inconsequential. Shalem acknowledges

or isn’t). It’s a wholly satisfying – but sneaky – argument

that teaching – if indeed it is a profession – does not (yet)

for contextual knowledge being an essential ingredient of

have such academic or diagnostic classification but argues

professional status of engineering. Hanrahan reminds the

that it should. It’s a difficult argument to sustain, especially

reader that the solving of engineering problems is a real

in the tertiary sector, where teachers are most often mem-

world activity and that the solutions have consequences,

bers of a different profession and are teaching students to

and the constraints, some of which at least are rooted in

become members of whichever profession they are aspir-

the professional knowledge base, are there as safeguards.

ing to join. Shalem struggles with this dichotomy, throw-

The whole chapter presents a strong argument for Bern-

ing up a few examples but never really convincing that

stein’s notion of recontextualisation and makes for good

the development of theoretical knowledge will provide ‘a

reading, even if you are not an engineer.

clearer ordering for teacher educators’ (p. 102). It seems

Closer to my (current) disciplinary home, the title of

that Shalem is more concerned that the suggestion that

Francis Carter’s chapter, ‘On the Cultivation of Decorum.

there is nothing epistemically different about professional

Development of the Pedagogic Discourse of Architecture

and non-professional judgement will encourage anti-intel-

in France, 1671–1968’, harks back to a time when essays

lectualism. This may not be a bad thing in any profession,

were all on something and had common nouns sporting

occupation or vocation that draws equally upon diverse

capital letters. But if you were expecting a florid, roco-

domains for its knowledge base.The idea that a profession

co-esque, opinion piece, you will be either disappointed

is a gated community is increasingly outdated – profes-

or relieved because it is an engaging and mostly satisfying

sional knowledge in education derives its authority from

explication of how we can retrospectively explicate the

its authenticity beyond its disciplinary confines as much

development of architecture schools using ‘the analytical

as from within it.

framework of Bernstein’s pedagogic device’ (p. 139). Of all the contributors in this section, Carter is least prepared to

Part 3: Education and the professions – case studies The third section presents five case studies, none of which are entirely convincing as examples of Bernstein in practice in that they conclusively prove the notion of recontextualisation to be panacean, but all are interesting and serve as examples of how the general argument might be seen to be made manifest in the real world.

hedge his bets, preferring to state his propositions boldly: The recontextualising field of design theory … is constituted first by means of the publication of summative texts. These follow the official recontextualising filed of institutional arrangement and distribution of awards for professional membership, and the pedagogic recontextualising field of transmission. Teachers who combine expert practice with expert design tutoring are essential to sustain this pedagogic structure (p. 139).

Hu Hanrahan has been around in engineering and engi-

Having sorted that, Carter goes on to acknowledge (and

neering education for a good while, and has an authorita-

quietly celebrate) that because the deep structures are

tive voice, not only in South Africa but also internationally.

in place as the backbone of the pedagogy, the inevitably

His style is precise, unambiguous and at times relentless,

dynamic nature of knowledge creation, access, transfer

the kind of writer who steadily increases the complexity

is a good thing, particularly in Bernsteinian/Vygotskyan

of his argument with every sentence. Hanrahan clearly

terms. Carter argues that the tension between theory and

articulates the mix of professional competencies: knowl-

practice fuels the design discourse. This is an important

edge, skills and attitudes. The key skill, he claims, is the

concept because he also argues that the ‘recontextualis-

analysis of problems and the synthesis of solutions based

ing field of compositional theory survives as long as the

on a pool of theoretical engineering knowledge. I would

regulative discourse of the design studio considers it to

add a ‘primarily’ between the ‘based’ and the ‘on’ – to allow

be correct’ (p. 141), which echoes socially constructed

for some creative wriggle room, but I happily acknowl-

learning but could justify a Star Chamber judiciary of ped-

edge that such is my own bent. There’s a warm and wel-

agogic gatekeepers.And in that tension resides the fuel for

coming introduction to the chapter, which then goes on

expertise and creativity in architecture.

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As is the case with much in this volume, Carter’s ideas

How is the Mills and Treagust quote on page 144 ‘stri-

are both illuminating – especially in the first section, the

dent’? What does ‘a “whole” university, where 75 per cent

part on the history of French design schools – and chal-

of the courses’ mean? How can ‘most commentators’ be

lenging – especially the section where he develops his

in agreement without reference to any study? How is

interpretations. Even though his timeline stops in 1968,

Kota’s study a ‘stark demonstration’? Why is the current

there is much that retains relevance today. If nothing else

stage of engineering education in a state of ‘heightened

it provides us with a way to see why we are now where

urgency’? And so on. Perhaps the language is irritating

we are.

because the chapter follows the elegant and precise writ-

Chapter 10, ‘Problematising Curriculum. Contempo-

ing of Francis Carter. Case throws in an oblique reference

rary Debates in Engineering Education’ by Jennifer Case,

to the ‘heteronomous pole’ without explaining in detail

is the second case study concerning engineering. It is a

how Bourdieu’s conceptualisation of the (political) field

revised and updated version of an earlier paper published

distinguishes between the autonomous pole (that part of

in the Journal of Education.There are those who believe

the field is removed from society as a whole) and the het-

that engineering’s reach has exceeded its grasp and are

eronomous pole (that part of the field that is very closely

quietly waiting for the profession to resume its status as

intermingled with society), nor explaining how that dis-

a trade. As Dr Sheldon Cooper puts it:‘Engineering, where

tinction is relevant to the discursive gap between theo-

the semi-skilled laborers execute the vision of those who

retical and practical professional knowledge. Certainly,

think and dream.’ Of course, citing a fictional scientist

Bourdieu’s concern that the economic forces of the het-

from a US television show who has obsessive compul-

eronomous pole are increasingly dominating the knowl-

sive disorder (OCD) and Asperger’s syndrome is hardly

edge for its own sake, especially in the social spheres, may

respectable critique, but you’ll get the gist.

be relevant to the discourse here, but it requires a case to

Case begins her interrogation of curriculum by refer-

be made.

ring to Basil Bernstein as ‘crucial’, claiming that his work

Another example is where Case unambiguously states

has occasioned ‘important insights into key aspects of

that ‘engineering curricula in most parts of the world are

curriculum that are essential for fostering the academic

directly controlled by professional engineering bodies’ (p.

success of traditionally marginalised groups’ (p. 143)

144). I have direct experience of only two engineering

and that a ‘striking finding has been that “progressive”

schools, both at Australian universities, but I did send off a

curricular arrangements, intended to deliver greater

few emails to places in the UK, China and the Netherlands,

social justice and equality, in practice can actually serve

so I have a grand total of six institutions in my straw poll.

to disadvantage precisely those groups of students that

All of them were equally unambiguous in declaring that,

they seek to empower’. She cites a 1998 paper by Johan

although they worked closely with the relevant profes-

Muller as evidence. I can’t find that ‘striking finding’ any-

sional bodies, especially in terms of professional accred-

where in the paper, an essay that seems to be principally

itation, they all maintained complete control over their

concerned with questioning the appropriateness of the

curricula. A representative example of the commentary I

outcomes-based curriculum imposed in South Africa, inter-

received is:

spersed with an interesting discussion about the nature and purpose of competence as an educational achievement. On the other hand, in the wake of Freire, there have been quite a few ‘progressive’ curriculum arrangements that have done much to empower the disenfranchised groups of students. A scholar with the breadth of understanding such as that of Muller is unlikely to suggest that the fact that some have not achieved what they set out to achieve as a striking finding. In fact, Muller even acknowl-

The answer to your query is a case of negotiation between the Faculty and the Engineering Australia towards a curriculum that allowed professional accreditation than the suggestion that Engineers Australia tightly controls the curriculum. In its accreditation documentation it lays out guidelines for the proportion of science vs professional vs design/project etc. but it is based on an Outcomes Based Evaluation approach and leaves it up to each institution how it meets the criteria (for each of the awards).

edges (albeit in a footnote) that by using the Chomskian

Moreover, at my university, there is no longer an under-

conception of competence (Chomsky, 2003), the whole

graduate degree in engineering: to become an engineer

Bernsteinian edifice could come tumbling down, which

you would take a Bachelor of Biomedicine, a Bachelor of

would essentially make him, well, non-crucial.

Commerce, a Bachelor of Environments or a Bachelor of

There are a number of similarly dramatic hyperboles

Science, and then progress to a Master of Engineering.

that make reasonable propositions sound questionable:

Even though Engineering Australia doesn’t have much

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

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direct influence in the casting of the curricula of any of

and knowledge creation. So far, so good – but what hap-

the relevant undergraduate programs, they have happily

pens when an emergent profession lays claims to the

accredited the masters program.

singulars that have previously been part of the collection

Putting those concerns to one side, Case uses a

for a different profession? The majority of singulars that

Bernsteinian framework to analyse and discuss the evolu-

nursing draws on in its differentiation as a profession is

tionary progress of engineering curricula and concludes

already in use in the differentiation of medicine, paramed-

with a warning that ‘radical [problem-based learning]

ics (if that is indeed a profession), physiotherapy and so

curriculum reform in engineering’ is likely to ‘dissolve

on. Bernstein was well aware of the likelihood that extant

the boundaries that exist in traditional curricula’, which

professions would be reluctant to give up disciplinary

may disadvantage students ‘not from middle-class class

ownership. McNamara and Fealy, examine the process and

backgrounds that can predispose one to pick up [the] …

the strategy that nursing has taken to argue that rather

subtle demands’ required to be able to generalise their

than ‘nursing science’, ‘scientific nursing’ is a legitimate

newly-acquired knowledge beyond the context of the

– albeit weak – theoretical knowledge field. I found this

specific problem. ‘Furthermore, there is a serious likeli-

chapter interesting, particularly as the central argument

hood that in the current situational logic in the academy,

may be of benefit to the development of other emergent

academics will lack the collaborative practices to prop-

professions, such as paramedics, financial planning and

erly ‘pull off such a curriculum move’ (p. 154). Instead of

cyber security, among others.

that impending tragedy (Good Lord, I’m doing it now),

The last chapter, ‘Knowledge Matters’ by Nick Taylor,

Case recommends the ‘more cautious project-based or

looks at mathematics teaching – especially in South Africa,

project-centred models’.

where many of the case studies and contexts are set – as

It is way beyond the scope of a book review to engage

indicative of how teaching is faring in its quest to be rec-

in a detailed discourse about the difference between

ognised as a profession. Taylor sets the groundwork for

problem-based learning and project-based learning, but

his analysis by carefully articulating the Bernsteinian dis-

just so that we are all on the same page, the key features of

ciplinary knowledge/curriculum knowledge/pedagogy

both are student-centred, self-directed and collaborative

knowledge structure, but refers to curriculum knowledge

learning that focuses on real-world issues, and may involve

as pedagogical content knowledge, primarily because he

stakeholders’ engagement; it also has intended outcomes

(after Shulman) sees it as the place where disciplinary

that are competency-based. In contrast to service learning,

knowledge, that is, the research and propositional know-

both aim to engage students in enquiry-based research

ledge generated by mathematicians, is recontextualised

for complex problem solving. Some researchers, such as

as that which will be taught in the curriculum merged

Armin Wiek and his colleagues (2014), conflate the two,

with the disciplinary and pedagogic knowledge that the

arguing that they are essentially the same. I’m not sug-

teacher has access to. Taylor argues that becoming a pro-

gesting that they are the same but that enough respected

fessional requires not only a mastery of what is in the

researchers into pedagogy do, and that it is worthy of

disciplinary knowledge field but also ‘intensive socialisa-

more in-depth analysis and discussion if you are going to

tion into the values of the professional community and

champion one over the other to such a large degree.

its standards of professional integrity, judgement and loy-

In summary, I found this chapter the least convincing,

alty’ (p. 179) and a knowledge of and capacity in ‘language

in terms of argument and in terms of dialogic flow. None-

and system of thought, an approach to the application of

theless, like the other chapters, it provides a great deal of

knowledge to the field of practice’ (p. 179).These descrip-

food for thought.

tors presumably apply to mathematicians and to teachers.

The penultimate chapter, by Martin McNamara and

The spine of Taylor’s chapter is a consideration of

Gerard Fealy, concerns the development of nursing as a

how the teaching as a craft conceptualisation (that is, no

profession. In this chapter we see how Bernsteinian struc-

recognised distinct and regulating body of disciplinary

turing is extremely valuable in conceptualising the pro-

knowledge) produces different curriculum structures

fessionalisation of an occupation.The distinction between

to the conceptualisation of teaching as a profession. His

theoretical and practical knowledge facilitates how edu-

interpretation, based on two very small studies, echoes

cation institutes and professional institutes can interact

the (ongoing) discourse surrounding the development

complementarily as well as in an integrated manner. Fur-

of other professions such as engineering, nursing, archi-

ther, the nature of the commingling provides direction for

tecture and paramedics. Teaching has peculiar concerns,

curriculum setting, in terms of both learning outcomes

including, as Taylor acknowledges, the dichotomy that

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only a few teachers teach students to become teachers;

you will be frustrated at times by the singularity of intent,

most teach students to become something other than

but that is what the book is unapologetically about. It isn’t

where their expertise lies. I suspect that his gloss over

a sequel to The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and

‘content knowledge for teaching mathematics’ on page

Expert Thinking, but then again it doesn’t set out to be.

178 was brief for word limit reasons: I’ll keep an eye out

It is a social constructivist take on how we might best go

for any more detailed analysis and discussion Taylor may

about ensuring that tomorrow’s professionals are capable

offer in the future because it seems central, if not crucial,

of acquiring and using expertise. It is a really good edited

to the discourse.

volume: demanding, challenging and deliberate, and one

Taylor’s argument is that one of the key elements of

that deserves a wide readership.

being recognised as an authentic profession affords practitioners a degree of autonomy, given that it is continually

Andrys Onsman is at the Centre for Studies of Higher

subject to confirmation by the profession and the public.

Education, University of Melbourne.

This too is a key point. It’s all very well saying that professionals have a recognised and distinct body of disciplinary-based knowledge on which to draw conclusions, but eventually, a professional cannot justify the decisions made (autonomously) by reference to that body of knowledge. Ultimately, professional authority is validated by public response to the consequences of the decisions made. Taylor argues that the more robust the body of knowledge and the more ethical the practice, the more the public will accept the authority of the professional. There are a few points made by Taylor that require substantiation, but that is to be expected in a summary chapter. The two studies are very well handled – no claim for universality but indicative of likelihood – and he draws together a number of threads left loose by previous chapters, particularly the notion of the sacred and profane in terms of consequence and responsibility in decision making. It is a good chapter to finish the collection because the reader is left with the understanding that there is much more to be considered and discussed, which is a good thing, because the editors haven’t provided a conclusion. Knowledge, Expertise and the Professions is a short volume but it packs a solid wallop. It pushes the social realist barrow, certainly, but it does so with solid arguments, a clearly articulated and defended conceptual framework and some exemplary explicatory analyses.The case studies section is the least convincing part, almost entirely due to its brevity and obvious selectivity, not because the essays therein are in themselves weak. If you don’t agree with the theories of Bernstein or Brandom

vol. 56, no. 2, 2014

References Bernstein, B. B. (2000). Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity: Theory, Research, Critique. (No. 4). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. Bernstein, B. B. (2003). Class, Codes and Control: Applied Studies Towards a Sociology of Language (Vol. 2). Florence, KY: Psychology Press. Brandom, R. (1998). Making It Explicit: Reasoning, Representing, and Discursive Commitment. Boston: Harvard University Press. Chomsky, N. (2003). Problems of Knowledge and Freedom. New York: W. W. Norton. Collins, H. M.& Pinch, T. (1998). The Golem: What You Should Know About Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Collins, H. & Pinch, T. (2014). The Golem at Large: What You Should Know About Technology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. De Waal, H., Malik, A. & Bhugra, D. (2010). The psychiatric profession: an expertise under siege? International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 56(6), 647–656. Guile, D. (2014). Interprofessional Working and Learning: A Conceptualisation of Their Relationship and its Implication for Education, in T. Fenwick & M. Nerland, (Eds.), Reconceptualising Professional Learning: Sociomaterial Knowledges, Practices and Responsibilities, Oxon: Routledge. Lave, J..& E. Wenger. (1991). Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Luntley M. (2009). On education and initiation. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 43(1), 41–56. Ryle, G. (1945). Knowing How and Knowing That: The Presidential Address, in Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, London: Harrison & Sons, pp. 1–16. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the Social Formation of Mind. Boston: Harvard University Press. Wiek, A., Xiong, A., Brundiers, K.& van der Leeuw, S. (2014). Integrating problem- and project-based learning into sustainability programs – a case study on the School of Sustainability at Arizona State University. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 15(4), 6–6.

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