The Netherlands 2015 Highlights
What are eprs? OECD Environmental Performance Reviews (EPRs) provide evidence-based analyses and assessments of countries’ progress towards their environmental policy objectives. They promote peer learning, enhance government accountability and provide targeted recommendations to help countries improve their environmental performance. They are supported by a broad range of economic and environmental data. Each EPR cycle covers all OECD member countries and selected partner countries.
the third epr of the netherlands This is the third OECD review of the Netherlands’ environmental performance: the first was published in 1995, the second in 2003. The Review aims to identify where new or reinforced efforts might be needed to enhance the coherence and cost-effectiveness of policies. The process involved a mutually beneficial policy dialogue between the Netherlands and the countries participating in the OECD Working Party on Environmental Performance. The Review presents 29 recommendations. These Highlights summarise the main findings, with a special emphasis on: zz
Green growth
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Environmental governance
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Sustainable mobility
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Waste and materials management
“The Netherlands has long been recognised as a forerunner in environmental policy. The challenge for the future will be to push the frontier of environmental policy even further and in new ways.” Simon Upton OECD Environment Director
Netherlands
The Netherlands is the sixth-largest economy in the euro area and a global transport hub, with the Port of Rotterdam the largest in Europe. As a small, densely populated country with a very open economy, the Netherlands became a forerunner in environmental policy decades ago when it was confronted with acute environmental pressures. More recently, the government has reined in ambitions for environmental policy objectives to levels set by the European Union, with a view to promoting a level playing field. The country has made important strides in environmental performance, but still faces some persistent challenges, including addressing diffuse pollution (such as nitrogen deposition in nature areas) and securing significant improvements in the quality of ecosystems and biodiversity. In addition, new challenges continue to emerge. opportunities zz
A drive to streamline and modernise environmental governance, with a strong focus on public health.
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A significant amount of revenue is raised from environmental taxes.
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As a delta country, a strong tradition in water management and a comprehensive, long-term policy agenda for water.
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A comparative advantage in some green technologies, such as energy efficiency, energy generation from biofuels and waste and carbon capture and storage.
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A high share of environmentally friendly modes of transport, with inland waterways for freight, a cycling culture and the highest penetration of electric cars in the European Union.
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A strong track record in waste management and one of the most resource-efficient economies in the OECD, developing new policies to transition towards a circular economy.
netherlands 2014 Population 16.9 million
Highlights
Overview
GDP/capita (purchasing power parity)
USD 47 600
Challenges
(OECD average is 38 900)
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Total area 42 000 km2
The fifth-highest share of fossil fuels in the energy mix among OECD countries.
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Biodiversity is under pressure: 95% of habitat types and 75% of species are threatened.
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Dense transport network, with congestion expected to rise in the Randstand (the metropolitan area including Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht).
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Some air pollution hot spots remain, despite overall progress in reducing air pollutant emissions.
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Nutrient run-off from intensive livestock farming.
Population density 407.7 inhabitants/km² (OECD average is 34.9)
Currency Euro USD 1.00 = EUR 0.75
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OECD Environmental performance Review of the netherlands
Environmental performance | key trends The Netherlands has been emerging from a protracted recession following the global economic crisis. Economic activity gradually recovered in 2014 and GDP is expected to increase further in 2015 and 2016. The Netherlands is the second-most densely populated country in the OECD after Korea, with 85% of the population living in urban areas, which cover two-thirds of the country. Government spending has generally been high, at around 47% of GDP in 2013. The country made largescale investments in infrastructure, including road, rail, aviation and maritime transportation. Dutch people are generally satisfied with the quality of their surroundings and their environmental awareness is high. climate change and energy zz
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Fossil fuels account for more than 90% of total primary
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The energy sector remains the largest emitter of GHGs,
energy supply; the fifth-highest share among OECD
and showed the smallest decrease in emissions over
countries (Figure 1).
2000-12. The Netherlands achieved its Kyoto targets by buying carbon credits under the Protocol’s flexible
Since 2000, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions decreased,
mechanisms, to complement domestic emissions
while the GDP grew, thus achieving absolute decoupling
reductions.
from economic growth (Figure 2). This was due mainly to energy savings, higher imports of electricity and the
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The 2013 Energy Agreement for Sustainable Growth spearheaded the Dutch Social and Economic Council
impact of the economic crisis.
(see page 6) targets savings of 1.5% of final energy consumption each year by 2020 and a 16% share of renewables by 2023.
Figure 1. 90% of the Netherlands’ energy supply comes from fossil fuels
2000
Oil 25.9 Mtoe
Natural gas 35 Mtoe
Coal 7.9 Mtoe
Nuclear 1 Mtoe
Renewables 1.2 Mtoe
2013
Oil 29.7 Mtoe
Natural gas 33 Mtoe
Coal 8.1 Mtoe
Nuclear 0.8 Mtoe
Renewables 3.3 Mtoe
resources and waste
biodiversity
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zz
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The Dutch economy is one of the most resource-
95% of habitat types and 75% of species are threatened.
efficient in the OECD. Material productivity (economic
The bird population on farmland has dramatically
wealth generated per unit of material use) grew by
declined by almost 50% in 10 years, primarily due to
almost 50% between 2000 and 2013.
intensive agricultural practices.
Municipal solid waste decreased by 7% between 2000
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Pressure from urbanisation resulted in loss of natural
and 2013, even though private final consumption
habitats and landscapes. Almost 20% of the territory is
increased slightly. The country has very high levels
under some form of nature protection, slightly lower
of waste recovery, including reuse, recycling and
than the OECD average.
incineration for energy recovery (see page 12).
4
Source: IEA (2014), IEA World Energy Statistics and Balances (database).
200
Highlights
key trends
180 160 2. The Netherlands achieved absolute decoupling of air pollutants from economic growth Figure 2000=100 140 120
GDP 114
100
GHG 89
80 60
NOx 59
40
SOx 42
20 0 2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Source: National Submissions to EMEP and UNFCCC, 2015.
Figure 3. A large agricultural sector, using substantial Sales of pesticides, 2009-11 amounts of fertilisers and pesticides 2 t/km land t/km2 agricultural land Sales ofagricultural pesticides, 2009-11,
air quality zz
Emissions of all major air pollutants have been decoupled from economic growth. Air quality in zones
Israel Japan Korea Italy Netherlands Belgium Portugal Chile France Germany Spain Denmark Greece Poland Greece United States Norway Canada Ireland Sweden Estonia Luxembourg
with intensive road traffic has strongly improved, although some hot spots remain around major cities and transportation corridors. zz
The number of deaths from outdoor air pollution declined by 16% between 2005 and 2010. The OECD has recently estimated that the social cost of mortalities due to outdoor air pollution in the Netherlands was about USD 25 billion in 2010.
nutrients zz
The Netherlands is among the largest exporters of agricultural products in the world, in terms of value. Stringent application standards for fertilizers contributed to a reduction of agricultural nutrient surpluses (nitrogen and phosphorous), although from a
0.0
0.5
1.0
relatively high level.
1.5 zz
Despite positive developments, the amounts of
Apparent consumption of nitrogenous fertilisers, 2010-12
nitrogen fertiliser and the quantity of pesticides used
t/km2 agricultural t/km2 agricultural land land
per km2 of agricultural land remain significantly higher
Apparent consumption of nitrogenous fertilisers, 2010-12,
than the OECD average (Figure 3).
Belgium Korea Luxembourg Netherlands Germany Israel Japan Norway Poland Denmark France Ireland United Kingdom Sweden Italy Canada Spain Estonia United States Portugal Chile Greece
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Organic farming increased from 1.6% to 2.6% of total agricultural land between 2000 and 2012.
water management zz
As a delta country, the Netherlands has a sophisticated system for water management, including flood protection infrastructure. The country is classified as medium water-stressed, abstracting 11.7% of total available renewable freshwater in 2012.
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Non-point sources of pollution (from agriculture, atmospheric deposition, traffic and infrastructure and run-off) continue to strain water quality. Over 99% of the population is connected to wastewater facilities with tertiary (microbiological) treatment.
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5
10
15 5
OECD Environmental performance Review of the netherlands
Policies for green growth
The Netherlands made progress towards green growth over the review period at a moderate pace. As part of the green growth toolbox, the Netherlands continues to use a number of potentially costeffective economic instruments, but their design could be improved to enhance both their environmental effectiveness and cost efficiency. There is also scope to further reduce environmentally harmful subsidies in the agriculture sector. The 2013 Energy Agreement for Sustainable Growth is the cornerstone of Dutch climate and energy policy. The Dutch Social and Economic Council led negotiations among government, businesses, trade unions and NGOs to jointly set out targets and actions for climate and energy policy. Objectives include saving 1.5% in final energy consumption annually by 2020 and raising the share of renewable energy to 16% in 2023. A review is planned for 2016, but early assessments indicate that planned measures may not be enough to deliver on objectives.
Figure 4. Only 3 other OECD countries raise more revenue from environmental tax as % GDP in 2013 4.3
4.1 3.9 3.4
2.9 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.5 2.5
2.4
2.4 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.3
1.1 1.1
0.8
Sl
ov
en Tu ia rk D e N en y et m he ar rla k nd Fi s nl an d Is ra C el ze ch It Re a l y pu Hu blic ng a Un G ry re i te e d Ki ce ng do Es m to S w ni a ed en Ir e la nd Ko re a Lu Aus xe tr i m a bo u No rg rw Po ay r tu Au gal st r G ali a er m a Be ny lg iu Ic m el a Fr nd an c Po e la nd S S Sl w i pai ov t z n a k er l Re and pu bl ic J N a ew pa Ze n al an d Ch ile C Un a i te na d da St at es M ex ic o
-0.5
Energy products (including vehicle fuel)
Motor vehicles and transport
Other environmentally related taxes
2013 or latest year available. Source: OECD Environment Statistics (database).
greening the tax system Energy tax rates are generally much higher in the Netherlands than elsewhere in the OECD, but rates are uneven across energy sources and users. Large energy users benefit from lower tax rates, generally due to a fear that higher taxes could drive large companies out of the country. However, recent OECD studies demonstrated that these fears are not founded, at least for taxes not much higher than current levels. There are also a number of exemptions and refund mechanisms, mainly benefitting large-scale users.
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Environmentally harmful subsidies were estimated to range between EUR 5 to 10 billion EUR in 2010 depending on the approach used to measure them. In spite of progress, one third of these subsidies still relate to agriculture, where a very intensive livestock sector contributes heavily to nutrient run-off. Financial costs of water management are nearly all recovered through charges, levies and taxes. However, the contribution from the various sectors – households, agriculture and industry – are not clear, nor is the effiency of price incentives to stimulate efficient water use.
The Netherlands developed a comparative advantage in energy efficiency in lighting, energy generation from biofuels and waste, CO2 capture and storage. It is still one of the world’s leaders in water technologies. However, it is lagging behind the most eco-innovative OECD countries. Budget cuts have affected world-class environment and energy research institutes.
In 2012, the environmental goods and services sector in the Netherlands represented
130 000 full-time jobs investing in the environment
Figure 5. Recent rise in patent applications for climate mitigation technologies
Investments in clean energy, mainly biomass co-firing, until 2013, and onshore wind energy, were stimulated by a complex combination of instruments, such as feed-in tariffs, regulatory standards, tax incentives, etc. Yet, the Netherlands is still not on track to meet its targets for renewable energy.
1996 1560 Patent application for climate mitigation technologies
The Top Sector policy, adopted in 2011, focuses public resources on nine sectors where the Netherlands has a comparative advantage. It aims to address barriers including lack of knowledge transfer and co-ordination, overly detailed sector regulation, and insufficient supply of skilled workers. The MIT scheme was introduced in 2013 to help smaller, or emerging, businesses gain better access to public support schemes for innovation. The environmental goods and services sector could become a significant source of growth for the Netherlands. It grew faster than the rest of the economy over the past decade, to reach 2.1% of GDP and 1.8% of employment in 2012, equivalent to 130 000 full-time jobs. Renewable energy jobs expanded quickly. Environment-focused aid decreased to 10% of total sector allocable bilateral aid in 2012-13, a very low share compared with the OECD Development Assistance Committee average of more than 30%. Dutch aid related to climate change has risen with a strong focus on adaptation.
Highlights
policies for green growth
2010 1584 All technologies
82 Energy generation, transmission, distribution
31
Buildings
23
Transportation
4
GHG capture, storage, sequestration, disposal
18 12 12 1 Note: Data refer to 3-year moving averages. Source: OECD Environment Statistics (database).
Next steps | towards green growth zz
Ensure an independent and transparent assessment of the Energy Agreement in 2016 and step up efforts to improve Dutch climate and energy policy as needed.
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Consider taxing electricity less, and natural gas use in households more, which would lead to lower EU-wide GHG emissions. Consider contributing to making the “cap�of the EU Emissions Trading System stricter by buying and retiring emission allowances. Reconsider the planned tax exemption for coal used in electricity generation. Reassess vehicle taxes to ensure their long-term fiscal sustainability.
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Consider the environmental advantages of environmentally related taxes along side their revenue potential and administrative costs; the environmental benefits may justify their implementation, even if the revenue generation potential is small.
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Promote eco-innovation with a balanced and consistent mix of public support, demand-side measures and partnerships, with a focus on front runner small and medium-sized businesses; maintain a clear and stable policy framework.
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Ensure a focus on environment and climate, within increased official development assistance. 7
OECD Environmental performance Review of the netherlands
Case studies
“Qualified no” for biodiversity
Cash for trash ?
The long Dutch coastline and low lying delta create unique conditions for biodiversity. However, 95% of habitat types and 75% of species are threatened according to the 2013 monitoring results of the EU Habitats Directive. To help address this challenge, the National Ecological Network (NEN) was created to extend and better connect Natura 2000 land areas and national parks, particularly where infrastructure has caused habitat fragmentation. Permitting of economic activities in the NEN operates under a “qualified no” principle: actions with negative impacts on the environment actions are not permitted unless they are clearly in the public interest and there are no realistic alternatives. From July 2015, the impact of nitrogen deposition has to be assessed before allowing new economic activities around Natura 2000 areas.
The 610 000 residents of Rotterdam produce an average of 475 kg of waste per person per year. Less than a fourth of this waste is recycled. The city looked into the reasons for low performance. It identified lack of space in apartments, difficulties in separating waste in highrise buildings, and social issues related to poverty. To boost recycling, the city is looking into “cash for trash” incentives and improving post-collection separation. Other cities, such as Arnhem, are encouraging people to recycle by providing better service for the collection of recyclables than for residual waste.
The Hague
Rotterdam
“room for the river” For decades, water management in the Netherlands has relied on large structural solutions and engineering approaches. Giving more space to rivers for possible floods, instead of building higher and higher dykes, is an alternative way to ensure safety from flooding. This is the approach of the Room for the River programme, which uses innovative architectural, urban design and landscape solutions to build with nature and live with water. Re-naturalising waterways and using multi-functional water management infrastructures can improve environmental benefits and be more cost-effective than traditional engineering approaches.
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Amsterdam
“forget ownership” Transitioning towards a circular economy requires supporting sustainable design and new business models. For example, Turntoo, a Dutch company, has based its business model on renting out appliances, rather than selling them. Appliances remain the property of the producer throughout their life cycles. For example, a company supplies high-efficiency washing machines to a social housing provider, which will pay for the use of the machines, including energy and water use. There are multiple benefits: tenants get to use top-end washing machine for a low cost per wash; housing providers have fewer tenants who cannot pay rent because of a high electricity bills; and the appliance producer gets a constant revenue stream and the opportunity to reuse parts of the machines at the end of their life cycle. Appliance producers also have an incentive to make the product as durable and efficient as possible.
m Green Deals for incineration ash Given the central role of incineration in waste treatment in the Netherlands, it is also a major producer of residual “bottom ash”, a by-product of the incineration process. This ash contains a range of materials, including metals, and may only be reused under strict conditions.
Utrecht
bike-friendly cities The Netherlands has long been a bikefriendly country, with an important share of trips by bike in major cities: 36% in Utrecht, 33% in Amsterdam and 26% in The Hague. The most bike-friendly city in Europe – the Dutch university city of Groningen – estimates 59% of trips are by bike. It is a compact city, due to strict land use plans that limit low-density developments, making travel distances short. Groningen’s strategy for improving cycling safety relies mainly on the provision of extensive bike lanes, priority traffic signals for cyclists, strict speed limits in residential neighbourhoods, and sharp restrictions on car use in the city centre.
To promote the efficient and sustainable reuse of this ash, the Dutch government and waste incineration sector signed a “Green Deal” (see page 15) : in return for reprocessing the bottom ash by 2020, the incinerators can market the nonmetallic output as building material. As a midpoint target, the deal aims to reprocess half of the ash by 2017. The government is working with industry on the development of the necessary reprocessing technology.
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Highlights
Case Studies
OECD Environmental performance Review of the netherlands
Environmental governance and management
The Netherlands have long been a forerunner in environmental policy, but it recently reined in ambitions to levels set by the EU. In a drive to modernise environmental policy, the government is now looking to further streamline policies and to act as a facilitator of “new coalitions” to tap into the energy of civil society and the private sector. modernisation
Voluntary agreements can be useful to engage industry in environmental efforts, although they lack effective sanctions.
A new approach. Currently, there is a drive to modernise
Lack of a long-term vision. The Netherlands was a
environmental policy with a focus on public health,
pioneer in developing long-term comprehensive visions for
particularly on new risks (from new substances and
environmental policy, but such a vision has been lacking
technologies). The modernisation approach emphasises
over the past decade. As a result, short-term actions may
more active international co-operation and continued
not have been the most effective in light of longer-term
streamlining. It also advocates a new role for the government
aims. The Delta programme on water management could
as a facilitator of “new coalitions” to tap into the energy of
provide a good model for developing a long-term strategy
civil society and the private sector.
for environmental policy. It was established as the national
The Environment and Planning Act, to take effect in 2018, will consolidate all of the Dutch environmental legislation,
planning instrument to response to concerns about climate change and long-term water security, with a horizon to 2100.
dispersed across sectoral legislation, from land use planning to cultural heritage or mining. The 2008 Activities Decree drastictally reduced the number of installations that required an environmental permit, relying to a greater extent on general binding rules instead. Since 2010, “allin-one” permitting provides a single procedure, reducing administrative burden, cost and time savings. Green Deals are agreements between the government and various private parties to remove non-financial barriers related to regulations, legislations and licensing. Since the programme was launched in 2011, over 200 Green Deals have been concluded mostly in the energy sector, but also related
80% of Dutch environmental legislation is linked to European law. Analysis of the EU environmental directives showed that inconsistencies have appeared over time in the EU acquis, with contradictory, overlapping or accumulating obligations, different timelines for reporting, and increasing complexity.
to water, mobility, biodiversity, the bio-based economy,
The Netherlands launched the “Make it Work” initiative
construction and food.
with nine other EU member countries, to exchange
The polder approach. The Netherlands has a long tradition of dialogue, negotiation and consensusbased decision making known as the “polder approach”.
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make it work
experience and improve the coherence of legislation in sectors such as chemicals, waste or water, while maintaining the level of environmental protection.
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Norway
Highlights
Figure 6. The Netherlands has relatively high stringency of select Denmark Greece5 Ireland environmental policies, Netherlands Portugal mostly related to the 4 Finland Hungary electricity sector 4.1
Belgium
2
Switzerland
1.2
Italy
1
Sweden
Australia
Austria
France
Germany
United Kingdom
Spain Slovak republic Canada
Indicator value
United States Korea
Japan
Poland
2012 1990-95
Source: Botta, E. and T. KoĹşluk (2014), http://doi.org/84p. More information on http://bit.ly/1zIF4Q6
implementation
implementation. Some large, experienced ODs perform very well, while there is uncertaintly about the capacity of newer
Local capacity. Municipalities and, to a lesser extent, provinces, are in charge of permitting and supervision,
ODs. Sustainable funding for and adequate monitoring of the ODs must be ensured.
spatial planning and nature policy. Recent reforms have
A risk-based approach to enforcement and compliance puts
given them authority to develop more tailored policies and to
limited and shrinking resources to best use. The Netherlands
experiment new approaches. However, they sometimes lack
also relies on covenants based on trust, combined with
the necessary managerial, human and technical capacity to
regular oversight and periodic auditing. Spending cuts for
manage their new functions.
supervision and enforcement have raised concerns.
29 Environmental Services (ODs) were established in 2014
The government is exploring ways to make companies liable
to bring together experience and expertise on environmental
for negligence, in the case of negative impacts arising from
licensing, compliance assurance and enforcement for
new substances and technologies. This could encourage
municipalities or provinces. This action was spurred
firms to identify and control such risks themselves and save
by alarming reports by the Dutch Safety Board on high
resources for enforcement.
profile incidents that exposed major deficiencies in policy
Next steps | governance zz
Develop a clear, long-term vision for environmental policy to support short-term plans. The Environment and Planning Act is an opportunity to ensure a strong footing for environmental protection.
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Strengthen efforts related to external safety, including preventing chemical accidents, by improving guidance for companies, enforcing rules, and ensuring a transparent permitting process.
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Give greater weight to ecological considerations in water management.
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Support newly established Environmental Services by providing sustainable funding, strengthening
mechanisms for the exchange of good practice, putting into place mandatory performance quality criteria and effective monitoring. zz
Use voluntary agreements selectively, in cases where win-win solutions can give results without relying on sanctions.
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Improve the existing liability regime to better deal with emerging risks
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Make better use of research outcomes and independent assessments in developing policy.
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OECD Environmental performance Review of the netherlands
In-depth | waste and materials management The Netherlands is one of the OECD’s best performers in the area of waste management. It has set and achieved progressively ambitious targets while keeping charges at relatively low levels. Over the past several years, it has been laying the groundwork for a transition towards a circular economy. opportunities
Extended producer responsibility. The Netherlands
Comprehensive planning. The Netherlands has successfully achieved progressively ambitious targets set in the first and second National Waste Management Plans. A third plan, expected in late 2016, will cover the period until 2022.
was one of the first OECD member countries to require producers to manage waste generated by their products from manufacturing to disposal. In the current system, producer responsibility organisations collect or recycle end‑of-life products, or contract a third party to do so.
Waste reduction. Since 2000, the Netherlands has
Overall, the current approach enjoys greater economies
considerably reduced the amount of waste it generated,
of scope and lower administrative costs than previous
achieving absolute decoupling of waste generation from
approaches that have been tried. However, some systems,
GDP. Municipal solid waste produced per capita fell by
like the one for plastic packaging, remain very expensive.
around 10% between 2000 and 2013, but remains just slightly above the OECD average.
pay as you throw
High levels of recovery. Over the review period, there has been a continuous move towards re-use, recycling and incineration for energy recovery across all waste streams. Landfilling of municipal solid waste declined sharply due to landfill taxes and a landfill ban for certain types of waste. Half of municipal waste is now incinerated for energy recovery (Figure 7). Recycling increased slowly. Higher performance. The environmental performance of the sector increased across most measures. Since 2000, emissions of most air pollutants from the waste sector declined, although nitrous oxide (NOx) emissions increased from 2005.
While almost all Dutch municipalities impose a waste levy, charging systems vary from town to town. 40% of municipalities use a “pay-as-you-throw” levy (called “Diftar”, referring to “differentiated rate”). This levy varies based on the amount of residual and separated waste collected, encouraging households to separate and reduce waste. In some areas, generally those using Diftar schemes, separate waste collection accounted for more than 60% of all household waste. When households do more work in waste separation, municipalities have less to do. Costs decrease, and the value of the waste increases.
Figure 7. Marked shift towards incineration with energy recovery Municipal waste disposal and treatment
EUR/t 120
100% 90%
100
80% 70%
80
60% 50%
60
40% 40
30% 20%
20
10% 0%
2000 2001 2002 Landfill Composting
2003
2004
2005 2006 2007 2008 Incineration without energy recovery Recycling
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Incineration with energy recovery Landfill tax (right axis)*
0
Note. * The tax was abolished in 2010 and reintroduced in 2013. Waste collected by or for municipalities including household, bulky and commercial waste, and similar waste handled at the same facilities. Includes separate collection for recycling purposes. Up to 2008, data for total treatment exclude amounts undergoing mechanical sorting before further treatment/disposal. Source: CBS (2015), Statline (database); OECD Environment Statistics (database).
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challenges
Highlights
waste and materials management
Figure 8. The Netherlands is one of the most material efficient members of the OECD
Marginal improvements. As recycling rates are already relatively high compared to other OECD member countries, making further gains is difficult. Yet, results from several
Domestic material consumption DMC capita (tonnes/capita) (2011,per tonnes/capita) 50
local communities are promising.
AUS
The global economic crisis dampened overall consumption, leading to reduced waste generation. As the economy
CHL
40
recovers, the Netherlands will have to ensure that waste
FIN
generation does not rebound. Hazardous waste. The Netherlands is among the top
30
CAN
ten OECD countries in terms of production of hazardous waste, with nearly 4.9 million tonnes in 2012. By 2009, the Netherlands was the EU’s largest exporter of hazardous
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waste and third-largest importer. Circular economy. Transitioning towards a circular economy will require developing new business models, finding new
MEX
10
HUN
IRL
NZL
EST POL
AUT DNK CZE BEL ISL KOR PRT DEU SVN ISR SVK ESP FRA GRC ITA JPN
NLD
ways of working across the whole product chain and dealing with commodity price volatility. It will also be important to find ways for extended producer responsibility schemes to go beyond just waste management and promote systems that have an influence on sourcing, design and consumption phases, as well as improve the quality of recycling.
In 2012, an estimated
10 million tonnes
of waste went to incineration or landfill.
towards a circular economy In a circular economy, the aim is to broaden the focus from
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Maintain absolute decoupling of waste generation from GDP as the economy recovers.
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Consider an emission-based (instead of inputbased) waste tax.
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Encourage schemes such as Diftar and reverse collection to improve recycling rates.
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Explore ways for extended producer responsibility schemes to have an influence beyond waste management, on sourcing, design and consumption phases.
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Reinforce efforts against illegal waste trade with a risk‑based approach, proper handling, and increased investments.
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Develop a roadmap to promote the circular economy, strengthen product policies such as labelling and design criteria, promote reuse and remanufacturing.
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Encourage innovation through the Green Deals approach. Overcome information and finance barriers.
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Prioritise the development of indicators to monitor resource productivity and material flows.
cradle”, covering raw material extraction, production, use and
In 2014, the government set out an ambitious Waste to Resource programme. One of its main objectives is to halve years. The programme seeks to drastically cut the resources lost in this way, through increased recycling (even in difficult categories such as plastics) and more sustainable production and consumption. Putting the vision for the circular economy into action will require realistic targets informed by cost-benefit analysis and new business models and approaches. The Netherlands is also a major contributor to the EU policy on resource efficiency.
30 40 GDP per capita (USD, 2005 PPP)
Next steps | waste & materials
of materials across entire product chains from “cradle to
the volume of material that leaves the economy within ten
20
Source: OECD Environment Statistics (database); Eurostat (2014), Environment Statistics (database).
strictly managing waste to minimising the environmental impact
waste management, including reuse.
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OECD Environmental performance Review of the netherlands
In depth | sustainable mobility The Netherlands is a global transport hub at the heart of Europe. It has managed to keep a high share of environmentally friendly modes of mobility, thanks to its inland waterways for freight and a cycling culture in cities. However, road traffic remains dense. While the country has benefitted from smart urban planning and road improvements, re-considering a road pricing system could help address increasing congestion and related environmental pressures. Figure 9. In some Dutch cities, more than a third of trips are made by bike Share of trips in selected cities, 2011-2013
Rotterdam
22%
The Hague
26%
Amsterdam
33%
Utrecht
36%
Source: KiM (2013), Mobiliteitsbeeld 2013 [Mobility Picture 2013].
Lower emissions and noise. Stricter emission standards for cars, as well as the economic recession and subsidies for more fuel-efficient cars, have driven a significant decline in air pollution from transport (except for CO2 emissions, which have decreased only slightly since 2008). Air quality in zones with intensive road traffic has strongly improved, despite some remaining hot spots in congested areas. The number of houses exposed to “high noise levels� (more than 65 decibels) along national roads reduced by over one-third between 2006 and 2011. Better safety. Over the last 12 to 15 years, better car technologies, road design and traffic regulation have helped reduce car fatalities by more than half. Bicyclists
opportunities Cycling culture. 10% of total distance travelled is by bicycle,
accidents; they are still 11 times more likely to be killed in a road accident.
an exceptionally high share compared to other OECD
The share of diesel cars is low in the Netherlands, due
countries, equalled only by Denmark. This is due to the flat
to higher purchase and annual taxes on diesel cars and
geography, but also to a bicycle-friendly urban planning
on high-emitting vehicles, while hybrid and electric cars
(including continuous networks of separate bike paths
benefit from tax preferences. CO2 emissions of newly
and even streets) and traffic regulation. Electric bikes are
registered passenger vehicles in the Netherlands were the
increasingly popular. Among other means of transport,
lowest across EU countries in 2014.
kilometers travelled by car remained stable, with more and more solo drivers. Rail use is increasing, but it reaches only 10% of total distance travelled.
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are the group with the slowest progress in terms of reduced
Electric vehicles. The Netherlands has set a target to put 15-20 000 electric vehicles on the road by the end of 2015 and one million by the end of 2025. In 2014, 31 000 low
Inland waterways. Freight volumes remained stable. Goods
polluting vehicles, most of them plug-in hybrids, were
transport on inland waterways is almost as important as road
already on the Dutch roads, the highest share in the EU.
freight. Between the Port of Rotterdam and the hinterland, the
Subsidising these vehicles is a costly approach to reduce
trend has been more short sea shipping and less road. Each
CO2 emissions, but it helps create an ecosystem that fosters
mode now transports about 35% of freight volume.
innovation and green growth.
sustainable mobility
Figure 10. Shifting trends in car use since 1995
Age group
% 12
Total (driver + passenger)
10
Trip purpose
% 12 40-59
8
Total
10
10 8
60+
6 4
Leisure
6
0-17
0 30-39
-4
2
Shopping Education
-6 1995
2000
2005
2010
-6 1995
Men
2 0 -2
-2 Other
-4 18-29
Women
6 4
0
-2
Total (driver + passenger)
8 Work
4
2
Gender
% 12
2000
2005
2010
-4 -6 1995
2000
2005
2010
Source: KiM (2013), Mobiliteitsbeeld 2013 [Mobility Picture 2013].
challenges
have gone down for diesel cars, but studies have shown that actual emissions are much higher than test cycle results.
Congestion. Fewer hours have been lost to congestion in nearly all congestion-prone areas over the last three years. Yet, in the coming years, the very densely populated Randstad (the metropolitan area with the four largest cities of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht) will continue to attract more inhabitants and commuters, and a further increase of road traffic is unlikely to be solved by additional road capacity alone. Climate. The Netherlands has to prepare the transport sector for ambitious EU 2030-2050 carbon emission targets. The reform of vehicle taxes into a progressive carbon tax encouraged buying low-emitting vehicles, but it came at a very high cost per tonne of CO2 abated.
Further, actual CO2 emission reductions turned out to be only half of what was estimated by test values. Road pricing. Now that the easy wins in terms of better road management have likely been exhausted, road pricing could be re-considered. It could replace high fixed charges on cars (at the time of purchase and every year for ownership) with a variable charge per kilometre, based on place and time of travel. The 2013 Energy Agreement includes plans to begin studying road pricing as of June 2016. Trucks. Trucks pay for their road use through diesel excises and the fixed Eurovighette charge. However, the Netherlands will soon be surrounded by countries that apply distance charging, once Belgium puts its system into place in 2016.
Test cycles. The bulk of air pollution emissions from
Countries with a distance charge can undercut the diesel
transportation originate from road transport. According to
excise tax of their neighbours without distance charging, as
the European test cycle, nitrous oxide (NOx) emissions should
international trucks can decide where to buy fuel.
Next steps | sustainable mobility zz
zz
zz
Reduce the CO2 emission differentiation in the vehicle purchase tax, to bring it more in line abatement costs in other parts of the economy. Road pricing, at least in the most congested zone of the country (the Randstad), could be an efficient alternative to high taxes on vehicles and motor fuels. The second-best option is to discourage car use in urban areas with high parking charges.
zz
Introduce distance-based road charging for trucks.
zz
Consider introducing a passenger tax on extra-European aviation, together with neighbouring countries, taking into account potential competitiveness impacts.
zz
Reduce negative environmental impacts of transport, including noise and the remaining air pollution hot spots.
Consider varying pricing of public transport (local and rail) according to levels of congestion, to cope with growing demand in the peak periods in the Randstad.
15
more information OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: The Netherlands 2015 The report and all data are available online www.oecd.org/environment/country-reviews or http://doi.org/839 Environmental Performance Review programme www.oecd.org/environment/country-reviews
contacts Head of the Environmental Performance and Information division Nathalie Girouard Nathalie.Girouard@oecd.org Co-ordinator of the EPR of the Netherlands Kathleen Dominique Kathleen.Dominique@oecd.org Communications Clara Tomasini Clara.Tomasini@oecd.org
image credits Cover: gigra/Fotolia, ValES1989/Fotolia. p.2-3: JacobH/iStockPhoto p.4-5: Vorn/Flickr CreativeCommons. Icons by David Chapman, Edward Boatman, Thomas Uebe, Waleed Al Alami, Marie Van den Broeck, Francesca Ameglio/ TheNounProject.com. p.6-7: ErikdeGraaf, Nishangha/iStockPhoto p.8-9: Courtesy Room for the River, Turntoo, AlbyDeTweede,ErikdeGraaf, AlanPhillips/ iStockphoto, AuthenticCreations/Shutterstock. p.10-11: NickNick_ko/iStockPhoto p.12-13: PeterdeKievith/iStockPhoto, Icon by Sascha Elmers/TheNounProject.com p.14-15: Olivier Lantzendorffer and The Hague/iStockPhoto, Icons by Creative Stall, Vicons Design, Misirlou/TheNounProject.com
This document and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.
www.oecd.org/environment/country-reviews