Uniformity+Variety in the St. Enoch Quarter The use of design codes in creating cohesive urban form
Ojas Kulkarni
Individual Design Project, Master of Architectural Studies (M.Arch. Urban Design) 2013-2014 Mackintosh School of Architecture, The Glasgow School of Art, UK
Introduction
This report is divided into following parts:
“Barnett considers urban design an iterative process that shapes patterns and codes for building-massing without designing individual buildings” (Shane D.,
Chapter 1: Design Codes and case studies of prescriptions over urban form: It introduces the concept of ‘urban form control’ along with various examples where special design codes are prescribed over urban form.
2005, p.121).
The product of urban design is an outcome of sum of individual products of buildings and open spaces. All these elements respond to their own functions and designs. Initially, during the development of buildings, only two factors were involved- the developer and an architect along with some regulatory framework. Now, after the introduction of ‘Urban Design’ as a new profession, one more factor is involved while shaping the cities i.e. an ‘Urban Designer’. This factor imagines the city way before the other two factors get involved and tries to set a vision for an urban area. At the same, an urban designer can have varying degree of control over different elements of urban form. There are various examples all around the world where special design codes are introduced in order to control the urban form of that particular area and to achieve cohesive or diverse urban form. Initially, this research project tries to understand 1. How much control an Urban Designer should have on urban form of a particular area? This will define degree of freedom for architects of individual buildings. 2. Should design codes be used to achieve cohesion in the built form or should variety be maintained? or both.
Chapter 2: Introduction to site of design intervention and its analysis: It applies the concept of controlling urban form on a site located in an urban settlement. The area of design intervention is located in the ‘St. Enoch Quarter’ of City of Glasgow in United Kingdom. A masterplan is proposed for this area. Chapter 3: Design codes and degrees of prescriptions over urban form of St. Enoch Quarter: On the basis of variety of design codes and degrees of prescription discussed in chapter 1, it introduces new design codes for the area of St. Enoch Quarter defining character of streets and squares.
Chapter 1: Design codes and case studies of prescriptions over urban form 1.1. Design Codes- An Overview In ‘Preparing Design Codes: A Practice Manual’ (2006), the ‘Department of Communities and Local Government: London’ has defined design codes as“A set of illustrated design rules and requirements which instruct and may advise on the physical development of a site or area. The graphic and written components of the code are detailed and precise, and built upon a design vision such as a master plan or other design and development framework for a site or area.” 1.1.1. Design Codes- Delivering design quality and value Design codes have clear understanding about desired design quality of a particular area. It also helps to set one standard which is really important in order to avoid vast difference in approach to urban form of two buildings. At the same time, codes help to create ‘variety with harmony’ resulting into a particular kind of urban quality. With the help of design codes an Urban Designer can set certain ambitions while designing cities.
regulations mainly focus on the mapping of land uses along with regulations stating permissible uses, densities, building heights, FAR, building lines and parking provision. On the other hand, design codes can include all the elements of zoning regulations along with prescriptions over elevation of buildings, building massing, sectional setbacks, nature of public places etc. In adition to that, design codes can be prescribed only with deeper understanding of an area making them site specific. 1.1.3. Degrees of prescriptions Design codes usually impose prescriptions over elements of urban settlement. In their ‘Design Codes: their use & potential’ (2006), Carmona et al. have suggested three categories for the attributes of codes as- (A) ‘essential’, (B) ‘typical’ and (C) ‘optional’ attributes.More the number of ‘essential’ attributes, greater is the degree of prescriptions. Higher degree of prescriptions over urban form may lead to lesser degree of freedom for architects.
1.1.2. Difference between ‘Design Codes’ and ‘Zoning Regulations’ Here arises a question- How do design codes differ from zoning regulations? Almost all the development authorities of cities around the world have their own zoning regulations for buildings. Then is there any difference between them and design codes? Zoning
Indian Urban Scenario: Poor Street Scape and Urban Form but incredible Variety and Vitality
1.2. Historic use of design codes There are various examples from past which show evidence of design codes. The use of design codes can be observed since Roman times. The layouts of cities were made as per design codes which included choice of a healthful site, construction of city walls, orientation and public spaces, public and private buildings, and the use of building materials. After the Great Fire of 1666, London was rebuilt according to design codes. Those codes established a typology of streets and buildings in relation to them. Buildings of uniform height and cornice lines were proposed. “The Act prescribed ‘materials, ceiling heights, wall thicknesses, and structural requirements such as the placing of joists’ (Hebbert, 1998: 28). According to Hebbert, this became ‘the system of building control, which regulated the great expansions of 18th- and 19th-century London” (Carmona et al. 2006). Similar type of coding can also be observed from the Georgian period in the designs for Bath and Edinburgh and in the creation of Regency terraces of London. “In the case of Edinburgh, in addition to the laying out a street grid with a ‘hierarchy’ of streets , the ‘planning’ included regulations relating to building height, roof line and roof pitch, and ‘zoning’ in the sense of confinement of stables, coach houses and offices to mews lanes” (Carmona et al. 2006). Apart from aesthetics and quality of places, there are two more factors which form the base of design codes in the past. Those were ‘health’ and
‘sanitation’ which were established in order to get daylight and fresh air. Before Haussmann’s renovation of Paris in 1853, the city was suffering from several outbreaks of cholera. Narrow streets were considered unhealthy. Hence Haussmann established codes which ensured wide streets and uniform building height in order to get lots of sunlight. “Haussmann was also concerned about the way things looked. He was all in favor of eyecatching one off buildings by big-name architects, but he thought the big statements should be reserved for major public buildings, while the apartment buildings lining the big streets should be like a frame, setting off these gems while not calling attention to themselves” (C. Philippa. 2011). “Standardization and lack of decoration minimized building costs, and the effect was hailed as ‘modern’. The owners also saw the standardized façade design of the day as a protection against fashion changes which might easily have devalued their investment in so rapidly changing a city” (Sutcliffe A. 1993,p.86). This establishes relation between cohesion and fast construction where less efforts are put while designing innovative building facades. Hence it can be summarized that the coding in Paris was based on following factors: • Speed of construction and cohesion • Modernization • Traffic movement • Daylight and overshadowing
Details of types of buildings relating to types of street, Act for Rebuilding the city of London 1667 Source: Carmona et al. (2006) Design code: their use and potential. London: The Bartlett School of Planning, University College London
Similar facades of buildings set by design codes in Haussmann’s Paris.
Available from: http://blog.parisattitude.com/design-architecture/the-town-planning-according-to-haussmann.html
1.3. Elements of urban form that can be coded Land uses • Layout of public space • Residential, commercial and mixed uses. • Building use. • Parks and open spaces. Streets • Street types and dimensions. • Location of car parking. • Street furniture, planters, etc. • Type and placement of trees, etc. Blocks • Street block pattern. • Plot aggregation. Plots • Position of buildings. • Gardens. • Boundary treatments. • Plot ownerships. Buildings • Building type. • Building massing. • Height of buildings. • Size and shape of windows, doors, etc. • Details of eaves/overhangs, gutters, etc. • Signage. Solar orientation and over shadowing • Shadow pattern on public places. • Overshadowing due to buildings. • Daylight factor. Nature of public spaces • Material treatment for public spaces. • Landscape treatment. • Building façade treatment which form public spaces.
This project will only focus on following design codes as they are specifically related to design of individual buildings. These codes will help us to define the role of an Urban Designer in relation to that of an Architect. These codes tends to prescribe some restrictions over freedom of an individual Architect.
Plot Subdivision- defines variety of architects and diversity in street scape Source: Jonathan Tarblatt (2012),The Plot: Designing Diversity in the Built Environment, RIBA Publishing
Overshadowing- Ensures better exposure to the sun
Source: Lehnerer A. (2009) Grand Urban Rules. Rotterdam: naio10 Publishers.
Solar access & Sectional setbacks- hSource: Lehnerer A. (2009) Grand Urban Rules. Rotterdam: naio10 Publishers.
Building Massing- Defines overall mass of buildings
Source: Alexander Cooper Associates (1979) Battery Park City Draft Summary Report and 1979 Master Plan. New York
The above mentioned codes have higher or lesser impact on the degree of prescriptions. The codes that are related to building heights and sectional setback are very common in all types of regulatory frameworks. They are extremely important to control the density of a particular settlement. At the same time, the codes related to land use are also found in all zoning regulations. But the codes that related to aesthetic quality of buildings such as material for facades, size of windows, color of metal elements, decorative elements and roof treatments etc. have higher impact on degree of prescription.
Elevation control- has prescriptions over elements of facade of a building. This code relates to high degree of control Source: Alexander Cooper Associates (1979) Battery Park City Draft Summary Report and 1979 Master Plan. New York
Street Wall Continuity- it defines traditional urban block ensuring cohesive form Streets, Blocks & Squares Source: Lehnerer A. (2009) Grand Urban Rules. Rotterdam: naio10 Publishers.
In the next chapter, four examples are investigated on the basis of degree of prescription. All the examples show different degree of freedom for architects of individual buildings.
1.4. ‘Battery Park City Design Codes, Lower Manhattan, New York hh
The revised Master Plan accepts New York’s basic pattern of development including City’s system of streets and blocks, its building forms and density, its mixed land use and its transportation systems. “Eight organizing principles define the revised plan. They deal with the overall planning approach, the layout and orientation of the plan, the form of the project, the quality of its neighborhoods, pedestrian circulation, water front amenities, special design opportunities, and flexible development controls” (Alexander Cooper Associates, 1979, p.53).
Aerial view showing Urban Form of Battery Park City
In his ‘An Introduction to Urban Design’ (1982), Jonathan Barnett has talked about the evolution of New York City’s Special Zoning Districts. Few attempts by New York City to extend zoning regulations to encompass new urban design and planning objectives came in response in terms of ‘The Theater District’, ‘The Fifth Avenue District’, ‘Greenwich Street special district’ and ‘The Lower Manhattan Districts’. “The most complicated special zoning districts of all were those that extended the principles of look-it-up-in-the-zoning-book urban design to the landfill areas around the periphery of lower Manhattan. These districts are called the Manhattan Landing and Battery Park City special districts”(Barnett J., 1982, p.89). Battery Park City is $4-billion mixed use development on 92 acres of landfill in the Hudson River to the west
side of Lower Manhattan. The landfill is a product of the early 1970s excavation for the foundations of the nearby World Trade Center towers and other buildings. The master plan proposed by Alexander Copper Associates in 1979 is a revision suggested to original master plan by Battery Park City Authority prepared in 1969. “The revised Master Plan reflects the attention paid by three public policy priorities: The State’s interest in accomplishing a satisfactory workout at Battery Park City, the City’s desire to achieve a superior quality of public environment in the project, and the widely recognized need to reduce the complexity and cost of the project’s infrastructure requirements” (Alexander Cooper Associates, 1979, p.42). All these three policies were missing in 1969 Master Plan.
The area to the west of the World Trade Centre is the heart of the Battery Park City consisting five to six million square feet of office space as well as most of its retail space. With its linkages to the original World Trade Center Plaza, this commercial Center relates to the Financial District and to Battery Park city’s residential neighborhoods to the north and south. Residential development south of the Commercial Center is planned to cater to employees of the Financial District who want close walking access to their jobs. “Battery Park City marked an important paradigm shift, away from the concept of the modern city and its life-world and toward a reacceptance of the tradition of the street as a controlling armature and of large public squares as symbols of community” (Shane D., 2005, p.123). In addition to the master plan of the development, Alexander Copper formulated specific design codes to determine building massing, and a detailed
set of restrictions on architectural qualities that determine colors, material and façade articulation. “Within Battery Park City’s Master Plan, there are certain areas of special significance. These areas have locational primacy or particular design potentials that give them an important role in the realization of the plan. The way in which these ‘special places’ are developed will be extremely important in determining the design quality of the project as a whole” (Alexander Cooper Associates, 1979, p.53).
Type Building massing
Design Codes Height of buildings- no. of storey
Street Sections & Sectional setbacks
Detailed Design of a important building Elevation Control
More detailed design of Commercial Center specifying office towers, public plaza, upper level walkways, vehicular & pedestrian traffic, lobby locations, drop-off points and parking facility. Brick colors, 2-3 storey stone bases for buildings, and prohibition of metal & glass curtain walls. Color of metal elements Expression lines by change of color, texture & materials in the façade at 75-85 feet height. Special articulation of lobby entrances Decorative roof lines & parapets Location of balconies Provision of arcades on Eastern side of NorthSouth Street
Desirables -Solar access -Avoid overshadowing -Framing the vistas -Animating the skyline -Solar access -Sense of enclosure -Reducing apparent height of towers for pedestrians -Critical built form to portray ‘image’ of the Battery Park City’s central commercial district -Uniformity in architectural styles of all buildings -Cohesive urban form. -Lack of variety -Uniformity in architectural styles of all buildings -Lack of variety -Reduces the scale of street wall. -Well defined front doors -Separation of street’s public realm and private realm of apartments -Access to ground floor retail & commercial spaces -Weather protection
Summary of Design Codes: Battery Park City
Special Places, Battery Park City: 1979 Master Plan
Source: Alexander Cooper Associates (1979) Battery Park City Draft Summary Report and 1979 Master Plan. New York
By means of these codes, urban designer’s group has successfully managed to bring best aspects of Manhattan’s urban fabric together. “According to Cooper, the challenge was to define quality and then quantify it. The group ended by establishing those goals common to neighborhoods, and good urbanity in general: security, stability, maintenance, privacy, scale, variety on a city scale with homogeneity on a neighborhood scale, vitality, convenience, and identity” (Russel F., p.203).
A
B
C
Battery Park City Design Codes and achieved Uniformity in Urban Form
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Fig.A1: Plan of ‘Rector Place’ showing number of floor of buildings. Fig.A2: Section through ‘Rector Place’-The low rise building on south side helps to achieve maximum exposure of 15 storey high building to south sun. Fig.A3: View of ‘Rector Place’. Fig.A4: Three dimensional visualization of Rector Place from Hudson River proposed by Copper Associates. Fig.A5: The massing of commercial center stepped up building heights toward the World Trade Center, thereby respecting the traditional pyramidal shape of the Lower Manhattan skyline. Fig.B1: Section through South End Avenue looking toward north. Fig.B2&3: Angle of vision & change in height of high rise towersAs the tower gets closer to the building line. Height of the tower reduces from tower 1 to 4. Fig.B4: Street view of South End Avenue looking to North. A 44 storey tower located right at the end of south end avenue acts as a landmark. Fig.C1: Building should be made up of 2-3 storey stone base and expression lines at 75-85’ height. Fig.C2: Relief of scale is encouraged on the stone bases of the buildings through changes in type, height, and pattern of the stonework. Fig.C3: Arcades to provide access to ground floor retail and commercial spaces and weather protection. Fig.C4: Articulation of building entrances. Fig.BC5: Aerial View Showing Urban Form of Battery Park City.
1.5. Post-Wall Berlin and Berlin Townhouses
Codes related to individual plots- Less prescriptive design codes used to achieve Uniformity in some aspects of Urban Form keeping Variety intact with higher freedom for Architects of individual buildings The Critical Reconstruction of Berlin as the German capital started since the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. “Throughout the 1990s, Berlin witnessed fierce architectural debates, hosted the world’s largest international architectural competitions to date, and generated the greatest volume of building activity in Europe (with its 440 inner-city construction sites, the city called itself ‘Europe’s largest building site’)” (Molnar V., 2010). After series of competitions and architectural debates, architects and urban planners came up with a model of the ‘traditional European city’. Over the model of ‘American City’ with its dull office towers and huge shopping mall, urban planners opt for the ‘European City’ model of streets and blocks in order to bring Berlin’s urban life back on its streets and squares. This model was totally opposite to post-war Berlin’s reconstruction model which was based on ‘American City’. Berlin opted for division of block into number of plots which led to diversity and variety in overall urban form as compared to Battery Park City.
of the Police Building Ordinance of 1853, the setting of a maximum building height was primarily motivated by the concerns of the fire department i.e. the reach of fire hoses” (Lehnerer A., 2009, p.106). In order to control potential overpopulation and overexploitation of Berlin’s developable land, the typical tenement block of 22m height was added with minimum courtyards of 29 sqm each (5.34 x 5.34 m), relating to the minimum width of the fire hoses of that time.
Tenement house settelements in the district of Prenzlauer Berg, 2009
Source: Bodenschatz H. (2010) Berlin Urban Design A brief History.
3. “The urban ‘house’ (residential or commercial building, hotel, department store, theater, etc.) on an individual plot was defined as the basic element of new developments” (Molnar V., 2010).
The emerging regulatory framework was built around the following five key elements: 1. “It prescribed adherence to and restoration of the historic street network (both street and block structures) and corresponding frontage lines of street and squares” (Molnar V., 2010). 2. In order to maintain the uniform horizontal skyline of Berlin as a ‘European City’, the height of new buildings was restricted to 22 meters at eaves and 30 meters at ridge level. “As a portion
Typical tenement house settlement with courtyards, 1902 Source: Bodenschatz H. (2010) Berlin Urban Design A brief History.
These house lots were as same as the size of a block. Hence there was a possibility of construction of ‘ground scrapers’: often monotonous, immense buildings which fill the entire block and dull the street experience. As a remedy on this, a concept of ‘division of task of designing one lot into several architects’ or ‘a single architects design a lot as a collage of independent-looking buildings’ was introduced. This broke the monotony of large scale lots and brought diversity and variety in street experience.
came up with mix uses of shops, offices and flats which restricted the commercial areas from getting deserted after office hours. 5. “Finally, the new regulatory framework contained prescriptions about the facade and the materials of new constructions. They were to display an easily readable entrance, serial window formats and façade material traditionally used in Berlin such as yellow-gray sandstone, shell limestone, ceramic ceiling, or clinker brick.” (Molnar V., 2010) Berlin Townhouses and Design Codes Carree am Gendarmenmarkt by Hilmer & Sattler
Source: Molnar V. (2010) International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. vol.34.2
4. “At the same time a mix of uses was prescribed by the new regulations: at least 20% of the gross floor area in new buildings had to be allocated to residential purposes” (Molnar V., 2010). In the postwar construction, mono-functional zoning was adopted in Berlin. The new model of Berlin buildings
“The houses are called ‘Berlin Townhouses’ because they allow individual and at the same time urban living in the house with garden at the heart of the historical center of Berlin” (Senate Department for Urban Development and the Environment-Berlin). These townhouses are long and narrow in width offering traditional, middle class living. The suggested ten types are based on the position of house in the block depending on whether it is located on the street or at the park. These urban houses are usually five storeys high. The width of houses is restricted to 6.50 meters with some exceptions of 4.50 and 9.75 meters. The area of plot varies from 125 to 280 sqm. For a very long plot, a lower development is approved in the second row. The houses located at the park may get front yard which can be used as a car park. A few typologies of Berlin Townhouses are described below:
Berlin Townhouse Typologies
Source: Senate Department for Urban Development and the Environment-Berlin. Available from: http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/planen/staedtebau-projekte/friedrichswerder/ de/townhouses/typologie.html
Post-wall Berlin tenement house: Type
Design Codes
Building massing
Height of buildings- 22m at eaves & 30m at ridge level. Provision of courtyards of minimum size 29 sqm.
No. of Architects
One block will be designed by several architects or a single architect design a block as a collage of independent looking buildings. Easily readable entrance, serial window formats, and yellow-gray sandstone & shell limestone as building material 20% of the gross floor area to be allocated for residential purpose.
Elevation Control Landuse
Desirables -uniform horizontal skyline -Height within the reach of fire hoses -controls over population and overexploitation of Berlin’s developable land. -breaks monotony of large scale blocks -avoids ground scraper effect -variety in street experience -Traditionally used façade materials in Berlin -avoids monofunctional zoning.
Berlin Townhouses: Type Building massing
Townhouses on the Friedrichswerder & Variety in Street scape, 2009 Source: Bodenschatz H. (2010) Berlin Urban Design A Brief History.
Here the design codes prescribe the form of the development having control over width, length and height of the buildings and necessary setbacks. Different typologies are suggested as per building’s location in the block specifying its spatial arrangement. Lack of control over building façade and material allows building to adapt to latest architectural styles. As a result of this wide range of façade options can be seen offering variety in street experience. Berlin townhouse is certainly an example of low prescription on urban form giving more freedom for architects.
No. of Architects
Design Codes
Desirables
Height of buildings- usually five storey high
-uniform horizontal skyline
Width & length of individual plots
-Typological uniformity -Variety in façade & street experience -Diversity in plot subdivision and Variety in facades
Various of architects designing a single block/ Multiple plot ownerships
1.6. Haveneiland, Block 11, IJburg, Amsterdam, NL, by KCAP Architects Codes related to a single block- Less prescriptive design codes try to achieve a unique mixture of Uniformity & Variety Block 11 is one component of the plans for Haveneiland and Rietlanden West in Amsterdam’s new residential district of IJburg. It is a variation on the traditional residential block. A canal bisects the block transversally, dividing it into two halves that open up towards the water. The dwellings, business accommodation and care facilities are organized in a series of clusters that form the building blocks for Block 11. It is a block with an urban look on the outside and a peaceful and private living environment within. A number of different architectural offices fleshed out the designs for each block. KCAP Architects & Planners drew up the urban design scheme for Block 11 and, together with the offices Loof and Van Stigt, BPvF and Visser Van Aalderen, worked up the detail of the architectural programme.
Type
Design Codes
Desirables
No. of Architects
No. of architects: 4 Architects have designed a number of the clusters of buildings. Height of buildings- varying from 3 to 6 storey high. Low height buildings in interior of the block while higher face the street. The dwellings, business accommodation and care facilities are organized in various clusters. Extensive material and color proposal: The use materials of mainly 3 colors for various clusters in the block.
-a unique mixture of uniformity and variety.
Building Massing
Landuse Elavation Control
Aerial View of Block 11, Haveneiland- a unique mixture of variety and uniformity in urban form of the block. Plan of Block 11, Haveneiland-showing diversity in plot subdivision and colours of building materials with respect to plots. Variety in street scape with the use different coloured materials for adjacent buildings. Repetition of these three colours have brought general uniformity in urban form.
Street Scape,Block 11, Haveneiland- Varying skyline with variety in street experience. Similar street-side division of facades brings general uniformity in street wall. Source:http://www.kcap.eu/en/projects/v/ haveneiland/details
-Varying skyline
-makes it a vibrant district where people live, work and recreate. - The aim was to create an architectural unity within which the designs by the various architects would be recognizable as independent buildings.
Four Participating Architects- Allocation of projects to all four architects.
1.7. Borneo Sporenburg, Amsterdam, NL, by West 8 Architects & Master Planners
Codes related to individual plots- Less prescriptive design codes achieve extreme Variety & Diversity in the neighbourhood having higher degree of freedom for individual architects Drawing upon Dutch architectural heritage, West 8’s plan for Borneo Sporenburg was inspired by villages on the former Zuiderzee, where small, intimate houses descend towards the water. Borneo Sporenburg masterplan was a residential brief of 2500 dwellings, set those two peninsulas as one planning area, dictating a high density of housing. The whole masterplan was divided into a variety of house types, distinctive apartment blocks and the waterfront, adding character at the Borneo Sporenburg housing development and make the neighborhood easy to navigate. The masterplan was designed by West 8, however, six architectural practices were also asked to conduct a study into dwellings with ground-level entrances, investigating the possibilities for developing good neighborhood areas with a pleasant environment. West 8 successfully created a framework for high density living that satisfies all the demands of an ordinary household. They were committed to creating unique structures within a unified whole. In order to insure this, West 8 set design codes, a range of criteria, upon which access, parking, private open space, storey height, plot width and building materials would be designed. Those codes also specified that dwellings should be designed by a diversity of architects. Thus, more than 100 architects were participating; developing new housing prototypes and the resulting designs include patios, roof gardens and striking views of the waterfront.
Type
Design Codes
Desirables
No. of Architects
Dwelling should be designed by a diversity of architects- more than 100 architects are involved.
-maximum architectural variation -animated street elevation emerges with a focus on the individual
Plot subdivision Building massing
Short plot widths A range of criteria specifying access, parking, private open space, storey height, plot width No construction more than 3 storeys Purely residential use with lack of local shops and facilities
-Diversity in plot ownership -unique structures with a unified whole
Land use
Variety in street scape- Diversity in street experience with no restrictions on facade materials as buildings got adapted to latest architectural styles. Uniformity in plot widths, roof top heights and number of floors. Source:http://www.west8.nl/projects/all/ borneo_sporenburg/
Suggested house typologies for a single plot Source:http://www.west8.nl/projects/all/ borneo_sporenburg/
-Uniform Skyline -leads to increased car dependency and subsequent parking problems
Aerial view of Borneo Sporenburg- Showing extreme diversity in the neighbourhood.
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Hypothesis: Depending on extent of coding, Design Codes can be used to determine the nature of Urban Form whether Cohesive or Diverse.
Chapter 2: Introduction to site of design intervention and its analysis 2.1. Site Location
The site of design intervention is located in St. Enoch Quarter of Glasgow in the United Kingdom. The site is bound by ‘River Clyde’ on south, High street and Glasgow Green on East, Merchant city on North and Glasgow Central Station on West.
2.2. Site Analysis 2.2.1. Arrival into the City Centre and St. Enoch Quarter “Urban site makes double reference to both the whole city and limited sites within it, since even the smallest urban design intervention always speaks to the project of city-building writ large, and defining applies to both a process and its outcomes.”-Andrea Kahn
There are important public transport destinations which lie within the St. Enoch Quarter such as ‘Glasgow Central Station’, ‘St. Enoch Subway Station’ and ‘Argyle Street Railway Station’. Along with that, ‘Buchanan Subway Station’, ‘Queens Street Station’ and ‘Buchanan Bus Station’ lie in the close vicinity of the St. Enoch Quarter. There are various bridges which connect south side of river Clyde to the City Centre. All these bridges take the traffic right through the St. Enoch Quarter. Hence, the St. Enoch Quarter holds an important location while arriving into City Centre of Glasgow.
City-wide road transport infrastructure and Location of St. Enoch Quarter
Bucha nan Str eet
George Square
Ingram
Street Ramshorn Theatre
Argyle
Stree t
St. Enoch Square
Stree t
Str eet
River Clyde
High
Bridgegate
Stre et
King
Cly de
Stockw ell Stre
et
Trong ate
St. Andrew’s Square
Glasgow Green
Figure Ground Plan: St. Enoch Quarter & Merchant City
2.2.2. Identity of St. Enoch Quarter through its built form
2.2.3. Image of the City through ‘Buchanan Street’
Though St. Enoch Quarter holds an important location while approaching towards city centre, it doesn’t portray the image of the city through its built form. The two empty car parks located on the either side of Stockwell Street are mainly responsible for resultant Urban Form of the quarter which is clearly distinct from Merchant City and City Centre.
‘Glasgow Central Station’, ‘St. Enoch Subway Station’, ‘Buchanan Street Subway Station’ and ‘Queens Street Subway Station’ play an important role while arriving into the city centre. Dominance of retail use on Buchanan Street, Buchanan Galleries shopping centre and St. Enoch Shopping Centre portray the ‘image of the City’ mainly as ‘shopping’ to the large crowd using these important transport links.
Image of St. Enoch Quarter through its built form
Traditional Urban Form: “If we look at the spatial continuum of a cohesive urban structure from a distance and in somewhat simplified terms, it can be compared to the barriers which channel pedestrian movement” (Krier R., 1979, p.81). The Modern City Urban Form: “It could be said that from a spatial point of view our towns are composed of forlorn and isolated sections of ‘barrier’, battered on all sides by conceivable stream of activity and with no margin left for meaningful activity or orientation. This contradicts the urban architecture as defined by Sitte and is nothing more than a jumble of buildings”(Krier R., 1979, p.81). Urban Form of St. Enoch Quarter appears to be like ‘Modern City urban form’ as mentioned above.
Image of the City through Buchanan Street
Street view of Buchanan Street showing retail dominance
2.2.4. City Grid: City Centre, Merchant City & St. Enoch Quarter The adjacent figure shows clear distinction of grid size (75-85m x 35-75m with few exceptions) and street pattern from City Centre to St. Enoch Quarter. The city centre’s grid is almost square having formal open spaces in between with lack of informal public open squares. Merchant city has a mixture of square and rectangular grid with variety of informal public open spaces. There is certainly a discontinuity of City Centre and Merchant City’ grid into the St. Enoch Quarter.
Large building footprints and interrupted street pattern There are various cases in Glasgow such as ‘Glasgow Central Station’, ‘St. Enoch Shopping Centre’, ‘Queen Street Railway Station’ and ‘Buchanan Galleries’ which have large footprints, are responsible for discontinuity in street pattern around them.
Comparison between street network of Merchant City and St. Enoch Quarter Better network of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary streets exists in Merchant City having variety of options of North-South and East-West connectivity. This network of streets does not get continued in St. Enoch Quarter due to its urban form. This has resulted into lesser connectivity between Argyle Street and River Clyde having negative impact on Clyde’s Riverfront. St. Enoch Quarter lacks a major East-West street connecting St. Enoch Square and High Street through the quarter.
2.2.5. Morphological development of St. Enoch Quarter
CONJECTURAL PLAN OF THE CITY OF GLASGOW, 1560, by the office of Public Works Source: RENWICK, R. (1919) History of Glasgow.
Plan of St. Enoch Quarter, 1807, by John McArthur
The grid-iron plan of modern Glasgow- the urban basis of the tenement, street, block and court-did not appear until the last quarter of the 18th century. Until then, a medieval pattern of settlement had prevailed and growth had taken place principally along the two crossed axes of the city’s main streets i.e. High Street and Trongate (Walker, F. 1982, p.160). Initially, the long lands behind the facades of High street, Saltmarket, Bridgegate, Gallowgate and Trongate were more built up. Away from this densely built up area around Glasgow Cross, a new pattern of growth had taken shape which was different from the old pattern in terms of its physical form.
In the middle of 17th century, a series of parallel streets- stockwellgait, Old Wynd, New Wynd and Back Wynd which ran north-south between Trongate and Bridgegate was established (Walker, F. 1982, p.160). It is said that, the building of the Shawfield Mansion in 1711-12 and the laying-down of King Street were crucial decisions in the physical evolution of Glasgow’s ‘Merchant City’. In 1710, Daniel Campbell, a rich man, collector of Port Glasgow, built a mansion on the plot right opposite the head of Stockwell Street. This property was located to the north of Trongate and was stretched till Back Cow Lane of that time, today’s Ingram Street. It shows that, the Shawfield Mansion and Stockwell Street which had axial relationship with Glasgow Bridge to the south, held important location in that period. The social-spatial orientation of the Shawfield Mansion was carried forward into the evolving townscape of the Merchant City. In 1722, the city magistrates created Kind Street and Merchant City’s grid appeared (Reed, P., 1993). In 1792, Shawfield Mansion was demolished which cleared the ground for the laying-down of Glassford Street which is currently in continuation with Stockwell Street. Even Glassford Street terminated at another important building of that time i.e. Bank of Scotland currently known as the Italian Centre (Reed, P., 1993).
Source: REED, P. (1993) GLASGOW: The forming of the City.
Plan of St. Enoch Quarter, 1842, by Kyle Thomas
Plan of St. Enoch Quarter, 1831-1893, by Bartholomew John
Around 1840-50, the area on the western side of Stockwell Street got densely developed till St. Enoch Square. St. Enoch Quarter had better North-South Street network than East-West. Not a single East-West street connecting St. Enoch Square and High Street existed at that time.
In 1876, the St. Enoch Railway Station was constructed on the western side of Stockwell Street and was operational till 1966. It was demolished in 1977 and the site is now occupied currently by St. Enoch Shopping mall. The removed railway tracks approaching railway station left two empty plots on both the sides of Stockwell Street which are being used as car parks till date.
Source: http://maps.nls.uk/towns/detail.cfm?id=440
Source: http://maps.nls.uk/towns/detail.cfm?id=440
2.2.6. Key historic moments of urban changeShift of city’s spine from High Street to Buchanan Street • We can see clear shift of spine of the city from High Street to Buchanan Street in present Glasgow. • Argyle street, Ingram street and Sauchiehall street are now the most important streets in present Glasgow. • In 1560, high street was the oldest and the most important street in Glasgow with equal development on both the sides. • Trongate, Salt market, Bridgegate and stockwell street were the most important streets in Glasgow at that time.
2.2.7. Key historic moments of urban change- St. Enoch Quarter & St. Enoch Square • St. Enoch Railway Station was operational between 1876 to 1966 and was demolished in 1977. On the St. Enoch Square’s side of railway station, St. Enoch Hotel was located. • St. Enoch’s Church was located right in the middle of the St. Enoch Square in axial relation with the Buchanan Street. St. Enoch’s Church was swept away in 1926 during the construction of underground subway. • The site of St. Enoch Railway Station is currently occupied by St. Enoch Shopping Centre. The removed railway tracks approaching the railway station left two empty plots on both sides of Stockwell Street which are being used as car parks till date.
Buchanan Street: Centre of the city (2014)
High Street: Centre of the city (1560)
Existence of St. Enoch Railway Station & Railtracks over Stockwell Street
St. Enoch Church existed in the middle of the square and St. Enoch Hotel fronting the square
2.3. Masterplan Proposal 2.3.1. Critique of ‘Shopping Mall’ as urban or sub-urban building typology “The documentary ‘Gruen effect’ recounts how Victor Gruen is appalled at the impact these shopping centres are having on urban areas, and unsuccessfully attempts to offer solutions to the growing problem. Speaking later on his reputation as the originator of this development concept, Victor Gruen writesI am often called the father of the shopping mall. I would like to take this opportunity to disclaim paternity once and for all. I refuse to pay alimony to those bastard developments. They destroyed our cities” (Fitzpatrick, 2013). Victor Gruen had aspirations of bringing community life into deserted suburban areas. The adjacent drawings clearly shows distinction in context of both the shopping malls. St. Enoch Shopping centre has negative impact on the surrounding area. “Urban life should not be locked into the indoors of large building complexes, but unfold on streets and squares” (Lampugnani and Schneider,1994, p.70). “It is hard to say what type of space we are dealing with in the case of isolated buildings of such a scale. Such an abstract structure is incapable of being extended beyond its demarcations” (Krier R. 1979).
St. Enoch shopping centre & Glasgow’s urban area
Shopping mall and a suburban area in USA
Morphological study of St. Enoch Shopping Centre’s site suggests that, a large footprint structure has always been inflexible at this location. It had blocked North-South connectivity between Argyle and Clyde Street even in the past. “Each building in a town must be subordinate to the overall plan. That is, its scale, building type, architectural vocabulary must harmonize with the existing architectural fabric. The existing conception of urban space must not be destroyed by new building. If such a conception of urban space does not exist, the new building must create it. It must tear no holes in the urban fabric nor must it create any spatial vacuum around itself” (Krier R. 1979). The plot drawing also explains that there are only two owners: one of shopping centre and car park 1 & another of car park 2. As lesser complexity is involved in plot ownership, demolition of St. Enoch Shopping Centre is a feasible option. After careful investigation, it proves that, demolition will provide better opportunities to shape this area. It will also increase North-South and East-West connectivity.
St. Enoch Quarter (1832)
St. Enoch Quarter (1893)
St. Enoch Quarter (Present)
St. Enoch Quarter (without St. Enoch Shopping Centre)
1. Establishing a strong network of East-West and North-South Streets in the St. Enoch Quarter similar to the Merchant City. Providing alternate routes to connect Merchant City to the Clyde Riverfont.
2. A new East-West Route connecting St. Enoch Square and St. Andrew’s Square becomes an important desire line along with a few North-South desire lines.
3. On the basis of desire lines, a traditional cohessive structure of street and blocks is achieved.
4. A series of public squares is carved out along the new EastWest Street starting from St. Enoch Square till St. Andrew’s Square.
Network of streets reinforcing link with Argyle Street
Establishing link between an important public building & two historically important public squares
Ground Surface Plan: Proposal
Proposed key bus routes and car parking sites
Bird’s eye view of proposed masterplan showing new East-West street and highlighting newly proposed public buildings
Chapter 3: Design codes and degrees of prescriptions over urban form of St. Enoch Quarter The proposed masterplan is divided mainly into 3 projects which are developed as per three different themes. Design codes are introduced specific to these projects. Variety of design code strategies can be observed along new East-West Street.
Project 1
Project 2
Project 1: An elegant formal Public Square
Project 2: Live and safe mixed-use residential neighbourhood
Project 3
Project 3: Diverse and Vibrant Cultural Square
- Important civic landmark
-Less variety at the square -Gateway to the Riverfront. -New frontage for the square -Formal Backdrop for square
-Alternative for retail
S2 S3
S4
Desirables
S1
No.
-A new hotel is proposed occupying complete southern edge of the square.
- Less diversity of architects
- A public building (Museum) to be proposed on the South-West corner plot of block 1
Proposal
a. Fronting Argyle Street: Mixed use buildings with retail on ground floor and offices on upper floors. b. Fronting the square other than Hotel and Museum: Mixed use buildings with bars/cafes/restaurants on ground floor with offices above.
o. Three fine-dine restaurants of area about 400-500 sqm should be provided on ground floor as specified. Rest of the area should be used for hotel purpose.
k. Width of hotel on the eastern side of gateway should be 18.5m max. l. Ground floor should be 6m high in which one mezzanine floor can be provided. Mezzanine floor should not cover more than 50% of ground floor area. Upper floors should be 3m high. m. Height of the hotel should not be more than 21m. One extra service storey of 3m height is allowed above 21m. n. Top service storey should be set-back by 8m from the building line.
-Large footprint buildings leads to lesser plot owners fronting the square a. Façade should be designed with a grid of 4 4.5 m b. Balconies are permitted above 9m from the ground level. c. Balcony should not occupy entire width of a room. d. Recess balcony options are suggested. e. No balcony should be projected out from the building line. f. Width of gateway: 4 structural grids i.e. 1618m. Height of gateway: 13-15 m (4 Floors) g. Vertically proportioned windows/openings. Height should be more than or equal to 1.5 times of width. h. Number of entrances for the hotel building is encouraged. Entrances should not be highlighted, rather should get dissolved in the whole façade. i. Clear distinction in material from bottom, middle and top of the building. j. There should be more transparency in façade on ground floor as compared to other floors.
e. Ground floor should be provided with bars and café taking advantage of exposure to south sun f. A roof top restaurant and a viewing deck should be provided at the top of the tower
b. Corner of the building should be a 36-42 m high tower. Rest should be 15-21 m high. c. Suggestion of few massing options to maintain unique identity. d. More front doors are encouraged to keep the square live.
a. Open for Architectural Competition with no elevation restrictions
Design Codes
-Landuse
-Landuse
-Building massing
-Elevation control
-Plot subdivision
-Landuse
-Building massing
-Elevation control
Code Type
3.1. Project 1: St. Enoch Square Design Codes
Precedents
Place Reial, Barcelona, Spain
-Multiple ownership -Single unirform facade
Ambition: Elegant formal public square St. Enoch Square plays extremely important role in St. Enoch Quarter as it has easy accessibilty through Train, Bus and Subway. It is one of the important historic public squares in Glasgow. It is located at the junction of Buchanan and Argyle Street which are important streets in the city. Its proximity to River Clyde attracts more people. Currently it has identity just as a shopping destination because of St. Enoch Shopping mall. Uffizi Gallery, Florence, Italy
-Single plot ownership -unirformly designed facade -Defined gateway to the waterfront
The proposal desires to regain St. Enoch Square’s identity as an important civic landmark by demolishing the mall and proposing new buildings in place. Here ambition is to achieve elegant formal appearance for the square through uniform facades mainly through highly prescriptive facade of Proposed Hotel building.
Elegant Formal Public Square
Gateway to the Riverfront
treet Bucha nan S
treet Bucha nan S
St. En
och S
Riv er
Cly de
Figure Ground Plan & Plot Subdivision: Existing
Riv er
quare
New
East-W est
Cly de
Figure Ground Plan & Plot Subdivision: Proposed Ground Floor
Figure Ground Plan & Plot Subdivision: Proposed Upper Floors
Proposed Land Use Plan: Ground Floors
Proposed Land use Plan: Upper Floors
Axonometric View of St. Enoch Quarter-Showing evening shadow pattern, Use of square by restaurants and bars as a sitout taking advantage of south sun, Prominent Public Building, Gateway to the riverfront and commencement of new East-West Street
Massing suggestions for Public Building
Section AA
Proposed Hotel Building Ground Floor Plan
Proposed Hotel Building Upper Floor Plan
View of Public Building from the Square
3.2. Project 2: Safe & live Mixed Use Residential Neighbourhood Precedents
Schots 1 & 2, CiBoga Terrain, Groningen, NL -Each building equals to one city block. -Both the blocks are designed by S333 Architects. -Both buildings are designed in different material having different house typologies and facade material.
Ambition: Safe and Live Mixed-Use Residential Neighbourhood Central mixed-use residential neighbourhood is proposed in place of existing St. Enoch Shopping mall. The proposal is to demolish the mall and suggest new building typology to place retail dominant building typology. The shopping mall has a negative impact on surrounding area and streets keeping the area deserted as people are foced to spend most of their time inside the mall. The proposal seeks to suggest new building typology with retail, shops and restaurants on ground floor and residential flats on upper floors. It will keep this area alive throughout the day. Similar type of model can
View from the Square: Showing live neighbourhood due to mixed-use building typology, Use of square by restaurants and bars as a sitout taking advantage of south sun, Variety in street enclosure, Colours indicate number of architects
Mixed-Use Residential Neighbourhood Design Codes No. R1
R2
Desirables - Alternative for Retail -Safe and lively neighbourhood
-Taking advantage of penetration of south sun inside the square. -Variety + Uniformity along new East-West Street
R3
-Variation in street enclosure along new East-West Street
R4
Proposal - Mixed-use residential neighbourhood
- Though all five blocks in the neighbourhood are under single ownership (St. Enoch Shopping Mall owner), the neighbourhood should be designed by variety of architects
-Heights of buildings in the neighbourhood are varied to create variety in street experience and for better light access inside the block.
Design Codes a. New East-West Street: Ground floor- Retail and Food Upper floors- Residential b. Two parallel streets: Ground floor- Public amenities Upper floors- Residential c. Stockwell Street: Ground floor- Retail and offices Upper floors- Offices d. Ground floors of buildings facing the square should be occupied by restaurants, bars and cafes. a. Entrusting both sides of new East-West Street to a single architect to create general unity. b. To avoid monotony and ground scrapper effect both the stretches of East-West Street should be designed by two different architects. At the same time, buildings facing Stockwell Street should be designed by another single architect. c. Minimum three architects will design the whole neighbourhood.
Code Type -Landuse
-Plot subdivision/ No. of Architects
a. Heights of buildings vary from 13.5 to 25.5 m as specified. b. Height of ground floor should be 4.5 m and above floors should be 3 m high.
-Building massing
-Uniformity in faรงade of a single building but variety in street experience
a. Different faรงade material and treatment should be used for buildings facing new EastWest Street done by a single architect.
-Elevation control
-Office Buildings facing Stockwell Street should act as a gateway for East-West Street having distinct identity.
b. Faรงade should be made of stone and glass facing Stockwell Street. Same material should be wrapped on the faรงade facing East-West Street.
-Keeping street life separate from private life of dwelling.
c. Balconies are permitted only above 7.5 m from the ground level.
Figure Ground Plan & Plot subdivision: Existing
All five blocks under same ownership (St. Enoch Shopping Mall owner): Proposed
Three architects designing the whole neighbourhood
Figure Ground Plan and Plot Subdivision: Proposed Ground Floor
Figure Ground Plan and Plot Subdivision: Proposed Upper Floor
Landuse Plan: Proposed Ground Floor
Landuse Plan: Proposed Upper Floor
A variety of architects involved in designing the whole neighbourhood
3.2. Project 3: Diverse and Vibrant Cultural Square
Meeting House Square, Dublin, Ireland -This cultural square in Dublin, is situated inside the block having few narrow access lanes from main streets. -All buildings facing the square have two fronts- one facing the square and another facing main street. -This sqaure is famous for its multiuse- a vegetable market, open exhibition space, open air sitting space for Children’s Performance Centre and sometimes as a open air Cinema where movies are projected on a facade of the Photographic Gallery. Ambition: Diverse and Vibrant Cultural Square The Cultural Square and blocks around it are proposed in place of car park site on Eastern side of Stockwell Street. Historically this area had been the most densely built area in the quarter. It also retained cultural importance being in the close vicinity of Briggait and Artist’s Studios. In due course of time, this cultural importarnce got lost due to existing car park site formed after removal of railtracks approaching St. Enoch Station. The proposal desires to regain its cultural importance by proposing a square at the junction of Osborne Street and Old Wynd.
Four Public Buildings facing the Cultural Square
Diversity in plot ownership and Variety in streetscape facing Stockwell Street
Design Codes No.
Desirables
Proposal
Design Codes
C1
- Important cultural landmark in the close vicinity of Briggait and Artist’s Studios.
- Proposal of four public buildings facing the square formed at the junction of Osborne Street and Old Wynd.
a. North-West side plot: Proposed Leisure Centre b. North-East side plot: Proposed Library (Open source library-Idea Store) c. South-East side plot: Proposed Public building (Theatre, Gallery, Artist Studios) d. South-West side plot: Proposed art institute. e. All four buildings should be open for architectural competitions. f. Ground floor usage of these buildings: Should be occupied with more public functions. One in-house café can be provided in each of the buildings. Part ground floor of the Art Institute can be occupied with art related shops. Activities creating dead façade facing the square are strictly prohibited.
-Landuse
g. All these buildings should have atleast one entrance from the square. Number of entrances is encouraged. h. Ground floor of facades should be transparent to increase visual connection with the square. i. Façade of Theatre Building on the Eastern side of the square should be provided with fewer openings for screening of movies.
-Elevation control
-Single plot of car park on the Eastern side of Stockwell Street is divided into number of plots.
j. All the buildings should be maximum 22.5 m high with permissible FAR of 5.0 k. Facades of Leisure Center, Library and Theatre Building facing Old Wynd should be set-back for better light penetration and reduction of scale as specified. a. Four different architects designing building facing the square. b. In total 6 architects designing other buildings in the neighbourhood.
Code Type
-Building massing.
C2
-Variety of architects and diversity in plot ownership
-Plot subdivision/ No. of Architects
C3
-Other mixed-use buildings in the neighbourhood
a. Facing Stockwell Street: Commercial buildings with showrooms/ bank on ground floor and offices on upper floors. b. Facing Howard and King Street: Residential buildings with Retail, Restaurants and Public Amenities on Ground Floor as specified.
-Landuse
C4
-Variety in building heights as per their locations responding to context.
a. Commercial Buildings: 22.5 m High on Stockwell Street side and 16.5 m high facing Osborne and Howard Street. Permissible FAR5.0 b. Mixed-Use Residential Buildings: 16.5 m high Permissible FAR- 3.80
-Building Massing/ FAR
Axonometric View of Cultural Square and the whole neighbourhood: Diversity plot ownership, six architects design a block and same architects design the whole neighbourhood, four different architects design four public buildings facing the square, extreme variety in street scape but general uniformity in the whole neighbourhood.
Figure Ground Plan & Plot Subdivision: Existing
Proposed Figure Ground Plan & Plot Subdivision: Ground Floor
Proposed Land Use Plan: Ground Floor
Proposed Land Use Plan: Upper Floor
The proposal suggests to use square as a multipurpose open space formed by four public buildings facing the square. The square can be used for various purposessuch as weekly market, exhibition space for art institute, open air performace space, open air cinema screening on the facade of public building. The Cultural Square will be a unique destination which will bring people back into St. Enoch Quarter. Due to continuously changing use of the square, its appearance and the feel of space will change simultaneously.
Conclusion ‘Design codes’ is certainly an effective tool to control an urban form of a an area. They help to achieve high quality of built environment. Depending on extent of coding ‘Uniformity’ as well as ‘Variety’ can be achieved in the built form. In this proposal, a variety of strategies is proposed along new East-West street resulting into completely different outcomes in all three cases. It certainly proves ability of design codes to achieve diverse effects or natures of built environment. There are various elements of urban form which are not considered in this project can also be coded. Design codes certainly help to decide the role of an Urban Designer while designing cities without designing building. Urban design certainly is a profession which lies between the professions of Architects and Urban planners. And hence it is necessary for an Urban Designer to look into scope of both the above professions. With this approach, better urban areas can surely be developed as a reaction to the modernist appoarch of city planning.
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