OECD WORK ON
CLIMATE CHANGE
OECD WORK ON
CLIMATE CHANGE “ …our leaders are facing a fundamental dilemma: to get to grips with the risks of climate change or see their ability to limit this threat slip from their hands.” Angel Gurría OECD Secretary-General London, 9 October 2013
November 2014
Contents INTRODUCTION 6
1. Economic and policy analysis
6 12 15 20
Climate change mitigation Adaptation to climate change Climate finance and investment The multilateral climate change framework
26
2. Sector-specific analysis
26 28 36 38 39
Agriculture and fisheries Energy Transport Tourism Water
40
3. Cross-cutting issues Development co-operation Clean innovation Taxation and other market-based instruments Cities and multilevel governance Trade and the environment Empowering consumers and greening household behaviour Employment and local development SMEs and entrepreneurship 4. Fora for climate change discussion Climate Change Expert Group on the UNFCCC DAC Network on Environment and Development Co-operation Round Table on Sustainable Development Round Table of Mayors and Ministers International Futures Programme 5. Recent and forthcoming publications on climate change
www.oecd.org/environment/cc
40 43 48 52 54 56 58 59 60 60 60 61 62 63 64
OECD work on climate change Global climate change threatens to disrupt the well-being of society, undermine economic development and alter the natural environment, making it an urgent policy priority for the 21st century. Governments around the world have agreed on the need to achieve large cuts in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions over the coming decades, to adapt to the impacts of climate change, and to ensure the necessary financial and technical support for developing countries to take action. They are working towards an international agreement to achieve these goals under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The OECD has been working on climate-change economics and policy since the late 1980s. The OECD works closely with governments to assist them in identifying and implementing least-cost policies to reduce GHG emissions in order to limit climate change, as well as to integrate
4 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
adaptation to climate change into all relevant sectors and policy areas. Working with key partners in global development co-operation, the OECD plays a critical role in facilitating low-carbon, climate-resilient development pathways in developing countries. Efforts in this area include examining how public finance can be scaled-up and best targeted to help leverage private financial flows, as well as enhancing the transparency of such flows. Given the global nature of the climate change challenge,
THE ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT and its widespread economic, social and environmental impacts, the OECD is in a unique position to assist countries put climate policy on a solid economic footing.
The Organisation for Economic Co‑operation and Development (OECD) is a multi‑disciplinary inter-governmental organisation, tracing its roots back to the
Work on climate change is underway across the OECD, engaging government representatives from a range of ministries. This brochure provides an overview of the recent OECD work on climate change.
post‑World War II Marshall Plan. Today, it comprises 34 member countries that are committed to democratic government and the market economy and the European Commission, with the major emerging economies increasingly engaged directly in the work. The OECD provides a unique forum and the analytical capacity to assist governments to compare and exchange policy experiences, and to identify and promote good practices through policy decisions and recommendations.
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 5
1
Economic and policy analysis
1.1. Climate change mitigation Quantitative analysis of economy-environment policies Economic models and quantitative assessments of climate change mitigation scenarios and their impacts on the economy play a key role in informing policy makers of the costs, benefits and potential trade-offs. Business-as-usual economic development coupled, with a growing global population, will place increasing pressures on the environment. Based on economy-environment modelling, the OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050 (OECD, 2012) projects what the environment might look like in 2050 without new policies. It focuses on climate change, along with biodiversity, water, and the consequences for human health of environmental degradation. OECD modelling work uses the ENV-Linkages model to assess both the socio-economic baseline as well as how policies can be applied to cost-effectively reduce GHG emissions in a post-2012 framework.
6 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
The Climate change chapter of the Environmental Outlook to 2050 first looks at GHG emissions (including from landuse) and their concentrations, as well as temperature and precipitation changes under the Environmental Outlook baseline scenario of “business-as-usual� (i.e. no new action) to 2050. Most countries use a mix of policy instruments that include carbon pricing (carbon taxes, cap-and-trade emissions trading, fossil fuel subsidy reform), other energy efficiency policies, information-based approaches and innovation policy to foster clean technology. The chapter also looks at what further action is needed by comparing different mitigation scenarios (variants of 450 ppm and 550 ppm scenarios with differences in: technology options, e.g. carbon capture and storage (CCS), nuclear phase-out, biofuels; linking of carbon markets; permit allocation rules) against the baseline to understand how the situation could be improved.
Did you know...? that removing fossil fuel energy subsidies could reduce world GHG emissions by more than 6% in 2050 compared with business-as-usual, and contribute to improved economic efficiency in the countries undertaking the reforms?
Global economic costs of mitigation action (GHG stabilisation policy at 450 ppm) Index 2010=100
450 Baseline scenario
400 450 ppm core scenario
Key publication
GDP -5.5%
350
OECD (2012), Environmental Outlook to 2050, The Consequences of Inaction, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/ 9789264122246en.
300 250 200 150 GHG emissions -69.5%
100 50 0 2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
Source: OECD (2012), Environmental Outlook to 2050, ENV-Linkages model.
The OECD has been also working closely with the G20. For instance, the 2013 OECD reports, Institutional Investors and Green Investment: Selected Case Studies (Kaminker et al., 2013) and Policy Guidance for Investment in Clean Energy Infrastructure (OECD, 2013) were transmitted to the G20 Finance Ministers and Central Governors’ meeting and annexed to the Communiqué of their meeting in October 2013.
Key links: www.oecd.org/env/cc/economicsofclimatechangemitigation.htm www.oecd.org/env/indicators-modelling-outlooks/ oecdenvironmentaloutlookto2050theconsequencesofinaction.htm www.oecd.org/g20/fossilfuelsubsidies www.oecd.org/iea-oecd-ffss OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 7
Cost of policy inaction and benefits of action
Competitiveness and carbon leakage Concerns about the potential competitiveness impacts of climate policies are perhaps the most significant barrier to implementing ambitious policies in OECD countries. The report Addressing Competitiveness and Carbon Leakage Impacts Arising from Multiple Carbon Markets: A modelling Assessment (OECD, 2013) analyses possible policy approaches to address carbon leakage and competitiveness issues by comparing border carbon adjustments with linking instruments and presenting a detailed analysis of carbon leakage. In recent years, work by the International Energy Agency (IEA) on climate policy has also addressed issues related to the competitiveness implications of unilateral emission caps and the interaction between electricity markets and CO2 markets. Key links: www.oecd.org/env/cc/econ www.iea.org 8 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
The Environmental Outlook to 2050 in 2012 highlights that business-as-usual baseline projections are not environmentally or economically sustainable and that inaction is not a viable option. For each of the four environmental themes covered (Climate change, Biodiversity, Freshwater and Health & Environment), the Outlook quantifies projections of the environmental and economic impacts should no further action be taken. It emphasises that urgent policy action to protect the environment is economically rational. The project on Costs of Inaction and Resource Scarcity: Consequences for Long-term Economic Growth (CIRCLE) aims to identify how feedback from poor environmental quality, climatic change and natural resource scarcity affect economic growth. The CIRCLE project also aims to quantify the benefits of policy action. CIRCLE will generate reference projections for economic growth to reflect the costs of policy inaction and the benefits of policy action. This would allow for better-informed evaluations of policies, and a comparison of the costs and benefits involved.
A coherent approach to carbon pricing
CIRCLE
Costs of Inaction and Resource scarcity: Consequences for Long-term Economic growth
The environmental challenges investigated largely coincide with those addressed by the Environmental Outlook to 2050. The modelling work in CIRCLE will initially focus on climate change, local air pollution and the land-water-energy nexus. First results for the assessment of the economic feedback of climate change damages have been published as Economics Department Working Paper No. 1135: Consequences of climate change damages for economic growth: a dynamic quantitative assessment (OECD, 2014), and are included in the OECD horizontal report on OECD@100. Key links: www.oecd.org/environment/outlookto2050 www.oecd.org/environment/circle.htm
The OECD report Climate and carbon: Aligning prices and policies (OECD, 2013) brings together lessons learned from different strands of OECD analysis on carbon pricing and climate policies. To achieve the global commitment of limiting the average global temperature increase to no more than 2ËšC above pre-industrial level, countries worldwide must take on the responsibility to gradually phase out their emissions of CO2 in the second half of this century. A key component in achieving this objective is putting an explicit price on every tonne of CO2 emitted. However, explicit pricing instruments may not cover all sources of emissions and will need to be complemented by other policies that effectively put an implicit price on emissions. To inspire confidence to invest in technologies and infrastructure that shift production and consumption decisions towards low-carbon choices, carbon pricing mechanisms must be mutually supportive, cost-effective, and sustainable. Further, tax exemptions and fossil-fuel subsidies that undermine the transition towards zero carbon solutions must be reformed. Finally, any regressive impacts of carbon pricing measures must be alleviated through complementary measures and a clear communication strategy must developed to explain them. Key link: www.oecd.org/environment/climate-carbon.htm OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 9
Aligning policies twoards a low-carbon economy At their Ministerial Council Meeting (MCM), OECD countries noted: “While policies adopted by different countries will need to reflect their individual circumstances, we recognise the importance of aligning policies across all relevant areas. These areas include economic, fiscal, financial, competition, employment, social, environmental, energy, investment, trade, development co-operation, innovation, agriculture and sustainable food production, regional as well as urban and transport policies.” They invited the: “OECD, in co-operation with the International Energy Agency, the Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Transport Forum […] to examine how to better align policies across different areas for a successful economic transition of all countries to sustainable low-carbon and climateresilient economies and report to the 2015 OECD [MCM].”
10 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
The four organisations are currently working to identify which policy instruments have unintended consequences on efforts to move OECD economies on a path to low-carbon, with a view to indicate potentials options to lower the cost of the transition. Policy guidance will be provided back to the MCM in June 2015.
Combining policies – least-cost climate mitigation A broad-based carbon price signal can go a long way towards delivering cost-effective emissions reductions, but even in the presence of a carbon price there are sound reasons for also introducing supplementary policies. In 2013, the IEA produced Managing Interactions between Carbon Pricing and Existing Energy Policies (IEA, 2013), to provide specific policy guidance to countries introducing a carbon price. This paper identifies key questions that policymakers should consider to align the carbon price with existing energy policies, and to keep policies well aligned over time. It built on the earlier paper Summing up the parts: Combining policy instruments for least-cost climate mitigation strategies (Hood C., 2011) which focused in particular on when policies to supplement a carbon price are justified, interactions between carbon pricing and supplementary policies, and how to manage these interactions to enable a least-cost policy response.
The OECD and IEA have jointly produced a green growth study to look at the implications for the energy sector in moving towards a greener model of growth. The study Green Growth Strategy for Energy: A Preliminary Report (OECD, 2012) examines how to improve the environmental performance of energy generation and systems as a cornerstone for economic growth. Policies for green growth in the energy sector will differ across countries, according to local environmental and economic conditions, institutional settings and stages of development, yet a number of common policy recommendations can be found. Many energy systems are ‘locked-in’ to high carbon production and consumption patterns that can be difficult to break for reasons that go beyond simple economics. This report recommends a set of measures to tackle market failures and barriers that will otherwise lead to underinvestment in the energy sector and environmental degradation. It also examines political economy challenges, including distribution effects and stranded capital, that will arise in any transition process.
Key publication OECD/IEA (2012), Green Growth Studies: Energy, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1787/ 9789264115101-en.
Key links: www.iea.org www.oecd.org/greengrowth/
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 11
1.2. Adaptation to climate change Efforts to reduce GHG emissions need to move hand-in-hand with policies and incentives to adapt to the effects of climate change. The OECD is working to support governments in planning and implementing effective, efficient and equitable adaptation policies. This work covers three themes: (i) integrating adaptation in development co-operation; (ii) adaptation in OECD countries; and (iii) economic aspects of adaptation.
Previous work on Harmonising Climate Risk Management: Adaptation Screening and Assessment Tools for Development Cooperation (OECD, 2011) has considered how well current tools for screening climate risks and integrating adaptation into development planning meet users’ needs. The OECD recently surveyed approaches used to monitor and evaluate adaptation in development co-operation and identified examples of emerging good practice in this area (Lamhauge et al., 2011 and Lamhauge, 2014 forthcoming). Given the longterm perspective of most adaptation initiatives, it is important to clearly include the effects of future climate change when selecting indicators and generating baselines.
Integrating adaptation in development co-operation There is a two-way relationship between adaptation and development. Adaptation can support the achievement of development outcomes, while development can help to build climate resilience. Climate Resilience in Development Planning: Experiences in Colombia and Ethiopia (OECD, 2014) discusses the current state of knowledge on how to build climate resilience in developing countries, and builds on a growing volume of country experience on building climate resilience into national development planning.
12 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Key publication OECD (2014), Climate Resilience in Development Planning: Experiences in Colombia and Ethiopia, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/ 9789264209503-en.
Robust monitoring and evaluation is essential for effective adaptation interventions. A 2011 report Monitoring and Evaluation for Adaptation: Lessons from Development Co-operation Agencies (OECD, 2011), examines the particular characteristics of monitoring and evaluation of adaptation and identifies lessons learned from development co-operation agencies on the choice and use of indicators, baseline and targets. The report on Monitoring and Evaluation of Climate Change Adaptation: Methodological Approaches (OECD, 2014 forthcoming) suggests how some of the methodological challenges for monitoring and evaluation can be overcome. National Monitoring and Evaluation of Climate Change Adaptation: Lessons from Developed and Developing Countries (2014) identifies four key tools that can be used to enhance learning and assess countries’ progress in adapting to climate change. Key links: www.oecd.org/dac/stats/climate-change www.oecd.org/env/cc/adaptation.htm
Adaptation in OECD countries More than three-quarters of OECD member countries have either published, or are developing, national adaptation strategies. National Adaptation Planning: Lessons from OECD countries (OECD, 2013) identifies some of the emerging challenges and lessons learnt from the use of a mainstreaming approach. Key remaining challenges are: securing adequate financing, overcoming capacity constraints and measuring the success of interventions.
Key publication OECD (2013), “National Adaptation Planning: Lessons from OECD countries”, OECD Working Paper, No. 54, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1787/5k483jp fpsq1-en.
Key link: www.oecd.org/env/cc/adaptation.htm OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 13
Economic aspects of adaptation
The OECD is also working on the economics of adaptation which will provide guidance on implementing a risk-based approach to adaptation.
The actions of the private sector will also have a decisive influence on countries’ success at adapting to climate change. The OECD report Private Sector Engagement in Adaptation to Climate Change (OECD, 2011) found that while awareness of climate risks is high, only a small proportion of businesses reported taking action to manage them. It identifies potential priorities for action by the public sector to support private sector adaptation.
Many of the benefits of adaptation are local and private, which can provide a powerful incentive for private investments to manage those risks. However, recent OECD work has shown that private action on adaptation – whether at the household or firm level – is lagging behind awareness (Kato et al., 2014, Mullan et al., 2013, Agrawala et al., 2011). Adaptation can ameliorate, but will not necessarily prevent, the negative effects of climate change. The appropriate risk-sharing and risk-transfer mechanisms, such as insurance, will also need to be in place to manage increasing risks, while encouraging risk-reduction activities (OECD, 2015 forthcoming; OECD, 2014c; OECD, 2009). Further OECD work on adaptation, development planning, policy and co-operation is exploring: (a) risk management, reduction, transfer and sharing instruments; (b) opportunities to support climate change adaptation and resilience at the subnational level, with a focus on cities; and (c) further work on monitoring and evaluation adaptation interventions.
Key link: www.oecd.org/env/cc/adaptation.htm 14 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
1.3. Climate finance and investment Limiting climate change to 2°C requires a major shift in investment patterns towards low-carbon, climate-resilient options. Policy-makers have a key role to play to help mobilise private sector finance towards green investment. Private investment is particularly critical in infrastructure sectors to help meet the global climate change challenge. A key priority is to establish clear and predictable policy frameworks for investment in green infrastructure, including in renewable energy, energy efficiency and sustainable transport. To help governments address those challenges, the OECD has undertaken work streams to: 1) develop domestic policy frameworks for green investment, in developed and developing countries; 2) engage institutional investors; and 3) track climate finance.
Policy framework for mobilising private investment The OECD has developed elements of a “green investment policy framework” to help governments create and improve domestic enabling conditions to shift and scale up private sector investments in green infrastructure. The five elements of the framework are: (1) goal setting and aligning policies across
and within levels of government; (2) reforming policies to enable investment and strengthen market incentives; (3) establishing specific financial policies, regulations, tools and instruments that provide transitional support for new green technologies; (4) harnessing resources and building capacity; and (5) promoting green business and consumer behaviour.
Key Elements of a “Green Investment Policy Framework”
1. Strategic goal setting and policy alignment 5. Promote green business and consumer behaviour
2. Enabling policies and incentives for LCR investment 3. Financial policies and instruments
4. Harness resources and build capacity for an LCR economy
Source: Corfee-Morlot, et al. (2012), “Towards a Green Investment Policy Framework”.
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 15
In a series of case studies, the elements of the policy framework have been applied in different sectors and country contexts. For example, the OECD report on Mobilising Private Investment in Sustainable Transport: The Case of Land-based Passenger Transport Infrastructure (OECD, 2013) provides a comprehensive toolkit of investment and climate policies, regulations and innovative financial tools to scale up private investment and shift toward sustainable transport modes. In a report forthcoming in 2015, Green Investment Policy Framework in practice: Assessing experience with Green Infrastructure Investment, the OECD will identify lessons learned from case studies and develop tailored guidance to scale-up private sector investments in specific infrastructure sectors and country contexts. The report will also draw lessons from a forthcoming case study jointly undertaken by the OECD and CDC Climate Research (Cochran I, et al., 2014 forthcoming), which analyses the role of five Public Financial Institutions (PFIs) in fostering the low-carbon energy transition through domestic climate finance activities.
Policy guidance for investment in clean energy infrastructure The OECD Policy Guidance for Investment in Clean Energy Infrastructure (OECD, 2014 forthcoming is a non-prescriptive tool which raises key issues for policy, including in the areas of: investment policy, investment promotion and facilitation, energy market design/competition policy, financial market
16 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
policy, governance of energy market institutions, and other policies and cross-cutting issues. The Policy Guidance was transmitted to the G20 Finance Ministers and Central Governors’ meeting and annexed to the Communiqué of their meeting in October 2013. The OECD will now apply the Policy Guidance to specific country contexts by undertaking Clean Energy Investment Policy Reviews to help countries make the most of their clean energy investment potential.
Key publication Ang, G. and V. Marchal (2013), “Mobilising Private Investment in Sustainable Transport: The Case of Land-Based Passenger Transport Infrastructure”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 56, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1787/5k46hjm8j pmv-en.
Achieving a level playing field for international investment in green energy The OECD project “Achieving a level playing field for international field for international investment in green energy” takes stock of policy measures that may distort international competition and hamper international investments in solar PV and wind energy. This project also assesses the possible impacts of these policy measures across the solar PV and wind energy value chains, with a focus on local content requirements (LCRs). The forthcoming report provides evidence to inform policy makers’ decisions in designing green energy support policies.
The OECD is developing policy guidance on long-term investment focusing on the role of institutional investors. As a part of this effort, the report Mapping Channels to Mobilise Institutional Investment in Sustainable Energy, (Kaminker, C et al. 2014) provides a framework for policy makers to better understand the processes and channels through which institutional investors make sustainable energy investments (in projects or companies) and the methods available for facilitating these types of investment.
Engaging institutional investors In the wake of the economic and financial crisis, some of the traditional sources of green infrastructure finance and investment – governments, commercial banks, and utilities – face significant constraints. Alternative sources will be needed to not only compensate for these constraints, but to ramp up green infrastructure investments. One potential source is institutional investors. These include insurance companies, investment funds, pension funds, public pension reserve funds, foundations, endowments, and other forms of institutional savings.
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 17
Tracking climate finance Tracking climate finance, to and in, developing countries is key to building trust between countries that climate finance is flowing, and is key to monitoring progress in the international effort to address climate change. Understanding these flows helps to support transparency, accountability and the design of better policies and interventions to mobilise climate finance. Yet, there are significant data, methodological and knowledge gaps on climate finance flows. To help address these gaps, the OECD is working on a number of key issues related to tracking both public and private climate finance flows.
Key publication Clapp, C., et al. (2012), “Tracking Climate Finance: What and How?”, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert Group Papers, No. 2012/01, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1787/5k44xwtk9tvk-en.
The OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) has a robust system for measuring and monitoring climate changerelated aid: the Rio markers on Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation. The DAC joint WP-STST Task Team is currently working to improve the quality, coverage, communication and use of the Rio marker data. This includes advancing collaboration between the OECD DAC, Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) and other international financial institutions to reconcile methodological approaches and identify multilateral climate finance flows within the DAC statistical framework. Total bilateral climate change-related aid provided by members of the OECD’s DAC increased at a steady pace over the past decade. Estimates suggest that the upper bound for climaterelated aid reached USD 21.5 billion1 on average per year in 2010-12, representing 16% of total official development assistance. The Rio markers are descriptive rather than quantitative and allow for an approximate quantification of financial flows targeting the objectives of the Rio conventions. Not all climaterelated aid is reported by parties as climate finance to the UNFCCC, but many OECD DAC members draw on this data as a starting point and apply adjustments to report only a share of this as climate finance (Gaveau and Ockenden, 2014 forthcoming). 1. For technical reasons, statistics on climate-related aid for the United States are currently unavailable and excluded from these figures. The United States is working to review its data collection methodology and will supply data for 2011 and 2012.
18 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Measuring private climate finance, to and in, developing countries and estimating its mobilisation by public finance interventions (finance and policies) is crucial. To facilitate further research in this area, the OECD is hosting and co-ordinating a Research Collaborative on Tracking Private Climate Finance with the aim of identifying and analysing relevant data sources, developing estimation methodologies, and conducting pilot measurements of mobilisation.
Completed OECD analysis to date illustrates: (i) The potential and limitations of a number of commercial and public databases towards a better coverage of private climate finance beyond renewable energy (Caruso and Jachnik, 2014); (ii) A range of existing methods in use to measure climate finance mobilised by public finance (Caruso and Ellis, 2013); (iii) Methods for measuring the mobilisation effect of public guarantees within official development finance statistics (Mirabile, Benn and SangarĂŠ, 2013); and (iv) The use of econometric techniques to more broadly explore linkages between public interventions (including targeted policies) and private climate finance mobilisation in the renewable energy sector (Hascic et al., 2014 forthcoming).
Climate-related Aid (bilateral commitments) Annual average over 3 years 25
18%
Climate-related aid: "Significant" objective Climate-related aid: "Principal" objective
16%
Climate-related share of Total ODA 14%
Key links: 12% 15
10%
8% 10
6%
Share of Total ODA (%)
USD, Billion (2012 Prices)
20
www.oecd.org/env/cc/financing.htm www.oecd.org/finance/lti www.oecd.org/daf/inv/investment-policy/clean-energy-infrastructure.htm www.oecd.org/env/cc/adaptation.htm www.oecd.org/env/cc/ccxg.htm
4%
5
-
2004-6
2007-9
www.oecd.org/dac/stats/mobilisationeffectofpublicdevelopmentfinance.htm
0%
www.oecd.org/dac/stats/rioconventions.htm
2010-12
Notes: 1) This Figure presents a trend based on averages over three years, so as to smooth fluctuations from large multiyear projects committed in a given year. 2) Reporting against the mitigation marker became mandatory from 2006 flows onwards. 3) The adaptation marker was introduced in 2010. Data on total climate-related aid for earlier years mainly relates to mitigation and may underestimate bilateral aid flows to climate change.
Source: OECD DAC Statistics, May 2014.
www.oecd.org/env/researchcollaborative
2%
www.oecd.org/daf/investment/green www.oecd.org/daf/inv/investment-policy/oecdinvestmentpolicytools.htm OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 19
1.4. The multilateral climate change framework Much of the OECD work on assessing options for the future international climate change framework is undertaken via the Climate Change Expert Group (CCXG), run jointly by the OECD and the IEA (see Section 4.2). Recent work has focussed on elements of a 2015 climate change agreement, climate finance (including the role of the 2015 agreement in mobilising climate finance, as well as climate finance tracking and effectiveness), mitigation accounting (including land sector accounting), market mechanisms, national emissions baselines, and measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) of mitigation actions and support. Past analytical work from this group has played an important role in building understanding and support for the use of market instruments (e.g. emissions trading and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in the Kyoto Protocol) and for harmonised monitoring, reporting and compliance assessment in international climate policy responses.
Key links: www.oecd.org/env/cc/ccxg.htm
20 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Key publication Briner, G., Kato, T., & Hattori, T. (2014), “Built to Last: Designing a Flexible and Durable 2015 Climate Change Agreement�, IEA Climate Change Expert Group Papers, No. 2014/3, http://www.oecd. org/env/cc/Built%20to%20 Last_CCXGsentout_ May2014_REV.pdf.
Elements of a 2015 agreement A new international climate change agreement that will have legal force, and be applicable to all countries, is being negotiated under the auspices of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The agreement is to be adopted by 2015 and come into effect from 2020. An effective agreement would include quantitative mitigation commitments
from all major emitters and result in concrete actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions while catalysing long-term transformations to low-carbon and climate-resilient economies. Economies are rapidly evolving, national capabilities are changing and unexpected shocks of various kinds (e.g. economic, political, technological) can occur. A 2015 climate change agreement is therefore needed that can evolve in response to external shocks and remain effective over time. A recent CCXG paper entitled Built to Last: Designing a Flexible and Durable 2015 Climate Change Agreement (OECD, 2014) explores what a flexible and durable climate change agreement could look like and proposes pragmatic options for the design of such an agreement. The paper outlines possible processes for consultations and updating of mitigation contributions. It also discusses the possible structure of the 2015 agreement and the implications of different mitigation contribution types for the flexibility and durability of the agreement.
Climate finance There is widespread recognition that climate finance needs to be scaled up from its current levels. However, there is no clear view on how developed countries can efficiently and effectively mobilise further climate finance to meet the needs of developing countries. Developed countries have committed to mobilise USD 100 billion per year of climate finance for OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 21
developing countries by 2020 from a variety of sources. These include both public and private finance, thus the private sector is likely to play a significant role in the mobilisation of climate finance to meet this commitment. A recent CCXG paper entitled The Role of the 2015 Agreement in Mobilising Climate Finance (OECD, 2014) explores how the new agreement could contribute to mobilising climate finance by examining the current state of play on the existing financing environments and mechanisms which are designed to mobilise climate finance. These include: (i) the existing international institutional arrangements; (ii) in-country enabling environments; (iii) financial instruments and tools; and (iv) methodologies for transparency. While the quantity of climate finance is important, quantity alone is not sufficient to achieve the climate objectives of the Convention. Ensuring the underlying quality, or effectiveness, of climate finance will also be crucial. A CCXG paper entitled Scaling up and replicating effective climate finance interventions (OECD, 2014) explores lessons learned from existing climate finance interventions in developing countries at project-, programmes-, and fund-levels, which have already been, or are being, scaled up or replicated. In particular, the paper looks into how further private climate finance can be mobilised through scale-up and replication of climate finance interventions, while recognising that actors in the private sector are not a homogeneous entity with a common interest.
22 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Emissions accounting Many UNFCCC Parties have put forward emissions reductions targets and actions for the year 2020. These pledges, covering both developed and developing countries, have been expressed in a variety of ways and are not necessarily comparable. Many include the assumption that emissions units from market mechanisms will be transferred between countries. Understanding how these movements will impact progress towards pledges can be difficult if the pledges themselves are not well understood. Pledges also use different approaches to measure emissions and removals in the land-use sector. A GHG emissions accounting framework is therefore needed to provide
full visibility and understanding about Parties’ individual and joint efforts to reduce global emissions in line with the agreed goal of limiting warming to below 2°C. The CCXG has undertaken a series of papers on emissions accounting. The report Keeping Track: Options to Develop International Greenhouse Gas Accounting After 2012 (OECD, 2011) outlined possible scenarios for unit accounting post-2012 and identified a “middle ground” emissions accounting scenario. Tracking and Trading: Expanding on Options for International Greenhouse Gas Unit Accounting After 2012 (OECD, 2011) looked in more detail at the “middle ground” scenario and put forward specific options for elements of unit accounting after 2012. Made to Measure: Options for Emissions Accounting under the UNFCCC (OECD, 2013) identified what is needed, in addition to existing UNFCCC structures, to create an emissions accounting framework that could be applicable to all Parties. GHG or not GHG: Accounting for Diverse Mitigation Contributions in the Post2020 Climate Framework (OECD, 2014) explored the implications of different types of mitigation contributions for the post-2020 accounting framework. Planting the Foundations of a Post-2020 Land Sector Reporting and Accounting Framework (OECD, 2014) looks in more detail at possible ways forward for post-2020 accounting for the land sector.
Market mechanisms Carbon market mechanisms such as emissions trading systems and crediting mechanisms can have multiple objectives. A key goal is to lower the cost of achieving GHG emissions reductions. Market mechanisms can also catalyse investment in low carbon technologies and practices, provide environmental and health co-benefits, contribute to fostering innovation, provide a source of government revenue and facilitate more ambitious mitigation action in future. They can therefore play an important role in the diverse policy toolkit needed to address the global issue of climate change.
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 23
A CCXG paper entitled Making Markets: Unpacking Design and Governance of Carbon Market Mechanisms (OECD, 2012) identifies the key design elements of market mechanisms and examines the governance structures and decision-making processes used to create tradable GHG units in existing systems both inside and outside of the UNFCCC. The report Crossing the Threshold: Ambitious Baselines for the UNFCCC New Market-based Mechanism (OECD, 2012) explores how setting baselines for broad segments of the economy could form the basis of the new market mechanism under the UNFCCC.
National emissions baselines Greenhouse gas emissions baselines are reference emissions levels. They can have different uses at the national level, including to inform domestic climate change policy and strategic planning, as well as to provide emissions information internationally. As some developing countries have now defined national mitigation goals relative to a future projected businessas-usual (BAU) level of emissions, the underlying assumptions and methodologies used in setting these emissions baselines have direct relevance for assessing both the country's and the aggregate global emissions mitigation effort. A better understanding of these baselines is therefore now of increased importance to the international community.
24 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
The report National Greenhouse Gas Emissions Baseline Scenarios: Learning from Experiences in Developing Countries (2013), in partnership with the Danish Energy Agency, reviews national approaches to preparing baseline scenarios of GHG emissions. The aim is to improve overall understanding of baseline scenarios and facilitate their use for policy-making in developing countries more broadly by describing and comparing in non-technical language existing practices and choices made by ten developing countries.
Measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) The Bali Action Plan (BAP) introduces the phrase “measurable, reportable and verifiable” in the context of countries’ GHG mitigation actions and commitments, and support. Subsequent texts have indicated the need for more frequent and comprehensive climate reports, as this would help not only to increase the information available to national and international policy-makers, but also to increase trust and confidence of the international community in the actions that individual countries are taking. However, there remain many open questions, including what M, R and V are, what they should apply to, who should undertake them, and how. A number of CCXG papers examine possible ways of implementing MRV provisions for both developed and developing countries. These include papers with suggestions for the structure and content of biennial reports, see e.g. Frequent and Flexible: Options for Reporting Guidelines for Biennial Update Reports (OECD, 2011) and subsequent review processes, see e.g. Design Options for International Assessment and Review (IAR) and International Consultations and Analysis (ICA) (OECD, 2011).
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 25
2
Sector-specific analysis
2.1. Agriculture and fisheries The report entitled Policy Instruments to Support Green Growth in Agriculture (OECD, 2013) syntheses the experience of OECD countries in developing and implementing policies, programmes and initiatives related to green growth in the agricultural sector in OECD countries. The report notes that, in most countries, the initiatives undertaken to support green growth in agriculture focused on improving energy efficiency and achieving low carbon emissions in the agricultural sector. The recently published report Green Growth Indicators for Agriculture - A preliminary assessment (OECD, 2014) presents the work undertaken to identify the relevant and measurable indicators for the agricultural sector. These indicators have been calculated and applied to a selected number of OECD countries in three specific policy areas: the transition to a low-carbon, resource-efficient agricultural sector; the maintenance of a natural asset base; and the implementation of policies aimed at realising the economic opportunities associated with green growth in the agricultural sector.
26 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
The report Climate Change, Water and Agriculture (OECD, 2014) reviews the main linkages between climate change, water and agriculture as a means to identifying and discussing adaptation strategies for better use and conservation of water resources. It aims to provide guidance to decision makers on choosing an appropriate mix of policies and market approaches to address the interaction between agriculture and water systems under climate change. A quantification of some of the adaptation strategies are discussed in a report on Modelling Adaptation to Climate Change in Agriculture (OECD, 2014 forthcoming). This report investigates long-term scenarios for agricultural production and how the agricultural sector can be affected by climate change. It projects yields, food availability and prices, and changes in land use under certain climate conditions. These long-term projections are then used to assess the effectiveness and costs of the selected adaptation strategies. The publication The Economics of Adapting Fisheries to Climate Change (OECD, 2011) brings together the conclusions of a workshop organised in 2010, on the invitation of the Korean Government. The Workshop notably aimed to identify when policy makers need to contemplate to address climate change in fisheries and aquaculture, and the governance and management models that are suited to do so. An important message to policy makers is to downscale current knowledge and data to local situations while applying an eco-system approach to fisheries management. The report also outlines actions that fisheries policy makers must undertake in the
face of climate change. These include: strengthening the global governance system; a broader use of rights-based management systems; ecosystem protection; industry transformation through the ending of environmental harmful subsidies and a focus on demand for sustainably caught seafood; and, in particular, using aquaculture as a key part of the response to climate change. The publication Green Growth in Fisheries and Aquaculture (OECD, 2014 forthcoming) addresses mitigation of climate change by identifying how fisheries and aquaculture can contribute to economic growth and food security while minimising their impact on the environment, notably in terms of emissions. The report addresses both precise issues such as fuel tax concessions, fuel consumption or waste, and by-catch reduction strategies as well as more general concerns (such as: how fishing efficiency can be improved through good stock management; and allowing fishers the flexibility to operate in the most efficient manner). The report also recommends effective monitoring and evaluation frameworks; sharing information to define best practices; and promoting innovation in markets and processes.
Key publications OECD (2011), The Economics of Adapting Fisheries to Climate Change, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1787/9789264090415-en. OECD (2013), Policy Instruments to Support Green Growth in Agriculture, OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/97892642 03525-en.
Key links: www.oecd.org/agriculture www.oecd.org/tad/fisheries
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 27
2.2. Energy
World Energy Outlook
The IEA has been providing analytical work on the energy dimension of climate change since the early 1990s, originally with a focus on the implications of the UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol for the energy sector. The IEA also studies options for the future evolution of the international climate change mitigation regime, including for the OECD and IEA Climate Change Expert Group (CCXG) on the UNFCCC (see Section 4.2). The current IEA work covers areas such as policies and measures for the energy sector, as well as the role of energy efficiency, renewables and CCS in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
The 2013 edition of the World Energy Outlook (IEA, 2013) provides updated energy trends and their impact on GHG emissions to 2035, as well as detailing a pathway for the energy sector to achieve a transition to a low-carbon world and avoid the worst impacts of climate change. Climate change policy is an integral part of the analysis outlined in this edition of the Outlook, which presents three energy- and climate-policy based scenarios: 1) the New Policies Scenario assumes weak implementation of current climate pledges and limited additional climate policy after 2020; 2) the Current Policies Scenario is based on no change to current policies; and 3) the 450 ppm Scenario. The main focus of the climate analysis assumes the implementation of an ambitious interpretation of existing pledges and strong action after 2020 to limit temperature increase to 2°C. The report, released in November 2013, contains valuable climate change data and analysis. Questions about the reliability, affordability and sustainability of our energy future often boil down to questions about investment. But are investors ready to commit capital in a fast-changing energy world? The complementary special report in the World Energy Outlook series – the World Energy Investment Outlook (IEA, 2014) – takes up this question in a full and comprehensive update of the energy investment picture to 2035.
28 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
The report provides insights into: the structure of ownership and models for financing investment in different parts of the energy sector; the continued importance of oil investment in the Middle East to meet demand; the dynamics and costs of liquefied natural gas (LNG) investment and how this can shape the future of global gas supply; where investment in the power sector might fall short of what is required, with important findings on the reliability of electricity supply in Europe and in India; the outlook for investment in low-carbon technologies, and the barriers to their realisation; and how global investment and financing requirements change if governments take stronger action to address climate change.
Key publication IEA (2013), World Energy Outlook 2013, IEA, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/weo-2013-en.
Key link: www.worldenergyoutlook.org
Energy efficiency The IEA undertakes extensive work on energy efficiency, a major contributor to a range of objectives, from GHG mitigation and improved energy security to enhanced economic development and productivity. The Energy Efficiency Market Report (IEA, 2014) provides a practical basis for understanding energy efficiency market activities, and a statistical analysis of energy efficiency and its impact on energy demand. This report includes an in-depth look at the energy efficiency transport market and at finance for energy efficiency. Capturing the Multiple Benefits of Energy Efficiency (IEA, 2014) explores the non-energy benefits of energy efficiency. The aim of this publication is two-fold: to build knowledge of the multiple benefits of energy efficiency; and to demonstrate how policy makers and other stakeholders can use existing tools to measure and maximise the benefits they seek. The IEA joined with partners and experts from ten economies in the Arab and Southern and Eastern Mediterranean region to develop a set of energy efficiency policy recommendations that reflects regional priorities and barriers. These recommendations are detailed in the publication, Regional Energy Efficiency Policy Recommendations: Arab-Southern and Eastern Mediterranean (SEMED) Region, published in English, Arabic and French. Key link: www.iea.org/topics/energyefficiency/
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 29
Energy technology perspectives Energy Technology Perspectives (ETP) (IEA, 2014) offers a comprehensive, long-term analysis of trends in the energy sector and of the technologies that are essential to achieving an affordable, secure and low-carbon system. The report takes a deep dive into actions needed to support deployment of sustainable options for generation, distribution and end-use consumption. Tracking Clean Energy Progress (IEA, 2014) examines progress in the development and deployment of key clean energy technologies. This publication tracks each technology and sector against interim 2025 targets in the IEA ETP 2014 2째C scenario (2DS) and provides specific recommendations to governments on how to scale up deployment of these key technologies toward a secure, clean and competitive energy future. More Data, Less Energy (IEA, 2014) looks at the rapidly increasing connectivity in a broad range of products, exploring how "everything is becoming smart" and "network-enabled". While consumers are devouring this new convenience and the extra functionality provided by network-enabled devices, the energy waste implications are big and getting bigger. The book provides an overview of technology and policy options to improve the energy efficiency of network-enabled devices.
30 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Energy Technology Roadmaps are free publications that identify priority actions for governments, industry, financial partners and civil society that could advance technology developments described in the ETP 2DS. The following roadmaps were published by the IEA in 2014 covering a wide range of energy demand and supply technologies: Solar Photovoltaic Energy; Solar Thermal Electricity; Energy Efficient Building Envelopes; Energy Storage; and A Guide to Development and Implementation.
Energy Efficiency Indicators: Fundamentals on Statistics (IEA, 2014) identifies the main sectorial indicators and the data needed to develop these indicators; and to make surveying, metering and modeling practices existing around the world available to all. Energy Efficiency Indicators: Essentials for Policy Making (IEA, 2014) is aimed at providing policy makers and energy analysts the tools needed to determine the priority areas for the development of energy efficiency indicators and how to select and develop the data and indicators that will best support energy efficiency policy making. In addition, the indicators provide a basis for international comparisons that can help identify best practices for effective policy design and implementation in countries.
Renewables Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report (IEA, 2014) highlights that power generation from renewable sources such as wind, solar and hydro grew strongly in 2013, reaching almost 22% of global generation, and was on par with electricity from gas. Global renewable generation is estimated to rise by 45% and making up nearly 26% of global electricity generation by 2020. Yet annual growth in new renewable power is slowing and, putting renewables at risk of falling short of the absolute generation levels needed to meet global climate change objectives.
Emissions Reduction through Upgrade of Coal-Fired Power Plants (IEA, 2014) examines the potential to improve the performance of existing coal-fired plants. Two power units in China were selected to showcase measures that would improve their net efficiency. The results built on the efficiency gains made under China’s national energy efficiency improvement programme and demonstrated the enormous potential to improve performance, with each percentage point increase capable of reducing CO2 emissions by many millions of tonnes over a unit’s operational lifetime. Experiences learned in China can be applied to improving coal-fired power plant efficiency worldwide. Key link: www.iea.org/etp/ OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 31
The Power of Transformation – Wind, Sun and the Economcis of Flexible Power Systems (IEA, 2014) explains that wind power and solar photovoltaics are expected to make a substantial contribution to a more secure and sustainable energy system. However, electricity generation from both technologies is constrained by the intermittency of wind and sunshine. This can make it challenging to maintain the necessary balance of electricity supply and consumption at all times. Consequently, the cost-effective integration of variable renewable energy (VRE) has become a pressing challenge for the energy sector. This publication finds that large shares of VRE (up to 45% in annual generation) can be integrated without significantly increasing power system costs in the long run. However, cost-effective integration calls for a system-wide transformation: optimising system operation, investing in a mix of flexibility resources (grid infrastructure, flexible generation, storage and demand side integration) and deploying system friendly wind and solar power plants. In addition, the IEA has published recent roadmaps on: Solar Thermal Electricity (2014); Solar Photovoltaic Energy (2014); Wind Energy (2013); and a paper entitled Heating Without Global Warming (2014).
Key links: www.iea.org/topics/renewables/ www.iea.org/policiesandmeasures/renewableenergy/ 32 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Key publication IEA (2014), MediumTerm Renewable Energy Market Report 2014, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/renewmar2014-en.
Carbon capture and storage
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) could reduce global annual CO2 emissions by around 17% by 2050. Moreover, CCS is currently the only large-scale mitigation option available to make deep reductions in the emissions from industrial sectors such as cement, iron and steel, chemicals and refining.
Establishing a supportive policy framework is critical for the success of CCS. The IEA and the Global CCS Institute delivered five key messages to the 5th Clean Energy Ministerial meeting held in Seoul, Korea in May 2014. The IEA tracks the progress and current state of play in establishing legal frameworks for safe CO2 storage. Such frameworks are critical for reassuring society that CCS can be undertaken in a safe manner. To follow up on key recommendations of its 2013 CCS Roadmap, the IEA published analysis on critical aspects of CCS, with particular emphasis on CO2 storage. The time required to develop a suitable geological site for permanent storage is often underestimated. In addition, national storage capacity estimates are not easily comparable. A new publication CCS 2014: What lies in store for CCS? (2014) discussed these important topics.
Key link: www.iea.org/topics/ccs/
Did you know...? that CCS is not only about electricity production? IEA analysis suggests that non‑power uses, such as in production and manufacturing plants, will account for nearly half of captured CO2 by 2050.
Energy, Climate Change and Environment: 2014 Insights Policies that respond to climate change and other environmental issues will increasingly impact the development of the global energy sector. The transition to low-carbon economies will need to be carefully managed, as the provision of secure, affordable energy is critical for economic growth and social development. More than ever, there is a need for a fuller understanding of the opportunities to promote synergies between energy, environmental and climate policies. Energy, Climate Change, and Environment: 2014 Insights (IEA, 2014) helps address this need.
Key publication IEA (2014), Energy, Climate Change and Environment 2014 Insights, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://www.oecd.org/ bookshop? 9789264220737.
Key link: www.iea.org/topics/climatechange/
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 33
Nuclear energy Globally, the planning for, and construction of, new nuclear power plants continues at a significant pace. There are currently 72 reactors under construction, the highest number for over 25 years. In the aftermath of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant accident in March 2011, a few countries (e.g., Germany and Belgium) have established nuclear power phase-out policies, while most countries that use nuclear power have confirmed their intention to continue their reliance on this form of energy production. Reasons for maintaining and expanding the use of nuclear power vary from country to country, but generally they focus on the ability of nuclear plants to provide highly reliable, affordable electricity with stable, long-term production costs; very low life-cycle carbon emissions; and enhanced security of energy supply. The Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) provides factual studies to assist countries in these energy policy decisions. The Nuclear Technology Roadmap, (IEA/NEA, forthcoming 2015), assesses the challenges facing the nuclear sector to meet the projected capacity growth for nuclear power of the two-degree scenario (2DS) of Energy Technology Perspectives 2014, which sees nuclear capacity rise from 390 GW today to over 900 GW, and the share of electricity generation rise from 12% today to 17% by 2050. The roadmap, which recognises the potential contributions of nuclear energy to the decarbonisation of the 34 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Did you know...? that nuclear energy saves up to 2.6 billion tonnes of CO2 emissions every year, compared with generating the same amount of energy using coal-fired power plants? world’s energy system, proposes key actions for the next ten years that could help accelerate the deployment of nuclear power to meet the 2DS targets. In 2013, the NEA together with the Vienna-based International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) organised an expert workshop on the technical and economic assessment of non-electric applications of nuclear energy. These include applications such as district heating, water desalination and production of hydrogen. Some of these applications are industrially proven, though not widespread. The NEA will carry out a more detailed study on this topic during 2015-2016. The joint NEA/IAEA publication Uranium 2014: Resources, Production and Demand (2014), offers an up-to-date evaluation of available uranium resources as well as low and high demand projections. Current resource assessments indicate that the global supply of uranium will be sufficient even for high demand scenarios. At the 2012 level of uranium requirements, identified resources are sufficient for over 120 years of supply for the global nuclear power fleet. The publication Managing Environmental and Health Impacts of Uranium Mining (OECD, 2014) highlights some
of the leading safety practices of the industry, in particular with respect to environmental monitoring prior to, during and after the recovery of uranium from a mine. The NEA is also currently carrying out a study (forthcoming 2015) on nuclear power and adaptation to climate change in order to assess the possible impacts of extreme weather events on the operation of nuclear power plants (NPPs), and the cost of developing solutions to increase their resilience to such events.
This NEA study examines the implications of extreme weather events in terms of loss of efficiency, partial or full outages, as well as the adaptation measures that have already been and are being taken, or considered, to improve the resilience of NPPs. Additional reports by the NEA of interest include Nuclear Energy and Renewables: System Effects in Low-carbon Electricity Systems and The Role of Nuclear Energy in a Low-carbon Energy Future (OECD/NEA, 2012).
Key links: www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/workshops/nucogen/ www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/workshops/techroadmap/ www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/groups/nuca.html www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/pubs/2014/7209-uranium-2014.pdf www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/pubs/2014/7210-uranium-2014-es.pdf www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/pubs/2014/7062-mehium.pdf www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/pubs/2014/7063-mehium-es.pdf
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 35
2.3. Transport Key publication CO2 emissions from transport represent 23% of global energyrelated CO2 emissions and 30% of OECD energy-related emissions. In OECD countries, transport accounts for 64% of oil consumption, and transport is dependent on oil products for 94% of its fuel. Substitution with other energy carriers has begun, with over 90 000 pure electric vehicles sold in 2013 worldwide. If climate change targets are to be met, the transport sector will have to decarbonise radically, but emission rates have been slow to drop and in view of increases in demand for mobility emissions are expected to continue to rise unless drastic policy actions are taken.
The ITF Transport Outlook The annual ITF Transport Outlook examines scenarios for the development of long-term global passenger and freight transport volumes. It provides a near term outlook for the economy, trade and transport as well as projections for longterm demand for surface transport to 2050. Specifically, the Transport Outlook looks at CO2 emissions from international freight transport for the next 35 years and examines different urban transport policy scenarios. Particular focus is placed on 36 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
ITF (2013), ITF Transport Outlook 2013, OECD Publishing, Paris, http:// www.oecd.org/bookshop? 9789282103920.
Latin America, China and India, where urban the population will grow rapidly in the coming decades and where policy action – or inaction – will have the most impact. On the basis of a model developed by ITF, the impact in terms of CO2 emissions, air pollution and public health, are analysed and compared for of different urban transport policy scenarios.
Key links: www.oecd.org/env/greening-transport www.internationaltransportforum.org
Emissions from transport
Key links: www.iea.org/topics/transport/
Meeting emissions reduction targets will require a broad set of policies under an “Avoid, Shift and Improve” approach that address transport activity and model choice along with continued rapid improvement in the fuel economy of conventional vehicles and the development of large markets for alternative vehicles. This also comprises a parallel shift to carbon-free production of electricity, hydrogen and other alternative energy carriers. In addition to the annual Energy Technology Perspectives publication, several other IEA documents examine the potential of these “Avoid, Shift and Improve” options in more detail, including: Technology Roadmap: Fuel Economy of Road Vehicles (2012); Policy Pathways: Improving the Fuel Economy of Road Vehicles (2012); Global EV Outlook: Understanding the Electric Vehicle Landscape to 2020 (2013); A Tale of Renewed Cities: a policy guide on how to transform cities by improving energy efficiency in urban transport systems (2013); Nordic Energy Technology Perspectives: Pathways to a Carbon Neutral Energy Future (2013); GFEI: International comparison of light-duty vehicle fuel economy: An update using 2010 and 2011 new registration data (2013); Technology Roadmap: Biofuels for Transport (2011), and Global Land Transport Infrastructure Requirements to 2050 (2013). The IEA and International Railways Federation also produced a joint Railway Handbook on Energy Consumption and CO2 emissions (2012, 2013, 2014).
www.iea.org/etp
Biofuels The current global biofuel production is 115 billion litres and corresponds to 3.5% of world road transport fuel consumption. According to projections in the 2014 IEA Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report, total production will reach 140 billion litres in 2020, roughly 4% of road transport fuel demand at that time. While conventional biofuels account for almost all of this volume, advanced biofuels such as cellulosic-ethanol, are slowly entering the market and their production capacity could double from 2 billion litres in 2013 to 4 billion litres in 2020. In the long-term, these fuels will be crucial in providing sustainable, low-carbon fuel alternatives in all transport modes, including shipping and aviation. Key links: www.iea.org/roadmaps www.iea.org/topics/renewables/renewablesiea/medium-termmarketreportmtrmr/
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 37
2.4. Tourism Tourism is one of the most promising drivers of growth for the world economy and key to driving the defining trends of the transition to a green economy. Due to tourism’s crosscutting nature and close connections to numerous sectors at destination and international levels, even small improvements toward greater sustainability will have important impacts in the shift towards more sustainable, cleaner and low-carbon economic growth. Following on from the OECD/UNEP report on Climate Change and Tourism Policy in OECD Countries (2011), and the OECD report on Green Innovation in Tourism Services (2013), the recentlypublished OECD Tourism Trends and Policy Priorities 2014 highlights that sustainability and climate change remain high on the tourism policy agenda for many countries. Given the heavy reliance of tourism on air travel in particular, and the potential impacts associated with climate change, the report highlights the need for closer alignment between transport, tourism, and sustainable energy policies at national and international level. The OECD also plays an active role as a member of the Multi-Stakeholder Advisory Committee (MAC) for the 10YFP Sustainable Tourism Programme.
38 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Key link: www.oecd.org/cfe/tourism
Key publication OECD (2014), “Tourism trends and policy priorities”, in OECD, OECD Tourism Trends and Policies 2014, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.10.1787/ tour-2014-4-en.
2.5. Water Climate change is affecting all aspects of the water cycle. Water is one of the main ways through which the impacts of climate change will be felt. The OECD is working on policies that facilitate adaptation of water management to climate change. The OECD report Water and Climate Change Adaptation: Policies to Navigate Uncharted Waters (2013) provides guidance to policy makers on how they can prioritise actions and improve the efficiency, timeliness and equity of adaptation decisions. It sets out a risk-based approach to improve water security in a changing climate. It also documents key trends and highlights best practices from the OECD Survey of Policies on Water and Climate Change Adaptation (2013), which covers all 34 OECD countries and the European Commission. Finally, the report examines options to improve the flexibility of water governance, policy and financing approaches.
In addition, the OECD, in co-operation with the United Nations Economic Council for Europe (UNECE), is working with governments in Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia, to help them factor climate change and the need for adaptation in their water policies. The OECD’s contribution focuses on the use of economic and financial instruments to adapt water allocation and investment in water-related infrastructures. This work is undertaken under the framework of the European Water Initiative.
Key link: www.oecd.org/water www.oecd.org/env/resources/waterandclimatechange.htm www.oecd.org/env/outreach/partnershipeuwater-initiative-euwi.htm
Key publication OECD (2013), Water and Climate Change Adaptation: Policies to Navigate Uncharted Waters, OECD Studies on Water, Paris DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/97892642 00449-en. OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 39
3
Cross-cutting issues
3.1. Development co-operation
RIOMARKERS The OECD DAC and its members are actively committed to improving the quality, coverage, communication and use of the Rio markers, environment and development
Supporting the measurement, reporting and
finance statistics. An ambitious programme
verification of climate finance
Joint ENVIRONET-WP-STAT Task Team. This
of work is underway through the OECD DAC includes advancing collaboration between the OECD DAC, Multilateral Development
The OECD’s Development Assistance Committee (DAC) measures and monitors external development finance targeting environmental objectives, notably official development assistance (ODA) and other non-export credit Other Official Flows (OOF) (i.e. non-concessional loans). Through the use of the “Rio markers” and the Creditor Reporting System (CRS), every development finance activity is screened and identified as either targeting climate change mitigation and/or adaptation as a principal or significant objective. Data on mitigation-related ODA has been collected since 1998, on adaptation-related ODA since 2010 and partial reporting on OOF since 2012.
Banks and other international financial institutions to reconcile methodological approaches and identify multilateral climate finance flows within the DAC statistical framework. A key objective is to provide full coverage and reconciliation of bilateral and multilateral flows, while ensuring there is no double-counting.
Key link: www.oecd.org/dac/stats/rioconventions.htm
40 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
The effectiveness of climate finance: Partnership for Climate Finance and Development
There is increasing interest from the international climate community on the effectiveness of climate finance, which reflects a long-standing interest from the development co-operation community. During the 4th High Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness (2011) climate finance
Under this voluntary Partnership the OECD, UNDP and 28 other institutions and countries are working together. Recently UNDP, Korea, CSO Partnership for Development Effectiveness and OECD co-facilitated a Global Forum in Korea, on Using Country Systems to Manage Climate Change Finance (December 2013). The Forum underscored the value of international and regional co-operation to share experiences on improving policies and national systems to better access, manage and use climate finance to boost effectiveness. The Partnership held a focus session at the High-Level Meeting of the Global Partnership for Effective Development Co-operation (April 2014, Mexico City) and is providing support to regional dialogues on climate finance in Africa (August 2014), Asia-Pacific and Latin America and the Caribbean (November 2014). Key link: www.oecd.org/development/environment-development/climate-partnership.htm
was outlined as a priority for effective international development. The Partnership for Climate Finance and Development was created to apply lessons from development co-operation to the management of climate finance, focusing on the development of national capacities and country systems in order to effectively access, manage and use domestic and international climate finance in partner countries. OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 41
Green growth at the heart of development The OECD publication Putting Green Growth at the Heart of Development (2013), outlines a twin-track agenda for national and international action to help achieve green growth in developing countries and integrate climate and green growth considerations into development planning and policies. Drawing on extensive consultations with developing countries and international stakeholders, it aims to assist governments interested in pursuing green growth in their countries, or supporting it in others, by highlighting the benefits of green growth for developing countries and providers of development assistance; advancing a practical agenda for action to guide developing country policy makers to explore and pursue climate and green growth policies; emphasising the need to gear international co-operation efforts towards managing short-term trade-offs of going “green� and ensuring access to climate and green financing; and improving progress measurement towards green growth with more robust statistics. Key messages and ideas emerging from this report were explored in depth in: Making Growth Green and Inclusive: The Case of Cambodia (2013); Making Growth Green and Inclusive: The Case of Ethiopia (2013) and Towards Green Growth in Southeast Asia (2014).
42 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Key publication OECD (2013), Putting Green Growth at the Heart of Development, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1787/9789264181144-en.
Key link: www.oecd.org/dac/environment-development/ www.oecd.org/dac/environment-development/green-growth-development.htm
Innovation in energy technology and adaptation The OECD Innovation Strategy presented to Ministers in May 2010 focused on innovation for global challenges, including climate change, as part of its whole-of-government approach to innovation. This work is summarised in the synthesis report Towards Green Growth (OECD, 2011), a toolkit (Tools for delivering on green growth), and a report on indicators (Towards Green Growth: Measuring Progress – OECD Indicators, 2011). An on-going work programme undertaken in collaboration with the European Patent Office has involved the development of indicators of innovation with respect to climate change mitigation (e.g. renewable energy, transportation and buildings energy efficiency, and “clean” coal). This data is now publicly available on the OECD.Stat database. In particular, the data has been used to assess the effect of different policy measures on innovation in renewable energy and efficiency in electricity generation, energy storage and grid management, as well as the factors which drive international research collaboration in climate mitigation technologies (OECD Energy and Climate Policy and Innovation). Previous work such as Invention and Transfer of Environmental Technologies (OECD, 2011) focused on innovation in alternative-fuel vehicles.
Recently, new work has started on developing indicators of innovation with respect to climate change adaptation. An analysis of water-related adaptation technologies (e.g. desalination, water collection, residential and agricultural water efficiency technologies) shows that development of such innovations is highly concentrated amongst a few countries (e.g. USA, Germany, Japan, Australia, UK). Importantly, waterrelated innovation only occurs to a limited extent in countries with severe water stress. Indeed, about 70-80% of innovation worldwide happens in countries with low or moderate vulnerability to water scarcity (see the Figure below).
Invention of water-related adaptation technologies and existing water vulnerability (2000-10) 4
3
RTA
3.2. Clean innovation
2
1
0
LOW
MODERATE
HIGH
SEVERE
ACUTE
Water vulnerability High-value inventions
All (water-related) inventions
Source: OECD (2014), “Invention and International Diffusion of Water Conservation and Availability Technologies”. OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 43
This suggests that developing local capabilities and encouraging technology transfer to water-stressed countries will be a major challenge.
What have we learned from attempts to introduce
Another working paper examined innovation specifically in Africa and found that, despite the generally low volume of technology development activity in Africa, it is disproportionately directed toward climate mitigation (e.g. biofuels) and adaptation technologies (e.g. desalination, off-grid water supply, and remote energy service technologies). On-going work is seeking to provide guidance to policymakers on the timely identification of climate change mitigation technologies which could prove to have far-reaching environmental and economic implications.
Climate change policies constitute an important part of green growth policies. But the latter are broader in scope and also encompass other policies that favour transition to a resource-efficient economy; improve the management of the natural asset base; raise the environmental quality of life; and create economic opportunities associated with changes in consumption and production. The synthesis paper entitled What have we learned from attempts to introduce green-growth policies? (2013) analyses green-growth instruments, policy frameworks and indicators.
green-growth policies?
Key publication Key links: www.oecd.org/environment/innovation.htm www.oecd.org/sti/ipr-statistics
44 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
OECD (2013), “What Have We Learned from Attempts to Introduce Green-Growth Policies?�, OECD Green Growth Papers, No. 2013/02, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5k48 6rchlnxx-en.
Towards green growth? Tracking progress
Four years after the launch of its 2011 Green Growth Strategy, the OECD is taking stock of progress in green growth to help drive global implementation and streamline mainstreaming.
Green Growth and Sustainable Development Forum
The Towards Green Growth? Tracking Progress (forthcoming, 2015) report will draw together lessons from OECD analysis and country experience, to provide targeted policy advice on how to strengthen the implementation of green growth. It builds further momentum in relevant OECD Committees, and to highlight priority areas for future work.
The third Green Growth and Sustainable Development Forum (November 2014) focused on “addressing the social challenges of green growth” by examining the distributional consequences of implementing green growth strategies and their impact on employment, skills and income. Green growth’s combination of strong economies and a clean environment could increase the well-being of all citizens if the right policy mix is applied. The Forum discussed both the technical and political economy aspects of the issues to propose workable solutions that can be implemented across different levels of government. It also identified areas that need further research, analysis and collaboration to close knowledge gaps.
Key links: www.oecd.org/greengrowth/ggsd-forum.htm www.oecd.org/greengrowth/ggsd-2014.htm OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 45
Biotechnology Current OECD projects focus on: the use of industrial and environmental biotechnology, and its effects on climate change; innovation; assessing socio-economic impacts; and availability of human resources for the globalising bioeconomy. As national bioeconomy strategies have burgeoned, industrial biotechnology, synthetic and biorefining are clearly being cast in a role in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction and climate change mitigation. Future scenarios from Integrated Assessment and energy modelling studies have shown that meeting ambitious mitigation targets with respect to global GHG emissions requires substantial amounts of bioenergy as part of the future energy mix. Policies focused on bioenergy are currently creating a competition for biomass that bio-based materials production (chemicals, plastics, textiles) cannot win, even though studies show that the materials have higher value added, greater job creation opportunities, and many opportunities for countries to use bio-based production to meet their climate change targets.
Key links: Industrial Biotechnology and Climate Change
Space technologies
A 2009 OECD Space Forum report entitled Space Technologies and Climate Change: Implications for Water Management, Marine Resources and Maritime Transport provides lessons learned on scientific, technical and economic outputs derived from using space applications in monitoring and managing climate change. Examples focus on water management, marine resources and maritime transport. The report also provides a review of methodologies when considering investments in Earth observation. Further work is underway concerning the role of space applications in the management of global food supplies (e.g. crop monitoring from space).
www.oecd.org/sti/biotech/ Key link: http://oe.cd/spaceforum 46 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Information and communication technologies OECD governments recognise that “smart” information and communication technologies (ICTs) applications are a cornerstone of green growth agendas for electricity management, transport and the buildings sector. Further environmental benefits of ICT applications are evident in water management, biodiversity protection and pollution reduction. At the same time, direct and systemic impacts related to the production, use and end-of-life of ICTs require comprehensive action.
The OECD Committee for Information, Computer and Communications Policy (ICCP) explores the role of ICTs and the Internet in addressing environmental challenges. It has published various reports on “Green ICT” government policies and business initiatives, on statistics and data availability, and about the use of ICTs in specific application areas, e.g. “smart” electricity grids. Key links: www.oecd.org/sti/ict/green-ict www.oecd.org/ict/TechnologyForesightForum
Electricity lost during transmission and distribution Share of gross domestic electricity production, OECD and selected non-members, 2008 25% 20% 15% 10%
Non-OECD OECD (34 members) World
Mexico Turkey Estonia Hungary Portugal Chile Poland Greece Canada New Zealand Ireland Sweden United Kingdom Norway Denmark Australia Italy Switzerland France United States Czech Republic Austria Belgium Slovenia Spain Japan Germany Netherlands Finland Iceland Korea Slovak Republic Luxembourg Israel
India Brazil Egypt Russian Federation Indonesia South Africa China
5%
Source: OECD (2011), Fostering Innovation for Green Growth. OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 47
0%
3.3. Taxation and other market-based instruments Effective carbon prices
Comparisons of effective carbon prices that different economic sectors face within and across countries are of great economic and political interest. Effective carbon prices arise either explicitly via carbon taxes or emission trading systems, or implicitly, via the abatement incentives embedded in other policies that influence greenhouse gas emissions. Effective Carbon Prices (2013) synthesises a number of case studies in selected countries and sectors and finds clear differences in effective carbon prices: within a given sector, across the countries covered; across the different sectors; within each country; and across the different instrument types, across all the countries covered.
Key link: www.oecd.org/env/tools-evaluation/carbon-prices.htm
Key publication OECD (2013), Effective Carbon Prices, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1787/97892641 96964-en.
Taxing Energy Use
Taxing Energy Use: A Graphical Analysis (2013) provides the first systematic comparative analysis of the structure and level of energy taxes across the full spectrum of energy use in OECD countries. It is a data-rich tool that contributes to a better understanding of the price signals conveyed by current tax systems to consumers of energy. This analysis highlights substantial and sometimes difficult to rationalise differences, both across and within countries, in the tax treatment of different forms, uses and users of energy. Key link: www.oecd.org/tax/tax-policy/taxingenergyuse.htm
48 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Effective tax rates on all CO2 emissions from energy use in OECD countries
Effective tax rates on energy use in different sectors (OECD simple average)
Transport
Heating & Process
Electricity
All fuels
Energy (EUR/GJ)
11.5
0.9
0.9
3.3
Carbon
161
12
13
52
emissions
(EUR/tonne CO2 Source: OECD (2013), Taxing Energy Use: A Graphical Analysis. OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 49
Support for fossil fuels The OECD has compiled an inventory of over 500 measures that support fossil-fuel production or use in all 34 OECD countries. Those measures had an overall value of about USD 45-75 billion a year between 2005 and 2011. A significant portion of the support provided in OECD countries is through tax expenditures such as tax credits, exemptions or reduced tax rates. These provisions provide a preference for fossil fuels compared with the “normal� tax rules in the particular country. However, since reference tax systems, rules and rates vary so much among countries, this type of support is not readily comparable internationally. The OECD Inventory marks a significant step towards greater transparency and accountability with respect to the policies that relate to the production or use of fossil fuels. While it does not evaluate the merits of individual policies, it is expected that the inventory will facilitate analysis and understanding of which of these mechanisms may be inefficient or wasteful, and for identifying options for reform. An update of the Inventory, covering Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, the Russian Federation, and South Africa as well, is expected to be published in the first half of 2015.
Key link: www.oecd.org/iea-oecd-ffss
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Database on environmental policy instruments The OECD database on environmental policy instruments includes a wide range of information about taxes and other policies used in OECD and partner countries to address challenges including climate change. The database contains upto-date information about revenues, tax rates, tax-bases and exemptions.
The findings indicate that the case for increasing diesel taxes relative to those of gasoline is very strong, and that company car use is largely subsidised; in some cases driving is actually free at the margin. The environmental and mobility costs of these subsidies outstrip the tax costs. Key link: www.oecd.org/tax/tax-policy-working-papers.htm
Key link: www.oecd.org/env/policies/database
Taxation of company cars and the diesel differential Two recent working papers by the same author (Harding 2014) investigate the differences between taxes on gasoline and diesel for road transport, and consider the income tax treatment of the benefits that users derive from company cars.
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 51
3.4. Cities and multilevel governance
In 2014, the OECD produced a Policy Perspectives piece, Cities and climate change: National government enabling local action. It explores how enabling policy frameworks at the national level can support critical urban action to combat climate change. The OECD is actively working with governments to highlight the role of cities in delivering cost-effective policy responses to climate change. Cities are central to the climate policy challenge, as their economies account for the majority of
Key publication OECD (2013),Green Growth in Cities, OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD Publishing. DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789 264195325-en.
52 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
global GHG emissions and are also highly vulnerable to climate change and other environmental threats. Urban policies can help respond to climate change, with the potential to stimulate innovation, and advance clean energy systems, sustainable transportation, spatial development and waste management strategies to reduce greenhouse gases. With access to up-to-date climate science, as well as impact and vulnerability assessment, local authorities can also work with local stakeholders to design and implement effective local adaptation strategies. “Climate-conscious� urban planning and management can help achieve national climate goals and minimise trade-offs between environmental and economic priorities at local level. As part of the work on costs of policy inaction, a series of working papers assesses the economic impacts of, and vulnerability to, climate change at a local scale. For example, past papers have developed in-depth case studies on port cities, e.g. Mumbai (2010), estimating the economic benefits of both global mitigation and adaptation at local scales. In 2012-13, the OECD produced case studies of green growth policies in Stockholm, Chicago, Paris and Kitakyushu, as well as a national-level case study of China. The resulting synthesis report, Green Growth in Cities (2013), considers the impact of green growth initiatives on environmental targets and urban economics. The OECD is currently producing further case studies, leading to a second synthesis report, on urban green
growth in Asia. This will extend the analysis to a group of fastgrowing cities characterised by a number of specific challenges, including: greater vulnerability to climate change, faster urbanisation and motorisation, economies with a greater role for manufacturing than is typical of most OECD cities; lower levels of socioeconomic development; and greater capacity challenges at local level. The report will explore, inter alia, the ways in which – and the extent to which – these challenges can also represent opportunities for green growth policies.
Key links: www.oecd.org/governance/regional-policy/urbandevelopment.htm www.oecd.org/regional/greening-cities-regions/
Did you know...? that the urban form matters? The lower the urban density, the more energy is consumed for electricity and transportation. CO2 emissions per capita drop significantly as urban areas become more densely populated. OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 53
3.5. Trade and the environment The OECD has published several recent studies relevant to climate change. A key area of work relates to trade in environmental goods and services, including a series of papers on possible trade implications of domestic incentive measures for environmental goods, themselves important for climatechange mitigation. One study (Bahar et al. 2013) examined policies relating to renewable energy, focussing on government support in general and local-content requirements (LCRs) in particular. It argues that protection of domestic manufacturers of renewable-energy technologies and biofuels, and domestic preferences such as those encapsulated in LCRs, work against the common interests of accelerating the deployment of renewable energy. Another recent study (Sauvage, 2014) examined the correlation between the relative stringency of countries’ environmental policy and the revealed comparative advantage of environmental goods in those countries. The analysis suggests that stringent environmental regulation can lead to increased exports of environmental goods, in addition to larger domestic markets for those goods.
54 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
An additional study (Burniaux et al., 2011) analysed the trade effects of reforming fossil-fuel consumption subsidies. The analysis shows that a co-ordinated multilateral removal of fossil-fuel consumption subsidies over the 2013-20 period would increase global trade volumes by a very small amount (0.1%) by 2020, while leading to GHG emissions reductions (as highlighted in previous OECD work). Trade in natural gas would be most affected, with a 6% decrease by 2020. A reduction in the volume of both imports and exports from oil-exporting countries would be partly compensated by an expansion of trade flows (both imports and exports) involving OECD countries.
Other relevant work (MoisĂŠ and Steenblik 2011) has looked at measures relating to “non-product-related processes and production methodsâ€? adopted in the context of climatechange-mitigation policies. Examples include policy measures linked to the life-cycle GHG emissions of products, such as product carbon-footprint labelling and sustainability standards for biofuels. Whilst the key purpose of these measures is to promote better environmental outcomes, concerns have been raised that they may act as impediments to international trade. Despite their similar objectives, the measures reviewed differ considerably in their approaches, choices of instrument and scope. However, because these measures are fairly new, any potential trade impacts are at the moment hard to discern.
New work on trade and climate change will examine areas such as the potential implications for trade due to the physical impacts of climate change, and where potential synergies lie between trade policy, including regional trade agreements, and international climate-change policy.
Key link: www.oecd.org/trade/oecdtradeandenvironmentworkingpapers.htm
Turning to the generation of electricity from renewable sources, a recent paper (Bahar and Sauvage 2013) looked at crossborder trade in electricity. This study focused on the European electricity market to examine how cross-border electricity trading can facilitate increased penetration of intermittent renewable energy sources by giving access to a more diversified portfolio of plants over a wider geographic area. The paper also noted that: some of the incentives provided to renewable-energy generators are discouraging them from fully participating in electricity market operations; and the policies in some cases are exerting downward pressure on wholesale electricity prices, which discourages investment in nonintermittent generation. Reform of these measures could help increase the potential for trade in electricity to facilitate growth in renewable energy. OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 55
3.6. Empowering consumers and greening household behaviour Well-informed, empowered consumers can be a powerful ally in addressing climate change issues. They can contribute to reducing carbon emissions through more efficient energy use, a shift to technologies that are environmentally friendly and make greener consumption choices. The project on Environmental Policy and Individual Choice (EPIC) looks at the demand side of environmental policy. This report offers insights into what policy measures really work, looking at what factors affect people’s behaviour towards the environment in five areas including energy use and personal transport choice.
Key links: www.oecd.org/env/consumption-innovation/households.htm www.oecd.org/sti/consumer-policy
56 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
An overview from the second survey data is presented in the publication Greening Household Behaviour: Overview from the 2011 Survey (2014). It is based on the analysis of responses from over 11 000 households in eleven countries. The results of follow-up econometric analysis and main policy implications will be available by the end of 2014. Each round of the survey allows for the analysis of trends and emerging issues, as well as for the refinement of policy lessons. Respondents were asked about the seriousness of specific environmental issues facing the world. Climate change emerged as one of the top three environmental concerns in most surveyed countries.
Key publication OECD (2014),Greening Household Behaviour: Overview from the 2011 Survey - Revised edition, OECD Studies on Environmental Policy and Household Behaviour, OECD Publishing. DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/ 9789264214651-en.
Top three environmental concerns of responding households
Note: Respondents were asked to rate the importance of six different global environmental issues, each on a 10 -point scale: waste generation, biodiversity loss, air pollution, climate change, water pollution, natural resource depletion, and endangered species. This figure shows the top three issues that were most frequently rated the highest out of the six considered. Source: OECD (2013), Greening Household Behaviour: Overview from the 2011 Survey, Revised Edition.
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 57
3.7. Employment and local development
The project on Measuring the Potential of Green Growth: towards a local transition to a low-carbon economy proposes a framework of local indicators of green growth to assist local authorities to prioritise actions for their transition to a lowcarbon economy. A report including the key findings of reviews in Denmark, Germany, Chile, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, and policy recommendations on how to measure the transition to a greener economy was published in 2013. It builds on previous work related to Improving the Effectiveness of Green Local Development with case studies from Australia, Brazil, China, Mongolia, Spain and the United Kingdom. The ongoing Local Economic and Employment Development (LEED) project on Skills for greener jobs in a local labour market context further analyses the impact of the transition to a green economy on local labour markets (change of job profiles, skills needs and gaps). It also explores the role of education, research
Did you know...? that in Denmark green turnover and green technology exports largely outperform other economic sectors such as manufacturing and high-growth sectors such as welfare technology?
and labour institutions, as well as the private sector, in fostering knowledge and sharing activities to accelerate the transition. Case studies from Belgium and Poland are under preparation building on previous studies in Denmark, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. The report on Greener Skills and Jobs (2014) discusses the need to integrate green skill strategies in order to succeed in the transition to a low-carbon economy.
Key publication Martinez-Fernandez, C., et al. (2013), “Improving the Effectiveness of Green Local Development: The Role and Impact of Public Sector-Led Initiatives in Renewable Energy�, OECD Green Growth Papers, No. 2013/09, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Key links: www.oecd.org/cfe/leed/greeningjobsandskills.htm www.oecd.org/cfe/leed/lowcarbon.htm www.oecd.org/cfe/leed/greendevelopment.htm
58 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
3.8. SMEs and entrepreneurship The OECD contributes to the implementation and assessment of green growth policies by investigating the implications and opportunities from the low-carbon transition for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and entrepreneurs. At the OECD ‘Bologna+10’ High-level Meeting on Lessons from the Global Crisis and the way forward to job creation and Growth (2010), policy makers and stakeholders voiced the need for a better understanding in this area. In response, the OECD undertook a study to: identify the main obstacles SMEs face in adapting to the requirements of a greener economy and in seizing the opportunities the low-carbon transition offer; explore the new entrepreneurial areas opened up by green investment and eco-innovation; and the challenges for the development of green entrepreneurship; investigate the policies that are being developed, at national and local level, to support SME transition to sustainable practices, in both manufacturing and services, and to foster SME eco-innovation; and analyse indicators of green growth for SMEs that allow for measuring the transition and are useful to policy making. An OECD publication on SMEs, eco-innovation and green entrepreneurship will be released in 2015. Key link: www.oecd.org/cfe/sme
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 59
4
Fora for climate change discussion
4.1. Climate Change Expert Group on the UNFCCC The OECD and the IEA jointly provide the secretariat for the Climate Change Expert Group (CCXG). Established in 1993, the CCXG meets twice a year to discuss analytical reports on topical issues in the climate change negotiations and provides a forum for its members (OECD and/or Annex I countries) as well as experts from a wide range of countries, organisations, business, and industry to share experiences with climate change policies and exchange views on how to address the climate change challenge. Recent analytical work is highlighted in Section 1. Key link: www.oecd.org/env/cc/ccxg.htm
4.2. DAC Network on Environment and Development Co-operation The Network on Environment and Development Co-operation (ENVIRONET) of the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) promotes and facilitates the integration of environment and climate change into all aspects of development cooperation. ENVIRONET is a network of development cooperation practitioners committed to working together to promote good practice in the fields of environment and development. The Network brings together representatives of development co-operation agencies from DAC member countries and from multilateral agencies including the World Bank and the United Nations Development Programme. Representatives from civil society and developing countries also participate as observers and help to support the Network’s objectives. ENVIRONET meets once or twice a year. Drawing on the knowledge, experience and practice of its members and participants, the Network supports developing countries’ policies and efforts to promote environmentally-sustainable, resource-efficient livelihoods, and economies that are resilient to climate change. The Network has recently addressed issues such as green growth, biodiversity and climate change, including discussing issues related to the tracking of climate change finance. Key link:
60 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
www.oecd.org/environment/environment-development/
4.3. Round Table on Sustainable Development The OECD regularly hosts a Round Table on Sustainable Development that brings together Ministers and other highlevel stakeholders from OECD and non-OECD countries for informal discussion on various topics related to sustainable development and climate policy. Meeting topics have included: mobilising investments in low-emission technologies; the role of public finance in climate change mitigation; competitiveness, leakage, and border tax adjustment; livestock and climate policy; emissions in aviation; barriers to renewables being deployed towards the decarbonisation of the electricity sector (see Renewables); and the evolution of corporate reporting for integrated performance.
negotiating process. It draws on the full policy capability of the OECD and the IEA, and provides an invaluable opportunity for ‘back channel’ dialogue. In 2014-2015, the Round Table works in partnership with the World Business Council on Sustainable Development and the European Climate Foundation.
Key link: www.oecd.org/sd-roundtable
In 2015, the Round Table envisions to work on primarily on issues related to climate policy; e.g. climate policy, competitiveness and new approaches to international co-ordination. Other possible topics include a forum for parliamentarians on the practical experience of carbon pricing and the role of demand-side in energy and climate policy. The Round Table is a unique forum that enables Ministers, senior private sector executives and experts from the intergovernmental and NGO communities to conduct a detailed examination of complex issues to one side of the crowded OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 61
4.4. Round Table of Mayors and Ministers The OECD Roundtable of Mayors and Ministers is a unique forum for dialogue among national representatives and leaders of major cities. The city of Marseille hosted the fifth Roundtable in December 2013. It focused on mechanisms for achieving greater policy coherence across national-level policies and between national governments and cities in a number of key sectors. The fifth Round Table brought together 18 mayors and 17 ministers, as well as representatives of a number of international organisations, who endorsed a statement on urban policy that was presented to a ministerial-level meeting of the OECD’s Territorial Development Policy Committee the following day. The next Roundtable is planned for 15-16 October 2015 in Mexico City, with a focus on policies for urban resilience. Key links: www.oecd.org/governance/regional-policy/urbandevelopment.htm www.oecd.org/regional/greening-cities-regions/ www.oecd.org/urban/roundtable/
62 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
4.5. International Futures Programme In the OECD Directorate for Science, Technology and innovation, the International Futures Programme (IFP) works in two specific sectoral areas with climate change dimensions – the space sector; and the future of the oceans. First, in collaboration with ten space agencies in OECD member economies within the OECD Space Forum, work is underway on the use of space-based tools (e.g. earth observation and navigation) in monitoring and managing climate change and its long-term impacts. This involves also the new role of space applications for food security especially as extreme weather impacts many regions of the world (e.g. crop monitoring using satellite technologies, such as GPS and imagery). A forthcoming publication The Space Economy at a Glance features a selection of case studies (2014). Second, a two year prospective project was launched to take stock of the longer-term opportunities and challenges facing the oceans. The work on The Future of the Ocean Economy, planned to run up to early 2016, is designed to gain a better understanding of the future development of ocean-based
industries in terms of their potential to generate growth, employment and innovation, as well as their potential contribution to addressing some of the grand challenges the planet faces in the years ahead, particularly climate change.
Key links: www.oecd.org/sti/futures/ http://oe.cd/spaceforum
Key publication OECD (2014), The Space Economy at a Glance 2014, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/ 9789264217294-en.
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 63
5
Recent and forthcoming publications on climate change Note: select publications listed by year. For a full list of publications, please visit: www.oecd.org/env/cc Briner, G., T. Kato, S. Konrad and C. Hood (2014), “Taking Stock of the UNFCCC Process and its Inter-linkages”, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert Group paper, www.oecd.org/env/cc/ccxg.htm.
2016 OECD (2016, forthcoming), The Future of the Ocean Economy, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Briner (OECD), Kato (OECD) and Hattori (IEA) (2014) “Built to Last: Designing a Flexible and Durable 2015 Climate Change Agreement”, Climate Change Expert Group Paper, No. 2014(3), OECD Publishing, http://www.oecd.org/ env/cc/Built%20to%20Last_CCXGsentout_May2014_REV.pdf.
2015 IEA/NEA (forthcoming 2015), Nuclear Technology Roadmap, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Cárdenas Rodríguez, M., et al. (2014), “Inducing Private Finance for Renewable Energy Projects: Evidence from Micro-Data”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 67, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5jxvg0k6thr1-en.
OECD (2015, forthcoming), Green Investment Policy Framework in practice: Assessing experience with Green Infrastructure Investment, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Caruso, R. and R. Jachnik (2014), “Exploring potential data sources for estimating private finance”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 69, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jz15qwz4hs1-en.
OECD (2015, forthcoming), Economics of Adaptation, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Cochran, I. et al. (2014), “Public Financial Institutions and the Low-Carbon Transition: Five Case Studies on Low-Carbon Infrastructure and Project Investment”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 72, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jxt3rhpgn9t-en.
OECD (2015, forthcoming), SMEs, eco-innovation and green entrepreneurship, OECD Publishing, Paris. OECD (2015, forthcoming), Towards Green Growth? Tracking Progress, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Dellink, R., et al. (2014), “Consequences of Climate Change Damages for Economic Growth: A Dynamic Quantitative Assessment”, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 1135, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5jz2bxb8kmf3-en.
2014 Briner, G. and S. Konrad (2014), “Planting the Foundations of a Post-2020 Land Sector Reporting and Accounting Framework”, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert Group paper, www.oecd.org/env/cc/ccxg.htm.
Dinshaw, A. et al. (2014, forthcoming), “Monitoring and Evaluation of Climate Change Adaptation: Methodological Approaches, OECD Environment Working Paper, OECD Publishing, Paris.
64 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Gaveau, V. and S. Ockenden. (2014, forthcoming), “A Stock-take of OECD DAC Members’ Reporting Practices on Environment-Related Official Development Finance and Reporting to the Rio Conventions”, OECD Development Co-operation Technical Paper, OECD Publishing, Paris. Harding, M. (2014), “The Diesel Differential: Differences in the Tax Treatment of Gasoline and Diesel for Road Use”, OECD Taxation Working Papers, No. 21, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jz14cd7hk6b-en. Harding, M. (2014), “The Diesel Differential: Differences in the Tax Treatment of Gasoline and Diesel for Road Use”, OECD Taxation Working Papers, No. 21, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jz14cd7hk6b-en. Haščič I., M. Cárdenas Rodríguez, R. Jachnik, J. Silva and N. Johnstone (2014, forthcoming), “Public interventions and private finance flows: empirical evidence from renewable energy financing”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 74, OECD Publishing, Paris. Hood, C. and G. Briner (2014), “Energy Sector Transformation: Issues and Options for the UNFCCC Negotiations”, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert Group paper, OECD Publishing, Paris, www.oecd.org/env/cc/ccxg.htm. Christina Hood (IEA), Gregory Briner (OECD) and Marcelo Rocha (Fábrica Éthica Brasil) (2014), “GHG or not GHG: Accounting for Diverse Mitigation Contributions in the Post-2020 Climate Framework”, OECD Climate Change Expert Group paper, No. 2014(2), OECD Publishing, Paris, www.oecd.org/env/ cc/ccxg.htm. IEA (2014), CCS 2014: What lies in store for CCS?, OECD, Paris, http://www.iea. org/publications/insights/insightpublications/ccs-2014---what-lies-in-storefor-ccs.html. IEA (2014), Emissions Reduction through Upgrade of Coal-Fired Power Plants, OECD Publishing, Paris; http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/ publication/partner-country-series---emissions-reduction-throughupgrade-of-coal-fired-power-plants.html. IEA (2014), Regional Energy Efficiency Policy Recommendations: Arab-Southern and Eastern Mediterranean (SEMED) Region, OECD, Paris, http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/ RegionalEnergyEfficiencyPolicyRecommendations.pdf.
IEA (2014), Tracking Clean Energy Progress, OECD Publishing, Paris, http:// www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Tracking_clean_ energy_progress_2014.pdf. IEA (2014), World Energy Investment Outlook, OECD Publishing, Paris, http:// www.worldenergyoutlook.org/investment/. IEA (2014), Energy Technology Perspectives 2014, IEA, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/energy_tech-2014-en. IEA (2014), More Data, Less Energy, IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/etp/ publications/moredatalessenergy/. IEA (2014), Solar Photovoltaic Energy, IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/ publications/freepublications/publication/technology-roadmap-solarphotovoltaic-energy---2014-edition.html. IEA (2014), Solar Thermal Electricity, IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/ publications/freepublications/publication/technology-roadmap-solarthermal-electricity---2014-edition.html. IEA (2014), The Power of Transformation – Wind, Sun and the Economcis of Flexible Power Systems, IEA, Paris. IEA (2014), Energy Efficient Building Envelopes, IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/ publications/freepublications/publication/technology-roadmap-energyefficient-building-envelopes.html. IEA (2014), Energy Storage, IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/publications/ freepublications/publication/technology-roadmap-energy-storage-.html. IEA (2014), Heating Without Global Warming, IEA, Paris, http://www.iea. org/publications/freepublications/publication/heating-without-globalwarming.html. IEA (2014), A Guide to Development and Implementation, IEA, Paris, http:// www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/technologyroadmap--a-guide-to-development-and-implementation-.html. OECD (2014), Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2014, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/renewmar-2014-en.
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 65
Kaminker, C et al. (2014, forthcoming), Mapping Channels to Mobilise Institutional Investment in Sustainable Energy, OECD Publishing, Paris. Kato et al. (2014), “Scaling up and Replicating Effective Climate Finance”, Climate Change Expert Group Paper, No. 2014(1), OECD Publishing, Paris, http://www.oecd.org/env/cc/Scaling_up_CCXGsentout_May2014_REV.pdf. Kato, T., J. Ellis and C. Clapp (2014), “The Role of the 2015 Agreement in Mobilising Climate Finance”, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert Group paper, www.oecd.org/env/cc/ccxg.htm. Lamhauge, N. (2014, forthcoming), “National Monitoring and Evaluation of Climate Change Adaptation: Lessons from Developed and Developing Countries”, OECD Environment Working Paper, OECD Publishing, Paris. OECD (2014, forthcoming), Policy Guidance for Investment in Clean Energy Infrastructure, OECD Publishing, Paris. OECD (2014), The Space Economy at a Glance 2014, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264217294-en. OECD (2014, forthcoming), Invention and International Diffusion of Water Conservation and Availability Technologies, OECD Publishing, Paris. OECD (2014, forthcoming), Greening Household Behaviour: Main Results from the 2011 Survey and Policy Implications, OECD Publishing, Paris. OECD (2014, forthcoming), Modelling Adaptation to Climate Change in Agriculture, OECD Publishing, Paris. OECD (2014, forthcoming), Green Growth in Fisheries and Aquaculture, OECD Publishing, Paris.
OECD (2014), Climate Resilience in Development Planning: Experiences in Colombia and Ethiopia, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264209503-en. OECD (2014), Energy, Climate Change and Environment: 2014 Insights, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264220744-en. OECD (2014), Energy Efficiency Market Report 2014, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264218260-en. OECD (2014), Energy Efficiency Indicators: Fundamentals on Statistics, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264215672-en. OECD (2014), Energy Efficiency Indicators: Essentials for Policy Making, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264215665-en. OECD (2014), Green Growth Indicators for Agriculture: A Preliminary Assessment, OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264223202-en. OCDE (2014), Greening Household Behaviour : Overview from the 2011 Survey - Revised edition, OECD Studies on Environmental Policy and Household Behaviour, Éditions OCDE, DOI : http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264214651-en. OECD/IAEA (2014), Uranium 2014: Resources, Production and Demand, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/uranium-2014-en. OECD (2014), Managing Environmental and Health Impacts of Uranium Mining, Nuclear Development, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264216044-en.
OECD/Cedefop (2014), Greener Skills and Jobs, OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264208704-en.
OECD (2014), Climate Change, Water and Agriculture: Towards Resilient Systems, OECD Studies on Water, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264209138-en.
OECD (2014), Capturing the Multiple Benefits of Energy Efficiency: A Guide to Quantifying the Value Added, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264220720-en.
OECD (2014), “Tourism trends and policy priorities”, in OECD, OECD Tourism Trends and Policies 2014, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/tour-2014-4-en.
66 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
OECD (2014), Towards Green Growth in Southeast Asia, OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264224100-en.
Bass, S., et al. (2013), “Making Growth Green and Inclusive: The Case of Ethiopia”, OECD Green Growth Papers, No. 2013/07, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k46dbzhrkhl-en.
OECD (2014), Cities and climate change: National government enabling local action, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://www.oecd.org/env/cc/Cities-andclimate-change-2014-Policy-Perspectives-Final-web.pdf.
Benatia, D., N. Johnstone and I. Haščič (2013), “Effectiveness of Policies and Strategies to Increase the Capacity Utilisation of Intermittent Renewable Power Plants”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 57, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k46j0trlrnn-en.
Sauvage J. (2014), “The Stringency of Environmental Regulations and Trade in Environmental Goods”, OECD Trade and Environment Working Paper, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://www.oecd.org/trade/ oecdtradeandenvironmentworkingpapers.htm. UIC/IEA (2014), Railway Handbook on Energy Consumption and CO2 emissions, http://www.uic.org/spip.php?article3193. 2013 Ang, G. and V. Marchal (2013), “Mobilising Private Investment in Sustainable Transport: The Case of Land-Based Passenger Transport Infrastructure”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 56, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k46hjm8jpmv-en. Bahar, H. and J. Sauvage (2013), “Cross-Border Trade in Electricity and the Development of Renewables-Based Electric Power”, OECD Trade and Environment Working Papers, No. 2013/02, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k4869cdwnzr-en. Bahar, H., J. Egeland and R. Steenblik (2013), “Domestic Incentive Measures for Renewable Energy With Possible Trade Implications”, OECD Trade and Environment Working Papers, No. 2013/01, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k44srlksr6f-en. Bahar, H. and J. Sauvage (2013), “Cross-Border Trade in Electricity and the Development of Renewables-Based Electric Power: Lessons from Europe”, OECD Trade and Environment Working Papers, No. 2013/02, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k4869cdwnzr-en.
Briner, G. and A. Prag (2013), “Establishing and Understanding Post2020 Climate Change Mitigation Commitments”, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert Group Papers, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5jzb44qw9df7-en. Caruso, R. and J. Ellis (2013), “Comparing Definitions and Methods to Estimate Mobilised Climate Finance”, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert Group Papers, No. 2013/02, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5k44wj0s6fq2-en. Convery, F. J., L. Dunne and D. Joyce (2013), “Ireland’s Carbon Tax and the Fiscal Crisis: Issues in Fiscal Adjustment, Environmental Effectiveness, Competitiveness, Leakage and Equity Implications”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 59, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5k3z11j3w0bw-en. Ellis, J., R. Caruso and S. Ockenden (2013), “Exploring Climate Finance Effectiveness”, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert Group Papers, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jzb44nmnbd2-en. GGGI, OECD, UNEP, World Bank (2013), “Moving towards a Common Approach on Green Growth Indicators”, Green Growth Knowledge Platform Scoping Paper, GGKP, http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/Portals/88/ documents/partnerships/GGKP%20Moving%20towards%20a%20 Common%20Approach%20on%20Green%20Growth%20Indicators.pdf. Harrison, K. (2013), “The Political Economy of British Columbia’s Carbon Tax”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 63, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k3z04gkkhkg-en.
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IEA (2013), Global EV Outlook: Understanding the Electric Vehicle Landscape to 2020, http://www.iea.org/publications/globalevoutlook_2013.pdf.
IEA (2013), Transition to Sustainable Buildings: Strategies and Opportunities to 2050, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264202955-en.
IEA (2013), A Tale of Renewed Cities: a policy guide on how to transform cities by improving energy efficiency in urban transport systems, http://www.iea.org/ publications/freepublications/publication/renewed_cities_web.pdf.
IEA (2013), Managing Interactions Between Carbon Pricing and Existing Energy Policies, OECD, Paris, http://www.iea.org/publications/insights/ insightpublications/managing-interactions-between-carbon-pricing-andexisting-energy-policies.html.
IEA (2013), Nordic Energy Technology Perspectives: Pathways to a Carbon Neutral Energy Future, http://www.iea.org/etp/nordic/. IEA (2013), GFEI: International comparison of light-duty vehicle fuel economy: An update using 2010 and 2011 new registration data, http://www.iea.org/ media/files/globalfueleconomyinitiativeplanofaction20122015.pdf. IEA (2013), “Redrawing the Energy-Climate Map”, World Energy Outlook Special Report Series, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/weo2013-en. IEA (2013), Electricity in a Climate-Constrained World – Data and Analyses, OECD and IEA, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264175556-en. IEA (2013), Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2013 - Market trends and projections to 2018, OECD and IEA, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264191198-en. IEA (2013), Technology Roadmap: Wind Energy - 2013 edition, OECD and IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/ Wind_2013_Roadmap.pdf. IEA and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2013), Modernising Building Energy Codes, Policy Pathways, IEA and UNDP, http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/ PolicyPathwaysModernisingBuildingEnergyCodes.pdf. IEA (2013), Low-Carbon Technology for the Indian Cement Industry, IEA Technology Roadmaps, OECD, Paris, http://www.iea.org/publications/ freepublications/publication/2012_cement_in_india_roadmap.pdf. IEA (2013), Energy Efficiency: Market Trends and Medium-Term Prospects, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264206052-en.
68 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
IEA (2013), World Energy Outlook 2013, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1787/weo-2013-en. IEA, ICCA, and DECHEMA (2013), Technology Roadmap: Energy and GHG Reductions in the Chemical Industry via Catalytic Processes, IEA, Paris, http:// www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Chemical_ Roadmap_2013_Final_WEB.pdf. Kaminker, C. et al. (2013), “Institutional Investors and Green Infrastructure Investments: Selected Case Studies”, OECD Working Papers on Finance, Insurance and Private Pensions, No. 35, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5k3xr8k6jb0n-en. Lanzi, E., D. Mullaly, J. Chateau, and R. Delink (2013), “Addressing Competitiveness and Carbon Leakage Impacts Arising from Multiple Carbon Markets: A Modelling Assessment”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 58, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k40ggjj7z8v-en. Martinez-Fernandez, C., et al. (2013), “Improving the Effectiveness of Green Local Development: The Role and Impact of Public Sector-Led Initiatives in Renewable Energy”, OECD Green Growth Papers, No. 2013/09, OECD Publishing. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k3w6ljtrj0q-en. Mirabile, M., J. Benn and C. Sangaré (2013), “Guarantees for Development”, OECD Development Co-operation Working Papers, No. 11, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k407lx5b8f8-en. Mohammed, E. Y., S. Wang and G. Kawaguchi (2013), “Making Growth Green and Inclusive: The Case of Cambodia”, OECD Green Growth Papers, No. 2013/08, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5k420651szzr-en.
Mullan, M. et al., (2013), “National Adaptation Planning: Lessons from OECD Countries”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No.18, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg20mj6c2bw-en.
OECD (2013), “What have we learned from attempts to introduce greengrowth policies?”, OECD Green Growth Papers, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5k486rchlnxx-en.
OECD (2013), OECD DAC Statistics on Climate-related Aid, OECD Publishing, Paris.
OECD (2013), Water and Climate Change Adaptation: Policies to Navigate Uncharted Waters, OECD Studies on Water, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264200449-en.
OECD (2013), OECD ENVIRONET and WP-STAT Workshop on Rio Markers, Climate and Development Finance, OECD Publishing, Paris. OECD (2013), Policy Guidance for Investment in Clean Energy Infrastructure, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264212664-en. OECD (2013), Effective Carbon Prices, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264196964-en. OECD (2013), Green Growth in Cities, OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264195325-en.
OECD (2013), “Costa Rica’s policy framework for investment”, OECD Investment Policy Reviews: Costa Rica 2013, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264203952-en. OECD (2013), OECD Investment Policy Reviews: Jordan 2013, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264202276-en. OECD (2013), OECD Investment Policy Reviews: Malaysia 2013, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264194588-en.
OECD (2013), “Greener Skills and Jobs for a Low-Carbon Future”, OECD Green Growth Papers, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k3v1dtzlxzq-en.
OECD (2013), “Climate and Carbon: Aligning Prices and Policies”, OECD Environment Policy Papers, No. 1, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5k3z11hjg6r7-en.
OECD (2013), Inventory of Estimated Budgetary Support and Tax Expenditures for Fossil Fuels, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264187610-en.
OECD (2013), “Green Innovation in Tourism Services”, OECD Tourism Papers, No. 2013/01, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5k4bxkt1cjd2-en.
OECD (2013), OECD Compendium of Agri-environmental Indicators, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264186217-en.
OECD (2013), Water and Climate Change Adaptation: Policies to Navigate Uncharted Waters, OECD Studies on Water, OECD Publishing, DOI: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264200449-en.
OECD (2013), Policy Instruments to Support Green Growth in Agriculture, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264203525-en. OECD (2013), Putting Green Growth at the Heart of Development, OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264181144-en. OECD (2013), Taxing Energy Use: A Graphical Analysis, OECD, Paris, DOI: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264183933-en.
The Danish Energy Agency (DEA), OECD and the UNEP Riso Centre (URC) (2013), National Greenhouse Gas Emissions Baseline Scenarios: Learning from Experiences in Developing Countries, ISBN (online version), www978-87-7844987-0. Prag, A., C. Hood, and P. Barata (2013), “Made to Measure: Options for Emissions Accounting under the UNFCCC”, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert Group Papers, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5jzbb2tp8ptg-en.
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2012 Bureau, D. (2012), The Political Economy of the French Carbon Tax Project, OECD, Paris, http://www.oecd.org/env/tools-evaluation/The%20 Political%20Economy%20of%20the%202009%20French%20Carbon%20 Tax%20project.pdf. Clapp, C. and A. Prag (2012), “Projecting Emissions Baselines for National Climate Policy: Options for Guidance to Improve Transparency”, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert Group Papers, No. 2012/04, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k3tpsz58wvc-en.
IEA (2012), Technology Roadmap: Bioenergy for Heat and Power, OECD and IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/ bioenergy.pdf. IEA (2012), Technology Roadmap: Hydropower, OECD and IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/ technologyroadmaphydropower.pdf. IEA (2012), Technology Roadmap: Solar Heating and Cooling, OECD and IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Solar_ Heating_Cooling_Roadmap_2012_WEB.pdf.
Clapp, C., et al. (2012), “Tracking Climate Finance: What and How?”, OECD/ IEA Climate Change Expert Group Papers, No. 2012/01, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k44xwtk9tvk-en.
IEA/OECD (2012), Green Growth Strategy for Energy: A Preliminary Report, OECD and IEA, Paris, http://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/greeningenergy/49157149.pdf.
Corfee-Morlot, J., et al. (2012), “Towards a Green Investment Policy Framework: The Case of Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 48, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5k8zth7s6s6d-en.
IEA (2012), Technology Roadmap: Fuel Economy of Road Vehicles, http://www. iea.org/roadmaps/.
G20/OECD (2012), “G20/OECD Policy Note on Pension Fund Financing for Green Infrastructure and Initiatives”, developed by the OECD at the initiative of the G20 Mexican Presidency, http://www.oecd.org/g20/topics/ energy-environment-green-growth/S3%20G20%20OECD%20Pension%20 funds%20for%20green%20infrastructure%20-%20June%202012.pdf.
IEA (2012), Technology Roadmap: Improving the Fuel Economy of Road Vehicles, http://www.iea.org/roadmaps/. Inderst, G., C. Kaminker and F. Stewart (2012), “Defining and Measuring Green Investments: Implications for Institutional Investors’ Asset Allocations”, OECD Working Papers on Finance, Insurance and Private Pensions, No. 24, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k9312twnn44-en.
Haščič, I., J. Silva and N. Johnstone (2012), “Climate Mitigation and Adaptation in Africa: Evidence from Patent Data”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 50, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5k8zng5smxjg-en.
Kaminker, C. and F. Stewart (2012), “The Role of Institutional Investors in Financing Clean Energy”, OECD Working Papers on Finance, Insurance and Private Pensions, No. 23, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5k9312v21l6f-en.
Hascic, I., et al. (2012), “Recent trends in innovation in climate change mitigation technologies”, in OECD, Energy and Climate Policy: Bending the Technological Trajectory, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264174573-4-en.
Kennedy, C. and J. Corfee-Morlot (2012), “Mobilising Investment in LowCarbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 46, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k8zm3gxxmnq-en.
IEA (2012), Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2012 - Market Trends and Projections to 2017, OECD and IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/ publications/freepublications/publication/MTrenew2012_web.pdf. 70 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Lamhauge, N., E. Lanzi and S. Agrawala (2012), “Monitoring and Evaluation for Adaptation – Lessons from Development Co-operation Agencies”, OECD Environment Working Papers, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5kg20mj6c2bw-en.
Marchal, V., C. Kauffmann, J. Corfee-Morlot, and C. Tebar-Less (2012), Policy framework for low-carbon, climate-resilient Investment: The case of infrastructure development, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5k8zth7s6s6d-en. OECD (2012), “Green Growth and the Future of Aviation” Paper prepared for the 27th Round Table on Sustainable Development, OECD, Paris, http:// www.oecd.org/sd-roundtable/papersandpublications/49482790.pdf. OECD (2012), Enabling Local Green Growth: Addressing Climate Change effects on Employment and Local Development, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5k9h2q92t2r7-en. OECD (2012), Farmer Behaviour, Agricultural Management and Climate Change, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264167650-en. OECD (2012), Greenhouse Gas Emissions and the Potential for Mitigation from Materials Management within the OECD Area, OECD, Paris, http://www.oecd. org/env/waste/50034735.pdf. OECD (2012), Greening Development: Enhancing Capacity for Environmental Management and Governance, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264167896-en. OECD (2012), OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050 : The Consequences of Inaction, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264122246-en. OECD (2012), Energy, OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD, Paris, DOI: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264115118-en. OECD (2012), “Colombia’s Policy Framework for Investment”, OECD Investment Policy Reviews: Colombia 2012, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264167742-6-en. OECD (2012), “Tunisia’s policy framework for investment”, OECD Investment Policy Reviews: Tunisia 2012, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264179172-7-en.
OECD (2012), Strategic Transport Infrastructure Needs to 2030, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264114425-en. OECD/NEA (2012), Nuclear Energy and Renewables: System Effects in Low-carbon Electricity Systems, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/9789264188617-en. Prag, A., G. Briner and C. Hood (2012), “Making Markets: Unpacking Design and Governance of Carbon Market Mechanisms”, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert Group Papers, No. 2012/03, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5k43nhks65xs-en. Prag, A. and G. Briner (2012), “Crossing the Threshold: Ambitious Baselines for the UNFCCC New Market-Based Mechanism”, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert Group Papers, No. 2012/02, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5k44xg398s8v-en. 2011 Agrawala, S., M. Carraro, N. Kingsmill, E. Lanzi, M. Mullan and G. PrudentRichard” (2011), “Private Sector Engagement in Adaptation to Climate Change: Approaches to Managing Climate Risks”, OECD Enrionment Working Papers, No. 39, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg221jkf1g7-en. Buchner, B., J. Brown and J. Corfee-Morlot (2011), “Monitoring and Tracking Long-Term Finance to Support Climate Action”, OECD and IEA, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k44zcqbbj42-en. Burniaux, J., J. Chateau and J. Sauvage (2011), “The Trade Effects of Phasing Out Fossil-Fuel Consumption Subsidies”, OECD Trade and Environment Working Papers, No. 2011/05, OECD Publishing Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5kg6lql8wk7b-en. Burniaux, J. and J. Chateau (2011), “Mitigation Potential of Removing Fossil Fuel Subsidies: A General Equilibrium Assessment”, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 853, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5kgdx1jr2plp-en.
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Chateau, J., A. Saint-Martin and T. Manfredi (2011), “Employment Impacts of Climate Change Mitigation Policies in OECD: A General-Equilibrium Perspective”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 32, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg0ps847h8q-en. Della Croce, R., C. Kaminker and F. Stewart (2011), “The Role of Pension Funds in Financing Green Growth Initiatives”, OECD Working Papers on Finance, Insurance and Private Pensions, No. 10, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg58j1lwdjd-en. Della Croce, R., Schieb, P., and B. Stevens (2011a), “Pension Funds Investment in Infrastructure: A Survey”, OECD International Futures Programme, OECD Project on Infrastructure to 2030, http://www.oecd.org/futures/ infrastructureto2030/48634596.pdf. Ellis, J., et al. (2011), “Design Options for International Assessment and Review (IAR) and International Consultations and Analysis (ICA)”, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert Group Papers, No. 2011/04, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k44zc5rx644-en. Ellis, J., et al. (2011), “Frequent and Flexible: Options for Reporting Guidelines for Biennial Update Reports”, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert Group Papers, No. 2011/02, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5k45165j1kmq-en. Golub, S. S., C. Kauffmann and P. Yeres (2011), “Defining and Measuring Green FDI: An Exploratory Review of Existing Work and Evidence”, OECD Working Papers on International Investment, No. 2011/02, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg58j1cvcvk-en. Hammill, A. and T. Tanner (2011), “Harmonising Climate Risk Management: Adaptation Screening and Assessment Tools for Development Co-operation”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 36, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg706918zvl-en. Hood, C. (2011), “Summing up the parts: Combining policies for least-cost climate mitigation strategies”, IEA Information Paper, IEA and OECD, Paris, http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Summing_ Up.pdf.
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Hammill, A. and T. Tanner (2011), “Harmonising Climate Risk Management: Adaptation Screening and Assessment Tools for Development Co-operation”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 36, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg706918zvl-en. 2010 Agrawala, S., et al. (2010), “Plan or React? Analysis of Adaptation Costs and Benefits Using Integrated Assessment Models”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 23, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5km975m3d5hb-en. Agrawala, S. and M. Carraro (2010), “Assessing the Role of Microfinance in Fostering Adaptation to Climate Change”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 15, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.1787/5kmlcz34fg9v-en. 2009 OECD (2009), Integrating Climate Change Adaptation into Development Co-operation: Policy Guidance, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://www. dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264054950-en. OECD (2009), Integrating Climate Change Adaptation into Development Co-operation: Policy Guidance, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://www. dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264054950-en.
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Acronyms BAP Bali Action Plan CCS Carbon Capture and Storage CCXG Climate Change Expert Group CDM Clean Development Mechanism CIRCLE Costs of Inaction and Resource Scarcity: Consequences for Long-term Economic Growth COP Conference of the Parties (to the UNFCCC) DAC Development Assistance Committee ENVIRONET Network on Environment and Development Co-operation EPIC Environmental Policy and Individual Choice ETP Energy Technology Perspectives FDI Foreign Direct Investment GGKP Green Growth Knowledge Platform GHG Greenhouse Gas ICT Information and Communication Technology IEA International Energy Agency IFP International Futures Programme ITF International Transport Forum JWPTE Joint Working Party on Trade and the Environment LCRs Local Content Requirements LEED Local Economic and Employment Development LNG Liquefied Natural Gas MCM OECD Ministerial Council Meeting MDBs Multilateral Development Banks MRV Measurement, Reporting, and Verification NEA Nuclear Energy Agency NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NPPs Nuclear power plants ODA Official Development Assistance
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OOF Other Official Flows R&D Research and Development SMEs Small and medium-sized enterprises UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa UNECE United Nations Economic Council for Europe UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change WPSMEE Working Party on SMEs and Entrepreneurship WP-STAT Working Party on Development Finance Statistics VRE Variable Renewable Energy 2DS 2째C scenario
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