The Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin is a project sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation, New York, the Centre for Strategic Futures, Singapore and the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore. The Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy gratefully acknowledges the financial assistance of the Rockefeller Foundation and the Centre for Strategic Futures, Singapore. The Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin focuses on the analysis of pro-poor projects and innovative approaches that will contribute to alleviate poverty. The emphasis is put on identifying major trends for the poor in rural and urban areas, highlighting sustainable and scalable concepts, and analysing how these could impact the future of Asia’s well-being and future development. The Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin are designed to encourage dialogue and debate about critical issues that affect Asia’s ability to reduce poverty and increase awareness of the implications for pro-poor policy and policy development. Disclaimer The opinions expressed in the Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin are those of the analysts and do not necessarily reflect those of the sponsor organisations. Frequency The Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin will be produced eight times a year and can be downloaded for free at http://www.asiantrendsmonitoring.com/downloads Principal Investigators Darryl S.L Jarvis Phua Kai Hong T S Gopi Rethinaraj Research Associates Johannes Loh Taufik Indrakesuma Nicola Pocock Production Chris Koh, Manager, Production & Research Dissemination Image credits, with thanks All the images in this issue were taken by the ATM team during their Hanoi trip of May 2012, except for the following images on: • this page and page 21, copyrighted by United Nations Photo • page 9 and 12, copyrighted by Padmanaba01 • page 14, copyrighted by Dave_B_ • page 15, copyrighted by din bcn • page 17, copyrighted by Roberto Vincitore Permission is granted to use portions of this work copyrighted by the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. Please acknowledge the source and email a copy of the book, periodical or electronic document in which the material appears to chris.k@nus.edu.sg or send to Chris Koh Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy 469C Bukit Timah Toad Singapore 259772
Hands of a Vietnamese woman making biomass briquettes
Contents Hanoi’s poor: how do we empower them?
3
Poverty and public services in rapidly growing Vietnam
4
Large-scale assistance through empowerment efforts
12
Future outlook: entrepreneurship among the urban poor in 2035
17
References
22
3
Hanoi’s poor: how do we empower them? The Asian Trends Monitoring team continues its reporting on the state of urban poverty in Southeast Asia. After the first two issues on Jakarta and Manila, the team now releases a bulletin on a city that is markedly different from the first two: Hanoi, Vietnam. Unlike the more developed economies of Indonesia and the Philippines, Vietnam is very much an economy in transition. With its recent rise into the cluster of middle income countries (countries with a GDP per capita of US$1,000 or more), Vietnam has an opportunity to adjust its growth strategy to become more inclusive and lift millions of its people out of poverty. One of the best places to start would be its capital city. Hanoi, unlike Jakarta and Manila, is not quite a megacity, but it is definitely heading in that direction. Thus, Hanoi must rethink its strategies and models for service provision in order to remain inclusive and accessible throughout this period of growth. This issue of the Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin analyses the living conditions that Hanoi’s poor residents must contend with, and the services that are in place to assist them. More specifically, we look into the potential roles of empowerment strategies such as microfinance and social businesses as viable ways to close service gaps in cities like Hanoi. This issue also features primary data from our Urban Poverty and
Small business owners like this require much training and assistance to become competitive
Service Provision dataset. The data we present will hopefully paint a clearer picture about the state of public services in the city, as well as which problems most urgently require solutions. In the final part of this bulletin we provide four alternative future sce-
Suggested citation
narios for Hanoi 2035. Will the city choose a new direction and head towards “vibrant self-reliance” or will it end up in the “inevitable breakdown” scenario? Read about these and two more scenarios in the new future outlook section. Throughout 2012 the team has conducted the survey in a total of four
When citing individual articles • Indrakesuma, T., & Loh, J. (2012). Poverty and public services in rapidly growing Vietnam. In Asian Trends Monitoring, Bulletin 18: Empowering Hanoi’s Poor
cities: Jakarta, Manila, Hanoi, and Vientiane. Future issues of the ATM Bulletin
(pp. 4-11). Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy,
will include cross-city comparisons in key areas such as health, water and
Singapore.
access to finance. We invite you to share the ATM Bulletin with colleagues interested in pro-
When citing the entire bulletin • Asian Trends Monitoring (2012). Bulletin 18:
poor issues in Southeast Asia. The Bulletin is also available for download
Empowering Hanoi’s Poor. Lee Kuan Yew School of
at www.asiantrendsmonitoring.com/download, where you can subscribe
Public Policy, Singapore.
to future issues. We encourage you to regularly visit our website for more
When citing our survey data
updates and recent video uploads in our blog. Thank you again for supporting the ATM Bulletin, and as always, we gladly welcome your feedback.
• Asian Trends Monitoring (2012). A dataset on urban poverty and service provision. Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore.
Taufik Indrakesuma Johannes Loh
4
Poverty and public services in rapidly growing Vietnam
Indonesia and the Philippines. Reports about Vietnam’s progress towards the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) document tremendous achievements against the baseline data from 1990. Compared to all other ASEAN countries Vietnam’s poverty reduction record stands
by Taufik Indrakesuma & Johannes Loh
out—from a poverty rate of 58.1% in 1990, the country managed to lift millions of people out of poverty by 2008, which showed a rate of only 14.5%.4
Vietnam is the country with the highest urbani-
In Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines,
While progress on MDG 1 (Eradicating
sation rate in Southeast Asia—just a decade
agriculture accounts for 42%, 41% and 35%
extreme poverty and hunger) is focused mainly
ago only 24% of its population lived in cities,
of the total labour force, respectively. This
on income levels, “new forms of poverty” such
with 65% of the labour force employed in rural
means that their transitions into a service sec-
as urban slums and service deprivation repre-
agriculture. Today, already more than 30 mil-
tor-led economy are well ahead of Vietnam’s.
sent challenges that require targeted and cross-
lion people live in urban areas, accounting for
According to official statistics, Vietnam’s agri-
sector solutions. In light of the pace of urbanisa-
approximately 34% of Vietnam’s total popula-
culture sector still employs just over half of the
tion in Vietnam, specific interventions and solu-
tion. The country is witnessing a speedy prolifer-
total labour force.
tions to alleviate urban poverty will become
3
ation of urban areas, with the number of towns
Data from several reputable sources indi-
or cities at 755 and rising. Planners estimate that
cates that Vietnam has been successful in
The emerging trend of urban poverty
Vietnam’s cities will be home to more than 46
pairing economic development with poverty
has been neglected in transitional Vietnam.
million people by the year 2020.1 The largest of
alleviation in its growing urban areas. This is
Government programmes prioritise rural pov-
these cities, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, are the
evident from the progress in its Millennium
erty alleviation programmes, while city admin-
growth engines of the country, supported by
Development Goals and Human Development
istrations are more concerned with generat-
relatively low urban unemployment at 4.6%. In
Index indicators. For example, Vietnam’s provi-
ing and sustaining the booming economic
contrast, rural unemployment is reported to be
sion of improved water and sanitation sources
growth. But for the marginalised and vulner-
over 20%.
in urban areas compares favourably to its
able in Vietnam’s urban areas, problems of
“more developed” ASEAN neighbours such as
depressed housing conditions, poor water and
2
With its newly attained status as a middle
b
increasingly important.
income countrya and its ambitions to achieve higher levels of human development, the counTable 1. Access to improved water and sanitation in the urban areas of Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam
try needs to address challenges in basic social service provision for both rural and urban populations. In particular, Vietnam will have to cope with rural-urban migration, a global megatrend
Urban Indonesia
Urban Philippines
Urban Vietnam
Improved water
89%
93%
99%
Improved sanitation
67%
80%
94%
Access to
that will continue to trouble city planners for the forseeable future. Many poor rural Vietnamese will try their luck in the thriving urban centres, perceiving them to be full of job opportunities for both skilled and unskilled workers. Urban planners need to find a way to accommodate
Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators and Global Development Finance Database (2010 data)
this influx of migrants and account for the fact that most of them are ill-equipped to participate in the urban economy. Above US$1,000 GDP per capita
a
An improved drinking-water source is one that, by nature of its construction or through active intervention, is likely to be protected from outside contamination. An improved sanitation facility is one that hygienically separates human excreta from human contact.
b
5
sanitation facilities and health risks due to pol-
sample respondents from every third house or
the day, when most of the men are at work.
lution can have devastating impacts, if not dealt
shelter.
Heads of household and spouses comprised
with quickly.
The survey had a “perception of difficulties”
93% of respondents in total, with 171 and 153
section comprising ten categories, each to be
responses, respectively. The average age of
Service deprivation in Hanoi: evidence from the field
rated on a 5-point scale (from “easy” to “impossi-
these respondents was 47 years. The house-
ble/unable to do”). The survey results show that
holds had an average size of 4.02 members,
In order to assess the severity of the problems
the greatest self-reported challenges among
and migrant households accounted for 73.4%
that the urban poor face, the Asian Trends
the urban poor are “accessing health services”,
of the sample.5
Monitoring team conducted a survey among
“finding work opportunities”, “saving money”
It is striking how prominently so-called “new
Hanoi’s poor population between 18–24 May,
and “finding good schools” for their children
forms of poverty” feature among the major
2012. We collected a total of 351 responses
(see Figure 1). In each of these four categories
issues indicated by the survey respondents.
from four different neighbourhoods with the
more than 40% of respondents answered with
While income (reflected by the inability to save
help of 12 field interviewers from the Centre
very difficult or unable to do.
money) is represented in the top four issues,
for Studies and Applied Sciences in Gender in
Our sample included 225 women and 124
Hanoi. We used the random walk method to
men because the survey was conducted during
access to health services, education and finding employment are equally difficult.
Figure 1. Perception of difficulty among Hanoi’s poor
Source: Asian Trends Monitoring. (2012). A dataset on urban poverty and service provision. Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore.
6
Figure 2. Life difficulty index, by the level of education obtained, as a percentage of maximum difficulty
As most of Hanoi’s poor are self-employed in the informal sector, they often require loans for working capital and consumption smoothing. Unfortunately, microfinance services in urban areas are rarely available. In urban areas there are two major players: the Vietnam Bank for the Poor and the Women’s Union. In order to get a loan from these organisations, a household needs to be listed on the Poor List. In the case of the Women’s Union, an official membership is also required. Revolving funds and self-organised savings groups can only be run illegally, according to our NGO source. Consequently, scaling and replication of those highly effective financial services remains blocked by law. The survey data confirms the lack of choices when Hanoi’s poor are in need of credit. The overwhelming majority of respondents (73.9%) take private loans from relatives or friends. Even the services of informal money lenders, often the next most popular alternative when the formal financial system is inaccessible (compare this to ATM Bulletin 17 “Manila’s Poor”), are only
The ten categories presented in Figure 1
and micro-entrepreneurs, drawn from migrant
used by 7.8%.
were compiled into a “Life difficulty index”
populations, are faced with the daunting task of
The poor are also deprived when it comes
through direct summation. A breakdown by
commuting great distances from the city centre
to health services. If they are unable to afford
education group reveals large differences in
to their homes in the outskirts. A recent UNDP
health insurance at market rates, they are
perceived life difficulty across all levels of educa-
report euphemises the situation in stating that
forced to pay out-of-pocket for every treat-
tion (see Figure 2). However, group comparisons
“government policies and expenditure have,
ment. An ongoing commercialisation of health
are only significant between those with school-
at times, tended to prioritise achieving higher
services has further worsened the gap between
ing up to grade 9 and those with high school
rates of economic growth over broader human
the affluent and the poor. The UNDP Human
degrees or more.
development outcomes”.6
Development Report notes that attempts to
Life in the city is especially tough for
Based on the above findings, it is clear
ensure sustainability of social service funding
migrants. With no official residence in Hanoi,
that Hanoi’s development is not yet inclu-
have led “to the increasing commercialisation of
migrant households are categorically excluded
sive. The services available to Hanoi’s poor
public social services, and over-reliance on user
from the “poor list” of eligible recipients for gov-
are extremely limited and often inaccessible
fees by service delivery organisations”.7 As evi-
ernment services. This means no subsidies, no
to those most in need. Migrants and seasonal
dent in Figure 4, more than 50% of respondents
free healthcare, and no other form of govern-
workers, often among the city’s poorest resi-
have difficulties in paying for health treatments.
ment support for them. In fact, the city gov-
dents, are by default not eligible for the Poor
As a result, many choose to self-medicate or
ernment tries to avoid slum upgrading and fre-
List (see page 8, “The Poor List”) because they
leave their ailments untreated. Moreover, a third
quently raids illegal settlements, pushing the
are not official Hanoi residents. Furthermore,
(36%) of those who make use of locally available
poor beyond the city boundaries and out of
they are unable to access decent housing and
clinics are dissatisfied with the service quality
sight from the public. Thus, Hanoi’s labourers
financial services.
(see Figure 5).
7
Figure 3. Response to the question: Where do you primarily borrow money?
Figure 4. Response to the statement: I have enough money to pay for health services
Figure 5. Response to the statement: I receive good service at my local health centre
8
Several NGO representatives we interviewed in Vietnam confirmed the observation
“The Poor List”
that urban life has become more challenging due to rising food prices and costs of liv-
The Vietnam government’s provision of services for the poor utilises a targeting system
ing. Hong, born and educated in Hanoi, tells
based on household income levels. The Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs
us that “it takes a minimum of VND1,000,000”
(MOLISA) constructs the list of poor households based on a poverty line of VND653,000
(approximately US$50) for a person to survive
(US$32.65) per person per month in urban areas and below VND400,000 (US$20) in rural
for a month in Hanoi, while the current urban
areas (as of 2012)8, and household income is assessed based on household surveys and
poverty line is set at VND653,000 (US$32.65).11
community discussions. The list of poor households is updated annually.
From the perspective of the poor, government
9
In every interview regarding government services in Hanoi, our sources never failed
support is difficult to get and, when available,
to mention this infamous “poor list” and what they believed were its flaws. The main
remains limited. Moreover, the financial cri-
concern is that many consider the poverty line to be set unrealistically low. The "poor
sis has impacted assistance from overseas—
list" threshold of US$32.65 per month is barely above the US$1 per day poverty line
relatives and friends have lower savings and
used a decade ago. Locals argue that there are a large number of households that are
remittances have gone down. The crisis has
unable to meet their basic needs despite having a household income that is too high for
also impacted the local economy, drying up
poor list eligibility. The 2011 Human Development Report argues that Vietnam needs to
employment opportunities that were already
expand its coverage for social services in order to achieve higher levels of human devel-
quite scarce before the crisis.
opment. It states that the “the system of subsidies and benefits available to the poor and disadvantaged is not yet sufficient to ensure universal access to social services”.
10
One of the very few studies monitoring Vietnam’s urban poverty is led by ActionAid
The seemingly obvious solution to this flaw is to raise the threshold, granting more
and Oxfam. Through questionnaire-based
households access to government assistance. However, this solution entails either an
interviews, group discussions and in-depth
expansion of the government budget for poverty alleviation efforts or a smaller share of
interviews, their research team tried to deepen
the pie for each household. As government budgets are unlikely to grow so significantly,
their understanding of urban poverty and
the most likely outcome of expanding the “poor list” is that each household will receive
identify the most needed social services. The
reduced benefits, which can severely lessen the impact of the assistance on the whole.
study found that poor human resource quality,
Thus, a more sustainable solution would be for other organisations to step in and
an inability to find alternative livelihoods, and
cater to the other needs of the in-betweens—those too wealthy for Vietnam govern-
a lack of social capital are major disadvantages
ment assistance but still too poor to sustain a decent living. It is important to consider
for poor urban residents.12 The study’s results
that the “in-between” households have more resources at their disposal than the “poor
are very similar to what our interviewees on
list” households. They can be assisted in other targeted ways such as better employ-
the ground named as their major challenges.
ment opportunities or skills training, which are more viable for smaller organisations
According to the study, urban migrants face
compared to efforts like building free water pumps or free health clinics.
additional challenges such as limited access to public services, uncomfortable and unsafe living conditions, high costs of living, and lack of social integration. Without a comprehensive social protection policy, this group of urban migrants and the next generation of urban poor could constitute a ticking time bomb for city planners. If the service gap keeps growing, it will further aggravate
A traditional market in Hanoi.
the social and economic inequality in Vietnam’s cities and become a major threat to social and political stability.
9
Hanoi street vendors sell meat in the open.
Migrants versus residents: yet another disparity? A comparison between rural-urban migrants and established Hanoi residents shows large differences in perceptions of difficulty.13 The migrant group rates access to a number of services as significantly more difficult than the resident group. Clean water is perceived as very difficult to access by 28% of the migrant group compared to only 8% of the residents (See Figure 6). One possible explanation would be that the “residents� were settled at a time when the city was less crowded, enabling them to live close to clean water sources. Differences in access to modern health services are less pronounced, but follow the same pattern. Once again, the migrant group has a significantly more difficult time gaining access to modern health treatments than the resident group (See Figure 7).
Figure 6. Ease of access to clean water
10
Figure 7. Ease of access to modern health treatments
Figure 8. Ease of access to toilets
Figure 9. Ease of finding good schools for children
11
Trash collection, a livelihood of last resort
Hanh’s family acts as a “distributor” in the middle of the supply chain for recyclable goods. Rather than collect the garbage directly,
The team travelled to the Nam Son landfill and solid waste treat-
the family buys plastic bags, old clothes and sometimes human hair
ment in Soc Son, Northern Hanoi. The main purpose of the visit
from other collectors. Subsequently, they clean and dry the mate-
was to interview trash pickers earning their living at the landfill.
rial and resell it to larger recycling operators. This unique position
However, at the time of our visit, the landfill was not open to the
means that Hanh’s family members are not put at risk of physical
trash collectors, as they are only allowed in the area very early in the
harm from being in the landfill, making them better off than the
morning, before the garbage trucks arrive. This is one of the major
families who collect trash directly.
differences when compared to Jakarta’s Bekasi landfill or Manila’s
However, being part of a long, inefficient supply chain also
harbour landfill. The operator’s strict rules significantly reduce the
means that profit margins for the family remain small. Hanh’s
danger for trash pickers in the vicinity of the trucks, dumping fresh
monthly household income is about VND3,000,000–4,000,000
garbage. In Jakarta and Manila, the most profitable items can only
(approximately US$144–191) which translates into less than US$1.30
be snatched away while the trucks are still unloading and thus the
per person per day. Consequently, they have no safety cushion in
work has to be done precariously close to the moving trucks.
cases of medical emergencies, and even the school fees for their
We interviewed a family who has earned their living in the “recy-
children are a big burden. To make matters worse, their income level
cling” business for the past thirteen years. Hanh, her husband and
is deemed “too rich” for government assistance, and when we asked
their three kids live in a village of about 500 people. Their home is a
them about NGOs in their area, we drew only blank looks.
simple housing complex with five families, each owning their own
The family would like to scale its business and open a grocery
room and a shared outdoor toilet. Even though their area is con-
store, but the loan conditions are not worth the risk. While the bank
nected to the water network, the pipe ends at the main road a few
asks for collateral which they do not have, the loan shark (usually
hundred metres away. So, they built a community well.
one of the local brick producers) asks for outrageous interest rates.
Rice farming used to contribute about 50% of their monthly income. However, a few years ago, one family started a brickmak-
They are left with no real alternatives aside from saving up little by little from their recycling activities.
ing business that was so profitable that most other families followed
Having seen inspiring examples of social businesses based in
suit. The resulting boom in the number of brickmaking ovens com-
trash-picker communities in Manila and Jakarta, we are left wonder-
pletely dried up and damaged the soil, rendering it unusable for
ing what it would take to mobilise Nam Son’s villagers to get started
commercial farming. Today, they can only use the land for subsis-
and gain access to access to markets for products from recycled
tence farming, leaving the landfill as their only source of income.
materials.
With regards to accessing sanitation facili-
are discriminated against when applying for
The results from these four categories are a
ties, 14% in the migrant group have expressed
schools. 15% more migrants than residents rate
clear indication that exclusion from basic facili-
difficulty compared to only 4% in the resi-
it as very difficult to find good schools for their
ties and services is more severe for rural-urban
dent group. This discrepancy becomes more
children. One of our interviewees pointed out
migrants. Interestingly, the questions on work
pronounced when we look at the other end
that it is not uncommon to pay bribes upwards
opportunities and regular savings do not show
of the spectrum, where 92% of the residents
of a couple of hundred US dollars to “buy”
significant differences between these two
found accessing sanitation facilities to be easy
admission to decent primary schools. If it is
groups. From the survey results, it appears that
or fairly easy, as opposed to only 69% in the
true that migrants, on average, earn less than
finding work and saving money is equally diffi-
migrant group.
the longer established urban populace, ability
cult for both migrants and Hanoi residents,
to pay this expensive bribe could explain the
regardless of how long they have been living in
results (See Figure 9).
the city.
By just looking at the data, one could get the impression that migrant children
12
Stuck in Hanoi.
Large-scale assistance through empowerment efforts
sizeable expenditures for human resources. These expenditures will only get larger with time, due to the anticipated growth in the number of poor urban residents. Thus, NGOs working in Hanoi are faced with two choices: be content with providing services
by Taufik Indrakesuma & Johannes Loh
to a limited number of people (perhaps one neighbourhood or ward), or adopt a different strategy that can be scaled up while retaining financial sustainability. Two such strategies that have found success in other cities are social busi-
In cities where government services are inacces-
Additionally, the evidence from the field in
sible for the poor, NGOs would typically step up
Jakarta and Manila suggests that these small
nesses and microfinance. Before discussing the details of these strate-
and act as a substitute provider for the people.
NGOs that engage directly with the commu-
gies, it is important to note their common char-
However, in a city like Hanoi the service gaps are
nities are more successful than large NGOs
acteristics that may have contributed to their
so large that direct provision from NGOs is not
that adopt the “assistance from above� pro-
success. First, both of these strategies focus
a viable alternative. Most pro-poor NGOs are
vision models of the government. However,
on empowerment rather than direct provi-
small and have limited resources, meaning that
mimicking the direct engagement service
sion of services. Although building clinics and
they can only serve one community at a time.
model on a larger scale is difficult and requires
schools for the poor can be effective at times,
13
The micro-entrepreneurs of Hoan Kiem Lake From a quick walk around Hanoi’s popular tourist areas, the tourismrelated economic activity is striking. Souvenir shops, restaurants,
This old man makes US$2 a day selling toys.
cafes, and hotels have popped up almost everywhere to accommodate the increasing numbers of tourists. However, these businesses generally require a significant amount of capital to set up; their business models have only limited benefits for the poor. Microentrepreneurs with access to small amounts of capital to support their endeavours have not been able to capitalise on this growing tourist market. The team interviewed a number of micro-entrepreneurs who worked around Hoan Kiem Lake, a popular tourist spot in Hanoi. We wanted to know how their businesses have fared in the last few years, when Hanoi’s tourism sector grew significantly. Our first interview was with a rickshaw driver, who moved to Hanoi 21 years ago and has worked as a rickshaw driver ever since.
These anecdotes are examples that Hanoi’s micro-entrepreneurs
Over that time, he has seen a shift in how his services are used.
need assistance. The rickshaw drivers, toy sellers, and food vendors
Initially, rickshaws were a primary method of transport, which
of Hoan Kiem Lake are stuck with the same jobs and/or business
meant that his services were in demand and his income was high.
models as ten years ago. A lack of capital limits their ability to adapt
Then, motor vehicles grew quickly in popularity and rendered rick-
to the changing markets and adjust their services accordingly.
shaws obsolete, except as a tourist attraction. However, the recent
Microfinance may be the best way to provide this helping hand.
growth in tourism has not translated to increased earnings for rick-
Having some extra capital will allow rickshaw drivers to set up a
shaw drivers. “We’re just not popular anymore,” our interviewee
proper tour guide business using their rickshaws or to switch to
said. When asked whether the government has attempted to pro-
a motorcycle taxi service. The same applies to food vendors who
mote rickshaws as a tourist attraction and help improve their condi-
would be able to clean and upgrade their stalls to make them more
tions, he answered, “No. Why would they?”
attractive to foreign tourists.
Other vendors around the area felt the same way. A woman who
However, it would be wrong to perceive these micro-entrepre-
sold Vietnamese cakes shared, “I usually don’t get many foreign
neurs simply as people who need handouts. These small-scale busi-
customers, only locals. The foreigners don’t want to try my cakes.”
nesses have potential for untapped profits, due to the aforemen-
Our interpreter added that foreigners are generally unwilling to buy
tioned rapid growth of Hanoi’s tourism industry. Thus, microfinance
food from street-side vendors because of hygiene concerns. This has
institutions would not just be filling a gap in service provision and
left many small-scale food sellers unable to tap into the growing
helping to lift communities out of poverty—they would be tapping
tourist market.
into a profitable market as well.
it also requires a constant stream of resource
and microfinance institutions choose instead to
existing services, without depending on hand-
to be poured in. This means that the services
provide the poor with jobs or the capital to start
outs from the providing organisations.
are often at the mercy of donor funding and
their own businesses. The resulting improve-
Secondly, both of these strategies are finan-
will have to cease operations when the money
ments in household income will, in the long run,
cially sustainable because they are run on a for-
runs out. On the other hand, social businesses
enable the beneficiaries to access and pay for
profit basis. Social businesses and microfinance
14
organisations are both strategies that seek a return on investment. Successful social busi-
A tough life hidden from view
nesses are profitable enough to be able to employ workers at fair wages, while microfinance
Ngoc is a 54-year lady who runs a micro-business in Hanoi. She runs a “shop on wheels”,
organisations establish good rapport with local
a bicycle used as a pushcart packed with second-hand clothes, household linens, and
communities and generally keep non-perform-
other assorted trinkets. She is also a seasonal migrant—for three months in a year, she is
ing loans to a minimum. This element of financial
a farmer, and for the other nine months, she becomes part of Hanoi’s poor population.
sustainability allows the organisations to expand
She is a registered resident in a village 60km outside of Hanoi, but moved to the city
their services both in reach and in duration.
looking for opportunities to earn additional money. Her family barely owns enough land to feed themselves and their children dropped out of high school to contribute as bread-winners.
Effective empowerment through social business
When Ngoc came to Hanoi (alone, as the rest of her family chose to remain in the
Social business is a development buzzword that
village), she did not know anyone and came with little money, barely enough to start
has grown in popularity in recent years. The con-
a business. Luckily, she was able to find a group of migrants who came from the same
cept and term were popularised by Muhammad
province. This gave her both companionship in the city and a way to communicate with
Yunus, Nobel Peace Prize laureate and founder
her family back home. Since she cannot afford a mobile phone, she has to rely on people
of the Grameen Bank. Loosely defined, any pri-
travelling through her village to relay news to and from her family.
vate entreprise with poverty alleviation as one
Because she returns to her home during harvest season, she needed a business with
of its objectives can be considered a social busi-
non-perishable goods and low investment costs. Without the skills to secure a job in a
ness. A more specific definition given by Yunus
factory, she settled for trading and selling second-hand clothes from a bicycle. “I know
involves his seven principles14:
my business is not very profitable,” says Ngoc, “but it’s still better than in my village,
• [the] business objective will be to over-
where I have no work for most of the year”. She earns about US$1 on bad days and
come poverty, or one or more prob-
maybe US$2.50 on good days. However, half of her profits go for the rent (US$25 per
lems (such as education, health, tech-
month) of her sleeping place. After factoring in other costs of living, there isn’t much
nology access, and environment) which
money left to be sent back home.
threaten people and society, not profit
This situation is typical for thousands of poor people in Hanoi: little working capital, no access to finance, no access to subsidised public services due to non-eligibility, and poor health due to their living conditions with bad or little sanitation facilities. Ngoc’s case illustrates how Vietnam’s city planners need to rethink their approach to public service provision for the urban poor.
maximisation; • [the business is] financially and economically sustainable; • investors get back their investment amount only, [without dividends] given beyond investment money; • when investment amount is paid back,
Life is tough for Hanoi's street hawkers.
company profit stays with the company for expansion and improvement; • [the business is] environmentally conscious; • workforce gets market wage with better working conditions; and • do it with joy. Social businesses tend to achieve their social objectives in two main ways. Some social businesses help the poor by providing goods or services at affordable prices. Some notable examples around the world include
15
A river hawker displays her merchandise in Halong Bay .
Grameen Danone, a joint venture between
However, it is worth noting that despite all
only be demanded by households or individu-
Grameen and DANONE to market cheap, nutri-
of its positive impacts, Grameen Danone and
als that are poor. However, inferior goods lead to
tious yogurt (called Shokti+) to solve child
other similar social businesses require large ini-
smaller benefits, as well as negative side-effects
malnutrition in Bangladesh. The product was
tial capital investments, and can take much lon-
on the target communities such as shame
developed to meet child nutritional require-
ger than conventional business models to reach
and resentment. In this case, social businesses
ments and was marketed at 6 Bangladeshi
the break-even point (in the case of Grameen
become better providers than government
Taka (~US$0.07) for a 60g cup in rural areas and
DANONE, it does not foresee reaching full
agencies, provided a committed entrepreneur
12 Taka (~US$0.14) for a 80g cup in urban areas.
repayment even by 2015, or ten years of opera-
and an investor can be found to fill a particular
Due to its affordability and nutritional content,
tion). Thus, this particular model of social busi-
service gap.
the product grew popular very quickly, with a
ness can run into the same financial constraints
The other way in which social businesses
sales level of 95,000 cups per day in April 2010.
that limit the reach and impact of traditional
can help the poor is through involvement of
A report released in May 2010 detailed the
NGO provision schemes.
the poor and unskilled in the production side.
following social and economic impact of the
One final point to consider about social busi-
This can be through ownership by the poor, fair
nesses is the quality of the products. The goods
employment of the poor, or cooperation with
• 1-out-of-4 children in the marketed areas
and services should be able to improve the cus-
other poor-owned businesses. In the previous
eats at least one cup of Shokti+ per week;
tomers’ lives, and should thus be of a reason-
example of Grameen Danone in Bangladesh, the
• 700 door-to-door sales ladies are get-
ably high quality. This is in stark contrast to the
company not only produces goods that benefit
ting additional income of 50-100 Taka
typical government service provision model,
the poor, it also employs poor rural women as
(US$0.60–1.20) per day; and
venture : 15
especially programmes that use self-targeting
door-to-door salesmen with fair compensation
• 370 micro-farmers are also adding 40%
schemes. Self-targeted programmes attempt
and buys its ingredients from local micro-farm-
to their daily income from selling to
to circumvent the time-consuming process of
ers at higher than market prices.
the Grameen Danone production plant
identifying beneficiaries by providing goods
In Hanoi, poor and unskilled workers do not
instead of going to the market.
and services of an inferior quality that would
have much bargaining power and are typically
16
KOTO: the right model at the right time
During this time, KOTO also provides accommodation, meals, and routine health check-ups.
To some, KOTO (visit the website at www.koto.com.au) is just a
After the training programme, graduates can either work at the
fancy restaurant in Hanoi with good food, a good atmosphere, and
KOTO restaurants in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City or find a hospi-
a friendly service staff. However, to many of its service staff as well
tality job with other organisations in Vietnam’s major cities. Most
as the poor communities around Hanoi, KOTO represents an oppor-
KOTO graduates manage to secure trainee positions in established
tunity to escape poverty and achieve a better life.
businesses in Vietnam, but also abroad. More recently, KOTO has
Founded by Vietnamese-Australian Jimmy Pham in the late 1990s, KOTO (which stands for Know One, Teach One) is one of the big suc-
secured partnerships with hotels, resorts, and restaurants around the world, giving its graduates even more lucrative opportunities.
cess stories among Hanoi’s social businesses. The success of its model
Part of the success of the business model can be attributed to the
has inspired imitations in recent years such as STREAT in Melbourne16.
growth of the hospitality industry in Vietnam’s urban areas. There is a
The way in which this restaurant achieves its social objective of
significant growth in the tourism sector, which means that new hotels
poverty alleviation is by training and employing street children and
and restaurants will be in need of a larger number of workers. KOTO
other poor youths from the surrounding communities. Their web-
succeeds because it fills that labour demand gap successfully by sup-
site states:
plying highly trained workers. This leads to organisations being more likely to invest or donate money into the KOTO training programme,
“Every six months KOTO recruits up to 30 street or disadvantaged youth aged 16–22 coming from difficult life
which will make the operations more sustainable in the long run. The other part of KOTO’s success as a social business is that its
circumstances. These include poverty, abandonment,
model truly helps households at the bottom of the pyramid. Aside
orphans, abuse, youth involved in exploitative employ-
from providing its beneficiaries with the short run improvements
ment, neglect, conflict with the law, parents with addic-
in health care and nutrition, KOTO also equips them with the tools
tions, parents with mental health problems and a range
to thrive in an increasingly competitive urban economy. As a
of other troubled backgrounds.”17
result, the expected earnings of KOTO graduates should be enough to support their families and allow them to escape pov-
Successful applicants are then enrolled in a 24-month training
erty. In the long run, this has a much larger and more sustainable
programme which includes extensive training for the hospitality
impact than government subsidies for food, healthcare, or educa-
industry as well as English, computer literacy, and other life skills.
tion ever could.
employed under bad conditions and with mini-
Aside from KOTO and its model of employing
artisans to sell their handicrafts to the modern
mal compensation. Social businesses can fulfill
poor youths, there are also some organisations
market by developing new skills and production
their social objective by choosing to pay fair
that work with existing small businesses to
techniques, designing new products, and using
wages that are sufficient for fulfilling the work-
enhance their profitability and reach. One exam-
modern marketing techniques. The training and
ers’ needs. Additionally, the entreprises can go
ple is Craft Linkc, an organisation that works with
other assistance programmes are fully funded by
even further and empower their employees
traditional craft artisans in Hanoi and rural
the main business of selling the handicrafts,
through education and skills training. One nota-
Vietnam. Craft Link fulfils their social objective by
both locally and internationally. Craft Link’s
ble example that the team found during the visit
assisting these poor communities that have trou-
activities count as an effective form of empower-
was KOTO, a restaurant that employs poor street
ble adapting to Vietnam’s rapid economic
ment because the knowledge transfer will make
children and also gives them formal training in
growth and modernisation. It trys to help these
the artisan communities more resilient and
the hospitality industry. (See page 16, KOTO: the right model at the right time)
For more information about Craft Link, visit their website at www.craftlink.com.vn
c
adaptable to future changes in the Vietnamese and world markets for handicrafts.
17
A much-needed break from a hard day's work.
Future outlook: entrepreneurship among the urban poor in 2035
criteria for government benefits are short-term strategies to drive people away from Hanoi, but these disincentives are no match for what the city has to offer. In order to equip planners with a framework to base their policy design, we have developed four alternative futures for Hanoi. They are centered along two critical junctures: • pace of rural-urban migration and its con-
by Taufik Indrakesuma & Johannes Loh
sequences for urban infrastructures; and • service delivery method for the urban poor. Both of these issues were discussed at length in previous sections of this bulletin. The combination of those critical junctures produces the
The Vietnamese capital is undergoing several
The ATM survey indicates that health ser-
following four alternative futures (See Figure 10).
drastic changes. The city’s look and feel are
vices, good schools, work opportunities, and
To simplify the comparison of the alternative
changing, and the city’s inhabitants have evolved
financial services are the most critical unmet
futures, three criteria will be used to evaluate
their preferences and demands. This presents
needs of the poor. Finding solutions is especially
the different outcomes:
new risks and challenges that policy makers must
urgent due to the population pressures caused
• pace of economic growth;
juggle. Thus, the kind of choices that city plan-
by growing share of rural-urban migrants try-
• inclusiveness of the economy for the low-
ners take will heavily influence Hanoi’s aspiration
ing their luck in the “big city”. Current strategies
as a modern and inclusive metropolis.
will fail: slum clearing and restrictive eligibility
est income groups; and • quality of life of the lowest income groups.
18
Figure 10. Which future to choose? Hanoi in 2035‌
Pace of economic growth
Inclusiveness
Quality of life for the lowest income group
A development model focused on maximum
In the context of improving livelihoods for the
Living conditions for the urban poor in rap-
productivity and rapid GDP growth often results
urban poor, the inclusiveness of the economy
idly growing megacities in developing coun-
in unwanted externalities such as higher social
for the lowest income groups is crucial. They
tries are harsh. Entrenched historical patterns
and economic inequality, environmental degra-
need to have a support structure for business
show high degrees of service exclusion and
dation or resource exploitation. Choosing more
development and sufficient training and job
much lower levels of human development,
inclusive alternatives can, but does not have to
opportunities in order to lift themselves out
particularly in urban slums. This criterion is
slow down economic growth. Therefore, it is an
of poverty. Historical experiences show that
linked to and complements the inclusiveness
important criterion when reflecting on future
relying on the “trickling-down theory� will not
criterion, but will be affected by different sets
policy measures.
work.
of policy measures.
19
Scenario 1: Controlled and inclusive growth
Scenario 2: Vibrant self-reliance
A decelerated pace of rural-urban migration would allow
In this future, the city planners embrace both trends. Planners
urban infrastructure to catch up with population levels.
see rapid rural-urban migration as a chance to transform their
Additionally, a concerted empowerment strategy would
city into a vibrant marketplace and an engine of economic
enable the poor to participate in turning Hanoi into a dynamic
growth. Public institutions realise the need to respond to
metropolis. The city would have a vibrant economy with
the urban poor’s needs while minimising the risk of depen-
micro-entrepreneurs competing alongside big businesses.
dency. Extensive programmes to facilitate social integration
A mix of government and NGO-run training centres would
of rural-urban migrants into Hanoi’s economy and broad-
ensure that micro-entrepreneurs learned the necessary skills
based support for initiatives to train and work with the poor
to develop their businesses. A controlled population level
will be put into place. The city’s growth strategy will be based
leads to manageable competition and bigger profit-margins
on start-ups, social entreprises and a diverse range of afford-
for small businesses such as street-vendors, kiosk owners and
able or free training opportunities for Hanoi’s poor. Rather
tuktuk drivers. Access to practical training, even for those with
than providing hand-outs, the support for the urban poor
only limited schooling, would improve job opportunities for
will be focused on enhancing productivity and self-reliance.
the lowest income groups. With the ability to afford basic ser-
While slums and poor living conditions are likely to occur in
vices, these groups would achieve better social integration
the short term, over time they will organically improve due to
and higher social capital in their neighbourhoods.
the increased income levels of the poor. Quality of life would
The “poor” would enjoy good levels of inclusion, socially
be slightly lower due to effects of crowding, pollution and dif-
as well as economically. However, these benefits come at the
ficult living conditions, but improvements will come as the
cost of excluding a number of would-be migrants that will be
infrastructure catches up with population trends.
denied entry to control population levels. Also, the required policy adjustments would also slow down economic growth due to the shift away from a strict GDP growth target.
Policy measures In order to shift the entrenched historical pattern—poor service delivery, high social exclusion and lack of opportunities for
Policy measures
the urban poor—towards a scenario of vibrant self-reliance,
This alternative future requires a way to harness and control
Hanoi’s policy makers must step into uncharted territory, as
the trend of rapid urbanisation, which is not an easy feat. One
this model in its entirety has never been seen before.
policy, already in place in Laos, is creating secondary cities in
Planners must improve the business environment for
other parts of the country to draw attention away from major
SMEs and micro-entrepreneurs, representing a significant
capitals. Policy reforms to attract businesses to small towns,
shift from the dominant paradigm of economic growth led by
as well as investments in infrastructure in underdeveloped
big businesses. This may antagonise big businesses to some
areas, could support this move.
extent, so the political fallout must also be addressed.
This future also requires extensive investment into skills
Empowering the lower income groups towards self-reli-
training and capacity building for the urban poor in addition
ance is neither cheap nor easy, since it would require setting
to creating a supportive business environment for Small- and
up and scaling training opportunities and inviting social busi-
Medium-sized Entreprises (SMEs). For successful examples in
nesses to employ large numbers of new migrants. This aspect
these massive skills training programmes, planners can draw
of the plan can emulate the Bangladesh model, where social
inspiration from the workfare and retraining programmes in
businesses are thriving and are a large source of employment
the USA and European welfare states.
for the poor.
20
Scenario 3: Improvement through exclusion
Scenario 4: Inevitable breakdown
The third scenario sees rural-urban migration slowing down
The final scenario comes into effect if rapid urbanisation con-
through policies of control and exclusion. This would increase
tinues and the government continues its traditional approach
the quality of life for Hanoi’s established residents, due to a
of service provision in Hanoi. This is a ‘business-as-usual’ and
preservation of population density and lower competition over
‘do nothing new’ scenario which underscores the unsustain-
scarce resources. However, this will further maarginalise the
ability of present policies in the context of key trends, issues
urban poor. The deficits in service provision would be tackled
and trajectories. Existing challenges such as poor urban liv-
through extensive direct service provision and social welfare
ing conditions, service deprivation and economic exclusion
programmes. There would be an expansion of government
would worsen over time as the infrastructure development
services such as water, health care and electricity, both in quan-
struggles to keep pace with the rising population. Frequent
tity and quality, with NGOs providing services to the remain-
bottlenecks and breakdown of infrastructure in the transport,
ing gaps. In the short run, this would result in quality of life
health, sanitation, and education sectors would drive a shift
improvements for all of Hanoi, especially the poor. However,
towards private service provision reserved for the affluent res-
preserving these outcomes puts a strain on public budgets.
idents of Hanoi. Living conditions in poorer neighbourhoods
Overall, the quality of life would be acceptable for the
would worsen and slum-like settlements would form. Public
lower income groups. Although Hanoi’s poor would be able
services available to the poor would be difficult to access and
to survive off these services, they would still experience social
mostly of low quality due to overcrowding effects.
exclusion, a growing dependency on the government, and no
Overall, the quality of life would be low across different
real prospects of improving their livelihoods. A comprehen-
income groups, even for the more affluent due to bottlenecks
sive social protection system cushions some of the negative
in transport, higher pollution and increasing crime rates.
impacts, but would not address the issue of rising social and
The city would become more and more divided, economi-
economic inequality over the long run. Finally, with a priority
cally, politically and socially. In the medium run, the econ-
on big businesses and the traditional economic development
omy would enjoy high growth rates, but eventually issues
model, economic growth would be high, but would not be
with infrastructure would negatively affect the city’s growth
inclusive and would result in social stratification.
potential. In essence, this scenario is the current condition of most poorly-planned megacities such as Mexico City, Jakarta,
Policy measures
and Manila.
This model of development resembles the China model for rapid growth. Rural-urban migration would be discouraged with tight eligibility criteria and bureaucratic hurdles to settle within the city boundaries. The China example, however, shows that there is the risk of creating a large class of illegal migrants. The economic approach would continue to focus on large scale investments and a favourable environment for big businesses. The government would be willing to invest into direct service provision and improve access and quality for those falling under the eligibility criteria.
Policy measures The government will continue to push for urban modernisation, often at the expense of the less educated and marginalised urban constituencies. Crowding effects will be addressed “after-the-fact” in a reactionary way through slum clearance and gentrification. Service provision will shift towards further commercialisation leaving the less prosperous with insufficient low quality service infrastructure in a city bursting from its seems.
21
Urban slums in Hanoi, a challenge for city planners.
Towards a desirable outcome It is clear that planners are under immense pressure to make decisions that could change the current trajectory of Hanoi’s development. Of these four scenarios, only one scenario is clearly undesirable: the breakdown scenario. The other three scenarios have their own merits and weaknesses. “Controlled, inclusive growth” dampens the growth potential of the city, “vibrant self-reliance” requires the most effort from the part of the government, while “improvement through exclusion” can be politically complex. Choosing between these scenarios requires extensive dialogue and strategic cooperation with the relevant stakeholders, including the poor. Unfortunately, the voices of the urban poor are usually among the least prominent in the discourse over choosing future development paths. We hope that these scenarios will inform the public and initiate new dialogue on which future Hanoi’s policymakers and inhabitants envision and seek to realise for themselves.
22
References 1. Vietnam Investment Review (2006, March 15). “Planners dig themselves out of a hole”. Accessed July 3, 2012 from http://www.intellasia.net/ planners-dig-themselves-out-of-a-hole-59400.
16. Moonee Valley Weekly. Flemington café gives hope for the homeless. http:// www.mooneevalleyweekly.com.au/news/local/news/general/flemingtoncafe-gives-hope-for-the-homeless/2585581.aspx
2. Giang, T. (2012, April 14). Poverty Deduction Remains a Daunting Challenge. Saigon Times. Accessed July 10, 2012 from Factiva Inc.
17. KOTO. KOTO Programmes. https://www.koto.com.au/vietnam-charity/ koto-programmes (Accessed on July 9, 2012).
3. World Bank (2006). Employment in agriculture (% of total employment). World Development Indicators Database. World Bank. 4. UN Vietnam (2008). Achieving the MDGs with Equity. MGD 1 Progress Report. 5. Asian Trends Monitoring. (2012). A dataset on urban poverty and service provision. Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore. 6. UNDP Vietnam (2012). Social Services for Human Development. Vietnam Human Development Report 2011. United Nations Development Programme, p.2. 7. UNDP Vietnam (2012). Social Services for Human Development. Vietnam Human Development Report 2011. United Nations Development Programme, p.4. 8. Vietnam News Brief Service (June 20, 2012). Society: Vietnam Poverty Rate 2012 Likely at 20.7% on New Standards: WB. Accessed July 17, 2012 from Factiva Inc. 9. ASEAN Secretariat & World Bank (2009). The country report of the ASEAN assessment on the social impact of the global financial crisis: Viet Nam. 10. UNDP Vietnam (2012). Social Services for Human Development. Vietnam Human Development Report 2011. United Nations Development Programme, p.4. 11. Vietnam News Brief Service (June 20, 2012). Society: Vietnam Poverty Rate 2012 Likely at 20.7% on New Standards: WB. Accessed July 17, 2012 from Factiva Inc. 12. Action Aid (2011). Participatory Monitoring of Urban Poverty in Vietnam – Fourth Round Synthesis Report 2011. A study by ActionAid and Oxfam. 13. We use the 10 year mark to differentiate between “recent migrants” and “established residents” 14. Retrieved and paraphrased from www.yunuscentre.org 15. Yunus, M. (May 2010). Grameen Danone Foods Ltd., a Social Business in Bangladesh. Retrieved July 13, 2012 from http://www.muhammadyunus. org/images/stories/in_the_media/GDFL_BP_210510.pdf
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24
Principal Investigators
Research Associates
Darryl Jarvis is an Associate Professor at the LKY School
Johannes Loh is working as a Research Associate at the
of Public Policy. He specialises in risk analysis and the
Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. He holds a Master’s
study of political and economic risk in Asia, including
degree in Public Policy from the Hertie School of Public
investment, regulatory and institutional risk analysis. He
Policy in Berlin, and a Bachelor of Arts in Integrated
is an author and editor of several books and has con-
Social Science from Jacobs University Bremen. His previ-
tributed articles to leading international journals. He has
ous research experience includes aid governance, visual
been a consultant to various government bodies and
political communication and public sector reform in
business organisations and for two years was a member
developing countries. Prior to joining the Lee Kuan Yew
of the investigating team and then chief researcher on
School of Public Policy he has also worked for the United
the Building Institutional Capacity in Asia project commissioned by the Ministry of
Nations Environment Programme in Geneva, Transparency International Nepal, and
Finance, Japan. His current research is a large cross-national study of risk causality
the Centre on Asia and Globalization in Singapore. His email is johannes.loh@nus.
in four of Asia’s most dynamic industry sectors. He teaches courses on risk analysis,
edu.sg and you can follow his updates on trends in pro-poor policies in the region on
markets and international governance and international political economy. His email
Twitter @AsianTrendsMon.
is darryl.jarvis@nus.edu.sg Phua Kai Hong is a tenured professor at the LKY School
Nicola Pocock is a research associate at the LKY School of
of Public Policy and formerly held a joint appointment as
Public Policy. She is also the research manager at aidha,
Associate Professor and Head, Health Services Research
a non profit financial education and entrepreneurship
Unit in the Faculty of Medicine. He is frequently con-
training school for migrant women, especially domes-
sulted by governments within the region and interna-
tic workers, in Singapore. She holds a BA from Warwick
tional organisations, including the Red Cross, UNESCAP,
University and an MSc from Kings College London. Prior
WHO and World Bank. He has lectured and published
to joining the LKY School of Public Policy, she interned
widely on policy issues of population aging, health-
as a Fast stream trainee in the UK civil service at the
care management and comparative health systems in
Home Office and as a research volunteer at Amnesty
the emerging economies of Asia. He is the current Chair of the Asia-Pacific Health
International. Nicola has also carried out social work in Marseille, France as a European
Economics Network (APHEN), founder member of the Asian Health Systems Reform
Union sponsored youth volunteer. Her research interests span health and social policy,
Network (DRAGONET), Editorial Advisory Board Member of Research in Healthcare
health systems financing, social impact assessment, gender, migration and financial
Financial Management and an Associate Editor of the Singapore Economic Review.
behaviours. Her email is sppnp@nus.edu.sg and you can follow his updates on trends
His email address is spppkh@nus.edu.sg
in pro-poor policies in the region on Twitter @AsianTrendsMon #health
T S Gopi Rethinaraj joined the Lee Kuan Yew School
Taufik Indrakesuma is a research associate at the Lee
of Public Policy as Assistant Professor in July 2005.
Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. He is a recent gradu-
He received his PhD in nuclear engineering from the
ate of the Master in Public Policy programme at the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Before
Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. He also holds a
coming to Singapore, he was involved in research and
Bachelor in Economics degree from the University of
teaching activities at the Programme in Arms Control,
Indonesia, specialising in environmental economics.
Disarmament and International Security, a multi-disciplin-
Taufik has previously worked as a Programme Manager
ary teaching and research programme at Illinois devoted
at the Association for Critical Thinking, an NGO dedicated
to military and non-military security policy issues. His
to proliferating critical thinking and human rights aware-
doctoral dissertation, “Modeling Global and Regional Energy Futures,” explored the
ness in the Indonesian education system. His research interests include behavioural
intersection between energy econometrics, climate policy and nuclear energy futures.
economics, energy policy, climate change mitigation and adaptation as well as urban
He also worked as a science reporter for the Mumbai edition of The Indian Express
development policy. His email is taufik.i@nus.edu.sg
from 1995 to 1999, and has written on science, technology, and security issues for various Indian and British publications. In 1999, he received a visiting fellowship from the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Chicago, for the investigative reporting on South Asian nuclear security. His current teaching and research interests include energy security, climate policy, energy technology assessment, nuclear fuel cycle policies and international security. He is completing a major research monograph "Historical Energy Statistics: Global, Regional, and National Trends since Industrialisation" to be published in Summer 2012. His email address is spptsgr@nus.edu.sg
The Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy is an autonomous, professional graduate school of the National University of Singapore. Its mission is to help educate and train the next generation of Asian policymakers and leaders, with the objective of raising the standards of governance throughout the region, improving the lives of its people and, in so doing, contribute to the transformation of Asia. For more details on the LKY School, please visit www.spp.nus.edu.sg