Effects of Mindfulness on Commuter Stress Mikell Bursky
Everyday, hundreds of millions of people around the world commute to and from work using various forms of transportation, such as automobiles, buses, and trains (U.S. Department of Transportation, 2018). Regardless of the form, commuters are exposed to an array of psychophysiological stressors along with a multitude of unpleasant environmental stimuli, such as fatigue, pollution, overcrowding, and vehicular accidents (Chillrud et al., 2004; Gottholmseder, Nowotny, Pruckner, & Theurl, 2009; Karlsson, Nilsson, & Möller, 2005; Martell & Dietz, 1992). When these factors interplay with an individual’s genetic susceptibility towards developing a maladaptive stress response, these conditions may lead to the manifestation of various pathologies (Evan, 2003; Ma, Li, Kwan, & Chai, 2003; McEwen & Stellar, 1993). A primary way in which individuals attempt to cope with these high levels of commuter stress is by distracting themselves through the frequent use of their cellular phones (Elhai, Dvorak, Levine, & Hall, 2017; Johansson, Nordin, Heiden, & Sandström, 2010; Thomee, 2018). Although this may temporarily alleviate feelings elicited by stressful commutes, the use of a cellular phone as a coping mechanism may be maladaptive in the long run. Research shows that overuse of phones has been linked to abnormalities in the brain which are associated with increased feelings of stress, decreased emotional regulation abilities, and sleep issues (Hu, Long, Lyu, Zhou, & Chen, 2017; Sansone & Sansone, 2013). A potential alternative option for alleviating commuter stress can be found in the practice of mindfulness, a method of attentional cultivation that has been shown to influence stress response towards a plethora of difficult psychological and physical circumstances (Brand, Holsboer-Trachsler, Naranjo & Schmidt, 2012; Lindsay, Young, Smyth, Brown, & Creswell, 2018). Mindfulness is a non-judgmental, open-awareness of the present moment (Bishop et al., 2004; Kabat‐Zinn, 2003; Ludwig & Kabat-Zinn, 2008). This state of being relaxed, yet awake and present, has been found to increase subjective experiences of one’s personal well-being, while simultaneously regulating and enhancing physiological functioning in the form of an increased immune response and decreased cortisol levels (Brand et al., 2012; Davidson et al., 2003; Lindsay et al., 2018). Thus, this review sought to explore the following question: How can mindfulness modulate stress response in order to facilitate a more adaptive commuter experience? Commuting and Psychophysiological Stress Commuting is often unpredictable and uncontrollable due to a multiplicity of factors, such as traffic and accidents. The different elements faced during a commute are perceived as psychologically and physically stressful by commuters
who cannot cope with the journey, with longer durations of commutes associated with increased stress levels (GimenezNadal & Molina, 2019; Gottholmseder et al., 2009). Commuter stress is defined as any self-reported psychological or objectively measured psychophysiological changes that are experienced as a form of stress attributable to commuting (Fleige et al., 2005; Wener, Evans, & Boately, 2005). Individuals who experience more difficulties during their commute demonstrate higher levels of psychophysiological stress (Gottholmseder et al., 2009; Novaco, Stokols, & Milanesi, 1990). Psychological stress taxes the commuter by influencing their physiological functioning, which subsequently leads to a build up upon the original psychological stress, eventually leading to an increased risk for various pathologies (DeMorrow, 2018). As such, it is essential to understand the neurobiological processes involved in the activation of commuter stress, in order to figure out how to mitigate this process using mindfulness. Commuting takes a physical toll on the body as a byproduct of psychological stress and anxiety via the activation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis, a network of brain regions and neuroendocrine glands that play a crucial role in the release of stress hormones (DeMorrow, 2018; Joseph & Whirledge, 2017). During stressful experiences, such as commuting, the HPA Axis responds through an increased secretion of cortisol. This hormone is meant to help an individual’s body rapidly adapt, with higher levels of cortisol showing elevation in overly stressed individuals (Choi et al., 2014; Levine, Zagoory-Sharon, Feldman, Lewis, & Weller, 2007; Sapolsky, 2000). Over time, these hormones act as selfcreated neurotoxins which have been shown to degenerate brain regions vital for healthy cognitive and emotional functioning (Leonard, 2006). By maintaining elevated stress hormones in a dysregulated fashion, the psychophysiological system is transformed into a negative feedback loop, leading to an increase in anxiety, depression, and cognitive deficits amongst commuters who are not equipped to effectively counteract this (DeMorrow, 2018; Leonard, 2006). The over-stimulation of the HPA Axis places their psychophysiology in a state of constant overdrive which subsequently weakens this system (DeMorrow, 2018; Malpas, 2010; McCorry, 2007). Without the appropriate amount of time for rest and recovery, individuals might develop chronic conditions, including heart disease, hypertension, hypoglycemia, anxiety, and depression (DeMorrow, 2018; Malpas, 2010). These conditions affect commuter health, quality of life, well-being, and functional productivity, which highlights the importance of maintaining a well-regulated HPA Axis free from overstimulation. A key component involved in the triggering of the Literature Reviews | 11
