The Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin is a project sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation, New York, the Centre for Strategic Futures, Singapore and the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore. The Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy gratefully acknowledges the financial assistance of the Rockefeller Foundation and the Centre for Strategic Futures, Singapore.
The Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin focuses on three areas of strategic concern to Asia’s well-being and future development: trade and investment facilitation; health systems; and energy security.
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Production Manager, Production & Research Dissemination Chris Koh
Editorial Trade & Investment Facilitation Darryl S.L Jarvis Johannes Loh
Health Systems Phua Kai Hong Nicola Pocock
Energy Security Benjamin K. Sovacool Anthony D’Agostino
Image credits, with thanks Image on page 2 is copyrighted by nigel@hornchurch @ flickr*. Image on page 3, 7, 11, 19, 20 and 26 are copyrighted by IRRI Images*. Image on page 10–11 is copyrighted by Anthony D'Agostino. Image on page 13 is copyrighted by Siim Teller*. Image on page 29 is copyrighted by Captain Kimo*. *These images can be found on www.flickr.com
Contact details of the editorial team are available on the last page of this publication.
Permission is granted to use portions of this work copyrighted by the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. Please acknowledge the source and email a copy of the book, periodical or electronic document in which the material appears to chris.k@nus.edu.sg or send to
Chris Koh Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy 469C Bukit Timah Toad Singapore 259772
CONTENTS 1
AT A glAncE
2
RIcE IS lIFE
3
RIcE, PoPulATIon AnD yIElDS: InTRIcATE lInkS
5
PoST-HARvEST TEcHnologIES: How THEy HElP THE RIcE FARMER
11
THE PEoPlE wHo culTIvATE RIcE
13
RIcE AnD ITS InFluEncE on HEAlTH, nuTRITIon AnD DIET
21
FRoM wASTE To PowER: MoRE gAIn PER gRAIn
29
AcknowlEDgEMEnTS
31
REFEREncES
33
EDIToRIAl TEAM
1 | aT a glaNCE
Singapore’s National Research Foundation announced that it will invest S$10 million over five years into rice research to secure future demand. The decision could be a signal for other Asian countries to commit more investments to regional rice security. The research seeks to develop new varieties with built-in protection against diseases, and reduced need for inputs such as water. A study by the United Nations International Fund for Agricultural Development reported drops in rural poverty rates in South Asia, where four-fifths of all extremely poor people live in rural areas. In the past decade, extreme poverty in rural areas of developing countries in Asia-Pacific dropped from 48% to 34%. The study also stated that more than 680 million people in the region live on less than US$1.25 a day and about 70% live in Bangladesh, India, Nepal or Pakistan. The booming agro-industry in Cambodia has contributed to the growth of its microfinance industry, as national microfinance institutions (MFI) reported a decline in nonperforming loan rates to under 1%. MFIs such as Sathapana, Hattha Kaksekar and Prasac all reported steep increases of loan deposits exceeding 50% during the first six months of 2011 and rapid expansion of their rural client base. Official figures in June showed a record rice harvest of 34.5 million tons in Thailand, 7% above the 2009 level. Actual figures exceeded previous reports by more than 2.9 million tons, as a record 35 million tons is anticipated for 2011. A new rice deal, between Cambodia and the Philippines, foresees investment into Cambodia's processing capacity in exchange for rice exports. The Thai Rice Exporters Association estimates that up to 1.5 million tons of paddy are smuggled into Vietnam every year due to a lack of processing capacity in Cambodia.
Follow Johannes loh for latest trends in trade & investment facilitation across Southeast Asia, critical dialogue and implications for pro-poor policy and policy development. @seASIAtrade
The Indonesian Muslim Intellectuals Association (ICMI) wants to provide health programme i-Klinik, in every mosque in the country by the end of 2011 to encourage Indonesians to lead healthier lifestyles. Services will include individual health assessments, maternal and child health care, immunisation, elderly care and counseling. ICMI president, Sugiharto, said that the programme would improve the role of the mosque as a public service. The Philippines Department of Health is creating an electronic database of patients' medical records to share with rural health units and selected government hospitals in central provinces, to reduce time spent documenting patient data in Iloilo city. The programme will be implemented by telecomms firm Smart communications to include functions such as recording consultations and SMS reminders to patients. The WHO has pledged to help Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and the Philippines and five other countries in the Western Pacific region to reduce hepatitis B infection rates. They are unlikely to reach the below 2% hepatitis B incidence target in children due to low vaccination coverage. The major cause of low vaccination coverage is a shortage of skilled birth attendants in these countries, making it difficult to deliver vaccines. The region accounts for a third of the world’s population but almost half the global incidence of hepatitis B. The treatment of convict porters in the Burmese army constitutes a war crime, according to a report by Human Rights Watch (HRW) in July. Since January, up to 1,200 civilian convicts have been drawn from prisons and labour camps because "civilians flee (villages) to avoid being taken as porters," said deputy Asia HRW director Elaine Pearson. Besides being used as human shields to draw fire from the opposition and to trip land mines, porters are also given no medical care and little food. Fear of portering is a major reason for refugee inflows into Thailand.
Follow Nicola pocock for health & health systems trends monitoring & futures scanning across South and East Asia with a pro-poor lens.
@healthSEAsia
Laotian villagers in the Xayaburi Province along the Mekong are bracing themselves for relocation as the US$3.8 billion hydropower dam project is brought forward. Plans to dam the lower stretch of the world's 12th largest river have put Laos on a collision course with its regional neighbours and environmentalists, who fear livelihoods, fish species and farmland could be destroyed. According to US environmental group International Rivers, more than 2,100 people will be forcibly resettled and 200,000 people affected by dam construction. Papua New Guinean state gas distributor PT PGN announced that it will partner with Indonesian gas company PT Indogas Kriya Dwiguna to supply East Java gas users from January 20 12 onwards. The two companies will manage and utilise a 20 billion British thermal unit per day gas supply from the Terang Sirasun Batur gas field, currently operated by PT Kangean Energy Indonesia. PGN also announced that the company had signed an MOU with Malaysian oil and gas firm Petronas to explore business opportunities in various gas-related sectors. The Philippines Chamber of Commerce and Industry wants a review of the proposed renewable energy tariff (FIT), stating that its introduction would add burden to consumers and businesses. The FIT scheme assures renewable energy developers of future cash flow as electricity end-users will be charged fixed amounts to cover the production of energy from renewable sources. Payment for the use of clean energy will come from a uniform per-kilowatt-hour charge, which will be collected from all end-users. A new, low-cost innovation is helping to save money and electricity in the Philippines. By placing a bottle containing bleach and water into a purpose-built hole in the roof, residents can capture sunlight and reflect it into the entire room. More than 10,000 of these bottles have been installed in Manila, bringing light into some of the poorest homes in the capital.
Follow Taufik ramadhan indrakesuma for poverty alleviation and policy trends around ASEAN, specialising in infrastructure, energy, natural resources and sustainability. @SEAsiaEnergy
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OvErviEW | 2
riCE iS lifE groups of farmers, is an attempt to create a closer link between research and agricultural practices on the ground. The ATM team met with Chiang Mai-based SMART farmer Sutit and learned more about this compelling strategy of mass extension.
Rice, an essential part of life in Asia
"Rice is life" in Asia and particularly Southeast Asia, where it has long been a staple crop that countries have relied on to feed booming populations. The region is a key rice producer, with 169 million tons ,which is about 26% of global rice production, being produced in 2008. Rice constitutes around 60% of daily calorie intake in Asia and millions of small-holder farmers and their families depend on rice for both income and food security. Small-holder farmers are the most at risk if any harvest fails, due to drought, flooding or market-induced shocks. In this issue, we focus the spotlight on small-holder farmers living in poverty and innovative interventions at the grassroots level that improve their livelihoods. This issue of the Asian Trends Monitoring (ATM) Bulletin is based on primary interview material gathered during a fieldwork visit to Thailand in April 2011. We take a look at how simple interventions can assist small farmers to achieve more gain per grain. Better post-harvest technologies such as mechanised drying and affordable hermetic storage systems are needed to cut down on postharvest losses. The SMART farmer programme, which relies on a training-the-trainers multiplier effect among small
This issue also explores the macro-links between population growth and rice yields, as well as the intricacies of those who cultivate rice and the potential health effects of exposure to modern rice cultivation practices. We also scrutinise the importance of rice in the diet and assess the potential of different varieties of rice to combat micronutrient deficiencies in the region. Exciting pilot initiatives in micronutrient fortification of rice are profiled, with intervention opportunities identified for scaling up successful pilots. Various support mechanisms have facilitated the growth of rice husk power generation and contributed to commercial viability. Its environmental benefits are apparent, but its pro-poor implications are less clear. The ATM team met with project developers, power plant staff, regulators, and academics to learn more about the potential of rice husk power generation in Thailand. We visited the 22MW A.T. Biopower plant in Phichit, 350km north of Bangkok, to see first-hand how such a plant operates. This plant is one of several in the region, like the Mungcharoen Green Power 9.9MW facility in Surin Province, capitalising on the market for carbon credits while providing an alternative energy source that bolsters the country’s energy diversity. We invite you to share the ATM Bulletin with colleagues or friends who are interested in poverty alleviation in Southeast Asia. The Bulletin is available for download online at www.asiantrendsmonitoring.com/category/downloads, where you can also subscribe to future issues online as well. Additional contents and videos are hosted on the website where you can share your thoughts with us on this issue. Thank you again for supporting the ATM Bulletin, and as always, your comments and feedback are welcome. Anthony D’Agostino Johannes Loh Nicola Pocock
riCE, pOpulaTiON aNd yiEldS: iNTriCaTE liNkS Whether population growth is limited by food supply (as the British scholar Thomas Malthus argued) or agricultural production is determined by population growth (as famed Danish economist Ester Boserup surmised) is an age-old debate. Today, the pressures of a growing global population have put the onus on scientists and policymakers to ramp up the supply of affordable food to feed the planet’s seven billion people. This is characterised by technological innovations and intensifying yields, albeit from an arable land area that continues to shrink in size. The amount of arable land in hectares per person (Figure 1) gives us some indication of how population may be linked to food supply.1 Some plant scientists assert that countries with more arable land typically have bigger populations, as there is more land available for agriculture and thus for growing food to feed their populations.2 This has implications for future food self sufficiency, as well as adoption of technology to increase food production. Boserup proposed that higher population density increases the rate of technology adoption, as farmers have incentives to produce more food. We see this in the Philippines and Vietnam, where irrigated rice yields per hectare, also known as productivity, are much higher than in Thailand. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) recently highlighted the probable link between population decline and yield decline. Yield growth in both percentage and absolute
terms has slowed significantly since the peak of the Green Revolution in the mid 1980s, which has been offset by declining population growth, except now because yields are at a historic low. Harvested area has stagnated and population growth has started to exceed yield growth, creating a significant imbalance between supply and demand. This trend is clear in South, East and Southeast Asia. The result is increased prices for everyone — world rice prices were rising even before the 2008 rice crisis, with a cumulative 67% rise observed between April 2001 and September 2007.3 But there are obvious incentives not to increase the supply. Farmers fear the production of surplus rice will lower their selling price; millers time the market for the best price. This issue, the spotlight falls on Thailand, the world's biggest rice exporter, to see what interventions will benefit both farmers and consumers to increase yields, ensure sufficient income for the famer and lower prices in domestic markets. The Thai perspective: self-suďŹƒcient but low yields Compared to other Southeast Asian countries, Thailand has a relatively low poverty rate of 8.1%, a literacy rate exceeding 94% and GDP per capita amounts to US$3,760, trailing only Singapore, Brunei and Malaysia in the region.4 Thai rice is famous worldwide and with annual exports of ten megatons, Thailand is the biggest exporter of rice in the world. Approximately, 3.6 million households or about 16 million people depend on rice farming to earn their living; that accounts for
riCE, pOpulaTiON aNd yiEld | 4
Figure 1: Arable land (hectares per person), ASEAn + selected countries, 2008
Figure 2: Rough rice yield (tons per hectare), ASEAn + selected countries, 2008
Source: World Development Indicators, Arable land (hectares per person). Sourced from FAO electronic files and reports. http://data.worldbank.org/
Source: IRRI World Rice Statistics. http://beta.irri.org/index.php/Online-Query.html
66% of all farm households.5 Apart from being the dominant staple food, rice is an important commodity of Thailand's economic output.
extension efforts to raise yields are not sufficient to close the gap, estimated to be between 1–2 tons per hectare.7 Accord-
Almost all rice farmers in Thailand are small-holders, cultivating an average area of 3.61 hectares. The average yield per hectare lags other major rice producers in the region. Thailand’s farmers are very skeptical about the trade-off of higher-yielding varieties versus losing out on quality, even though the gain in quantity would easily offset the reduced price. With a yield of 2.7 tons per hectare, Thailand’s rice farmers are much less productive than Vietnam which has an average yield of 4.88 tons per hectare (see Figure 2).6 In order to increase agricultural productivity and thus help poor farmers move out of poverty, more investments into agricultural research and developments are required. According to calculations by Dr. Nipon Poapongsakorn, President of the Thailand Development Research Institute, agricultural research and development in Thailand makes up only 0.05% of GDP. The existing research investments and
ing to experts at the Thai Rice Department inappropriate preand post-harvest management by farmers leads to significant losses. However, public and private initiatives are under way to help farmers gain new insights to enhance their agricultural productivity and raise their income streams.
pOST-harvEST TEChNOlOgiES: hOW ThEy CaN hElp ThE riCE farmEr
“Post-harvest losses in rice make up an alarming share of overall production losses. In the developing world, these losses can reach 25% in weight and 50% of the value of total production. By minimising post-harvest losses, the rice industry can substantially increase the global, national, and local rice supply.” Dr. Robert S. Zeigler, Director General of the International Rice Research Institute at the Post-harvest Rice Conference and Exhibition, 2009
Farmers in Asia lose out on a significant proportion of their income because of post-harvest losses. Experts estimate such losses in Asia accrue to 10%–15% in terms of quantity alone. When the loss of quality is taken into account, the potential loss in value rises to 20%–30%. At the lower end of the estimates, farmers unintentionally forego an additional income of US$50 per ton of rice.8 The loss occurs at many different levels, including the spoilage of paddy at the farm level, poor storage, reduced milling yields and grain quality reduction during processing. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) research has shown that harvested paddy needs to be dried to keep moisture content below 14% within the first 24 hours, so as to retain the highest quality possible. However, most farmers in Southeast Asia rely on the sun to dry their paddy, which in turn, is dependent on the weather. Coupled with inadequate storage technology, this often leads to a deterioration of quality as rough rice, with a high moisture content heats up quickly and creates growing conditions for moulds and insects.9 These losses result in lower rice quality for consumption or sale, smaller returns to the farmer, higher prices for consumers, and
greater environmental pressures on the farmland as farmers try to compensate by growing more rice.10 how the farmer ends up with less An experiment in 2008 illustrates clearly how farmers without appropriate drying technology lose out in the supply chain of rice. After selling their sundried paddy with a moisture content of 25%, the farmer received US$376 per ton. The miller increased the value to US$434 by reducing the moisture content to 15% and after milling into 5% white rice he could charge exporters US$781 per ton.11 Moreover, profits from rising world rice prices benefit mostly millers and exporters due to their ability to store milled rice in storage silos for extended periods of time, allowing them to sell when demand spikes. Individual farmers cannot delay selling their harvest longer than a few months — limited financial means are one reason and rapid degeneration of quality in the humid climate is another. For most small-holder farmers in Thailand, up to 95% of their grain are initially dried and stored on-farm. As a result, relevant information and proper post-harvest technologies are crucial to prevent losses. Limited access to knowledge of
7 | pOST-harvEST TEChNOlOgiES
the appropriate technologies for drying, storage, and milling have caused Boonsong, a small-holder farmer (profiled on page 8), the dilemma of either selling immediately after harvest or waiting to see his grain quality degenerate. If the farmers don’t sell immediately after harvest, the grain deteriorates at a rapid rate and loses more and more value. If they do sell, they wield less bargaining power, as they are often selling into a restricted or oversupplied market. The net result for the farmers is a lower price for their harvest and subsequently, reduced income. With less income to experiment with, farmers are often wary to invest into new varieties or improved post-harvest methods when they know their traditional approach will generate a predictable, but not very profitable, return. The diffusion of new agricultural technologies often takes 10–15 years from validation to widespread adoption.12 Adoption depends on the expected profitability and easy access to credit which often leads to higher and faster adoption rates among the larger farmers, limiting upward mobility for the poorest households.13 more agricultural research and development needed Since 1999, Thailand has held a stagnant share of research and development spending at 0.28% of GDP and only 0.05% of GDP are spent on agricultural research, despite the strategic importance of rice for the country’s exports.14 Some have called for a greater allocation of resources. According to Dr. Viroj NaRanong, a researcher at the Thailand Development Research Institute, "If Thailand wants to stay ahead of its major competitor in the region, Vietnam, more investments into agricultural research and development of innovative technologies are required." In spite of the limited investments in research and development, the Thai Rice Department at the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has launched a programme to build a network of SMART farmers to boost the slow uptake of existing innovations. The objective is to train and encourage farmers to form an effective channel to transfer research products, policy developments, research needs and rapid feedback on technology packages. Each SMART farmer provides farmer-to-farmer agricultural extension services and helps to promote good agricultural practices (See how SMART farmer Sutit helps his fellow rice farmers on page 9). As of 2011, the network comprises 8,934 SMART farmers. Budget constraints though, will limit further expansion to 10,000 farmers. The programme had an original target of 35,000 farmers.15
research extension through mobile phone networks The Thai Rice Department is also considering disseminating rice cultivation information via the internet and mobile networks. The contents already exist in the form of the Rice Knowledge Bank, a database comprising the best agricultural practices and instruction manuals which will undoubtedly help to overcome information asymmetries and improve farmers' bargaining positions. Similar to the successful Esoko mobile service for farmers in Ghana,16 such a system in Thailand will complement the farmer-to-farmer extension through the SMART farmer programme. Thailand already has an advanced cellular network in place where most farming households own at least one mobile phone. The challenge is to entice private companies to launch their own services. With 3.6 million households in rice farming alone, the potential for economies of scale is clear.
Most farming households own at least one mobile phone
persuading farmers to adopt mechanised drying Mechanised drying technologies are available from smallscale village-level solutions to more industrial solutions suitable for businesses sourcing paddy from an entire region. The challenge is to reach a critical mass of adopters and find a technology that can be manufactured locally. Except for Thailand’s central plains and the Greater Mekong Subregion where mechanised drying is adopted for 90% and 30% of rough rice respectively, adoption of this technology remains negligible in the rest of Southeast Asia, including Northern Thailand. IRRI researchers found that flat bed dryers with a capacity of 4–6 tons that do not require an after-sales network are the most widely-adopted solution. By 2008, the Mekong Delta had more than 6,200 units installed.17 Other regions are now slowly following suit as similar set-ups are developed in Myanmar, the Philippines, Indonesia and Cambodia. The diffusion of mechanised drying technology to a majority of smallholder farmers could drastically reduce post-harvest
pOST-harvEST TEChNOlOgiES | 8
limited options for small-holder rice farmer, boonsong institution, he is able to buy the seeds, fertilisers and equipment necessary for each new harvest period. Before selling his harvest, he cycles to the closest rice mill with a sample to measure the moisture content and to receive price information. Of his harvest of 4.3 tons he sells four tons to the mill and is barely able to cover his input costs. “The lower the moisture content the better the price”, Boonsong explains, “if the price is not right, I wait and dry my rice in the yard” he continues. Although, he can only wait a few months before the grain quality begins to degenerate and his rough rice loses market value.
Boonsong carving one of his half-finished woodcraft pieces
Boonsong is a small-holder rice farmer from Ban Klang, a village 30km from Chiang Mai. He is the bread winner for his wife and son. On a total land area of eight rai, or 1.28 hectares, Boonsong grows glutinous, also known as “sticky”, rice. He is not part of a farmer cooperative and learned what he knows about rice farming from his father. With a loan from the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, Thailand’s only official microfinance
losses from storage and grain pests and thus contribute significantly to poverty alleviation among Thailand’s poorest farmers. Furthermore, the mechanised dryers are simple to operate and the required financial outlay are affordable, which lower the overall adoption barriers. The distribution model of the drying technology can be based on setting up local production centers. This will create additional non-farm jobs and open up further business opportunities in rural areas. The drying service provided by small entrepreneurs can bring the benefits from mechanical drying to the village at reasonable costs.18 However, successful pilot projects and initial training would be necessary to inspire other entrepreneurial farmers to bandwagon this trend. hermetic storage: the Super bag In tropical conditions, storing rice safely is a major challenge. The deterioration of grain and seed starts within 3–4 months
Boonsong is losing out with a yield average of 3.36 tons per hectare, compared to the regional yield average of four tons per hectare. Sometimes he asks for advice from fellow farmers or at the local fertiliser retailer store, but he is not using the new varieties as he doesn’t have enough money and land to try out what works best on his field. With access to advice from a SMART farmer in his region or the knowledge-sharing network of a cooperative, he could boost his harvest and income and make the important step out of poverty. In order to supplement his income, Boonsong also carves pieces of woodcraft art from tree trunks and sells them at the local market to middlemen.
due to absorption of water from the air. IRRI research has shown that after only 5–6 months of traditional storage, germination rates of seeds often fall below 50%.19 This puts farmers in a tight spot — they have to choose between selling their harvest right away or waiting for higher prices, putting them at risk of major losses through deterioration of grain quality. The Super Bag offers an affordable and simple solution, yet it is not widely used among small farmers in Thailand. The super bag is an air-tight container effectively protecting the rice from pests and water absorption. The advantages are threefold: • This method of storage prevents insect grain pests without the use of chemicals; • It provides protection against rodents; and • The germination rate of seed remains above 90%. The container comes in two forms: a 50kg hermetic bag at a
9 | pOST-harvEST DISASTER RISk REDucTIon TEChNOlOgiES
from one harvest a year to two: SmarT farmer, Sutit scale, he also grows various fruits for home consumption, takes care of his house, and goes fishing in his remaining time. Moreover, Sutit complements his income by selling farming inputs such as soil and fertiliser. He is the also the Chairman of the local Small Rice Farmer Association. The participating farmers coordinate which variety will be planted in which quantity and produce a seed plan for the cultivation area they oversee. Sutit is in charge of creating a sales plan and discussing the farmers’ plans with the regional rice research centre. At the same time, the research centre is his source for gaining knowledge about best practices, new technologies and higher yielding varieties. Sutit explains how he teaches farmers in his cooperative about good agricultural practices
Sutit is a rice farmer in San Pa Tong District near Chiang Mai. He rents 30 rai, roughly 4.8 hectares, for the cultivation of rice. As a SMART farmer, he is responsible for a total area of 200 rai (32 hectares) and about 20 small-holder farmers. Sutit has been a rice farmer for more than 30 years. Sutit is married and has two grown-up children, a son and a daughter. He estimates that 60% of his time is spent on farming rice which includes two harvests per year. On a smaller
cost of less than US$1.20, or commercial units with capacities between 5–200 tons for farmer cooperatives or mill owners. With a small amount of start-up finance, the commercial unit could help cooperatives such as the one led by SMART farmer Sutit to achieve more gain per grain. Other countries, such as the Philippines, have showcased how the Super Bag can boost farmers’ income and create rural employment opportunities, when produced by local entrepreneurs. Creating non-farm income opportunities Making a living with agriculture alone is very difficult for the majority of Thailand’s farmers. Getting out of poverty without additional non-farm income for the household is out of the question. According to the Office of Agricultural Economics, 1.38 million Thai farm households live in poverty, out of which 80% are heavily indebted.20 30%–40% of farmers (the poorest strata) have no access to the formal lending sector because they cannot provide collateral in
Sutit checks the price for rice paddy by phone with two local rice mills. If the price is not sufficient for him, he holds out. However due to limited storage capacities, he has to sell eventually. Three years ago, Sutit and the farmers in his cooperative switched from one harvest per year to two harvests per year as rising prices promised greater returns from an additional harvest. He has also switched to machine-assisted harvesting since renting a tractor is 30%–50% cheaper than employing manual labourers.
the form of a land title or other assets. Hence, they rely on informal money lenders who charge prohibitive interest rates.21 There are also opportunities for a more vibrant ruralnon-farm economy to flourish. Thailand’s rural infrastructure is excellent compared to its neighbouring countries, offering villagers cheaper transport to cities and ultimately access to the global market. Collective capabilities such as entering new markets or fixed supply contracts with supermarkets are also gaining importance. As growth in rural areas tends to be more pro-poor than in urban centres, new initiatives to open up these income opportunities should be supported. The Village Development Partnership (VDP) by the Mechai Viravaidya Foundation, targeted at poor rural communities in Northeastern Thailand is one such initiative. village development partnerships: a new approach to community empowerment The foundation supports rural development through its VDP
pOST-harvEST TEChNOlOgiES | 10
Figure 3: Determinants of rural real income: an analytical framework
Source: The Asia Foundation (2010). A robust harvest: strategic choices for agricultural and rural development in Vietnam. SEDS 2011-2020, p.10.
focused on community empowerment, income generation, health, education and environmental promotion.22 The innovative concept of VDPs brings corporate sponsors and rural villagers together. In workshops with VDP staff and volunteers from the sponsoring company, the villagers develop their own vision for future development of their community. In return, they receive start-up capital, skills training and technical advice through the VDP project.23 One of the first steps is to establish a Village Development Bank administered by the villagers themselves. The initial capital is raised by communal tree planting with funds donated by a sponsor for each tree planted. One tree equals 40 baht or US$1.25. This approach improves the local environment and at the same time serves as the endowment for the Village Development Bank.
The new Barefoot MBA Programme allows villagers to learn about small businesses operations and available microcredit opportunities. As an inspiration, the villagers are taken on a tour to other VDP projects further along in their stage of development, so they can see with their own eyes what businesses have been founded in other villages. Supported by the Viravaidya foundation, examples from over 400 VDPs range from rice-mill cooperatives and repair shops to organic pig farming. In order to avoid envy among villages, the partnerships are usually rolled out in all neighbouring villages in one district. Due to its success in Thailand, the VDP model is currently being replicated in Cambodia. More VDP information can be obtained online. Please visit: http://villagedevelopmentpartnership.org/vdp.asp.
ThE pEOplE WhO CulTivaTE riCE Human labour predominantly powers rice production in the Philippines.24 But the cost of human labour can be high. According to SMART farmer Sutit in Chiang Mai, Thailand, the amount of human labour to cultivate one rai (0.16 hectares) of land costs 1,500 baht, as opposed to 650–1,000 baht if a machine were used. Sutit noted that most farmers in his province switched to machines due to high human labour costs, but that seasonal migration of hill tribe migrant labourers some 200km away did occur occasionally, particularly when rice had “fallen” and could not be picked up by machines. Some 80% of this labour force are women. Importantly, the gendered division of labour has implications for the kinds of health hazards faced by men and women as well as their children. Men engaged in clearing fields, ploughing and irrigation are at risk of health hazards caused by waste-water reuse, heavy metal contamination in soils and irrigation waters, as well as air pollution. Furthermore, in urban areas, men are prone to health hazards unique to “city farming” like contamination of urban waste materials and heavy metal contamination. In addition, fertiliser and pesticide application is predominantly carried out by men,
placing them at risk of direct toxic exposure. Although health risks associated with farming for men have been subject to much research in recent years, health risks that are encountered by women have not been well documented. However, some recent work has shown that women’s indirect exposure to pesticides and other agricultural chemicals is alarmingly high in non-field activities. Women are often involved in cleaning/spraying tanks and laundering pesticide contaminated cloths, putting them at risk of indirect chemical contamination. This can impair female fertility in the long run. Unfortunately, these messages hardly reach women in rural areas. intervention opportunity: It is prudent to act now to disseminate gender disaggregated knowledge of agricultural health risks and preventive measures. In addition to these health risks associated with direct involvement in agriculture for both men and women, parents’ involvement in agriculture, especially mothers, poses health risks for children. Women play a vital role in caring and household labour. During weeding, transplanting and
labOur iSSuES | 12
harvesting, women’s engagement in agriculture is high, which can mean that household activities, particularly child caring, are neglected. Although there is little research concerning the effects of mother’s engagement in agriculture on child health, a health care provider25 who works closely with agrarian families in Sri Lanka revealed a vast decline in child health and nutrition during periods when mothers are engaged in agricultural activities. During harvesting season, mothers are engaged in harvesting for long hours and in some instances are far away from home. The care of young children is relegated to another young sibling, who is less knowledgeable about childcare. Weight loss, diarrhoea and episodes of influenza and colds are common among children Table 1: gender division of labour in rice production in cambodia
Task
Male adult
Clearing field
Ploughing
Making bundles
Preparation seedbed
Sowing seedbeds Transport seedlings
Female adult
Both
Tranplanting
Irrigation
Applying fertiliser
Weeding
Scaring birds
Harvesting
Threshing
Transporting paddy
When they are not growing rice... Seasonal migration of farmers and some family members to urban areas is observed in Thailand, with men often choosing to work as tuk-tuk or taxi drivers, and younger women as bar hostesses or sex workers before returning to the farm during the rice harvest once or twice a year. Such non-farm employment is a significant source of revenue for some families. But, there are downsides to this; according to the Village Development Partnership (VDP), girls working as bar hostesses or sex workers face shame and stigmatisation in home villages. As a result, they tend to conceal their urban occupations from families. Cyclical urban migration and family separation has implications for parenting of young children left behind. The VDP’s programme aims to boost the rural non-farming economy in selected villages via skills training and microcredit programmes. Furthermore, gendered divisions of labour in rice production have been observed in some countries like Cambodia.
Winnowing
Manual milling
Pounding
Marketing rice
Source: Kirjavainen LM: Gender Issues: Cambodia. Regional Environmental Technical Assistance 5771, Poverty Reduction & Environmental Management in Remote Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) Watersheds (Phase I). 1999.
during particular seasons in Sri Lanka where mothers do not have adequate time to ensure their health and nutritional needs are met. In Thailand, a UNESCO report highlights that women without adult support networks have no choice but to bring young children to the fields where they work.26 intervention opportunity: Organise awareness campaigns about the risks posed to children when their mothers (particularly) are engaged in agricultural activities. In rural Thailand, several care models have emerged, including seasonal interim village childcare services, a communal approach whereby “volunteer” caregivers from among village residents look after children and receive fee for services. In some villages, monks may supplement childcare at local temples and monasteries.27 These models could be scaled up and best practices diffused between villages via existing networks of non-governmental organisations working in several villages, such as the Village Development Partnership profiled on page 9).
This section is contributed by Maneka Savithri Jayasinghe, a recent Master in Public Policy graduate from the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. Email: manekasavitri@yahoo.com
riCE aNd iTS iNfluENCE ON hEalTh, NuTriTiON aNd diET Rice is consumed overwhelmingly by the poor in Southeast Asia, being a significant source of calories for many. But, with growing incomes and diversifying food preferences, the role of rice in the Asian diet may decline in the next 10–20 years. What does this mean for the future of rice and the role it plays in food security in this region? This section considers the current and potential future role of rice in diet, nutrition and health status. food supply and rice consumption trends Rice provides around 60% of daily energy intake in Southeast Asia and an estimated 90% of the 50 billion bowls of rice per day are consumed in Asia as a whole.28 But this is set to decrease according to rice expert Peter Timmer and colleagues
at Harvard University’s Centre for Global Development. Their recent projections suggest a significant downtrend in global rice consumption in the next four decades, starting in the next 10–20 years. In Asia, the main drivers of this decline will be rapid income growth and diversified food preferences, rural to urban migration (small-holder farmers contribute most of the region’s rice supply) and more open trade. A globalisation of tastes, plus a shift towards more balanced diets in Asia — less rice and more wheat, animal products, fats and oils, vegetables and fruits — could signal an overall fall in rice consumption.29 We see that in upper middle income countries Malaysia and Thailand, rice as part of the cereals food supply is falling in relation to wheat, reflecting reduced demand for rice, but we see the opposite trend in the Philippines and Vietnam. As International
podcast
IRRI senior economist Sushil Pandey shares his views on the future of rice http://www.asiantrendsmonitoring.com/?p=1366
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Figure 4: Malaysia food supply (kcal/capita/day), rice and wheat, 1965 - 2007
Source: FAO Stat, Food Supply, Crops – Primary Equivalent. http://faostat.fao.org/site/609/default.aspx#ancor
Figure 5: vietnam food supply (kcal/capita/day), rice and wheat, 1965 - 2007
Source: FAO Stat, Food Supply, Crops – Primary Equivalent. http://faostat.fao.org/site/609/default.aspx#ancor
Rice Reserach Institute senior economist Sushil Pandey noted in a recent seminar, rice is as much a strategic, political commodity as a simple, economic one. He asserts that whether rice
consumption actually declines or not will depend on whether governments encourage farmers to produce rice or not and whether consumer preferences for this staple endure.
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Countries in the Mekong region remain heavily dependent on rice to supply daily energy requirements and protein for several reasons. In Vietnam for example, there has been significant emphasis on increasing domestic rice production, with a 30% increase in production from 1986 to 2008 and a transition from importer to exporter in 1989.30 Similarly, the share of rice in the food supply has been rising in the Philippines due to substitution away from corn, higher rice imports, some success in domestic production programmes and increased rice consumption among the poor due to extensive subsidies.31 Table 2: calories and protein obtained from rice
calories supplied from rice per capita per day, 2007
Protein supply from rice quantity (g/capita/day), 2007
Vietnam
1,629.19
33.21
Cambodia
1,452.84
29.62
Laos
1,438.67
33.66
Myanmar
1,342.22
31.41
Philippines
1,271.15
22.23
Indonesia
1,237.79
22.9
Thailand
1,024.24
17.97
Brunei
788.55
14.28
Malaysia
755.32
13.47
countries
Source: FAO Stat, Food Balance Sheets, 2007. http://faostat.fao.org/ site/368/default.aspx#ancor
micronutrient deficiencies: an underestimated threat Not everyone can afford a diverse diet, and sometimes nutritious food is not available due to inadequate supply chains, storage facilities (e.g. refrigeration) or climateinduced crop failures. Hunger remains a problem in some countries. In 2004, a quarter of Cambodians were below the minimum level of dietary energy consumption, followed by Myanmar and Laos (19%), Indonesia and Thailand (17%), the Philippines (16%) Vietnam, (14%) Malaysia and Brunei (5%).32 But micronutrient deficiencies are more common in Southeast Asia, especially among the poor. Such deficiencies are highly context-specific within countries, depending on food supply, local tastes and household income level.
For example, in one Northeast province, Thai children eating large quantities of glutinous rice experienced iron, zinc and calcium deficiencies.33 However, common nutritional deficiencies have been observed in rice consuming countries globally according to the Food and Agriculture Organisation. These include protein energy malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies of iron, iodine, zinc and vitamin A.34 White rice, the most popular variety in Southeast Asia, is less nutritionally dense than brown rice. This is because the milling and polishing process strips away the nutritious outer layer, especially vitamins A and B. Vitamin A deficiency is the leading cause of preventable blindness in children, and pregnant women with the condition face a higher maternal mortality risk. The charts below show levels of night blindness in women in Cambodia and the Philippines, with significantly higher prevalence of the condition amongst lower income households than the wealthiest. Figure 6: night blindness by household wealth quintile, cambodia 2005
Figure 7: night blindness by household wealth quintile, Philippines 2008
Source: Macro International Inc, 2011. MEASURE DHS STATcompiler. http://www.measuredhs.com
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Will Southeast asian consumers go for parboiled rice? “Thai people don’t like the taste of parboiled rice” says agronomist Chanakan Prom-u-thai of Chiang Mai University. “That’s why most parboiled rice produced here is exported to other countries, especially Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka and Nigeria”. Even though zinc and iron deficiencies have been observed in 40% of the Thai population, Thai consumers still prefer (unfortified) jasmine rice for sensory reasons — parboiled rice has a yellowish tint, and tastes different to the Thai staple. Parboiling is a technique whereby the rice is soaked in water at 60 degrees for 4–6 hours, followed by steaming at a low pressure for ten minutes to “push” nutrients in. Rice is then dried and fortified in zinc and/or iron. This technique ensures that nutrients stay within the rice kernel, as opposed to fortification via spraying on polished rice, or cellulose coating of the outside layer. Chanakan is now researching how broken parboiled rice can be used to supplement the diet of elderly people most susceptible to nutrient deficiencies. She’s also working with rice mills to see whether the water used to soak the rice at an earlier stage can be re-used.
Intervention opportunity: Importers in Africa buy broken parboiled rice from Thailand to sell to lowincome consumers. In Asia however, excess broken parboiled rice is usually thrown away and not sold on the market. Awareness campaigns by health ministries and private firms can help to promote the consumption of broken parboiled rice to Southeast Asian consumers, as in the case of brown rice, a staple recommended by the Singapore Health Promotion Board. Furthermore, the amount of iron in broken iron enriched parboiled rice is 4–5 times higher than in its whole kernelled form. Costing around 50%–75% less than whole kernel rice, broken parboiled varieties are highly accessible to the poorest groups.37 With anaemia a serious concern, broken parboiled rice consumption is a highly promising and equitable means of combating iron deficiencies.
Chronic vitamin B deficiency has resulted in Beri Beri in the past and even sudden cardiac arrest, resulting in death, in Thai migrant labourers in Singapore, which researchers directly linked to the consumption of milled, polished white rice and little else. A survey of households in Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos showed that when food prices rise, the poor are more likely to decrease intake of other foodstuffs but try to maintain levels of rice consumption.35
with a lower risk. The authors recommended substituting white rice with brown rice or other whole grains.38
Recent evidence from Asian and Caucasian populations has shown a link between excessive white rice consumption and diabetes. Overly polished white rice (not basmati varieties) has a high glycemic index (GI), whereby glucose from carbohydrates enters the bloodstream quickly. Scientific evidence shows that over-consumption of high GI foods increases the risk of diabetes. One cohort study of middle-aged women in China found that a high intake of high GI foods, especially rice, was associated with a 2-fold increase in the risk of diabetes, particularly in overweight and obese individuals.36 A seminal study with a US population noted the differential effects of brown and white rice on diabetes risk — a higher intake of white rice (more than five servings a week versus one a month) was associated with a higher risk of type 2 diabetes, whereas brown rice consumption was associated
For more information, please email Chanakan Prom-uthai at: chanakan15@hotmail.com
Given the persistence of micronutrient deficiencies and the relative risk of contracting diabetes due to high white rice consumption, a variety favoured by rich and poor alike, what should be done? As the table below shows, brown rice is the most nutritious of the main cereal groups consumed in this region. Being of low GI and dense with vitamin B, promoting brown rice consumption would help combat vitamin B deficiency whilst also reducing the risk of diabetes, controlling for lifestyle factors. While rice is not the only way to increase nutrient intake, some promising initiatives in fortification are taking place regionally (boxes). looking ahead: trends and opportunities for rice Brown rice is nutritionally superior to other cereals. Whilst initial shifts in demand for brown rice can be observed in urban consumers, whether we see this shift in rural populations will depend to a large extent on demand and supply side policies that explicitly encourage consumption. For example, the “healthy hawker programme” in Singapore targets food court vendors to encourage them to use brown instead of white rice in their dishes, with ½ brown rice
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Figure 8: nutritional content per 100g of selected cereals
Sources: USDA nutrient database. Percentages relative to US recommendations for adults. http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/cgi -bin/nut_search_new.pl and SELF nutrition calculator http://nutritiondata.self.com/foods-0.html
substitution initially so that consumers can get used to the taste. Led by the Health Promotion Board under the Ministry of Health, the programme emphasises the benefits of brown rice for both consumers (nutritional qualities) and vendors (easier to stir fry brown rice, lower stickiness). The cost of procuring brown rice will be the same for vendors as the programme links them to programme sponsored wholesalers.39 The food courts targeted by the programme are located in government-provided housing areas and are a popular dining option utilised by over 90% of the population.
An increase in brown rice consumption has implications for the future of rice millers who produce white rice. Currently, food supply chains remain inadequate and untapped income generation opportunities exist in transportation, storage options, packaging and exports. Demand for brown rice and organic varieties in foreign markets also signals export potential for farmers. However, consumers’ willingness to eat these varieties remains uncertain. Results from the Singapore healthy hawker programme may be indicative for elsewhere in Southeast Asia, given rice’s
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“ultra rice” in Cambodia: fortifying one grain at a time
There are many different types of rice
For every 100 grains of ordinary rice, one NGO is slipping in one grain of fortified rice made from micronutrient fortified rice flour. And consumers appear to prefer it to normal rice. PATH, an NGO funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the US Department of Agriculture’s National Institute for Food and Agriculture, with the technical support of the UN World Food Programme and the Institute of Research for Development, is planning to license the Ultra Rice technology to local manufacturers to make the special grains, which are then sold to rice millers who do the 1:100 mixing. Ultra Rice technology is a technique that packs in vitamin A, zinc, folic acid, thiamine and iron in rice that looks, smells and tastes exactly like normal rice. Since a fortified rice acceptability study conducted in Kampong Speu in 2010, plans are in place to supply 12,000 schoolchildren with the fortified power mix. They hope to reach 600,000. Senior researcher Frank Wieringa, says that the provision of Ultra Rice will be cost-effective at “only 70 cents per year, much cheaper than any other intervention”. He notes that “Cambodian mothers regularly feed their babies rice porridge, a traditional food which appears to be healthy, but which is actually quite vacant of the micronutrients required for a developing human being in the critical first 24 months of life”. Malnutrition in Cambodia is a serious problem — a recent survey showed that 9% of children under five had acute malnutrition, and almost 40% of children are too short for their age — a consequence of stunting, strongly related to malnutrition. Furthermore, 47% of women and 67% of children are anaemic and an estimated 500,000 children are at risk of zinc deficiency.40 More information on Ultra Rice are available online. Please see: http://www.path.org/projects/ultra_rice.php
golden rice: a boon for children and pregnant women? The WHO estimates that 20% or more of preschool-aged children in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and the Philippines suffer from vitamin A deficiency. Golden rice contains beta carotene (vitamin A). Dr. Gerald Berry, golden rice project leader at International Rice Reserach Institute, says “One cup of golden rice consumed every day can provide up to 50% of a person’s daily vitamin A requirements”. As a genetically modified strain, golden rice will only be available to farmers and consumers after it passes biosafety tests and is approved by national authorities in Bangladesh and the Philippines (expected in 2013 and 2015 respectively), where it is being developed and rolled out. IRRI’s partner, Helen Keller International, will assess how daily consumption of golden rice can help reduce vitamin A deficiency. It remains to be seen how consumers will react to the different colour, and whether it passes consumers’ cooking and taste preferences. Equally, we do not yet know how the authorities and farmers will respond to a genetically modified strain of rice. But its potential to alleviate vitamin A deficiency is clear. Boosted with a new grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (in addition to the Rockefeller Foundation, USAID and other donors), golden rice could help millions of children and pregnant women in Southeast Asia get their daily dose of beta carotene. More information on golden rice are available online. Please see: http://irri.org/goldenrice
genetically modified rice in the laboratory
Rice unloaded at a parboiling mill in Thailand
status as a staple food among the country’s Chinese, Malay, and Indian citizens. urban agriculture is being explored in some urban centres. By 2050, the UN estimates that 80% of the population will live in urban areas. vertical farming, or farming indoors and upwards, has the potential to change the face of food production in densely populated cities (in vegetables rather than rice). Organic crops can be produced year round, without weather related crop failures, no agricultural runoff (black water can be recycled), and potential energy generation via methane generation from composting non-edible parts of plants and animals.41 At S$10,000 per frame (US$8,000), a recent prototype in Singapore is being lauded as costeffective way to boost production of leafy vegetables.42 In the medium term, this initiative could take off in densely populated cities in Southeast Asia. Another urban farming initiative in Nairobi, Kenya, could hold promise for low income urbanites in this region if scaled up. Urban farmers are growing vegetables like kale and spinach in sacks filled with soil.43 As the agricultural labour force in rural areas declines in the long term, urban agriculture has the potential to contribute a small proportion of overall food production, in
tandem with a rise in the concentration of food production and processing into the hands of a few mega corporations. In the short term, improving supply chains from rural to urban areas will ensure that farmers' incomes are not affected. In 2006, more than half of the economically active population were involved in agriculture in Southeast Asia.44 Downstream in food supply chains, the supermarket is emerging as a stabiliser of rice prices and other staples.45 Supermarkets in rural and semi-urban areas will increase the availability of diverse foodstuffs for poorer consumers in those areas. Finally, the anxiety about food security has not been matched with funding for agricultural research. As a recent report by the International Rice Research Institute and the Asia Society notes, “a modest annual investment of US$120 million through 2030 towards rice research in Asia could increase rice productivity by nearly 9%, and reduce poverty rates by 15% and hunger rates by 20% in the region�.46 These substantial gains will only be realised if the political will to reduce hunger and malnutrition is there, in addition to donor support for agricultural research programmes.
frOm WaSTE TO pOWEr: mOrE gaiN pEr graiN
Biomass’ potential in energy production is no mystery to Southeast Asia, given it satisfies more than 60% of the total energy demand in countries like Myanmar and Cambodia.47 Unlike oil palm, cassava, and fuelwood which are wellknown feedstocks, rice and the byproducts generated from its production are less familiar inputs, though have gained significant visibility over the past decade. Thailand, in particular, has emerged as the region’s leader in utilising rice husk for power production, as well as the nucleus for much of the ongoing research in rice straw’s potential as a feedstock for ethanol conversion.48 Thai rice mills generate approximately five million tons of rice husk each year from milling 30 million tons of rice
paddy. Commercial interest in husk, for industry use (e.g., cement kilns and alcohol production) and in power generation, has recently intensified, in contrast with a decade ago when husk was largely seen as a waste product to be hauled off a mill’s site. Demand has jockeyed the price up to a current level of 1,100 baht per ton, up from 400 baht in 2002. Since more than 3.6 million Thai households are involved in rice production, contributing to Thailand’s top rice exporter status, the country makes for a logical source of growth in rice-based power generation. Given the volume of produced rice husk, the country has an estimated 500MW–900MW of potential.49 While a relatively small amount in comparison to fossil fueled generation, this capacity greatly eclipses the
current installed capacity of solar and wind for any Southeast Asian country. Various support mechanisms have facilitated the technology's growth and contributed to commercial viability. Its environmental benefits are apparent, but its pro-poor implications are less clear. For example, its use is likely to improve local air quality, as a substitute for conventional fossil fuel plants, but falls short of providing farmers selling paddy with additional income. With milled rice priced several times higher than husk, on a mass basis, the latter is clearly the byproduct and unlikely to become the primary product which limits the scope for small-holders’ potential profits. Yet is this a fixed condition, or can the supply chain dynamic be
altered to generate pro-poor benefits? If so, can the technology be adopted in neighbouring countries and contribute to ongoing electrification efforts? The technology and supporting policies Husk-fired power plants, of which Thailand has no fewer than six, operate in much the same way as conventional thermal plants (See Figure 9). Lorries enter plant facilities to transport the 200–600 tons of husk required daily, and dump their payload into a storage area. Depending on the husk’s moisture content, husk may be left in the open air to dry and reach suitable moisture levels before being fed into a hopper. The husk travels through a series of conveyor belts and eventually to its combustion in a steam-generating boiler system.50 As
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Figure 9: A typical rice husk plant ecosystem
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in a standard thermoelectric plant, the steam spins a turbine, generates electricity, and is recovered through heat exchange processes. For grid-connected plants, the electricity is stepped up to a higher voltage before being sent to the transmission lines where they are drawn by connected utility consumers. While the underlying technology is not new, these plants and other small-scale facilities drawing on a variety of feedstocks have arisen only recently because of energy security and environmental concerns. Recognising the contribution made by their quick construction and role in energy diversification, the Thai Cabinet in 1992 introduced measures to ensure their connection to the central grid. Through the Small Power Producer scheme,51 plants under 60MW and powered by either renewable energy or cogeneration systems became eligible for signing a Power Purchase Agreement which allows Thailand’s transmission company, Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand, to purchase electricity over a set period at a fixed rate.52 Without a Power Purchase Agreement and access to transmission lines, some of these plants would not be financially viable. Another means of improving the viability of such plants is participation in the Clean Development Mechanism, a ‘flexible instrument’ passed under the Kyoto Protocol which enables international investors to support cleaner energy projects in developing countries. These projects produce Certified Emission Reductions, or carbon credits that can be used to satisfy mitigation targets in the European Union’s Emissions Trading Scheme. Plant owners sell these credits and currently earn €12 for each ton of avoided carbon dioxide. Contravening against these policy supports is husk’s price volatility. An influx of interest by industrial concerns and power producers has driven up husk price to a current level of US$37–US$40 per ton. At this price, plants may experience quarterly losses. The spot pricing nature seems unavoidable as mills are reluctant to sign long-term purchasing contracts with plant operators who are prey to the prevailing market price. One of the few hedging strategies plant owners have is to expand their storage capacity, a rather costly measure, and to purchase surplus husk at market lows. Meanwhile, millers have storage capacity of their own and temper their production levels when global rice prices dip, resulting in unreliable input access for plant operators. Furthermore, husk volumes are also dependent on harvest yields. A weak growing season brought about by drought or flood can mean less husk for upstream purchasers.
pro-poor snapshot The issue of biomass-fired power plants, more generally, is intrinsically related to poverty. Since transportation costs are prohibitive, plants must be sited near the farms from which they derive their feedstock and are therefore likely to be close to rural poor populations. This proximity can yield mixed outcomes. Negative externalities like noise and air pollution can instigate health consequences, though appropriate mitigation measures should be incorporated in the design stage. At the same time, plants can be engines of job creation and community-directed financing. Power Development Funds Thailand’s Power Development Funds policy supports social development objectives for communities living within 5km of a power plant. Initiated by the Ministry of Energy two years ago and currently led by the Energy Policy & Planning Office, power plants pay a fuel adjustment surcharge pegged to the plant’s fuel. Biomass, renewable energy, and natural gas plants pay one satang (100 satang = one baht) for each kWh generated, whereas lignite, coal, and hydro mark the upper end of payments at two satang per kWh. A committee, to be designed by the Energy Regulatory Commission, will be tasked with funds collection and disbursing monies to communities who select their development activities by local vote. Supported projects so far have included drinking water pipe network improvement and purchases of upgraded hospital equipment. Job Creation Small-scale power plants create a variety of direct and auxiliary jobs that require employees of varying skills and education. These include engineering and managerial positions, as well as secretarial, trucking, and operations jobs. There may be a skills mismatch for some of the former jobs with the local population, requiring recruitment from further afield. Local candidates may be easier to source for other positions. Other jobs will arise to provide services borne from plant employees’ disposable income. Environmental Effects The environmental benefits of biomass power generation have both local and global implications. As natural gas and coal provide a majority of baseload generation in Thailand, electricity from rice husk-fired plants displaces these fossil fuels and therefore lowers the emission levels of greenhouse gases and other air pollutants (SOx, NOx, PM2.5, etc.). This translates to improved air quality, reduced health burdens and disease incidence in neighbouring areas, and concomitant economic
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Environment Facility Small Grants Programme, the Karen Conservation Group built a hydropower-driven rice mill in Thailand’s Chiang Mai province in 2002. The project was implemented to benefit 200 families through providing them a diesel-free alternative with milling capacity of 300 kilograms over eight hours. Three community members were trained to run the mill which is managed by a cooperative to oversee mill revenues and community obligations.53 Husk produced from the mill is used as fertiliser.
A farmer spraying water on burning rice husks
savings from avoided health expenditures. Compared to burning or decomposing the husk openly, controlled combustion would help to avoid releases of methane gas. On the other hand, because environmental impact assessments are required only for plants rated at greater than a 10MW capacity, it is possible that these smaller plants are skirting environmental best practices to the detriment of local communities. Community-driven intervention point: are cooperative rice mills the way forward? Given these impacts, such plants can create net societal benefits if they match the generation reliability of their fossil fuel counterparts, without producing other untoward externalities. Where feedstock supply allows, this technology should be expanded, and as long as Thailand remains a rice basket, the husk byproduct will be potentially available. But under the current arrangement where large-scale mills enjoy monopsony status when buying paddy from local farmers and in their relationship with rice husk-fired plants, rice farmers enjoy no gain from the husk sales to power plants as the mills absorb the new revenue stream. Since these profits will not be charitably passed to the rice farmers, alternative management or ownership structures should be considered to unlock greater pro-poor potential. This requires a rethink of how mills are positioned within paddy and milled rice markets, as well as the role of farmer cooperation in establishing new enterprises. Farmers may not be actively seeking alternative supply chain and ownership designs that grant them more bargaining power, but perhaps the answer lies in community control and further decentralisation of mills. “Cooperative rice mill” models exist in the region and could prove one way forward. With support from the Global
Another Thai cooperative mill, in Buriram Province’s Puthaisong Subdistrict, was established with members from 13 villages to develop a viable business model that would improve farmers’ self-reliance.54 Start-up capital for the mill’s construction was sourced from shareholders and a subsidy from the Department of Local Administration, and later on a loan from the Department of Cooperatives Promotion to expand silo facilities. According to a United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) review, a community rice market has arisen “where the prices are determined not for maximum profits, but to ensure that members reduce their dependency on middlemen.” Commercial mills have a captive audience because current husk demand outstrips supply and withholding supply only drives prices up. They have little incentive to ensure that sold husk meets the quality criteria of purchasers. Since the moisture content must be below 15% to be combustion-ready, husk exceeding that level causes additional production costs or possible delays for power plant operators. Knowing this, if community mills can sell a superior product — through husk of lower moisture content, routine deliveries, and material that is free of impurities like dust, dirt, and nails — they may be able to create their market niche and pocket the value added of selling milled rice instead of raw paddy. However, such a proposal is not without challenges; commercial mills prevail in the current climate because of economics and resources. Under the current setup, larger operations presumably have greater market intelligencegathering capacities, as well as the ability to sign forwards contracts. These capabilities contribute to cost-cutting and higher operations efficiency. Wongkeawchan et al. also find that commercial mills enjoy higher technical efficiencies than cooperative mills.55 Obviously, capacity-building would be required of individuals tied to community mills to be commercially viable and to maintain competitiveness.
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ATM researchers visited the 22Mw Phichit-based rice husk-fired power plant
phichit a.T. biopower plant Located 350km north of Bangkok, the 22MW Phichit-based rice husk-fired power plant has been operating since 2005. Japan’s Chubu Electric Power Co., UAE’s Al Tayyar Energy, and the Finnish Fund for Industrial Cooperation collectively hold about 75% of ownership shares in the plant, which was designed by Bangkok-based A.T. Biopower, Co., Ltd. A 25-year Power Purchasing Agreement with the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand guarantees the plant a stable tariff for up to 20MW of power sales and the purchase of 80% of plant output. The plant receives additional revenue through the sale of Certified Emissions Reductions, carbon credits sold to European and Japanese companies for satisfying their own emission reduction obligations. According to carbon accounting methods used under the Clean Development Mechanism, the plant will have contributed a cumulative emissions reduction estimated at 0.5 million tons of CO2-equivalent for the first crediting period, as compared to power produced from a conventional plant. Husk with moisture content below 15% is sourced from local rice mills to ensure efficient combustion in the boiler system. The storage facility was constructed nearly three
years ago and at 8,000 tons of capacity can store enough husk for 15 generating days. About 530 tons of husk per day are required to produce 20MW of power, which daily generates 100 tons of waste ash daily. Non-crystalline silica from the waste ash is bagged and sold to fibre cement roofing manufacturers. The ash substitutes for asbestos as a fibre cement ingredient, leading to public health benefits, and is sold exclusively to Siam Cement Group. Local villagers were hired for the plant’s construction and about half of the current 75 plant employees are local to the Phichit area, serving in operations, security, and groundskeeping capacities. The Phichit plant commits about one million baht per year to the Community Development Fund, paid from its own budget, plus 1.2 million baht yearly (1 satang per kWh sold) in Power Development Funds, like other Small Power Producer projects, to support community development among the tambons located within a 5km radius of the plant. Plant management maintains an implicit commitment to the community, of hiring local residents, and managing noise, water, and other potential environmental problems. In the event of damages, an environmental guarantee fund stays deposited in a local bank to offer compensation.
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Interventions such as the Village Development Partnership (see page 10) could easily integrate the required technical training in their business development workshops.
• Creation of a husk spot market as an alternative to longterm husk purchasing contracts, with market data daily transmitted by SMS to mill operators; and
Some of the challenges facing cooperative mills include:
• Tax breaks could be provided for verified purchases from farmer coops in lieu of direct subsidies to farmers. This would stimulate plant-farmer commerce and incentivise greater rice production by moving away from policies that fail to encourage intensification.
• Lack of credit access for both initial purchases and operating and manufacturing-related expenses. Farmers who may be suitable for cooperative ventures may not be the most credit-worthy, and therefore initiatives like the Green European Foundation or UNDP Small Grants Programme will be instrumental in catalysing such formations; • Small-scale operations are likely to miss out on economies of scale. Lower mill output volumes results in rice husk-fired plants having to source from a larger number of suppliers, which escalates their transaction costs. Cooperative mills will therefore have to emphasise the value-add they provide which commercial mills cannot; • Rewarding farmers for selling biomass residues may cause them to denude their land of the straw that provides productivity-raising silicate. Farmers may need further education on appropriate soil management; • Transportation costs limit the distance and range that husk can be profitably trucked. Husk production volumes may not be high enough to warrant shipment to buyers, but they could induce rice mills to retrofit their machinery to combust husk on-site to fulfill the rice mill’s electricity demands; and • While the adder system provides little incentive to biomass-based power plant operators, the receipt of carbon credits is necessary for plant profitability. Mills are therefore vulnerable to regulatory changes to the Clean Development Mechanism that might disrupt rice husk demand, and therefore should consider alternative customer bases, such as industry, in such an event. While the following actions may not directly resolve these challenges, innovative options exist which might bolster the feasibility of cooperative mills and should be investigated: • Aside from power plant and industrial buyers, husk can also be compacted into briquettes to be used as fuel for improved cook stoves. Environmental benefits would stem from avoided deforestation;
Concluding thoughts Setting an appropriate policy environment that rewards small-scale producers seems to be a prerequisite for the growth of rice dependent plants, given that plant capacity is limited by the feedstock available within an economically viable radius. This may prove initially challenging as energy policy in countries with predominantly agricultural populations is likely to be driven by least cost objectives. One means around such an impasse is a cross-subsidy to support cleaner energy in rural areas. As evidenced by the aforementioned examples of community mills, the challenges are not insurmountable. Their value should be observed outside a strictly economic system, as a means of aiding subsistence farmers in escaping poverty and capturing a portion of the profits that commercial mills are realising, but not reallocating back into the community. Such alternatives to corporatised rice finishing exist, albeit at a small-scale that some might see as a step backward in productivity or efficiency terms. However, it enhances farmers’ ownership over a greater range of the rice supply chain in that they would be buying polished rice from neighbours instead of the mill, at acceptable prices. The outstanding question will be in the value proposition offered by community mills, as a diffusion of suppliers increases the power plant’s own costs. Can neighbouring countries benefit from the technologies in place and the institutional setup (e.g., Small Power Producer contracts) so that their rice husk supplies can be used for energy generation? Additional flexibility in policy design exists for other rice-producing countries in the region, like Cambodia and Vietnam, where universal electrification is not a reality. In such contexts, mandated sales to lowincome communities or differentiated tariffs may improve access and affordability. Alternative uses should also be considered, such as for rice mills' on-site electricity generation and as a fuel for improved cook stoves.
The team is grateful to the following individuals and organisations for their insights: Dara Chettanachit and Kukiat Soitong (Thailand Rice Department); Paul Salvette (Population and Community Development Association); Somkiat Makacayathorn (Thai Rice Exporters Association); Woraset Warawattananon (Translator); Chanakan Prom-u-thai (Chiang Mai University); Viroj NaRanong (Thailand Development Research Institute); Abdul Salam (Asian Institute of Technology); Chanapai Sahudsa and Jirapat Towanabut (A.T. Biopower Co.); Sorawut Ariyasap, Anurak Pinrattana, and Thawat Watanatada (A.T. Tri Co.); Chira Achayuthakan (Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand); Khun Piyawan (Energy Regulatory Commission of Thailand); Mirko Barz, Mitra Kami, and Boonrod Sajjakulnukit (Joint Graduate School of Energy & Environment).
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31 | aCkNOWlEdgEmENTS
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39. Lam E, Channel News Asia: Singapore's first 'healthy' hawker centre to be launched in April. 10 March 2011. http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/ singaporelocalnews/view/1115626/1/.html 40. Phnom Penh Post: “Ultra Rice” slips nutrients in via one special grain for every 100 ordinary grains of rice”. Friday 29 April 2011. http://www.phnompenhpost.com/index.php/Special-Supplements/ultra-rice-slips-nutrients-invia-one-special-grain-for-every-100-ordinary-grains-of-rice.html 41. Vertical Farm website. http://www.verticalfarm.com/ 42. Tan J, Channel News Asia: Vertical farming boosts production of vegetables. 28 January 2011. http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/ singaporelocalnews/view/1107559/1/.html 43. Strickler A, Nourishing the Planet blog: What works: Making the most of small spaces. 5 April 2011. http://blogs.worldwatch.org/nourishingtheplanet/ nourishingtheplanetfood-security-urban-sprawl-echo-farm-nairobi-kenyaurban-harvest-resource-centers-on-urban-agriculture-and-food-securityrooftop-gardens-recycling/ 44. FAO: The state of food and agriculture in Asia and the Pacific 2006. http:// www.fao.org/docrep/009/ag086e/ag086e02.htm 45. See reference 29. 46. IRRI Task Force, Asia Society: Never an empty bowl: sustaining food security in Asia. September 2010. http://asiasociety.org/files/pdf/ FoodSecurityTF_online.pdf 47. World Bank. 2011. World Development Indicators Online Database. Accessed: 10 May 2011. 48. See, for example, Gadde, Butchaiah; Menke, Christoph and Reiner Wassmann. 2009. “Rice Straw as a Renewable Energy Source in India, Thailand, and the Philippines: Overall Potential and Limitation for Energy Contribution and Greenhouse Gas Mitigation.” Biomass and Bioenergy, 33, 1532-1546. 49. A.T. Biopower. 2004. “Energy Generation from Agricultural Waste Project.” 50. Boilers are designed and optimised based on the anticipated fuel, such that boilers with single-fuel specifications will operate with different thermodynamic characteristics than multi-fuel boilers. Unfortunately the engineering tradeoffs entail multi-fuel ready boilers less efficient than those dedicated to a single fuel, like husk. 51. Since its inception, the Small Power Producer policy has undergone several changes in form and detail, notably with the current Very Small Power Producer policy with incentives available for plants smaller than 10MW and Small Power Producer applying to plants up to 90MW. 52. Amornkosit, Narupat. 2007. “Renewable Energy Policy: Recent Policies on SPP/VSPP.” Presented at: Renewable Energy Asia 2007. Bangkok. 53. GEF/UNDP. 2003. “Water Power for Rice Milling, Thailand.” Available at: http://sgp.undp.org/download/SGP_Thailand3.pdf. 54. UNDP. 2006. “Community-Based Microfinance: An Empowering Approach Towards Poverty Alleviation and Community Self-Reliance.” Ministry of Foreign
33 | EdiTOrial TEam
TradE & iNvESTmENT faCiliTaTiON Darryl Jarvis is an Associate Professor at the LKY School of Public Policy. He specialises in risk analysis and the study of political and economic risk in Asia, including investment, regulatory and institutional risk analysis. He is an author and editor of several books and has contributed articles to leading international journals. He has been a consultant to various government bodies and business organisations and for two years was a member of the investigating team and then chief researcher on the Building Institutional Capacity in Asia project commissioned by the Ministry of Finance, Japan. His current research is a large cross-national study of risk causality in four of Asia’s most dynamic industry sectors. He teaches courses on risk analysis, markets and international governance and international political economy. His email is darryl.jarvis@nus.edu.sg
Johannes loh is working as a Research Associate at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. He holds a Master’s degree in Public Policy from the Hertie School of Governance in Berlin. His previous research experience includes international student mobility, visual political communication, aid governance and public sector reform in developing countries. Recently, he completed a research project on Success Factors for Police Reform in Postconflict Situations with the German Technical Cooperation. Prior to joining the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy he has also worked for the United Nations Environment Programme in Geneva, Transparency International Nepal and the Centre on Asia and Globalisation in Singapore. His email is johannes.loh@nus.edu.sg and you can follow his updates on trade & investment facilitation on Twitter, @seasiatrade.
hEalTh SySTEmS Phua kai Hong is a tenured professor at the LKY School of Public Policy and formerly held a joint appointment as Associate Professor and Head, Health Services Research Unit in the Faculty of Medicine. He is frequently consulted by governments within the region and international organisations, including the Red Cross, UNESCAP, WHO and World Bank. He has lectured and published widely on policy issues of population aging, healthcare management and comparative health systems in the emerging economies of Asia. He is the current Chair of the Asia-Pacific Health Economics Network (APHEN), founder member of the Asian Health Systems Reform Network (DRAGONET), Editorial Advisory Board Member of Research in Healthcare Financial Management and an Associate Editor of the Singapore Economic Review.
nicola Pocock is a research associate at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. She is also the research manager at aidha, a non-profit financial education and entrepreneurship training school for migrant domestic workers in Singapore. Prior to joining the LKY School of Public Policy, she was the general manager at aidha. She has worked as a Fast stream trainee in the UK civil service at the Home Office and as a research volunteer at Amnesty International. Her research interests span health and social policy, health systems financing, social impact assessment, gender, migration and financial behaviours. Her email is sppnp@nus.edu.sg and you can follow her work on health systems on Twitter @healthSEAsia.
His email address is spppkh@nus.edu.sg
ENErgy SECuriTy Benjamin k. Sovacool is an Assistant Professor at the LKY School of Public Policy. He is also a Research Fellow in the Energy Governance Programme at the Centre on Asia and Globalisation.
Anthony D’Agostino is a research associate at the Centre on Asia and Globalisation (CAG) with research interests in energy policy, climate change adaptation and environmental decision analysis.
Dr Sovacool has worked as a researcher, professor and consultant on issues pertaining to energy policy, the environment and science and technology policy. He has served in advisory and research capacities at the U.S. National Science Foundation’s Electric Power Networks Efficiency and Security Programme, Virginia Tech Consortium on Energy Restructuring, Virginia Centre for Coal and Energy Research, New York State Energy Research and Development Authority, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Semiconductor Materials and Equipment International, U.S. Department of Energy’s Climate Change Technology Programme and the International Institute for Applied Systems and Analysis near Vienna, Austria.
Prior to joining CAG, Anthony worked with the Institute of Water Policy at the LKY School of Public Policy, using system dynamics to address public policy and water policy challenges. He has worked with the Greenhouse Gas Protocol at the World Resources Institute and at UNEP-ROAP, respectively focusing on corporate GHG emissions and sustainable buildings. In addition to consultation work on transportation and corporate environmental reporting, Anthony has worked for organisations in India, Australia, New Zealand and the US on rural development and sustainable agriculture issues.
Dr Sovacool has published four books, more than 80 academic articles and presented at more than 30 international conferences and symposia. His email address is bsovacool@nus.edu.sg
His email is sppald@nus.edu.sg and you can follow his work on the Southeast Asian energy sector on Twitter, @seasiaenergy.
The Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy is an autonomous, professional graduate school of the National University of Singapore. Its mission is to help educate and train the next generation of Asian policymakers and leaders, with the objective of raising the standards of governance throughout the region, improving the lives of its people and, in so doing, contribute to the transformation of Asia. For more details on the LKY School, please visit www.lkyspp.nus.edu.sg