Alain Goulbourne

Acculturative Stress and Hispanic Immigrant Adolescent Identity Alain Goulbourne

With global immigration rates on the rise, the immigrant population in the United States has increased by over 40 million people, accounting for 13% of the total American population (Lo, Hopson, Simpson, & Cheng, 2017; Oshri et al., 2014). In particular, there has been a substantial increase in both documented and undocumented Hispanic immigrants, making them the fastest growing minority group in the U.S. (Oshri et al., 2014; Sirin 2013). This increase in Hispanic immigrants has been perceived by some Americans as a threat to the dominance of the Caucasian cultural group in the U.S. (Schwartz, Unger, Baezconde-Garbanati, Zamboanga et al., 2015). This growth has also coincided with an increase in anti-immigrant rhetoric, which has fostered an unwelcoming social atmosphere for Hispanic immigrants (Oshri et al., 2014; Sirin, Ryce et al., 2013). Due to this unwelcoming climate and discrimination across everyday contexts, Hispanic immigrants are especially at risk of developing acculturative stress, defined as the psychological tension and emotional strain of navigating between one’s home and host culture (Cohen & Kassan, 2018; Grigsby et al., 2018; Lo et al., 2017; Sirin, Ryce et al., 2013). As such, immigration to the U.S. can be especially difficult for Hispanic adolescents, who must adjust to a new and often hostile environment while they go through the normative developmental stage of identity formation (Gonzales-Backen et al., 2018; Miller, 2013). Identity formation is characterized as the developmental stage in which adolescents develop a personal identity (i.e., a set of internalized beliefs and goals) and cultural identity (i.e., association to one’s cultural, ethnic, and racial group; Meca et al., 2017; Oshri et al., 2014). Healthy identity formation results in a coherent identity, or a meaningful conceptualization of the self that is stable across contexts (Erikson, 1968; Mercer, Crocetti, Branje, van Lier, & Meeus, 2017). Without the formation of a coherent identity, adolescents become uncertain of their role as individuals in social contexts, resulting in role confusion, defined as an uncertain sense of purpose and self (Erikson, 1968; Kroger, 2013; Meca et al., 2017; Mercer et al., 2017; Ragelienė, 2016). This confusion can lead to psychological maladjustment, which persists throughout adulthood unless identity formation is resolved (Erikson, 1968; Kroger, 2013; Mercer et al., 2017; Schwartz, Unger, BaezcondeGarbanati, Zamboanga, et al., 2015). To promote optimal identity formation and mental health in Hispanic immigrant adolescents, researchers have sought to understand the influence of acculturative stress on Hispanic immigrant adolescents (Gonzales-Backen et al., 2018; Koneru, Weisman de Mamani, Flynn, & Betancourt, 2007; Szabo & Ward, 2015). For Hispanic immigrant adolescents, their personal and cultural identity is created using the home and host culture, but non-immigrant adolescents develop their identity within their home culture, and thus do not bear the stress of acculturation (Gonzales-Backen et al., 2018; Meca et al., 2017; Oshri et al., 2014). Consequently, this literature review explored the following research question: How does acculturative stress impact the identity formation of Hispanic immigrant adolescents in the United States?

Hispanic Culture and Acculturative Stress

As Hispanic immigrant adolescents are raised in predominantly interdependent cultures, they often face difficulties or acculturative stressors when immersing themselves in an unfamiliar, individualistic American culture (Miller, 2013; Schwartz, Unger, Baezconde-Garbanati, Benet, et al., 2015). While American culture places a high value on independence and individual desires, Hispanic culture emphasizes interdependence and the needs of the family unit over the individual (i.e., ‘familismo,’ or the strong affiliation to family; Crockett et al., 2007; Miller, 2013; Schwartz, Unger, Baezconde-Garbanati, Benet, et al., 2015). These cultural differences surrounding American and Hispanic parenting values can create both familial and internal conflict for the Hispanic immigrant adolescent (Koneru et al., 2007; Miller, 2013). Sources of cultural differences include the limited allocation of autonomy to Hispanic children, use of corporal punishment in Hispanic contexts, as well as traditional attachment and deference to family and elders (Miller, 2013). For the Hispanic immigrant adolescent, familial and internal conflict around identity arises when the adolescent behaves in accordance with American cultural values (e.g., demanding greater autonomy) while their parents seek to enforce Hispanic cultural values (e.g., imposing behavioral restrictions; Koneru et al., 2007; Miller, 2013). Difficulties with internalizing these differing values can complicate the identity formation of Hispanic immigrant adolescents, due to the risk of isolation and alienation from the cultural group with which the adolescent identifies (Cohen & Kassan, 2018; Grigsby et al., 2018; Meca et al., 2017; Miller, 2013; Sirin, Ryce, et al., 2013). In addition, another significant acculturative stressor is a lack of intercultural competence, or the effective use of language and cultural knowledge that enables communication between individuals with different cultural backgrounds

between individuals with different cultural backgrounds (Crockett et al., 2007; Lo et al., 2017). When Hispanic immigrant adolescents have difficulty with intercultural competence (e.g., their lack of English language skills), this can negatively affect self-esteem, and subsequently their identity formation (Crockett et al., 2007; Lo et al., 2017). Hispanic immigrant parents are also often equally unfamiliar with American culture, and therefore, are unable to act as skilled cultural socializers (Crockett et al., 2007; Sirin, Gupta, et al., 2013). The lack of strong parental intercultural support can create additional psychological distress for Hispanic immigrant adolescents, who must navigate American cultural norms and values independently (Crockett et al., 2007; Sirin, Gupta, et al., 2013). Moreover, since the concept of familismo is salient in collectivist Hispanic culture, psychological distress is often exacerbated when the process of immigrating results in less salient support from a now-distant extended family (Crockett et al., 2007; Sirin, Gupta, et al., 2013). This physical relocation disrupts the family dynamic, and reduces the direct, physical access to family as a method of coping and maintaining ties to internalized Hispanic cultural values (Crockett et al., 2007; Miller, 2013; Sirin, Gupta, et al., 2013). In summary, these stressors affect immigrant adolescent’s identity formation through the perceived social pressure to assimilate or integrate with mainstream American culture and separate from or reject Hispanic culture (Cohen & Kassan, 2018; Lo et al., 2017; Oshri et al., 2014; Schwartz, Unger, BaezcondeGarbanati, Benet, et al., 2015).

Impact of Acculturative Stress on Hispanic Immigrant Adolescents to the U.S.

Due to cultural elements and acculturative stressors unique to interdependent cultures, the post-immigration experiences of Hispanic immigrant adolescents can disrupt the formation of their personal and inter-cultural identity (i.e., their sense of self, and membership within both Hispanic and American culture; Cohen & Kassan, 2018; Meca et al., 2017; Schwartz, Unger, Baezconde-Garbanati, Benet, et al., 2015). Daily contact with and residence within another cultural context creates two concerns for Hispanic immigrant adolescents: the extent to which the original cultural identity will be preserved, and the extent to which characteristics of the host culture are adopted into one’s identity (Cohen & Kassan, 2018). To avoid prolonged identity confusion, immigrant individuals typically choose between four acculturation choices: (1) assimilation to the host culture, (2) integration of norms and values from both the home and host culture, (3) conscious separation from the identifying characteristics of the host culture, or (4) marginalization and rejection of both American and their home cultural values (Cohen & Kassan, 2018; Koneru et al., 2007). Whereas marginalization is the most strongly associated with psychologically maladaptive outcomes, integration of cultural values is the most strongly associated with psychologically adaptive outcomes (Koneru et al., 2007; Schwartz, Unger, Baezconde-Garbanati, Benet, et al., 2015). In general, grappling with these acculturation choices can create identity confusion for the Hispanic immigrant adolescent because their personal and cultural identities are challenged beyond what is normally expected during adolescent development (Meca et al., 2017; Oshri et al., 2014; Szabo & Ward, 2015). Therefore, acculturative stress impacts the identity formation of Hispanic immigrant adolescents through the introduction of personal and cultural identity concerns, which if unaddressed, can lead to psychological distress that manifests in anxiety, feelings of alienation, aggression, and increased suicidality (Cohen & Kassan, 2018; Lo et al., 2017; Meca et al., 2017; Oshri et al., 2014; Ragelienė, 2016; Sirin, Ryce, et al., 2013). By increasing the likelihood of these psychological vulnerabilities and negative behavioral outcomes through the process of migration, acculturative stress may impede healthy identity formation for Hispanic immigrant adolescents (Grigsby et al., 2018; Meca et al., 2017; Oshri et al., 2014; Sirin, Ryce, et al., 2013). For this population in particular, an increase in acculturative stress is related to an increase in internalizing symptoms of depression and anxiety, as well as externalizing behaviors, such as delinquency, aggression, and substance abuse (Grigsby et al., 2018; Meca et al., 2017; Mercer et al., 2017; Oshri et al., 2014; Schwartz, Unger, Baezconde-Garbanati, Zamboanga, et al., 2015; Sirin, Gupta, et al., 2013). These adverse mental health outcomes can not only disrupt identity formation of the Hispanic immigrant adolescent but can also affect their identity in adulthood by prolonging feelings of aimlessness (Erikson, 1968; Kroger, 2013; Schwartz, Unger, Baezconde-Garbanati, Zamboanga, et al., 2015). Further repercussions of unresolved identity formation include difficulties expressing intimacy in relationships, as well as a tendency to be more oppositional (Kroger, 2013). Acculturative stress can therefore create chronic behavioral and psychological issues if the impact on the initial stages of identity formation remains unresolved (Erikson, 1968; Grigsby et al., 2018; Koneru et al., 2007; Kroger 2013; Ragelienė, 2016).

Conclusion

The impact of acculturative stress on the identity formation of Hispanic immigrant adolescents creates challenges in the formation of both their personal and cultural identities, which may result in psychological and social vulnerabilities (Cohen & Kassan, 2018; Koneru et al., 2007; Lo et al., 2017; Meca et al., 2017; Oshri et al., 2014; Sirin, Ryce, et al., 2013). However, existing research has focused on the general identity formation of Hispanic immigrant adolescents, without the consideration of different countries of origin (Meca et al., 2017). As a result, a major limitation in current research is the tendency to generalize Hispanic populations, and thus, specific studies focusing on the impact of country of origin and immigration status is a potential direction for future research (Gonzales-Backen et al., 2018; Lo et al., 2017). Future investigation would also benefit from mixed methods and longitudinal research to fully identify and understand the influence of acculturative stress on the identity

development trajectory of Hispanic immigrant adolescents (Schwartz, Unger, Baezconde-Garbanati, Benet, et al., 2015; Sirin, Ryce, et al., 2013; Szabo & Ward, 2015). Overall, the implications of this research include a greater understanding of acculturative stress, which enables educators, social workers, researchers, and counselors to be more cognizant of its effects on Hispanic immigrant adolescent identity (Cohen & Kassan, 2018; Sirin, Gupta, et al., 2013; Sirin, Ryce, et al., 2013). As such, these professionals can be more adequately prepared to assist Hispanic immigrant adolescents with their cultural and developmental needs. Where possible, community tolerance-building and family-based intercultural competence interventions could also be implemented between Hispanic and American cultural groups to increase personal and societal supports within the U.S. (Grigsby et al., 2018; Lo et al., 2017; Schwartz, Unger, Baezconde-Garbanati, Zamboanga, et al., 2015). In turn, this may help to foster a healthy, coherent sense of self for Hispanic immigrant adolescents, and allow for optimal their psychosocial functioning throughout their adolescence and beyond.

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