Kosok, Paul (1976) life, land and water by Omar Pinedo

THE

PERUVIAN

COASTAL

RIVER~ ,~NU VALLEYS

(from t'-e Río Grande to Ecuador) and thelr relationships to the Chimú Empire.

ECUADOR

PERU

1• Puerto 1

Viejo

Northern Tempormy Extension of the Empire

L------------------

Lambayeque

The Cenllr ofthe&npire

Leche

SECHURA

Motupe

DESERT

The Northem Zone of the Empire

Comparison of Egyptian and Peruvian lrrigation Thc historically important part of the Nile Vallcy was about as long as the historically most ímportant part of coastal Peru. But since Egypt had only one river, it nor only írrígated all of Egypt but also was the "wet" road of transportatíon. In Peru, however, the long coastal road crossed al! the rivers.

Gizeh THE NIU

------------------.....--------~ he Southem Zone of the Empire

Mala

---------------

·----------~--------'

Possible Ultimate Extensions of Raids by the Empire

Southern Temporary Extensions of the Empire

Pacífíc Ocean

THE NILE VALLEY FIRST CATARACT

(same scale as Peru)

SECOND CATARACT

•

LIFE LAND AND WATER IN ANCIENT PERU

.., t

•

~. •

. . , \,. 'ir.

•

. .. . • • -"· ' , •... .r·. • • . . • • ·"'· ,.,. •

••

. •••.

•

• •

• \

'•

... ~

•

.' . '' •

,••

•

. , .•,. ~

Large ceremonial centcr of over 25 pyramíds, also walled eompounds and canals at A11urle, located in thc dcscrt in northwestcm Peru, Sercicio ( Details on pp. 1i2-l73. Pan American 11 ighway - large whitc line al left - runs through the sitc.)

LIFE, LAND AND WATER IN ANCIENT

PERU I

An account of thc discovery, exploration and mapping of ancicnt pyramids, .canals, roads, towns, walls and fortresses of coastal Peru with obser ations of various aspects of Peruvian life, both ancient and modern.

By PAUL KOSOK, Ph. D. Long Island University

~E'iV YORK LONG

ISLAND

UNIVERSITY

1965

PRESS

•

1965 b!I Long l sland Unioersitu Prcss, Brooklqn, Ncu» York

Ali riglits rcseroed. This book may nvt he reproduced i11 whole or in port, in rrny [orm ( except by reoieuiers [ar the public press'[, usithout uiritten permission from the publishers. General Editor, Nathan Resnick Editor. Elliott S. M. Catncr Scientifir Editor, Richard Paul Schuedel Dcsiuned. and nrinted in t /1(' l' nited Sta tes of Ame rica by The Jo/111 H. Watki11s Compamj, -:>.'ew York City Llbranj uf Congres«

Cotolog Card No .. 6.5-14627

Ancient ceremonial adobe pyramid (huaca) in

the Chíenma \'allc~

Kosok,

PREFACE

Sorne books are planncd, others just grow The present volume belongs to the latter category In 1948, I had been sent to Peru by Long Island U nivcrsity to complete a previously begun study of the ancient irrigation systems of the Northwest Coast of Peru and their possible relationship to important ruins of the past. On my return J was requcsted to presenta limited report of my field work in Peru during the years of 1948 to 1949, to which was to be added acrial and ground photographs of sorne of the principal ancicnt ruíns and canals. As the writing progressed, it soon bccame olear that a chapter would have to be devoted to each of the individual vallcys and that additional, significant aeríal photographs would havo to be Included for each chapter to make the presentation intelligiblc. Ilowever, whcn I showed the prelíminary draft and the collection of photographs to various persons, both professíonal and non-professional, they strongly urged that, since thís volurne would have more than profcssional interest, I should include iníorrnatlon and photographs giving the general reader a bettcr understanding of the life of the ancients who built thc canals and the sitcs shown in the photographs. lt was furthcr suggested to me that the peoplc of the past should be considcred not rnerely as thc dead, but also as the ancestors of the living, about whom sorne reference also should be made. Finally, it was suggested that I describe sorne of the profcssional and personal experiences cncountered by myself and my oldest

son, M ichael who accompanícd me on the trip while carrying on our .fielcl work and while occupicd with the tens of thousands of aerial photographs that both the American ancl Peruvian governments had taken. The present volurne rcpresents an attempt to carry out the aforcmentioned suggestions. While objections may be raised that too many aspects of Peruvian life havc beco included, I feel, nevertheless, that thc integration of these aspects has provided a more vivid picture of Peruvían life of the past. The volume thus serves as a kind of descriptíve-pictorial introduction to the general reader of the relatively unknown culture of the ancíent Chimús and associated peoples inhabitíug the irrigated ríver oases of the desert coast of Peru. At thc sarne time the volume contains rnuch new archaeological information and many hithcrto unpublished photographs of ancient sites. A grcat deal was contributed to the volume as a result of many long discussions with the archaeologíst Dr Richard P Scbaedel, fonnerly of the Institute at Trujillo and also of the U S. State Department, He wrote many of the archaeologícal dcscriptions in the text as well as most of the captions of the photographs of archaeological sítes and chccked the others which I wrote. He read and corrected the varíous drafts of the book as well as the galley and page proofs. Without bis help this book would not have been possíble. I wish to extend thanks Lo the large number of Peruvíans, from the simple fleld workers to the highest government

officials who have aided me in collecting the ínformation for this book. They a1·e too numerous to mention though some of theír namcs appear in tbe text. Likewise in the United States many people have aidcd me extensívely in makíng this book possible. Of greatesl aid were Profcssors Nathan Resnick, Elliott Gatner, Wílliam Korey and john Dunbar of Long Island University. Professor Catner not only checked ali the technical detaíls but finally submittcd to thc tcdious task of rnakíng thc index and thc bibliography Last but not least many thanks are due to Miss Francés ~1. Cornish who ingcniously planned ali the beautiful layout work that gives this book its distinctive artistic form. PAUL KOSOK

•

CONTENTS

Section A

Sectiou D

INTRODUCTION

I Why Study Ancient Peru? II

Preparations

III

Off to Perul

1 15 21

Section B PRELIMINARY

WOUK IN PERU

IV Lima and Peru. Past and Present V

VI Vll

THE

The Trip to Trujillo

CENTER

OF THE

CHTMU

XII

XIII

Cajamarca. Sierra Ally of the Chimús .

XIV

Hunting Canals on the Pampa de Zaña

The Valley of Zaña: A Connecting Link

XVI

Unity and Diversity in the LambayequeLeche-Motupe Complex

IX X XI

XXII

115

129 135 139

The Moche Valley· Region of Capitals

A Trip to Cachícadan in the Sierras

<¡J7

Heart of Mochicaland: The Chicama Valley 101

EXTENSIONS

CHIMU

EMPIRE

The Pativilca Complex and the Unknown Sites in thc Middle Supe Valley 217 Additional Monuments of the Past: The Huaura and the Valleys to the South 227 Section G

147

THE XXV

RETURN

HOME

A Last Look at Pero Mcditations on Ancient Bcginnings . Epilogue

. 23.S

245 247

THE

SOUTHERN , ZONE OF THE CHIMU El\lPIRE

·XV[IJ

What do we know of Peruvian Pre-History?

XXIII

Section E

XVII EMPIRE

SOUTHERN THE

XXIV

XIX VlIJ

Crossroads of Cultures and Empires: The [equetepeque VaUey

THE

The Largest Astronomy Book in the World. New Aspects of Ancient Nazca

Sectiou C

THE NORTHERN ZONE OF , THE CHIMU EMPIRE

Acrial Photography in the Reconstruction of the Past

Section F

XXI

The Virú and Chao Valleys Small Isolates A Potential Giant: The Santa River

Section H

181 187

Through Canyons and Fields in the Upper Santa

195

The Nepcña Valley: Southern Limit of Moclüca Culture

203

Puzzling Ruins of the Casma Vallcy

211

APPENOIX l. Mochica Word Lísts Glossary Key to map pago 40 Bíblíography Index 6. Addenda

2. 3. 4. 5.

MATERIAL 248

2.50 2.50 251

254

264

l'lu:

t·111t11n al

material v.

ba'i~ of tlu- uncient oonstal

Huuaím

Ascopc, Clucama ( :0:1,t ol Pc-ru 1'.owk.

un uuc-icut

uqucduct

Vulk-y.

'\orthwest

FOREWORD

n these pages and in the pictures spread before him the reader will encounter a record of one of mankind's great stories of the past: the rise of one of the most important native American civilízatíons in ancient Peru. As the magnificent photographs of this book attest, it is a story engraved and molded upon the surface of one of the most unique regions of the world: the raínless desert coast of Pacífic South Amcrica. In the valleys whose rivers rise in the Andes and fall to the ocean across this aríd narrow coastal strip are found the remains of the first man who entered western South America. This early man was a hunter, fisher, and gatherer of wíld foods, bis numbers were few; and the material comforts of hís life simple and crude. Gradually, he came to assume mastery over his strange environment. He became a Iarmer, skilled in írrígatíon and in a knowledge of plants. His villages grew larger, craftsmanship in stone, pottery, and metals was díscovered and improved, and he built great monuments to his gods, palaces for his leaders, and fortifications to defy his enemies. Villages became cities, and small tribal holdings expanded to the dimensions of statehood. From the pages of history we know that this development culrninated in the fabulous Inca Empire, but little is generally known of the Chímú Empire which flouríshed on the desert Coast of Peru as a competitor of the Sierra locas and whose achievements are described and illustrated in this volume. The how and why of these ancient American civilizations separated by oceanic expanses of thousands of miles from the Old World - are questions which still puzzle the archaeologist, anthropologist, and the philosopher of human history In what manner did civilization - in

many ways so similar to that of the Old World come to the New? Many pre-historians ( I would estímate a majority) hold that the rise of agricultura! civilizations in the Americas was an independent growth with no significant direct Old World ties and that the prcsence of such similar phenomena in the New World is a demonstration of man's basic unity Dr Kosok shares this belief. Among those who consider American civilizations to be independent developments there is no unanimity of opinion as to the causality of their growth. Dr Kosok, as expressed in this book, feels that groups of mankind with similar cultural antecedents have responded to like natural and social environments in a comparable manner on all parts of the globe. He sees in the rise of írrígatíon and early agriculture in the coastal desert cases of Peru the same inner forces that shaped man's hístory in the important irrigation centers of the Near East, India and China during the late Neolithic and early Bronze Ages. Not all archaeologists or culture historians will agree with ali aspects of Dr. Kosok's views, and I 6nd myself in sorne disagreement. Nevertheless, Dr. Kosok has written a very signi6cant and scholarly book. It is, 1 believe, the most fascinating book ever written on the subject of Peruvian prehistory for the general reader To the uninitiated, a marvelous realm of the past will be revealed that will astound him with its soope and grandeur For many of the ancient settlements of Peru were not Indian camps: they were great ciües with all the meaning that the word city has for the urban dweller It took millions of adobe bricks carried upon the backs of thousands of workers to build a pyramid like the one at Moche, and ali the kíng's engineers must have exercised their ski11 and

•

wisdom to construct the mammoth aqueduct of Ascope. For the professional archaeologist there is a wealth of new information assembled here for the first time. Thís is particularly true of the excellent aerial photographs of prehistoric sites. Because of the barrenness of the Peruvian coastal countryside the outlines of these ancient walls and buildings stand out in sharp relief in the air pictures. The number and size of these sites is surprising. How many professional archaeologísts in the Peruvian field have ever heard of the site of Morro Solar? It is within a míle of Las Palmas, on the outskirts of Lima, and the photograph which Dr Kosok presents reveals several acres of walls, courtyards, and buildings, Yet this great site is virtually unknown to the scientific world. Simílarly, in the Chancay, Santa, [equetepeque, and Lambayeque Valleys there are vast arcb:itectural clusters, photographs of which are presented here for the first time. \Ve cannot deny the past. Its enorrnous weight crowds upon us, the living. The sojoumer in Peru, whether in person or vicariously by meaos of this book, will rapidly be made aware of this fact. Wé may stand uncomprehending before the symbols of antiquity, unable to decipher their meaning. But surely a message is there. For thé form of the present is born of the action of the past, and the moment of today holds within itself the design of tomorrow CORDON R. WILLEY,

Bowditch Professor of Archaeology Peabody Muset{m, Harvard University Formerly with Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Was11ington, D. C

...

~.~

Sccti.on A: Chapters I · n1 r TRODUCTION

Why Study Ancíent Peru?

WHY

STUDY Al'\CIENT PERu? Why single out the Chimús and associatcd peoples who once ínhabited the numerous river oases that He scattered over thc long, narrow, desert Coast of that wondrous country? What contribution can sucb a study make toward an understanding of the complex development of thc whole of human society? These basíc questions excited our interest as wc ventured into our study of the foscinating land of Peru. Many times wcrc we confronted by these same questions Irom others. Thcy demand an answerl The answers, in many ways, are relatively simple. Fírst .f)f all, ancient Pcru represented one of the highcst cultures attained by the American Indians. But more important, the aucicnt Chirnús and other peoples of thc irrigatcd coastal plains developed, from early pricst-dornínated cultures, thc most advanced forms of secular society in the western hemisphere. Finally, knowledge of Chimú society and culture sheds ncw light on the early stages of the aucient Afrasían irrigation soeieties of the eastcrn hcmísphere that once formed the main stream of human evolution. These answcrs nuturally requirc further elucidatíon.

However, beforc the answers are drawn in dctail, we must pause to point out briefly the posítíon of ancient Peru in the general stream of social evolution. In doíng this we must kecp in min<l two basic principlcs: mankind is dicerse, yet mankind. is <me! In fact, thc interplay of these opposíte yet complementary characterístícs is an expression of the dual nature of all social groups. Each group is unique, but each is also part of the whole human family Since its carlicst appearance, rnankind has developed into many distinct hut relatcd groups which gradually sprcad over our planet. Varying cnvironmental both natural ancl social havo and hereditary conditions produced, in each group and in each series of groups, a variety of social charactcristícs, so that today mankínd is divided into a multiplicíty of local, natíonal, and ínternationul economies and cultures, each reprcscnting dífferent levels of social evolution, But, despitc theír diversity of form, ali groups have cornmon charaeteristics bccause they are a part of mankind. Most basie among thc forces acceleratíng mankind's cvolution to newer, more complex and more efficient levels of production havc bcen the rise and growth of agriculture ( and animal husbandry ) in prehistoric times,

Now called El Castillo de llug" pyramid (1111aca) bnilt of sun-baked briek (adobe), locatcd in the small Virú Valloy Fig, 1 (left) Ceremonial portrait water jug Tomaval, tlu- structure probably dares back lo Early Chimú (~loclúca) times. Kosok • Fig. 2 (righl) (huaco), with st irrup spout, typical of the highcst funn of plaslic art of and<ml l'eru. This ltuoco is a product of thc Early Chimú ( Mochka) Pcriod, a pcriod which appears to havc extended fr.om the !alter parl of the flrst millcnium 13.C. to tl1c fü~t part of the fust millenium A.O., if not later The portrait is that of an important ruler as attestl.'d hy thc ear lobe plugs. Guillen. !'iOTtl. Drawing next to initial, copie<l from a portrnit huaco, ¡, that of ao important personage of lhe \lochica Period. Aftcr Doering.

with the resultant appearance of early ci\ ílizutious and class societies, and thc industrial rcrolutíon in modern times, with the resnltant and still conttnuiug ~Lrugglcs for dernocracy Both of thesc mujer trnnsfonuauons reprosent man's increosing control ovcr naturc a11CI socicty, uot merely an "adjustmcnt" to thcm. Clcarly, ncither took place símulnor in<lustrialization ugriculturulizatíon tancously in aJJ human socictics. Each evolved al [irst in specific areas, then spread at dillcrcnt rutes and in diílercnt Iorms, but neithor has yct extended to all of mankind. This 1111ei;e11 decelopment of both agricultnre and the industrial revolution has incrcascd thc dcurec of

dh crsity of prcsent da} cconcmies, social structures, aud cultural Iorms. Al thc same time, thc indusu ial re' olution and its social implications han' lx-en '>t1ppl} i11g tlu: rery basis for cstablishing a11 i11crea.~i11f!./y uniiicd l11111u111 eco110111y 011d cult ure. a lccel in social ecolut icm ichich is now in the procese of [ormation. The availability of a larac amount of documentnry material makes it relarively casy lo reconst ruct, historically. tlH' rise and development of the industrial re' olution nnd the resultant social transformurions. \l 11C'h more clifficult is a roconstruction of the rise of agric11ltun' uud tlw resultnnt social changes, Ior they occurrcd duri11g the

prehistoric, pre-literate stage, possihly

ahout

<'igltt to

ten thousand years ago in thc castcrn hcmisphere and Eveu when half as long ago in thc western hcrnisphcrc, wc do find archaeological material in Eurasiu uud África indicatiug the exístence of early a~rkulturnl siles, it is

COAST PREVAILING

la. No Rain

from Atlontic Oceon,

Desert

1 b. lrrigation lmperative Canal Building

Problems

2a. The Ancient Chimús and Other Coastal Peoples 2b. Highest Art Forms and Social Structures

PACIFIC

OCEAN

Cofd Humboldt Cllfleftl

RAIN WINDS

+--

Fi~. 3 ( below ) Scll('malic topograpliical cross-wctlou of Pe ru. On page< 2 lo 9 are photographs that .. how the natural .111<l cultural of the country'v tlm-« maiu H'{!ion,, namcly the characterisucs Coast, the Sierra nnd the \lontaii.1 • f'ig. -1 ( leít ) \ -cctíon of the desert Coast at the southcrn cdge of tlw \lodu Vallev In the Ioreground what appears to be white s.md is mainh di) <oil, '' hich is not cultivated becuisc it li('s abm t llw hi~h1•,l l1•n·I of pn•,,1•11l day irrigation eanab. Jn andt'nt timt·' a t.11ial pas,ed bctwt-en the two barr<'n mountaiu.. 111 nrdn to hring ,,,tll:r t11 the fü·l<l-, acÍjoining the huge lluarn dd Sol i l'\lrcn11 ldt oí pholograph) lf rnin shoul<l foil ht•n•, mosl oí thc dl'sl'rl h111cl\c;11w would lw cm ere<l with grasscs, flow<'rs a11<l ltl'l'' 1'\l'<"Pt i11 tlw limitccl ar!'as that are salinc or CO\ <'red by sa11d <lun<'s. Tlw porl ol Sal.1' Prry is :it tlw right. ThC' \'C'sscls ar<' la11<li11g hnr¡.:1·~. "lii(•h are 11s1'd in thi~ modern port heca11><' stC'anwr" c;¡11111ot 1·11lt'r l11t• sliallow wat1·r~. Knsok • F'ig. 5 (p. 3) ,\nollwr scclio11 nf tlw <·nastal dcscrl is shown in thi~ dcw ol a part of th<' lmvt'r Cl1ao \'alle) :o\ote the clifferenl b<:>ach le' (·Is, tlw nl\\ s oí sand <hnw~. u11d, n~ 111 l''ig. 4, tlie fuothill;, of the Ancles t'Xlendi11g ínto tlw l':wífk Ocl'an. Se11 iri11. 111rnu111lierC'd scril's.

MONTANA

1 a. Too Much Rain Jungle

diffic11lt to recoustruct the nature and dynamics o( thc social structures that prevailed among the people who buílt and inhubited rhese sites. It is still more difficult to relate thcso social structurcs to those much more ndvanccd forms that we find at the bcginning oí <'arl)

civilizat icns in Eurasia and África. Hence the naturc and St'<JUC'llC:<' of thc various steps in the process of transforma-

tion [rom late tribal socíeties to early civílization are still none too cleur Here, as we shall see, knowlcdgc ¡zainc-d Irom stuclying thc New World can help ns. Tcns of thousands of years ago or cvcn carlicr? whcn the "American" Indíans predominantly, but not necessarily solely, of Mongolian stock bczan coming in numcrous migrations from castcrn Asia, thcy wcrc still in the hunting, fishing, and Iood-gatbcríng staae. They can thcrcfore be consídcrcd a branch of thc Eurasian nnd African lumting, fishing and. [ood-eathertne; socicties w hich, at that time, rcprcsented thc trunk of thc trce of man's social evolution. But, hav ing established thernsclvcs in the western hcmisphcrc, thc lndians bclatcdlj dcvcloped, independeni of the mai11 I r1111k of workl agricultural production in Eurasía, a sccondanj trunk of agricnltnral production, togethcr with such indigcnous handicrafts, builclings, ancl social structures as are charucteristíc of evolving ugricu ltural socicties. lt thus becomes olear that, in a study of rising agrícultural socictics, wc cannot limit ourselv C'S rncrcly to an analysis of the developmcnt of thc 111ain trunk of social evolution in the eastern hcrnisphcrc which probably took place somewhere in the Near East hut we must also investigate thc developments thar took place in the secondarq trunk, in the i ew \Votld. For both developments show basically similar trends, though the forms in which they ex1)ress themsr-l, <'S are diffr-rent, r aturally, such a study must be carricd on and is bcing carrícd on by a multitudc of archaeologists, anthropologists. and historians, each concentrating upon the people in a specific region. Tn our case. we decided to study ancient Peru and specifically those peoples who inhabited the desert Coast of that country Thus we return to our nrst qnestion \Vhy study ancient Pem? Ancicnt Pern wod11ced as clid llllCÍCllt }lexico one o/ tlw higl1esl c11lt11rrs in the western liemisphere. Like parallc•l pt'aks, these indigenous cultmes grew out of the mme pri111itivc agricultural tribal societies which had. themselvrs, evolved from the earlier hnnting and foodeollceting tribal cconomies of America. The factors tbat proclncecl such important evolutionary ndvances, while

1 b. No lrrigation Drainage Problcms

the othcr pcoplcs of the two continents remained at relatiYely lowcr le' cls of ecouomy. obviouslr mcrit inquiry lndcccl, this inquiry is an essential part of the study of man's social C'\Olution in the Americas. Another rcason for stndyiog tbe early Peruvians and ~1exicans is the fact that thcir descendants still comprisc

2a. Primi~ve· Forest Tribes

thc bulk of thc population of Peru, Iexico, and somc of th(' adjacent countrics. But more than that, thcsc pcoplc are now awakening from ccnturies of domination by a \Vest European ch'ilization, and in thc futurc will un<loubt<'dly play lcading roles ú1 the national re' ivals of the cultural, social, economic and political a[airs of thcir

2b. lowest Cultural Forms and Social Structures

political mattcrs they ne' er progressed much beyond the establísluneut of local. priest-dominated. ceremonial centcrs wíth thcir associated population clustcrs. Thc thcory. incidentally. that the ceremonial ccnters of the Maya had been city states similar to those of ancient cornmercial Creece quickly turns out to he Fallacious when one compares the economic systems aud populatíou densitíes of the two societies. J n the Americas, mercantile structu res like those of ancicnt Creecc nev er de' clopcd. The Aztecs progressed considerably further towards a secular society than díd the Maya. But, as the early Spanish Chroniclers clearly relate, even among the Aztecs the priesthood still played a very strong role. Xloreover, recent investigatíons clearly indicare that the territorial exteut and political control of the Aztec Empire was not as great as hitherto had been assumed. In Peru, 011 the other hand, the Inca Empire attaíned

a much larger territorial size and a far superior level of political maturity and adrninistrative centralization than had the Aztecs in .\lexico . More important to us, the coastal ChimÍt Empíre and the smaller coastal confederations, all of which were eventuully conqucred by thc Incas, had built np an economy unique in the Amerícas and had dcvelopcd certain social, political and cultural forrns that were the most udvanced in the Jew World. The Peruvian arca thus affords an unusual opportunity for studyiug spccial and important uspects of the b·ansforrnation of primitivc tTibal socictics into early civilizations wilh their cmerging dass structures and sec11lar rulers. But why stress thc relatively uuk.t1ow11 Chimús ancl other coastal peoplcs of Peru instcad of thc better know11 Incas who livcd in the nearby Anclcan Sierras? \Ve can now turn to this question and answer it in grcatcr

Fig. 6 ( marb<in Childrcn in a coai.tal port. Kosok • Figs. 7 lo 10 illuslrale what man has done lo t·onqtH'r tlw <·oa;.tal de;,erl by means of irrigation ('anals. Thf' clegree of his succcss has depended upon thc amount of watc:r i11 the ri' ers, lhe lopography of th1• valleys, and the irrigation teelmique\ ;1t hb di~posal • Fig. 7 IE>ft) The small 'alley of the largc Oc01ia Ri1 er. on tite South Coa,,t uf Pen1, i~ a 111i11iatun· of the larger 'a lle) s of lhe Central and .'\ortlrn e,,t Coast, which :lrt' clMra<'trrized h) their narrnw ··1u,:cks'' and lheir \vide, fan'ha(X'd coa,tal plaim. Thb pholo~rnph, takeu al an altitude of 20,000 feel, b reproduc't'd bt•cause the northcm vaUcys wc l>tudied are too lar~e to be enc'Omp¡1ss1·d hy a ;,in¡!lt• a1•rial plmtograph. Al tlw exlrf'me right side of tloe 'alley can b<' seen t lw hed of thc Ocoña Rivcr as it runs into the P;1C'ific Oc'<•;m. Tlw c~liL,tal plain b n1lth att·d hy water h~ou~ht frmn the ri1 er h) mea ns of caual systems. The whitc arcas on bolh sicle~ of the cnlti1:tted n·gion are thc dc-sert coa~t:1l hills, which ar.· ahm e tlw le1 el lhat can he re"dwd al pre~t>nt by means of irrigation canals. (' S. ,\rmy 1.U-R-5.l • Fi~\. and 9 ( bdow Unfortunatdv for man, 1110,t oí the South Coast eon~bts of a high mesa through which thc rilers haH• cut narro" patlh. Fig. 8 (lower lt:ft) <.ho"~ a \'-~haped 'outlwm 1:1lln• wl1t>re almosl uo land is a1ailablc for culti,·atioo. Ko.snk • Fig. !! (lowc.•r right ~lul\\~ a L'-,haped 1alley wlwn· a ;,lightly larger amount of e11lti1,1tio11 i,: pos;,iblt>. Ko.~ok.

countrics. Furthermorc, thcy w il] continue to interact at an íncreasiug rate with their neighbors in the Iew World and wíth thc main trunk of social cvolution in Eurasia, until they become un integral part of an evolving uníficd hurnanity It is, thcreforc. \ ital thut we understand their liistorical rootsl In this study we conccrn oursclvcs only wíth ancíent Peruviau

civilizations

since,

in certaíu

respects,

they

rcachcd lugher politiccl and social lecels than díd ancicnt Mexícan cultures. While the Maya produced impressive stoue temples. accurate calcudrical systems and uniquc recording devices superior to those of the Peruvíans, in

.vttr-r a 10111! :-.lntl!\!ll• agaimt a pricxl-doruiuutc-d d<'lail. socicty , the Chimús C'\ e11t11all) produced a socicty domitoan extent uuknowu i11 other parts of the Amornatcd by a secularizctl 11¡>¡>cr class. Tn other words. tluicns

"Second Estate" hurl grow11 more pm' erl 111 1 lum t ho "First Estate." \\'ith the <'' olution of such un udv unccd secular socícty thcn- el<'\ eloped ne" Iorms of property rclationshíps. uccompnníed h) the most adv unccd Iorms

r- .i·t• lu-n- thr- extcnsivc. irrigated plait1' ol purt This situation helps to C:\pl.1i11 "h~ thc '.1lle~ ~ rr-gion of tlw Cl11111Í1 E111pin•. The pyramid is Huaca Cucurripe, which probably "•'' built in E:irl~ 11111111 inh-rrupted by the dilforenl puttci n ol the walls urrounding thc huaca. un illustration of ho« tlw p.1st is Fig. 10. In contrast to tho arcas ~l11l\ln

in Figs. 8 aud 9,

f arther north, the expunse o] l'tdti' at<'d un-a b e' en grcatcr

k11tl\\ 11 i11 tlll' '' l">l<·111 hemisphcre. Thc coa-tul sot'ietie~ produced thl• fi1wst ceramics

ol social urbunizutiou

( xtochíca and Xazca ) und the fi11e:.t tt>\lile, ( }.:azca and Paracas ) of vmcricn, They also constructed hundreds of

ol the Chic.unu \'alk·>· une ul the large 'alk~' llÍ th, \.urtlrne~l Coast. In thc Lambnyequc Cornplex. of the Xorthw l''l Coast becarue tlw ~<'•tb oí importaut cultures and social devc lopmcntv, aml comprised the Chimú times. '\ott· 110" the uniform patterns uf cau.rls and Iurrows of tlu- mod1•111 'ugar hacienda are still asserting ihl'll in the prevent. Figs. 8 tu 10 were taken in 1!l~O-l1 Irom a Fuucett l .ine nirplunc. Kosok,

adobe pyrumíds thnt are scattered over the Coust. This cultural richucss und soda! complcxity dcvcloped i11 au arvn wlu-r« ugrtcultur« depended «ntireh] OI! irrignt ion

a unique Iorm of production for advanccd societies in this lu-misplu-rt-! S11ch a cornplex of interrelated factors. ol» iously, rcqulres im cstigation. The lx-autifu] cerumics und textiles of coastal Peru are wcll l..110\\ n throuuhout thc world aud hav e becn studicd for some time, Scholurv have se-nsed the advancr-d nuturrof thc socio-political structure of at lcast sorne oí thc co.rvtu] pcoples But thus far 110 one has im estigated thenature ª" wcll as thc social and cultural implicatious of tlu-ir irriuation c•c.·011otn) It seems vital. therefore. to avcertain i11 vonu: dctuil thc nature and extcut of lhi"> form ol a¡zrk111tural production and its iuterrelationship with other [actors. 0111~ a~ainst such a backzround can thc lilt• proccsscs of tlwsl' socicties be uuderstood as a whok-. Such a11 irrigation stud) also pro' idos the basis Ior ,,,·aluating th« nnture of thc intr-rrelationship of rhc cnlturcs of thc Coa'>t witl: those of the Andes.

T1 ue, i11 l ew t\lt':-.ico, Arizona ancl adjacent arid scctio11s of uorthr-rn und western Mexico, an inigation econ0111) wus nlso esscul iu] for oxistence. But as a result ol specifi«, lirniting gPographic conditions, rhese earlv irrigalion societies dcveloped 011 sucli a small scale tlmt tite) could 11t•ver hope to rouch un economic, social und politicul kn•I i11 ali) Wil) comparable to thut of coastal Peruv iau

Filo(. J 1 ( leít 1 111 tlw mi~hl} \ude, wt enter a diífereut workl. 111.111 111 hi' t·o11qw:~l uf nature has l1<1d 111<m) more <l1ffic11ltit·~ lo º' t•rt·m11t• than cm thc Coast, In thousands of ycars he has pain11111} had..t·d 0111 ol ti!( ltill, .md huilt np, with earth ;111d vtone, t lw c 11dl1•" 1111mhc·1 uf l<'rr;tted farm, (andenes) that cover muny ni llH' 111<11111t,1in.,idt•, uf l'.·ru. Dependent upon moderare linl irn~i::111,11 r,1i11, 11(' h;h olle11 had lo huild irrigalfo11 canals lo SUJlJllc111e11t lii- ".1tt r 'llPJ)I) Iudeed, lw pmhahly prae-ticed irri¡.:atio11 ll<'H' lwlmt• lw p1·rn1;11w11t 1) c·nt(·n·cl tlw dl',ert Coa~l ~omc lhref! L11ou,,111cl ) 1·ar' al{o. Tlw two whitc 'Plll> al the t':\lrC'rne ri~hl aml ldt ol tlw plu1ln1traph. as \H'll a~ the 011e in lhe n•uter, art' dllagn tl1:1l :11(• 1:0111Wl'lt•d h>· long 11arrnw palhs. which wiud tortuou'l) up :111d do" 11 llw 11101111lt1i11,idl's. Oftt·n one ur two <la>S ar1• l'C'· q11ll'l'd for tl11· joun11')" h)· toot or 011 mule hack- lwtwet•11 two 11l'ighbori11g \'illag('~. whil1' 011 the Coast only a ft>w hcmr~ arl' 111•1•(1'-d for a wall .. lwtwr•1•11 llt'i¡.:hhoring Yilhlge~. Thb photog1apli sholl'' tlH' 11p1wr limih of eulth ;\!ion. Jn the baekground .ue tlll' b:un·n '' i11ds" ept 11111w .111d the snow-co' e red rnounlai11 top,. l' S .• \m1y .!111-H-1.l • Fig. 12 ( ldt mar¡.:i11) Anclt•an fonnt'r f..ow~ • l'i¡:r. ¡:¡ ( ril.(hl) Tlw n·gicm of eternal ice and ~110\\ thal tm\el' .1hmP tlw 1·1dti,at<-d fil'lc1' oí man. Sen:icio .!69!:R ..].$.

1 lvrv,

•

societ ics. Thcsc societ ies rnay , t l H·rdon . 1 ><' l'li miuatvcl ¡ 11 a prcseutuuon of our rnaín prohlcm. Jt is true that irrigation was carrir-d 011 .11HI still i:in thc Andes. which ris« p1 vt·ip1to11sh [roin carricd 011 the narrow coastal dr-scrt. Hut the sociul s1g11if1t'<;IH.'t' of Sicrru irrigation was diflerent from th.rt ni tlu- Coast of t lw Íll!!; to tho cornplex topography uud l'lim.itolog\ Iourul 1111 ouuhout the The seasonul rainfall Andes. Ancles is suflicicnt lo pcrrnit un exclusi: l'/1¡ minlall ag1 iculture in tite hiuher alt itudr«. In c1111t1;1:-t the .11 id hot tours of sorne of thc intra-Audcan ,-.¡(k~' 1t•c1·1\ e so littk-

°''

•

rain that tlH'\ rcquu« crup. \long tlw vaxt w hcr« 11111c·h ol thv moderan- hut a1111uall~ t ion. 111 111a11~ purt-, ol

iniuation in ordr-r to produce .1 'lo¡w-; o! thc :\11dt•a11 mouutuir», icrru population Ji, es. thcre Í'> a lluctuntinu aruouut of precipita this r('\!ÍOn irrigati011 is not t'.\\1'11·

hut it was iutroducccl uud tia! [or ¡ilq¡.\irnf csistence. [onn of water s11ppl), lwdt•\ t•lo¡wcl as a s11¡1¡>lc111e11/ary cuuse it lwl¡wd lo .\/ahili;:e agricultura! production nnd to tni«: tlu: levo! o] subsistencc, until finally a rcg11/nr B) prodncing a stablc cconomj Htr¡1(11s lwt"anw possib!«. w it l. ~11C·h a xurplus. irrigation probably playcd an cssen-

111 1lw \fo11t,111,1. "liil'h 'trdd1l'' fro111 lhe lnothifl, ot lu- •\ndt•, lo tlw t.ir 1\tla11tk. man h.1, to t hix duy conquered onl} '0111\ ol th, h.1111.., ot tli1111,;1ncl, 1>f 1 ributuries o! hc Amazou. Th« «vulut ion ol lib t•1.·01111111~ a111I l'11 ltun- wu-, dravtically retarded b~ too much water :111d tou 111111·11 1,d11. \1¡111 could conque-r the dcscrts ol tlu- C<tu'I ;incl tlu- lwiglit, ot thr- Si1•rra' hut 110! thr- d1•pth, ol thc j1111gll' Fig l!l. p !\ lmH'l righl, Sal'ido 0:!117J .ind Fig. 2.2.. p. !). upper right. s,•11 ;,.;,., 111n111mlll'tC'd ~eiie~) From Iquitos, Peru, lo tlu- Aí luntic Ou·un a di,l,11Kt' 111 'OllH' :JO(l(l miles. the rivcr droj», 11111~ :300 led. A' a n-vnlt. tl1t'l'l' j¡, considerubl« Hooding and meandoring of tlu- hr.mclu-s ol tl11• \111arn11 C Fil(. 14, p. 8. lelt margín. Serril io 10!1 ·,!, Fil.(. 22) Vlorcnv e-r. duriug the wet seasou wheu the Am,11:011 \Ollll'tim<·s riw, 1111Hc tlia11 so k11 (tlw hra11d11' ">111l'wh;it ¡,.,,. permuncnt h.rhit.uiuu 'il<'' urv «Iu-n dillicult Lo rnuintnin. [n thc area where thc floocb occur, house-, .m lnult 1•11 stilt~ Fig. 15. p. 8. up¡wr ldt. ko~ok. ,111d Fig. 18, p. R. uprx-r wnlt'J. Kosn]: , on ralts (Fig. 17. p. 8. hmt'r lcft , l\.n,ok) ur 1111 hillock». 1)111.(m1t hoah are u-ed n 1·r'" lu-n- 111 tlu- .trt·;1 Fig. 1(), p. H. u•nl<'r IPft. Ko.;ok) • Fig. 20 (p. 9, uppr-r lr lt ) Ci<111l horM•t.1il,, 11;11 ni tlll' nlcl1 ,¡ t~¡w' 111 plantx. [ound m-.rr l'i11go \lari.1. 1\.11\ok • Fig. :H (p.!). low er le!l) A11 inlere-iing ¡.(ro11p ol Lhrt•c• ¡ltlllll trt•t•i. .\ l'pieal 't·ilurila of tlw \1011tat'ia l'.1rr~i11g honw dri11ling \\ak1 K11.wk 111-.1r li¡11ilo,, J..11wk • Fig. 2:3 ril.(ht 111arg111 í

1111•

tia! role

111 thc 1 l~l' of t>arl) das~ xocictu« and polincal a role whose natun- ami impoi t1·111pitt'!'- i11 the Andt>~ .111<:t'. ho« ever, h.t~ not as yet been dctcrnuned. ~11ppk-nu-nt.u > lorms of Ü'ri~atiou were probuhly also ~i~11ificant in rhc ndvunocd soei<•tipo; of the \le\iea11 plutcuu. H111, in th« coastul desert valleys of Peru, ii riuatiou huv ;tl\\'a) s h<'<'11 tlu: si11c qua 11011 of ugrtcult ura! ¡muluctío11. \\ ·11/111111 if. lifC' icoukl he imnosstbtc. Tt is true at prcscnt it was t ruo in llw pust! \\'liat are $011ll' of thc írnplícatíons ol :111 irrigatíon agrit·11lture? T11 s11ch a11 econom)·. as contrastr-d '' ith 01w that clcpcuds enlirel} 011 rniufall. man everts constdcrablr cout rol urn eme of I he bosic nat 11 ral prod uct i re f orces, Í.<' .. uat cr \\'hile thc r.iiufull cnrnmunity !2;(WS through a l') el<· ul hopinu. pra) i11g and saNificin~ fo1 th« eomitt!!

l., l

11,

)!:

.,:.tt.

.:i t,

•lf

rs -lh )j

"' •)

ltÍf )¡• /

lh 111

'I'he P> ra111itb shown here, unlikc tlu>-l' that .ippcur 011 the prev ious p;\gt·'· \H'fl' apparently built primurily ,1, ~t.1ld} burial places for secular rulers. Fígs. 20 and 30 are Chi11<'M' P> ramíds that are located near Sinn! 11 • Fig. 29 ( abo- e lcll) b a flan D> m~I> burial "mound" with a base meusuriug 532 feet by 532 frc>l :i11d u li1·ighl of 80 feet. On th1· top b .1 structure 10 Icet híah. Surrounding the P> ramid are the wulls of a l.'0111pou11<l that is 1276 Ieet squurc • F'ig. !"!O ubov e right ) ¡, tht• tomb of Emperor Shl-huung-ti, who liv ed in the third eeutury B.C. and is knowu us the Iounder of the Chiuesc P.mpin·. Thc dunensions ol tlw P> rnmid base are 1600 U} 1700 le et. and the height ¡, 250 fcct. Thc wullcd coinpouud aruund tlw structure is 2300 by 2750 lcct. This i~ the largest pyrumid in China; indeed. its base urea ¡, about fiw times that of the Creat P} nunid of E~> pi. l lowever. all burinl P} nuuids in China are eonstructcd oí carth ancl requíred relativcly less labor than the stone pyramids of Egn>t. Th1· aho' e informalion has lw1•11 takcn Irom Kiroku Adac-hl's Chcio11 Sliiseki 110 Ke11kyii ( tudy oí l hstorical Hernains at Ch'ang-un ). Tok} u Oncnt,d Librury , 1933. This '11l1111ll' L'<mtain~ photographs of more thuu a dozen other Chineve pyramidv, with ground plans, dimensions .uid dcscriptiou • Fig. 31 (l1mc1 lel t ) ¡, a , .. rtical aerial photoµr:iph of the wcll known Step Pyramid of Djt·~··r in Eµ> pt. Poínted Jl} r.11111d,. hkc thc Iamou-, J'} nunid ol C1.11·li. urt- unusual. (;time// • Fig. :J:2 ( lowcr right) i1t a cross sectiou uf tlw Djescr P> r:1111id ~hcm ing tlw ditlcrcut carlicr Iorms as w ell "' tlu- 1111dcrgm1111d bnri.11 v.iult-, Ed1e11rd1 • Figs. 3<! (p. la) Threo lia~i1· i.ty)<-, oí Chinese pyramid-, wit h ('{1111po11nds. Adachi • Fig. <!4 (p. 13) Cround plan el a Chínese p~ ramid. \lea~ur1•nwnt~ are in units equívalent lo the American foot. Atlachi. Jt is still a moot quc.'>tion whr the P}Tamids of Babylonia, Peru :rnd MC'xico app<m·11tly ~t·n ed priim1rily ns een•monial centers for the living while thosc of Egypt and Chinu s1·~·11wd to ha' t1 been bwlt primarily for the deacl. Perhap~ lxitli for111s wcre u~ed C'\'t•rywh1·n· i11 l'arlier Limes as, for exarnplt', in tlw ~lbsi,,,ippi Vallt'} <.:ultures; later on, <pedal t·rn1clitio11~ aud d<·,·c\oprnenls frHort•d lhl· one form or tht• olhl'r ~ lurl.'o' t'r, il musl hl' rt'l\lt'mhC'rcd that thc ceremonial pymmid~ built for lht• lh ing wcrc al-.u ofkn mi.•d :i- burial sites for the clead, whilt• tlit• prr.1mid' for thc dt'ad in tura "ere ust>d as c.-cr¡,·n1011ial shrines by the lh ing. Thi' interph1} of th<• clt•ad and the li\ing a• oigniCicanl factor> in tbe e' olution of scx:it•h e"-pre.,Sl'd here in architectu.re - b a fosci11ating Uut >tilJ UllCXp)orl.'cl <.ubjl'<.t. q ..

on the warrn Coast in about four months, wbereas a much longer period is required in the cold Sierras, rneans that the coastal peoples have much more time to deoelop

arts and handicrafts aud carry on otber activíties. Thus, a greater number of cultural activities can be developed on the Coast. Tbese activíties, rnoveover, take on forms that are different from those of the Sierras. But these very factors contained the material preconditions for the rapid eoolutioti of a class society on the Coast of Perul The priests or chiefs, or both, could and did rapidly expand their existing prestige and power by demanding and exacting increasing amounts of snrplus food products, an increasing number of handicraft objects and, most important, an increasing amount of "leisure" ·time which people had at their disposal due to the increased efficiency of production. This "leisure" time was put to use by the rulers, who forced the people to build the numerous pyramids, temples, roacls, walls, fortresses and other constructions that still litter the whole Coast pf Peru. As a result of the growth of the power of the rulers, the free labor of the inhabitants was turned into [orced labor Thís domination by the priests and chiefs was naturally facilitated by the density of population mentioned above. To further consolídate their power, the rulers set t1p a centralized water-control bureaucracy whose function was to develop, regnlate and safeguarcl the large írrigatíon systems and to control the distríbutíon of the life-giving waters to their subjects. While these activities increased the quantity of crops, tbey also increased the amount of tribute for the rulers. Thus, coastal írrigation sooietíes, by contrast to Sierra societíes, tended to be precocious in their development of class societies, which were an integral part of all early cívilizations, This precociousness expressed itself, not only in the tempo of growth and in the amount of material wealth, but also (in certain regions and during certain periods) in the higher artistic levels of ceramics, textiles and metal objects. This precocíous social development also expressed itself in changes in archítectural forms. It is generally accepted that the first great outburst of coastal culture in Peru carne with the priest-dominated socictics wheo villages were apparently gronped around a local ceremonial center consisting of a puramid. or a group of pijmmtd« lhe churches of the ancients. However, as interna! social differentiation and confücts evolved and milítary-economíc expansion set in, the secular chiefs as military specialists grew in power until they dominated the priest-

hood. This development was expressed archítecturally by the gradual growth of large, walled urban centers the palaces and rulmg centers of the chiefs while the pyramids of the priests were reduced to minor proportioos or placed outside the walled compounds themselves. The rate and nature of tbese changes obviously were not unifonn throughout the Coast, With the rise of tbe secular authoríty, modiflcations in property relations and in the forms of political administration must also have taken place. But we are still somewhat in tbe dark as to wbat these changes were and how they were actually achíeved. CbanChan, the capital of the Chimú Empire with a possible population of sorne fifty thousand - emerged as the largest and richest of the many secular urbtm sises, not onlsj of Peru, but of all the Americas. Here, the Grand Chimú held court, and from here he ruled bis roany subjects living in more than a dozen irrigated valley oases along the Coast. Wben tbe Incas finally captured ChanCban, they were amazed by its luxury and accumulated wealth. Immediately they carried off tbe loot to Cuzco, their Sierra capital, only to be relieved of it soon after by tbe even more rapacious Spanish conquerors. The rainfall and partíal-írrigation mountain societies of Peru also developed class societies with corresponding early civilizations. Here, tbe process of development must have been somewhat dilferent from that on tbe Coast. The economy was of a less specialized type, embracing both rainfall and irrigation forros of agriculture. The more generalized economy of the Sierras was also exemp1i6ed by the fact that the people tbere raised not only the coastal crops of maize and beans but also the mountain crops of quinoa and potatoes and made use of domesticated llamas and alpacas. Furthermore, the mountain peoples had to struggle barder \vith nature to extract a living and the necessary surp]us products for tbeir rule1·s. This mode of existence must have been reffected in their somewhat different political and social institutions as well as in their artistic achievements. The specific forms of tbe development of class societies in tbe Sierras, compared and contrasted with evolving coastal forros. is a fascinating subject which some day must be studied! lt is true that the precociously developed coastal peop1es were richer, more cultured, more urbane and more sophisticated than the mountain peoples. These charactcristics, however, were based on an economy and a social structure that \verc more specialized, more "arti-

ficial" and neighbors. A thorough, detailcd analysis mentioned characteristics of the coastal irrigation societies can only he accomplished in the fuhire when more material is available tban is tlie case at present, though we have already indicated sorne of the specialized, "artificial" and vulnerable aspects of their life. We can, in addltion, indicate sorne aspects of the military vulnerability of the coastal peoples. The exposed pQsition of their isolated vaUey oases in the dese1t plaius and tbe fact that they owed thefr very e>..'i.stence to a complex set of artificial waterways, the canals, which could easily be destroyed, made them very vulnerable to attacks from one another as well as from the mountain peoples that periodicalJy poured down from tbe Sierras. The Sierra peoples were ultimately victorious in their conquest of the coastal peoples; we have only one b·adition indicating a temporary conquest of Sierra territories by coastal peoples ( the Chinchas) Nevertheless, it is these "hothouse" cultures of tbe Coast that must attract our attention, since they reached certaio levcls which tbeir Sierra neighbors did not attain. In answering the question as to why we have chosen to study tbe Cbimús we bave given the clue for answering our final query: What contribution can a study of thc coastal cultures of Peru make toward a better understanding of the evolution of human society in the mainstream of its development in Afrasia? Although we find that tbe agriculture of coastal Peru, based entirely on irrigation, was unique among the higher cultures of the Americas, this type of economy had similar but much further developed counterparts in the castern hemisphere, namely, in ancient Egypt, Babylonia, the Indns and Yellow River Valleys, and parts of Central A<;ia. We also find, in tbese counterparts, the transformation of primitive tribal societies into early class civilizations. These Afrasian societies, like tbose of coastal Peru, werc also characterized, at a certain stage, by a precocious cultural development in contrast to that of their mountain neighbors, who subsisted· on a rainfall economy However, in Afrasia there are considerable gaps in our knowledge of tbe long period of h·ansformation from the more primitive tribal societies to the fairly well establisbed class societies that confront ns at the clawn of the so-c-alled historical period. ln Egypt an<l Babylonia, this period extended for several millenia before the first part of tbe third millenium B.C. At prescnt, it is dillicult to reconstruct much of this early h·ansition period, for thc 13

¡ rernaíns of this period hav e been ~n:atl) líe buríed undcr thc accumulatcd struc-

half a million pcoplc, was cstablishcd. This empire, as íudicated above. was finally absorbed by thc conquering

tures built and rcbuilt durina the Iast fivc thousand y ears. But in the case of coastal Peru. the various steps in the l'arl) phasc of this pcriod of transition can he trnced by indirection be gi\('ll a nrchacologically and can with an increasing dcgrcc of accusoda! intcrprctation racy nnd detail, The reason for this is as Iollows When tho Spaniarcls arrivcd in thc sixtccnth ccntury, thc l ndiun population of coastal Peru had reached a stage of economic, social und pclitical developmeut that was sornewhat on the sume level as that found at tlie hegi1111i11g of thc historie periods in Afrasiu, Despite the hnvoc that the Spauiards wrought among the con quered T nd iun peoples. thc 100 ycars of colonial aucl republican rule destroyed or1ly u part of the archaeological remains nf tite past, In uddiuon, se' eral Spaniards wrotc sorne \ aluablc, albcít mcagcr. descriptious of some of the institutions and customs of the peoplc they conquered. Conscquent ly, on thc basis of the limited archacological and archival research thus far accomplíshed, it has been possible to trace lo sorne extent, the various steps of thc social, cconomíc, politícal and cultural dcvclopmcnt on thc Coast, \\'e have bccn able to establish thc fact that ( probably beforc 1000 B.C.) of aft<•r the inrroduction communíties, bascd on an irrismull, príest-dorninated gat<•cl, maize agricnlture and assocíated with thc V cry /~a rly Coastnl Cha ví n ( Cupisniqnc) Pcrlod, t horr- developed thc urtistically outstancling Early Chimú ( \ lochica ) Pcriod, Tbe11 followed the somewhat e011f uscd und illdefiued Middle Period (Tiahuanacoid ), uncl Hnally th« secular. urban Late Chirnú Period. Duríng the laucr pcriod. a coastal empire, includiug probably more than

army of Inca mountaiueers only a Few gent:rations lwfon· tlw arrÍ\ al of thc Spaníards. Thc cultural and social sequence_ preseute<l aboH• aud <li!>cussed in more detail in Chaptcr \'III. has bct'n quite orthwest Coast of P<'ru. dellnitcly Pstahli-;hed for the t>couomicnlly the largest and most important part of tlw wholc Coast. Similar parallel sequen('CS haH' also bc•t>n dctt>rn1iucd for the Central and thc South Coasl cu lt11n•s. though in a less complete fonn. But such clcfinit<' and dctailed sequc11ces of cconomic. social and cultural l<'vc:>ls for tlw early periotls of the highcr Afrasian irrigatio11 e11lturcs liave nol yel becn establi.slied. Thc' conti1111ed investigation of thc cvolving c'C'onomic•s ancl cultures of ancicnt Pcru will becomc íncrcnsingly iinportant as mure archaeological ancl archiva! matt'rials are brought to light and studicd. Utílizing thc PNnvia11 elata, we will one tlay be able to ri>construct more· dearly a ncl t:vt>u certain basic aspccts of thc late prehistoric pcriod of thc Old \Vorld. Ami, ;1s the early historie is wc ha' e alrcady pointed out. such a reconstrnctio11 fundamental, since Afrasia, dming tl1C' pcriod of tra11.'.itio11 from tribal societies to early ch ilizations, r<'pr<·s<•nt<•d the 111ai11 lnmk of human social c,·olution. .\t thc same time. as new material conceming tlw laH· prl'historic and carly historie perioch of .\frasia is dis<:O\ crccl. furthcr light will be thrmrn on tlw .... ignific-;111t·c·

archacolouical

oblitcrated

.. .

;

01·

...

..•

of certain aspects of ancie11t Peruvian cultures. For in Afrasia there evoh·ed social ancl cultural kvds thal ancient Arnerica began to approach b11t 1wvcr atlain<'d. Knowledge of thcse more achanccd lcvcls is itnportant, for. from the vantage poir1ts of hif!,l1er lc•v<'ls, we can 1111dcrsta11d more clearly tlw 1111solred probll'ms mul 1111-

develoµed

710te11tialities

nf e111ergi11g lower lcvels!

A word of caution must be added. lt woulcl. of l'Oursc. be 11nscientific: to transfer spccific P<'rll\ ian forms of dea11d \ice \ ('r!'ia. B11t ' elopment mechanically to Afrasia tlw general sec1uences in thc de' clopnwnts of t•arl) dassstratillt'cl societies in Peru aud Afrasia are '><> ~lril.ingl) parallel. although scparatecl in time and space. that they 11ot only justify but maJ..c impcraliw tlw use of tlw comparati' e mcthod. By applying this method with intellio~ tlw concrt•tc geuce arrcl with critica! u11dersta11din~ issucs invol\'ed, we can draw ancient Pc•ruvian cultures from thl'ir apparent exotic isolalion in world dcvdopmcnt and place them in their true• perspeetive as i111porlnnl Jandrnarks in the evolution of thc grcat human family Thus, we can further suhstantiatc the basic principie' that under similar conditions mankind has clcvcloped similar institutions and similar ideas. whilC' dilfrrl'11C('S in tlw specilic fonns of thcsc institutions ancl idC'as ar<' tlw rc·sult of tlw manifold combinations of spcciflc local coudilions. :.pecific local traditions and speciflc local needs. P<'1'11 f11r11islirs .\1riking ei;idc11ce of this lmsi<· lard

--.: •

I~ Preparatíons

the Social Science Research Couucil that cnablecl me to make a survey study of important sections of China, India, Iraq, Egypt and other irrigated rcgions. After my return to the United States sorne of my findings were presented in a paper before the American Oriental Society At this point ancient Peru attractcd my attention. As I began to read sorne of the availablc material, I decided it would be worth whilc to investigare in greater detaiJ the early cultures of that fascinating country This, I felt, would gi\'C me a deeper and more detailed insight into the problem of early social transformations. Most ímportant, I wanted to visit Peru to obtain a concrete pícture of the country Fortunately, in 1939, my former wife, Rose Wyler, and I were able to make a brief tour of South Amcrica, \Vhíle there, we made a preliminary ground survey of sorne of the ancient canal systems of the Northwest Coast of Peru and came to the conclusion that a further study of the problern would yíeld important resnlts. The results of our preliminary survey were presented in 1940 in Washington. D C., before the Eighth Americau Scientific Congrcss, aud publishecl in the Proceedings of the Congress. It becarne clear, cven after this short survcy, that it would be possible to do in coastal Pcru what had not yet been done in any of the archaeologically explored áreas of irrigated Afrasia, namely, to enter on thc exístíng maps

thc rcmains of all thc major ancicnt irrigation systems and to determine the maxinwm culticated. area of eacli ·valley in ancient times. The areas of all the valleys could then be addcd togcthcr to obtain the total cultivated area for the whole Coast. A clear picture of the actual geographic-economic framcwork, wíthin which the economy, politics aud culture of each valley developed, would thcn emerge togethcr with tbe geographic-econornic rclations of the valleys to one auother at their máximum stages of developmcnt, Morcover, in this dcsert land, it would be possible to locate and map the most important ruins still remaining from ancieot times without Iaboriously hacking clown dense jungle vegetation. On the basis of this wealth of basíc material, wc could thcn reconstruct grapliically the main physical aspects of pre-Columbian coastai Peruoian: societies during their maximum stage of decelopment. Truly a worthwhilc project! As stated in Chapter J. such a project would be extrcmcly difficnlt to carry out in J ndia, Egypt, Iraq and China, not merely because of the greater áreas involved, but also because constant rebuílding activities during the past 5000 years have precluded determinatíon of the cxtcnt of the arcas once under cultivation. These activities have destroyed or covered over the main ruins of the period of transítion from the late stages of prímitíve societies to the early stages of civilization.

Fig. l. Part of an exterior wall of Huaca el Dragón in the Moche Valley The whole huaca was recently excavated by Dr. Schaedel and his assistants (see Chapter IX) The unusual desígns díscovered on the adobe walls may be of calendrical significance. Schaedel.

. t

During our cursory sun·ey of Peru in 1939 we noticed that most of the ancíent canals and ficlds no longer in use today were located mainly along tbe Northwest Coast. This puzzled us. We made ínquiries and were truly astoundecl to learn that an unusual botaoical phenomenon was the cause of this situation! Beforc discussíng this problem, Jet us first contrast certaio hydrological aspects of ancient and modern crops. In ancient times the main coastal crop was maíze and a

subsidiary one, beans, Cotton was also grown, for it was the raw material from which practically ali olothes on the Coast were manufactured, But both maize and cottou are crops that require liule water per acre. Thus the limited arnount of water in most rivers was uscd to irrigare ratbcr extensü;e land oreas. When the Spaniards came, the population along the coast shrank tremendously and so díd, though to a lesser extent, the size of the irrigated areas. But the nincteenth and twentieth centuries saw the rapíd growth of exports of agricultura! crops, of which cotton proved to be the most profitable. Since cotton requires little water per acre to cultivate, the amount of water available in each river could therefore inigate much laud. As a result. many of the ancient canals began to be put back into operation and the old flelds agaín placed under cultivation, 16

But soou difficulties arase. ln the extensive and econornically most important region of the whole Coast, namely, from the Supe Valley on the Central Coast to the Motupe Valley on thc Xorthwest Coast, the cotton plants were generally attackcd by a destructive disease. \Vhy these valleys suílered aud not the others is still unexplained. As a result, the plauters turned to the next most profitable crop. narnely, sugar Sugar cane had already beeu introduced by the Spaníards in sorne of tbe northern valleys soon after the conquest, but this was clone to satisfy theír own local needs, But sugar requires two or three times more water per acre each year than does cotton! Rice, wbich is also grown here, but for Peruvian consumption only, requires cven more water! Therefore, the limited amount of water in most rivers necessítated the cultivation of a mucli smaller a rea than liad been the case unth a maize or maize-cotton economy of the ancie11ts. This left considerable oreas, once cultioated. in ancient times, uiithout the essentiol uiater. Thus was the mystery explained! For topographícal reasons the land thus cultivated was gcnerally in the part of the valley closest to the ríver itself. Consequently the ancient canals, fields and ruins in the more distant peripheral oreas remained untouched by módem agricultura! expansión. Because thesc sugar-producing valleys contain most of the ancient canals and fields no longcr in use, they would naturally attract thc attention of the paleohydrologist. But by a peculiar coincidence these sarnc valleys also constítuted the main reglan of the Chimú Empire. Bv determining the form and size of the areas pre,iously cuÍtiYated in thcse ,-alleys, we could thus obtain a clear picture of the geographic-economic aspects of the Empire itself. .\íost of the canals we were later to find were of course already k110\\'ll to engineers and to many local inhabitants. Sorne o( thc ruins of impo1tant sites which we were to map had alrnady been studied by archaeologists wbo had, moreO\'er, drawn valid conclusions concerníng the general sequence of cultures along sorne parts of tbe Coast. But it became essentíal that an integratii;e surt;ey be made

whích would gi\'e the geographic-economic framcwork within which the social sh·uctures and cultural activities of thc coastal irrigation societíes of the past could be studied in a more concrete and systematic way After ha,·ing better acquainted myself with the geographical, historícal and archaeological literature deaüng with ancient Peru, 1 took a year's leave of abseuce from Long Island Uni,·ersity in 1940, in order to return with my wife to Peru. Duriog that year we collected all available hydrological data on the various coastal rivers in the Dirección de Aguas y Irrigación. We also combed through the historical materials in the Kational Library and in thc Geographic Society of Lima. Sorne of these materials were subsequently clesh·oycd by fire. 1-lost important, we began a ground survey of the individual valleys on the Korthwest Coast. But we were badly handicapped by the absence of aerial surveys of these valleys and by our financia] inability to hire a truck or car for our field work. The Peruvian Ministerio de Fomento, which was then in the process of building the Pan American Híghway, happily overcame in part our second obstacle by placing its trncks at oux disposal whene,·er po.')sible. Various lwcendados aloug the Coast also kindly loaoed us cars, trucks and horses for our work. \Ve were gi,·en additional assistance by Señor Pardo y ~liguel of Hacienda Pátapo in thc Lambayeque Valley He took us on severa! füghts in his prívate airplane over the many ancient sites in this and neighbodng valleys. ~Ir Faucett, the director of the Faucett Line, the local Peruvian aviation company, also generously carne to our assistance by giving us a pass for planes of the company fiying along the Coast. We made full use of this valuable privilege and were thus able to locate additional ancicnt canals and archaeological sites. ~foreover, the Peruvian Go' ernment gaye us permission to take photographs from these planes. Thus we were able to obtain numerous low-elcvation photographs of important ancient canals and sites. Some of these are reprocluced in this volume. But the main work was discovering and localizing canals and núns by ordinary ground work and then mapping thcm with a sufficient degree of accuracy so tbat the

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1

Fig. 2 (left) Another portrait huaco of a :'.\lochica ruler or official whose high rauk is indicak<l by bis ear lobe plugs. Cliiclfri-Kosok • Fig. 3 (belo"). Detail of a Paracas textile. Courtcsy of tl1e Brooklyn Jluseum • Fig. 4 (p. 17) .\. collection of late Chimú gold objccts supposedly found in thc Huanney Yalle} Courtesy of the American )fuseum of Satural llistory (Al!SH)

Our mcthod of work arri-, ed in a valley \\ 1.• usually

final n·-.1ilh wnuk] be satisfnctory

was ~implt•. Before

\\'P

had colkxtcd sorne adv anee information ahout the location oí ancieut canals ami ussociutr-d ruins hy sl11dyi11g old maps und hy interv Ít'\\ i11¡._( irri~atio11 c·n~in<·c·r-. aud other offkialo.;. \\'he11 "¡• un h ed in a ',1111.·) wc v isited each s1.•t1l1.•nwnt und haciendo located thcu-. .iud, aftcr the custornury polite Iormu litk-s. \\'C ''<111ld as], a series of pertincnt l l.I\ P you an) a11d1.•11t canals or rui11~ 011 your questions. propcrty? Do yo11 know of any others in the ll<'i~hborliood? \Vhc•n• are they? \Vhat are their narncs? I!, there Ull)011e hcn: to ¡..(ui1.le ns lo tlu- sitc•s? Wc w ere 1!<'11<•r;tl1)

uverwheluu-rl with unswr-rv' \\'ilh tlm additional ínfonnatiou in our posscssion ancl 11suall) accompunied by a local ~ui<le, "<' thr-u set out with eitlwr car, true], or horsos to [ocate the caunls and ruins about which wc had hcurd, \Ve marked thr-ir posítion 011 our maps nnd madc short descriptiv <' notes ol

euch of the ... ites. 1 n the proccss of carry ii11~ 011 this fiel el work we \\'('1<' often rewardcd by findiuz more cunals and archaeolouicul sites than 011r ínlormants and uuides had kuow 11 ol. Crudnally, wc "'<'H' a ble lo piece our information to¡..(c•llH'r hit hy bit until wc obtaíncd a unifiod piel me a kind ot an e11tin• vnlley The wor], wus fasciualing of archueoloaica 1 hu nting t'\ ped itionl

B11l ht•<.·auw this procedurr- had lo be repeatcd i11 each 011r work oftcu tended to hecornc ratlu-r monotouous, How e-ver. th« repetition tended to ha' e <.·0111¡w11sat-

valle-y

i11g. attra<.'li' <.' aspects, Ior <'adi 11t'\\' va lk-y "'as a new advcnturc into a11 unknown n'µ;ion ancl among 1111k11own people. \V<· werc brought i11lo continuous contact with pcrsons Irom ali walks of lif<• of present cht} Peru, rich ancl poor. educated and uncducated, 1mm) of tl1e111. at least in part, descendauts oí tlw .mcient ludian peoples lt wa~ lwarlc•11i11g to \\hosc> "mJ.. \\t' wt•rc now stud)ill~. fiml so 11111('h inl<'rcst in our project ami so m11clt willinl!,nt>ss to lwlp us i11 completinp; it. Ilere along lht• Coa.st. where tlw l ndian c·ompmw11t of tlw Perm ian pop11h1tion i~ less than i11 tlw Sierra~."(' \H'H' '>urprisl'd to fi11cl amon~ man~ ¡woplc· a 'ague, tho11gh per:,istent ª" an•111.•-;s .md pride in tlw ac·hic•,·ements of thd1 Inclia11 n11<:l'~l<>r:., \\'ho pt'opk free fro111 fort•ign had bc·t·11 a11 i11depeml<'11I domi11atio11. The mappi11g itsclf bcca11l<' a l'(•lati\'ely simple problcm. Fort11nat<·I~, P<'rn\'ian Arn1¡ rnaps were ª''ailahlt• "ith the com cuic11t ~cale of 1 100.000 for the coastal are;\ from Lima to tlw Ec11admian fronticr. a distance of more than

si\. hundrcd miles. Thcse maps thus covered the arca oí thc ancicnt Chímú Empiro as well as part of 1 he re~io11 to the south of il. On these maps wc cntered tlw results ol' our fiC'ld work,

Thc scalc o[ the maps was such that one centimeter 011 thc maps rcprcscntcd onc kilorneter on the grountl. The mupv containcd not onl) ropozraphíoal Feutures hut the location of towus. v illaaes. hacienda buildiuus aud roads,

ª''º

Ft1.!'· !) to 8. ~tudul':t tv pe huacos. Fi~. !) (l<·ft t•1•11tt·r) l111d \\Jlli eaptured fhh. • \.\1 \'Jt Fig. 6 right cen ter) T) picul dru« inl.( <1l .t \lot hit·a \\ .rrrior-pricvt ou a widc-handled vl it i up ~pout. In their dr.l\\in¡::~. th<' vlochicns ncver reachcd tite higli tcchnlcul kwl ul t•\p1t•"ion th.\t tlw) rlid in their pJa,lic arts, ,\,\/.\ 11 Fi¡.:. 7 (top) Onh ,1 fe,, huacos of clenched fo.t~ h:I\ P her-u 101111d "' lar Tln- ,¡g11ir.c:111c(· oí the Iist ¡, nnknown; Cliiclí11-"o.\Ok. Fig. 8 ( bouom ) Thc white lwad, with puíuted t') "' and l'\t'IHo" '• as \\ l'll n-. Lltt· hlack ~lirrup spout of this luuun arr- uuiqiu-. ChirlinJ...o.rnk. Fig. !). \ L'araca~ textile Enrly Pcríod ) [rom tlw South (;<M,I, th« n·ginn whcre thc fincst textiles of ancient .\111t'rit,1 wer« WO\ en. A ~1 urly oí 1 hl' dl'~i¡:,'11 in di cate> that it prcbably liad l·,1lc.•11 drical ,¡~nilic;111c<· ('l't' Chapter \'T) .\MSTI

l<;

_____._.~

Starting out from a ÜXC'd place' on thc map W<' would, by following the odomcter ( dístance recorder) on the car or truck, easily determine how many kilometers we were from that particular place. Then we entered the dístance in centimeters on our maps. Cross checking was, of course, necessary When we worked in the open desert. far from a road, we often had to follow a tríangulatíon method. utilizing those hills and structures that also appeared on the maps, The results usually were sufficíently accurate For our purposcs. World War TI interrupted our work. During the war, however, the Uníted States Army rnade a Faírly complete trimetrogon aerial survey of much of Peru. In this type of aerial survey thc plane carries thrce large cameras 011e takes vertical photographs, while the other two cameras. which are fíxcd in the plane at an angle to the ground, simultaneously take obliqne photographs, <me to the lefr, the other to thc right. Thcn the three overlapping photographs can be joined together to form a composite trimetrogon picture from which an cxtensivc vista, from horízon to horizon, is obtained. At the sarne time, since the vertical photographs also overlap onc another, it is possible to line them up in onc continuous strip containing more than a hnndred photographs. By this method a tremendous area can he surveyed in one füght. Through the aid of Dr [ohn Wríghr, then Secretary of the American Geographical Society, who had shown keen interest in the Peruvían study and had given us much ioteUectual advice and moral support, these photographs were made available to ns. There were about 20,000 of theml It took a good part of the summer of H.)46 in Washington to wade through thís mass of material. The photographs were unfortunately taken at a very high altitude and sometímes during rnídday when shadows of objects are almost non-existent, As a result, many important details were not visible. Early morning and late aftemoon are the best times for taking aeríal photographs, for then shadows are longer, and slight dífferences in contour of natural formations as well as man-made structures stand out in bold relief. But since these were the first comprehensive aerial photographs ever taken of a great part of Peru, they were highly welcome. They gave not only an over-all picture of each valley, together with sorne of its major ancíent canals, roads and sites, but also a comprehensive, thongh often somewhat indistinct, view of the inter-oaileu desert areas. Almost nene of these latter áreas has ever been photographed again. Thus the American Army photographs became a valuable supplement to our

previous field survey Sorne of tbe most clramatic of these photographs are reproduced in this volurne. Before World War U, Robert Shippee and Lt. George R. [ohnson spent sorne time in Peru where they took a large number of excellent oblique aerial pbotographs of various ímportant archaeologícal sítes and geographícal landmarks. A few of thcsc are rcproduccd in thís volumc, A larger, more rcprcsentative number, was publishcd in

literaturc dealíng with the geography, economy, archaeology, history, and culture of ancient Pcru. This included, of course, a detailed investigation of tbc Spanish Chroniclers and their commentators. Beca use of the paucity of the material in the Chroniclers deaJing with the Coast of Peru ano the dispersion of this material in a variety of places it was necessary, füst of ali, to "dig out" ali the isolated sections and passages relevant

.fig. 10. The consummate arrogance of an important chief is well portrayed in this Ttuaco made by a great anonymous artist of ancient times. The polished bla<'k surface and lhe squatting position of the n1ler are not typical of }.!ochica type water jugs. A study of most of the portrail 1111acos iudicates that tlw mler; wcrc alrnost always portrayed as stcm, domineering characters. A.\INIl

1930 by the American Gcographical Society under the title. Peru from the Air, with an exccllent text furnished by Raye Platt, one of the leading geograpbcrs of thc Society The bulk of the pbotographs, howe,·er, remain unpublished and are at prescnt in the posscssion of the \VennerCren ( Viking Fund) Fotmdation for Anthropological Research, Tnc., in Ncw York. In the latter part oí 19-16, I obtained another year's leave of absence from Long lsland University 1 spent this time writing up my field notes and making a systematic study, mainly at the Library of Congress, of the

to the subject. These extracts will cvcntually be published as a sourcc book with an English translation and a commeotary On the basis of somc of this material, l preparecl an article which attempted to analyze thc limited and confücting accounts of the conquest of the Coast of Peru by the Incas during the latter part of the Eifteenth century Ironically, the conquest of the Chimú Empire, the most important aspect of Inca coastal e>.J)ansion, is barely rnentioned by most Chroniclers. Moreover, there appear contradictions in their accounts, indicating that there may 19

hav e bccn severa! campaigns or conquests. It soon beca me olear that certnin aspects of Carcilaso's much-criticized account of this couquest must be treated more scriously than has hitherto been the fashion in most scicutíllc círclcs, Auothcr arricle, together with a chart, dealíng with thc absoluto chronology of the leacling pcoplcs of orth aud Sonth Arnerica was also prepared. Thc rcsults of the study indicate that the official ] nea list of rulers datos back 011ly to the latter part of the thirteenth ccntury and that thc couquest oí the Coast took place only in the lutter part of the fifteenth century, a conclusión which Rowc ( 1946) also rcached. Both articles wi11 be published after thc completion of our rnajor study Durina the sarne period an article dcaliug with the peculiar astronomieal markings of the ancicnl Xazca rczíou in the southern part of Peru ( Chaptcr VI) was completed and published by Maria Rcichc and mysclf. This article was based in part on material collected in 19-10-11 and nppeared in the May 1947 issue of aturol 11 iston¡ Sorne of our find ings are prescnted iu Chapter VI. I n J 918, the Board of Trustces of Long Island Un i' ersity, through thc goocl offices of the late Presidcnt Tristrarn Walker \Jetcalfe, scnt me and my son 1 ichael to Pcru for a y<'ar to complete the field work of our irrigation studies. The detaíled results of this work, togethcr witlr Iour larg<' maps, wc expect to puhlish in the corning year under the title of 'Vater and Life iri A11cie11t Peru, 111 thC' mr-antime, we present here a sumrnary oí sorne of our main findings about ancient cauals, citics and pyramids, togcther with other significant and interestina infonnation 011 Peru, both past ancl present.

Off to Peru!

LE~·r NEW YOlU::during thc middlc ot J uly, 1948, travr-ling by the Si/ver Meteor to J iami. There we decíded not to take the direct "night cxpress" plaue to Lima, but rathcr lo stay ovcmight and go on the "<lay locar Since it took two days instead of thc customary onc night, the .. day locar' would give us a cha11<:c· lo sec, eveu though supcrficially, the uature of thc country over which wc were flring Early in thc morning the plane rose abovc the sandy shores of Míami Beach, and soon the glistening bluc-grcen of the Caribbean spread out below us. Bcfore long, we were flying over Cuba, ancl then over [amalea. ln spite of the limited time we spent ovcr these islands wc ohtained a vivid impression of the varying topography, the lush vegetation and thc scattcred population centers, which book-reading by itself could hardJy produce. The plane arrived at Barranquilla, Colombia, at about lunch time. There we fortunately had a three-hour stopover until tbe plane Ior Panama was ready, and we speut the time in makíng a short sight-seeing trip through thís iuteresting town with its olcl Spanish buíldíngs. Though not as picturesque as the rival port of Cartagena, il surpasses the lattcr in prosperity We wandered through the colorful streets, carríed on sorne intríguíng window shopping and then relaxed in a small café where we sippcd our first strong South American coffee.

The Ilíght ovcr the Caribbean to Panama turned out to be a dramatic clímax to the exciting day's trip. As we approached land, we witnessed from our position high in the heavens the overwhelming majcsty and power of an approaching thunder storm. The entirc horizon before us was covered with towering laycrs oí dark, nwesome clouds, tinged with vibrant shades of red and orange from the rays of the setting sunl This iuspiríng scene carne to a close as the plane suddenly plunged downward through this thick wall of clouds to land safcly al the airport, Panama City, with its old, narrow, wincling streets lined with rnany balconied colonial stylc houses, is one of the most fascinating centers of Latín Arnerica. Havíng left módem Míamí only the same momíng, we were now transplanted suddenly into the past. Wo staycd at the large Hotel Central, a typical old-Iashíoncd structure in the old part of the city That evening we enjoyed ourselves wandering leísurely through thc maze of Fascinating streets that were lighted by lamps attached to oldfashioned lampposts. Here we watched the ever moving procession of pcoplcs from ali O\'er the world. Early thc following morning we Hew southward over the shimmcring Pacific. Before long, thc plane agaín approached land and then began climbing up over the Andes of southwestern Colombia. Aftcr a brief stop at the impo1tant town of Cali, the plane mountcd still higher

.Fig. 1 (far left) Ecuadoria11 woina11 from Otavalo. Kosok • Fig. 2 ( left) Snow-co,·ered 'olcano in highland Ecuador. In thc forcground are typical lcrraced farms ( a11de11es) that bave been laboriollsly built eYerywhere along th<' ~teep sides of the vast Andes. Panagra • Fig. 3 ( right) View of a seclion of Quito. Notice the palms which are growing at an altitude of 9000 feet. Kosok.

.21

over the ev cr-rishu; Sierra», uutil we crossed into Ecuador and Ianded at the capital city of Quito. This allractive city, with its wonderíul, year-round temperare climate, líes more than 9000 Feet high on an cvtcnsix e rolling platean Irom which rise thc rnajestic peaks of extinct iceund snow-covcred volcanoes ( Fig. 2) During the dcsccnt from Quito to the coast, the plune soon bccamc <'ngu lfed in a rnass of whito clouds which ohscured thc ruggcd mountains around us. l311t after a short time thc clouds suddcnly dissolvcd, und we were abruptly trausportcd into an entírely diílerent world! Ut'low us stretched un cxtcnsív e Aat rcgion covered with lush green tropical 'c~etation and segmented hy numer011s rivors meaudcrrug lazily into Cuayaquil Bay \Ve

Fig. 4. A sectíon of Guayaquil, thc largest port of Ecuador

Panagra.

soon landcd at attracti\'C. modern Guaya<1uil, the principal citr ancl harbor of Ecuador ( Fíg. ·I) Before tbc coming of the Spaniards in thc early si'tteenth eC'ntury nwch of Ecuador, and C\ <'ll a part of southcrn Colombia, ha<l been under thc domioatioo of the Incas, who kfl us a number of archaeologieal remains. 22

i . hcse countríes also abound

Both of t in cven more cxtcnsive und siguificaut remains of thc long prc-Incaic past, which are even less explored and understood than tbose of Peru, \Ve wcre tempted to pry into some of thei.r secrets, but the whole problem was far be) ond tbe range of our ow n studícs, Wc did, howevcr, la ter return to the coast of Ecuador to ascertain the div íding linc between thc rcgion of rniníall agriculture, and the small dry región of potentíal irrigation agrículturc (scc Chaptcr XXl\') Following a brief stop at the city of Guayaquil, the plano crosscd ovcr thc wídc bay and wil hin minutes wc approached the coast of Peru. Agai11 a sharp change in landscape attracted our attentionl This time it was a change from the tropical jungles of coustul Ecuador to

bringi.ug with ita heavy rainlull, Thc larger oue, the cold Humboldt Current, comes Frorn thc Autarctie Ocean und Ilows northward along part oí thc coast of Chile and a long the whole of the coast of Pcru, The Humboldt Current has the c.lfect of tuming this cntirc coastul region into a11 alrnost complete desert and of rcducíug the temperaturc considerably bclow thc level expected for these latitudes. The two currcnts 111<'Cl near the border of Peru and Ecuador and thus help to aecount for the abrupl changes of dimate and wgctation at this point. Thc rch1th e strcngths of tlw two ocean curre11b '<tr) from year to year Thc rcsult is an annual northward or southward shift of thc zone where thesc two currents i11tcnni11gk. This, in turn, c·r<'lllt•s a {'Onsiderablc vari-

Fig. 5. Sierra Ec1tadorimll>, in thcir natfrc <.X>~tumc~, going to market. 1'1Jsok.

the desert plains aud mountains of Per11 ( Figs. G and 7) Tbis cha11gc in climate is due largely to the meeting in this region of two opposing ocean currenb.. The smaller one, tllC' wann ~iño, ( the child), ílows from the west across the Pacific and tben continues in a southward direction dowu along thc coast of Colombia and Ecuador,

ation i11 the annual rainfall o( the .Pernvian-Ecuadoria11 bonJer n'gion. Thus in thc l'C'rnvi<rn valley of Tumbes, ncar the Ecuadorian border, the annual rainfall rate shifts between two inches and scvcnty-fi"c inchesl As a rcsult, rainfall agriculturc is possible during certain years, whilc during others, irrigation becomes indispensable.

carne into e'\'.i<:tPnce. And it is in these srnall cultivated valleys that there evolved thc coastal Tndian cultures with theír large pyramíds, walled cítíes. roads and Iortresses, bcautiful pottery und tevtilcs. elaboran- gold an<l silver ornaments and utensíls. cultures parallel to those of very early desert Egn)t, Babylonia and T ndia. It was to the remains of these early Peruv ían cultures thut W<' wcrc rerurning, intent 11pon ohtaining a bcucr and more concrete undcrstandinu of their gf"o~raphical exteut and material basis, Flying from north to south over this coastal area is a most fantastic experience. On the 011e sidc líos the vast hlue Pucific stretchinu to the distant horizon, on the othcr ri¡,e the towerínz Ancles, whose Ioothills at times exteud into the oceun, and whose steep. barren slopcs rcflcct. cspccially at sunsct. many subtle shades of gray, brown, purple and red, while directly below stretch the brownish-ycllow descrt lands dramatically intcrrupted every ten to twenty-five miles by lush green vallcy oascsl Such a flight presents in dramatic form the hasic climalictopographic prohlems which have co11fronted man ever since he entered this banen dcscrt region. During thc n>:~ age, our 'iew, 1111forhmately, was ob-

Fi~. 6. \\'111"11 .1pprnad1i11S{ the 11ortlwmmo,t parl ol tlw Pt>ru\ ian Coa,t, hetw{('n Tumbtt, aud T~1Lna. onc is greet..-cl b~ tlwse <lest"1t hilk F'arther '<mlh, llu: hilb gh e \\a) to df's.-rt 11l,1ins lhat un· l'llt at foirl~ regular iult'n .ds by ri\ er-inigatrd oase;,. Tl1t' ,mall ~cttlt>me11l, Caleta Crau, can lw sef'n in the ce11ler ul tlw phutograpk \\hile Tal.ira i> lo<:aled in the upper right hand 1:onwr Slill brlher south run~ the Chira Hi\ er Thc white Tibbon. folle)\\ i11g tlw irregular coa,t linf' of thc l\1cific Occa11, i~ the Pan Anwrkan JI ighwa) Sprd<'in 0:4-149 • Fig. 7 (below) Fl)ing O\er loma rloud' along the do.>~ell Coasl nf Peru ('ee le\l) Kusok • Fig. 8 ( righl m:irgin) Yu1111J! E1·11adnri:m J1;irl. Ko.~uk.

The long 11tuTOW desert zone which stretches more than 1-100 miles aloug the coast of Peru aud Chile is but a few clozcn miles wide, extending from the Pacific Ocean almost to thc Continental Di' idc in the Andes. [n the e:\.treme northern part of Peru the averaze annual rute of ralnfall barely reaches three inches, while in Iquique in northern Chile, thc rato is cstirnatcd to be one hundredth of an inch a year, the lowest on record in the worldl This inhospitable región, one of the driest on earth,

is dorted, nonetheless. with a series oí w ouderfully green oases prodnced by man. Each of thesc oases clusters around one of the dozens of small ri' ers that Ilo« in a westerly di:rection from the nearby Continental Divide iuto the Pacific, From these "rniniatnre • iles, .. man has been taláng water duriug the past three thousand years and sprcading it b} means of complex irrigation systems over the parched soil. Thus, the present exccptíonally productiv e, cultivated lands of these valley oases ~rndnally

structed part of the time by banks of loma clouds which, for a period of from four to five months of thc Peruvian winter, remain alrnost continually suspended, al an altitude of from one to two thousand feet, ovcr much of the narrow coastal area. These peculiar clouds never produce rain, at best, a slight drízzle reaches the groundl The clímate, as a result, is moist and cool during the winter Wbile this coolness and moisture are most welcome, the absence of sunlight for weeks at a time often makes one feel extremely depressed. Along the narrow strips on the edge of the mountains where the loma clouds rest, there is generally a snfficient condensatíon of moisture to permit the growth of sorne grasses, flowers, and even shrubs. Flying along the desert Coast after the loma clouds have lífted, one can often see this green strip stretching along the mountain sídes, sandwiched between an upper and lower layer of arid soil, Our plane arríved above Lima after dark. We had an eerie feeling as it circled many times over the clouds, searching for a hole through whích to drop. But none appearedl Finally the plane plungcd through the thick, wide cloud blankct, and suddenly, as though produced by the wave of a magíc wand, a fairyland of innumerable lights of the city of Lima lay spread out below, winking, as it were, a bright welcome to us! At Límatambo aírport customs and passport inspectíons were carried out with an unheard-of speed. "\Ve díd it in seven minutes flat," Míchael's diary récords. A taxi soon sped us to the old-fashioned, spacíous Hotel Maury, which had been our main headquarters during our previous visits to Pcru.

DESERT

MOUN1AINS A

1>.too FT. 4 6,600

A S,JOO fT.

l'T.

-------------------llº'IS' MINITA

"' ··~ºº

A .,,tOO FT.

e- El ZORRO

DESERT MOUNTAINS

.,.,700 FT,

.6 7,300

.,.,

~.700 H.

MOUNTAIN5

OE5fRT

RIO CHILLON

't,JOO FT.

DESERT MOUNTAI NS

Pacific

Oceon

Young Ecuadorían hoy Kosok • Fig, 10. \faguay Fig. 9 (margin) plant found in certaln parts of the Andes. Koeok,

e- COLOR"OO .6

3,SOOH.

Cº 60TIJA

THE CHILLON·RIMAC· LURIN COMPLEX

J ...00 FT.

Tll• dottcd arces are the i-.iqat•d paru of cecn vallcy Oat .. it faci..ing -for t..,c Lurin and p11rts of t..,c ot"hcr two va ll&yt. fac.., n"mb&r rcpruants thc sitc of an ancicl\t '"in. Scc thc Appcndh for t..,c c.o.-iupondinc¡ numba.- of ttlc photo9raph1c. print

OESERT

mUts i-----+----+>-~•,___,s

MOUNTAINS

t,700

Thl• "''P it rcduccd M•lf as "'uch as thc othcr "'ªPS In tM tc><t.

IB LURIH

FT.

Sccriou

PRELJMlNARY

Urna and Peru. Past and Present

RR\J IS STILL. in

many ways, a eountry

of thc l ndiau, a Iact which appears to be contradictcd hy the distinctly Latín Hav or of Lima and sorne of the coastal citic•s. To undcrstand the true naturc of Peruvian affaírs, the travclcr must leav e Lima. which is indeed atypical of Pr-ru, nnd go up into thc Sierras. There he will find a world in which thc ludian and his way of liío stil] 1 >rt'doa ni 1 iatt•. TIH' 1910 Census thc first systematic oue in the hii.tor~ lists almost half of thc population as bcing of of Pcru J ndian racial stockl This mea ns that out of a total populatton cvcccdhu; six million ubout three million are lndians. The Cc•ns11s makes no distinction between \Vhites and White-Iudinn mixtures, which togethcr constitute thc rcst of the population, but lumps them as onc group, Vnrious estimutes. however, indicare that most of this ~ronp are probuhly White-Iudiau mixtures. This means that tlu- total 11011-\\'hite stock probably makr-s 11p about 90 pcr cent aud thc \\'hite: no more than 10 per cent of the populutionl Sincc it is co111111on knowledge in Peru

that pcoplc tcnd to list themselves in the .. more desirable .. social cate~ories. the actual racial compositíon of the population is probably even more on the ludian sidc t han th« Ceusus would indicate. But ther« are great variations in the distribution of the

Fi~. 1. \'ir" ol Lima, (':lpitul nf Peru, Contrast the liv ing citv uud ,1cljac·<•nl irrigated lunds with the surrounding desert foothills of the Andl'~. Sl'l'rfrlo. unnumbcred series, :-;oTE: The linc-cut ubov c •UIU tho"· u11 pp. !12, 33 nnd !:l8 are ol E.ul~ Lima huacos. tlandbook JI

B: Urnptl'r~ 1\ - \ 11

WORK IN PERU

Indians throughout the country When we turn to the Sierras, we find that the Indians predornínate, especíally in the central and southern parts. Here the actual Indian stock rangos from about 60 to 90 per cent. ( For details see column 8 of the Table, p. 2í) In the northeru part of thc Sienas, however, the proportion of Indians among the population is considerably less. Even so, the Indíans together with the Indian-White mixtures probably comprise more than three-quarters of the population here. The White population is strongest on the Coast, especially in the Spanish colonial towns of Arequípa and Lima. Yet, even on the Coast the Whites definitely represent a rninority of the population. But more important than racial composition are thc linguistic and cultural aspects of thc population problem. We find that more than half the population of Peru over five years of age still speak one of the Indíau languages!

Fig. 2. Viewcd from a balcony of the City Hall is the famous Plaza de Armas, the oldest plaza of Lima. The Cathedral, just opposite,

contains the body of Pizarro, in front of the Cathedral stands an equestrían statue of the conqueror of Pero. To the left is the Bíshop's Palace with its finely carved wooden balconies. Further lcft is a sectiou of the President's Palace. Grace and. Company • Figure 4 (p. 27, margín ) Cuard before Presidential Palace. Kosok,

Of these, Que~hua-the language of the ancíeut lncas-is by far the most widely used. The related Aymara also plays an important role in the extreme southern Sierra zone (see column 6). \Vhat is eveu more surprísing is that more than tuio-thirds of those echo speak a11 Lndian language this meallS one-third. of all the people of Peru know no Spanish: at all (sec column 5) In the Sierras the situation becomes linguistically even more astonishing. In the flve provinces of the Southern Sierras the home of the ancient Incas from 79 to 86 per cent of the population speak only Indían languages (see column 5, línes 1 through 5). If we add to that the percentage of persons who speak both Indian and Spanish (see column 4) we flnd tbat more than 98 per cent of the population. here speak lndian tongues (see column 6) 1 Furthermorc, less than 20 per cent speak Spanish ( see columns 3 and 4) 1 Spanish alone is spoken only by a little more than one per cent of the people ( see column 3). And this aiter [our centuries of Hispanizaüonl \Ve are here living, so to speak, among an ludian nation, or people, with a distinct language, distinct culture and in sorne ways distinct economy Here the Spanish-speaking top level administrators need interpreters to relay their orders. This is not surprising for these administrators have not grown racially or culturally out of the people themselves. They forro a ruling group superimposed from the outside as a result of a past conquest. In the Central Sierras Huánuco, Ancash and Junín the situation is only somewhat less striking ( see Iines 6 through 8) However, in the northem part of the Sierras the Indian languages of the past are now spoken by only a small mínoríty of the populatíon. But one has merely to visit this región to realize how strongly the Indían way of life persists to this day Solely on the Coast do we fiud that Spanish has triumphed completely! The reason why the coastal departments, especially those in the south, are listed in the Census as containing peoples speaking Indian languages is that these departments include part of the neighboring Sierras. In ancíent times, a number of languages were spoken along the Coast. These languages were quite distinct from those in the Sierras. Along the Northwest Coast the most important was the so-called Mochica which continued to exist longer than ali other coastal languages, dyíng out only in tbe course of the last hundred years. Today a few indívíduals in Lambayeque remember sorne words - a pathetic finale to a great living past!

Tbe question immediately arises: Why this lack of resistauce to the inroads of Spanish culture here? \Ve are not yet in possession of all the data to answer this question satisfactorily However, it is clear that, unlike the Sierras, almost every valley of the Coast was ímmedíately and suddenly hit by the full force of the Spanísh conquerors and settlers who easily and rapidly seizcd tbe relatively defenseless coastal plains. Moreover, the irrigation economy and social structure here were more highly specialízed and more vulnerable to the Spanish forros of economic life and political control than the more generalized and more resistant Sierra pattern. A radical change in the mode of water distribution and settlement pattem whicb the Spaníards introduced was in certaín ways a lethal blow to coastal social organization. The abruptness with which tbe change was effected on tbe Coast was the result of the facílity with which tbe coastal valley economy could be directed. In the course of a very few days whole settlements of Indians could be deprived of water, the sine qua non of tbeir existence. Such changes, while effected in key areas in the Sierras, took much longer to bring about there; consequently, the Indians had time to accommodate their economic and social rclation.s to the innovations. Other factors obviously contributed to the rapid breakdown of indigenous coastal society Certain of the Spanish Chrnniclers frankly allude to the virtual depopulation of many valleys caused in part by the brutaüty of the conquerors and in part by the civil wars among the conquerors themsclves. Some Indians were killed, others fl.ed temporaríly to the somewhat safer Sierras (Kubler:l946) In the case of uprisings, tbe coastal Indians were much more susceptible to violent reprisals than those of the Sierras. For guerrilla warfarc cannot be maintained ou open tenain a fact confirmed by many incidents of World \Var II. As some of the Coast later on became repopulated partly by Sierra Indians the cultural life carne much more thoroughly under Spanish Church and governmental control than was the case in the Sierras. Although the so-called Ylochica language survived along parts of the Northwest Coast and was even used by the Church fox missionary purposes, the intensive dorrúnation of coastal life by the Spaniards, nevertheless, led to the gradual annihilation of the last lingufatic vestiges of an aocient people. Thus, today, as in the past, the Coast is linguistically divorced from the Sierras. But the Coast now has the

FIG. 3.

PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION OVER 5 YEARS OF AGE SPEAKING 1

Nameof Deparlment

Central Andes South Coast with Parts of Southern Andes Montaña with Parts of Andes

l 1

Central and North Coast with Parts of Andes

} <

)

Sponi•h ond Foreign

LANGUAGES

Total Population Over 5 Yearo of Age

~. of Populotion listed Raciolly os lndion

Spanish Only

Spani•h and lndion

lndian Only

Total~. Who Speak lndian Cols. 4 & 5

2. Ayacucho 3. Huancavelica 4. Puno 5. Cusco

0.04 0.05 0.05 0.08 0.16

0.37 0.86 1.17 1.29 l.45

13.37 16.70 19.94 15.19 18.95

86.22 82.39 78.84 83.44 79.44

99.59 99.09 98.78 98.63 98.39

216,243 299,769 203,128 463,080 411,298

70.02 75.94 78.68 92.36 71.73

6. Iluánuco 7 Aucash 8. [unín

0.29 0.26 0.74

11.45 15.18 20.43

35.71

52.55 54.91 31.71

88.26 84.56 78.83

193,235 354,892 361,878

63.46

29.65 47.12

9. Tacna 10. Moquegua 11. Areq uipa

l.30 0.36 1.24

46.92 51.12 63.62

35.69 24.19 17.98

16.09 24.33 17.16

51.78 48.52 35.14

31,684 29,034 225,244

52.17 46.17 26.44

12. 13. 14. 15.

1.79 0.28 0.14 7.64

59.50 66.87 76.10 75.33

25.25 20.31 18.48 11.66

13.46 12.54 5.28 5.37

38.71 32.85 23.76 17.03

137,931 77.197 53,982 4,098

38.16 25.02 20.37 25.88

2.03 8.23 9.63 0.08

83.44 77.68 84.78 93.32

12.71 11.66 5.59 5.49

l.82

14.53 14.09 5.59 6.60

118,371 721,818 72,295 405,975

29.19 15.30 2.87 12.13

0.64 0.95 0.22 0.54

92.35

2.80 0.17

99.30 99.34

4.21 1.11 0.48 0.09

7.01 1.28 0.48 0.12

162,967 319,514 21,362 343,357

30.09 12.86 1.46 37.82

1.67

46.73

16.61

34.99

5,228,352

45.86

l. Apurímac Southern Andes

DIFFERENT

Loreto San Martín Amazonas ~ladre de Dios

16. lea

li Lima 18. Callao 19. Cajamarca

( Korthem Sierras)

20. 21. 22. \ 23.

Lambayeque La Libertad Tumbes Piura

Total for Country

97.77

2.43

1.11

0.03

51.60

55.83

60.85

language of the conquerors, while the greater portien of the Sierras has retaíned the language of the conquered. Much of the story of the disruption and transformation of coastal society and culture since the time of the conquerors remains to be told. Many aspects of this story undoubtedly lie hidden in the numerous unexplored archives of thc Coast. Hepresentatives of a Few other naríonalítíes are also scattered throughout Peru. There are Chinese merchants and landowners in various parts of the country Most of them are descendants of former contract laborers who were ímported into Peru during the nineteenth century because they could be forced to work for even lower wages than the Iew centavos paid to the Indians and liberated Negro slaves. The descendants of these liberated slaves live along the Coast, mainly in the Lima-Callao region and in the lea Valley. Add to this mixture a sprinkling of North Amerícans and Europeans, as well as sorne non-Peruvian Latín Amerícans, and the population picture is more or less complete. There has always been a considerable amount of intermarriage among the various groups, with the result that Peru, especially in the coastal areas, has become a true melting pot of races and nationalities. In the daily life of the peoplc of Pcru, as in other Latin American countries, there is no sharp color line of the kind found in many parts of the United States. Nevertheless, color is reHected in the social st:ructure of the country As a result of the Spanísh conquest, the upper class consists largely of White business men and White hacendados. The middle classes are made up mainly from sorne of the Indian-White mixtures. The great rnass of farmers, agricultura! Jaborers, and industrial workers is cornposed of Indians or Iudian-Whitc mixtures. Thus the economic and social class distinctions of Peruvian society exprese themselves herc in racial forms. Let us now turn to Lima, situated in the lower part of the rich, irrigated Rimac Valley It is not only the political capital, it is also the outstandíng city of the country With a population of more than three quarters of a million aod growing by leaps and bounds - it is far larger, according to the 1940 Census, than the Ieadíng provincial cities of Arequipa (110,000), Trujillo ( 45,000), Cuzco ( 45,000), or Iquítos ( 40,000) The possibilities of obtaining a good position in a powerful aud rapidly cxpanding govemment or in prívate business and industry, the various modern conveníences, the fine hotels and restaurants, as well as the many cultural and social activitíes of Lima, 27

havo mndc this city the muguet which yearly attructs thousands of the most ambitious and energetic middlc and upper class Pcruviaus from the proviuces. At the same time, evcn larger numhers of poorer people frorn both Coast und Sierras hav e bcen corning to

Lima and its port, Callao, to .find work on thc docks as wcll as in thc newly dcvelopcd textik- and othor lij!ht industries. Lüna's c-ultural lifr rC'lll'ds this Cl'll<'ral !!rowth. lt pos-

Fi¡.:,, 5 lo U. Sl·t•111•., i11 Lima. Fig. 5 (lar ldt) lkhgmu' procevxion 1110' iug through a narrow street of old Lima. 1'.o.wk • Fig. 6 Church portal carv ed out ol stone. Kosok • Fig. 7 (top) (ldt) Oue oí the módem, workers,' hospitals. They are al~n fonnd in othcr chicf cines of Peru. Pc111<1~m • Fig. 8 ( center ) Trolley cars passtng do« 11 thc Cohnenn lo Callao harbor. Kosok • Fig. 9 ( bottom) T> pk.11 hooth in tlw largt• municipal murkct. Ko10J...

thc only one i11 thc sesses a good symphony orchestra country which for yenrs has bccn prcscntíng a standard orchestral repertoirc under the able direction of its conductor, Dr Buchwald. One can also hear conccrts io which outstanding Indian musicians and music groups from vnrious parts of the Andes present somc of thcir wonderful folk music und dances. Severa) Pcruvian composers, especially thc late Señor Daniel Alomía Robles and thc late Tcodoro Valcárcel, han· used this folk musíc as the basís for thcir compositions and thus hclped to initíate '' rcnaissance of one of thc Iorms of ancient Peruvian culture. Lima also possesses a number of lcgitunate theatres which have a regular drama repcrtoíre. In addí-

tion, there are motion picture thcutrcs cverywhcre, of which thc beautiful and modernistic Tacua Theatre is the outstandi.ng example, Scveral dance schools teach both Spauish and módem ballet. Two anthropological nnd archacological museums, one under the directiou of Dr Luis Valcárcel, and thc othcr at Magdalena Viejo under Dr Rebeca Carrión, house many valuable collcctions. Thc lutter museum was foundcd a11d developcd by the late Dr Julio Tello, ouc of Pcru's lcuding urchaeologists, who has left, the irnprcss of bis work in many parts of thc country Varíous scicuti.fic socictics such as the Ceographic Socicty of Lima aud the Engi11eering Socicty carry ou important activities. Mentiou must also be made of the National Librar) and the National Archives as wcll as of a number of parochial and prívate archives, which contain extremely valuable books and manuscripts. Thcsc institutious pro,cd most helpful to us in ow· work. vVhcn wc anived in Lima we found that, in many \\'ays, the c:ity lookC'd the same il did whcn wa saw it in 1941. The samc thoroughfares with many of tlw same business houses ami stores gn'Ctl'<l us as thcy hnd done pre\ iously Au<l the cit} was still di\'ided betwc<•n thc fine man~ions when• the wealthy livcd and thc grl'at mass of adobe houses in which thc poor existed. But mw e\terual changc was apµarent. As a res11lt of thc war and post-,var prosperity. the !>mall midclll• class had grown rapidly in sizc and wealth. This growth e'"presscd itself not only in the greater number of t>:-.peusivc and imported items found in thc stol'es, but also in the large number of architcctmally attractive honscs that had beca built in newly-opened suburbau arcas. ~fany of these liouses, even the smallcr ones, represent a suocessful iutcgration of sorne of the bcst characteristics of both modern and colonial ardútecture. Artisticallr, tlwy are genera11y superior to most of thosc we fin<l in lhe submbs of orth Amerkan cities. \Vorkers' housing projects are also beiug built. \Ve were pleasantly surprised to find in Lima and in other coastal towns, a number of modern and attractivc workers' hospitals buílt with govcrnment coutrolled social security funds. But the very site which Lima and its suburb now occupy also coutaius many relics of past ci\'ilizations. In ancicnt times, the largo Rimac Vallcy, logether with the adjacent small Chillón ( Carabayllo) Vallcy, had bccomc economically and politically the most important unit along the whole Cenb·al Coast. In fact, a Rimac Fcderation, which iududed SC\'eral othcr valleys to the north

2800

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OCT.

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APR.

MAY

JUNE

JULY

AUG.

SEPT.

Fig, 10 (top left) Annual water díscharges of the Chicarna Biver, in millious of cubic meters, Tbe measuríng gauge is at Salínar in thc upper part of the valley The figures given are for cach agricultural year stnrting Irom the beginning oí October, when thc aunual rise of the river begins, to the 1•11d of September of the following year, ; ote the great annual Buctuatíons, which seriously affect agricultura! production. Thc year 1925 was eursed by heavy rains so rare on the Coast that wrecked canals, roads, buíldings and ancíent ruins to an extent unknown since the Spanish Conquest. Somc months later as if in atonement for this destruction - the whole desert landscape was covercd by a carpet of boautiful grass and flowers! Kosok • Fig. 11 (top center ) Average monthly díscharges of the Chícarna River, i11 míllíons of cuhic meters, Note the tremendous seasonal fluctuutions which, moreover, establísh an agricultura! year begínning with Octoher. This rnouth oorrespunds to April in our northern hemisphere. Kosok • Fig. 12 (bottom) This chart shows the daily discharges, in cubic meters per second, of the Chicarna River duriug the agrlcultural year, October 1937 to September 1938. The tremendous <lay by <lay fluctuations, especíally during the rnost important months of February, March and April, ereate great exeitemeut among the hacendados and the owners of the small chacras who daíly plead wíth the government irrigation officials to divert as much as possible of the Iiíe-gívíng water onto thcir lands. Although each parcel of land has its own water rights passcd clown, wíth modifications, from time ímmemorial, pressure is often successfully exercised by the lurger landowners to obtain extra water. Note the prcliminary increase of water in November-December. This is useful for wetting the hard dry soil before plantiug. Kosok • Fig. 13 ( right) Porch of Pcrricholi Palaee, built by one of thc Víceroys for bis favorite lady Kosok:

and south, had apparently exísted at the time of its socalled peaceful submission to the Incas who took over these valleys less than a century befare the arrival of tbe Spaníards. Tbere are a large number of ancient ruins in tbese two valleys, most of which have been ignored by archaeologists. Of the ancient sites which have been studied, tbe cxtensive centers of Cajamarquilla and Maranza ( Huadca) are by far the most important. The former, sítuated on a dry plateau 18 miles up the valley, is still fairly well preserved ( Fig. 24) Tbe latter has bcen largely destroyed by tbe rapíd expansión of nearby Lima. Only tbe bulky structures rema in, of which the main pyramid -

one of the largest in volume along tbe whole Coast has been partly cut by the modern highway to the port of Callao! Both of these sitcs have becn studicd by archaeologists, primarily Middendorf ( 1893), Means ( 1931), Ciesecke ( 1939) and Jijón y Caamaño ( 1949) Nevertheless, no thorough excavation and analysis has yet been made of them. Duriug 1952, Mr Louis Stumer and Dr Schaedel made a survey of numerous sites in the Rimac Valley and carne to intcrcsting new conclusíons on the basis of surface finds. Since the ruins of this valley complex did not fall within the immediate [imits of our study, wc did no field work hcrc in 1948-49. Later on, however. we found so many fine aerial pbotographs of this region that we could not restrain ourselves from having enlargements made. \Ve

Fig. 14 (left) A modem national Iaír in Lima. The names on each of the large panels are those of the various Departamentos of Peru. In adjoining booths the characteristic product of each Departamento are for sale. Most of these products were brought by truck to Lima over the Pan American Highway and the large network of connecting roads in the Sierras and in the Xlontaña, Kosok • Figs. 15 to 17 (lcft to ríght, above ) Sierra v isitors at a national fair in Lima. • Fig. 15. A woman from Puno with an "Al Smith" brown derby, commonly worn by women in this regíon as well as in the neighboríng Sierra regions of Bolivia. Kosok • Figs. 16 and 17 People of the Cuzco area. Kosok • Fig. 18 ( below) Thís unusual advertísement in a Lima paper shows plans Ior a modcm real estate development lo be built adjacent toan ancieut pyramid (huaca) Such a modera development de troys ali the surrounding ancient walls and habitation structures, thereby isolatíng the pyrarnid and making reconstruction of the site impossible. With the expansión of modcrn citics such areas shonld he maíntained as national monuments, \Vht·n utilization of the land beeomes absolutelv necessars owíng lo population prcssurcs, plans of the- site, base-d 011 avaílable aeríal photographs and on ground surveys. together with st:ratogmphic exca' al ion~ by arch:ieologi~t:;, shnu ld fir~t he mad<'.

reproduce sorne of them in this volume ( Chapters IV aod V) ·we also entered all thc sitcs located on the aerial photographs on a map (Page 24) Villar Córdova (19:35) has described a number of sites in this valley unit and published a map containing theír locatíons. Carlos A. Homero (1934) has also published a map containing names and locations of various sitos in thc Rimac Valley Sínce we were unable to devote any time in localizing the sites in the field, it was irnpossible for us to correlato clearly the maps of Víllar Córdova ancl Romero with ours and with the actual ground locatíons of the sites. Perhaps sorne young Peruvíanist can be índuced to carry out this project. Ironícally, the ruins of thís valley are among the most

accessible in Peru. Many of them can easily be reached by bus or car from the ceoter of Lima. Indeed the slogan could be "Archaeology by Taxi!" Already in 1940-41 we had discovéred tbat ali along thc Coast maoy important and impressive ancient ruins were situated near modem towns and cities or along the Pan American Highway and its associated roads. It seems strange that there is not enough money and interest to investigate these outstaoding and easily accessible Yestiges of a great past! J ust south of the Rimac lies the small valley of Lurín. Its historical aod arcbacological significance lies in the fact that here was huilt the great temple "city,. of Pachacamac, formerly the leading ceremonial and pilgrimage center of much of tbe Central Coast. In Chapter \', we present an aerial photograph of this famous place together with thrce important ground plans. Cieza de León (1, Chap. LX..'(II), who visited the site sbortly after

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conquest. co11111w11ted on its Iormer great wealrh. l le also shrcw dl) notcd that thc pricsts "ere much n•\ t•n·ncl·d ancl thut tlw chiefs obeyed thcm in many things. This powcr oí thc priests ovcr the lay rulers

the Spauish

indicatcs tlw uudeveloped uuture of the secular stutc in this reuiou. ll is rcminísccut, in a way, of thc status of Aztec ~oc·it'I} al the time of the Spunish conque t. \Ye v ixited only onc sitc i11 thc LurÚ1 \'alk) ami that shortly al u-r our arrival in Lima. Our atteution was Dr Hans l lorkhcimcr, drawn to it h) thc archacologist, who had dis('O\ ercd it uu un ohliqne aerial photograph. Il e clic! not kuow its uumc, but cstimated it to lx- sorne fifteeu miles up thc 'alle: The actual visit to this site was quite accidental. \\'hile

discussuu; sorne aspects or Peruv ian agriculture \\ ith the late ~1r Audcrson. au American soil expcrt of SCIPA (ser bclow ). 1 111e11tio11ed

thc sitc to him.

His immcdiutc

reaction was, "Fine, let's go und vísit thc place í11 my car ucxt Suntla) und sce what It's like." \Vhcn Sunday carne. wc drov e up thi!> pleasant in which W<' cvpected to tioning. "<' Íínall) found the sonthern hank o( thc gated an·ai. ( Chuptcr

vallcy to tbe approximute region find thc ruin .• Vter much qnesit in .1 quebrada ( dr) 'all<')) on ri\ cr, jusl ¡\J,o, e the prexrnt irriFigs. 7 lo LO)

As the largo photograph indicates, the site has tho f onn of a rninaturc

l\\ i11 settlernent.

The two parts are sopar-

ated b) a smull spur runuíng f rom thc ncarby mountaius. The ruin cousist mainly of adobe houses, togcthcr with what appcarcd to be a largc rectangular ceremonial centcr \bon· the western part of the settlemcnt anothcr rectangular ceremonial areu wus locatcd. Hcmains of the terraces used For habitation werc clearly visible on the

srnall hills surrounding the settlcmcnt. while a sizeahle aucieut canal could still be trnc<.•d nmning partl) abo\'e aod partl) through thc :.ettkmcnt. The ruiu ap¡war<'cl to belong to tlw Late Periocl. Tl1L' sitl' was 11ot au outstancling onc, yd il gtl\'t' us quite a tlirill to feel that wc were the .6rsl lo ha\C rcported on it! W e ha<l hacl such c;...pcricnces bcforc; we were to ha' t> them often again. J ndeed. that is" hal mal-.es the archacologists' work so fa!><:inating in Pcru. The country is litten•cl with so man) ancient sites, whic.:h so few pcoplc Sl'em to know or carc about, that it is <'asy to "discover'' new oncs almost e\ ery day Lt'l 11s now But wc Jiave nm ahead of our story account of how \\C spcnt om tiuw in Lima . presentan . Vter "<' hacl '>Cttled ourseh es an<l mapped out our work we set out 1t once lo rcuc" our acquaintanC'e "ith old

goH'rnnwnt agencies. \ \' <' ha<l nun1crcrsalions with members oí thc• Din'ccíón de .\guas ) 1 rrigación, :rnd especiall) \\'ith l 11gt'11icro Carlos Sutton, th<' ckan of irrígation en~ineers in l't•n1. He "as an \nwrican who had :.l'ttled iu Peru more than thirty ) c·ars lwforc aud ha<l lwC'ome a citizen of that counh) B<'('<HISC of his intimatc• knowlcdgc of tlw írrigation syslcrns ;tll(( problems of almosl C\ ery 'allcy i11 Peru, and his inll'rest in tlw irrigat ion s~ :;lems and t>conotny of ancient Peru he was a ble to gh <' us rnuch im aluahlt' í11fom1ation a11d a<h ic:<' which "l' coukl 11ot obtain l+•<'wlwre. ln additio11 to hís great engint'l'IÍllg kuowlcdge, his nndcrstandinl! a11c1 ~ympath~ for the great mass of 1 ndians of both pa~t .1nd present made him altogcthcr a most nnusual mau .• \sin HH0-41, wc spc11t many pleasant and informative hours with him. \Ve wcrc greatly sho<:k<'cl whcn ncar thc cnd of our stay in Pl•ru news canw of Sc>ilor Sutton's sudclc•n cleath. Although in his se' e11ti(•i.. lw was still a man of great \'ígor a11d \'11 l husiasm ami h.lcl just <'m barked upon <l IW\\' irrigation projl'Cl. Onr first work at thc Direccióu de Aguas y Irrigación \\'as to hring the material wc had colketl'd i11 H)41 CO\'Cring tlw a111onnt of dail), ino11thly ami a111111al water clist·har¡.!<' of <'ach ol tlw coa.,tal rh cr~ up to date. for this data i., ' ita) to thc sl11CI) of irrigation. Sonw of the records go hack O\ er twent)-UH' ) ears: :.onw of tlwm CO\ cr a :.ho1 t(•r ¡wriod of tinw: for some of tlw minor rfrcrs no

frit•ncb in 'arious ou~

<:011\

F1\!~. 1 !I anti 20. Chilclrc·n t>njoying 1hc-m~t'h1•, al the nnlion.il lnir J..o~ok • Fi~. 21. 01u• ol t lw m;Ul) u1w,plorrd ruin ~ile' 111 lht• Himac \'all<•y Tl11· d1•11M'I) p;1cJ..ed ~l111l'l11rt·, .1re ero\\ clt·d 11110 th1· limit.•cl amo1111t uf l.111d ol ;1 1¡11elmula Tlw ¡.,r1•11t•ral :1111phitlwatn·-lik1· ..111•< l ( fo1111cl ;11,o i11 otlwr ,¡l<'') n[ llw pl.111 ol thc• '1•ttl('11lt'11l ""' pmcluc<•d h~ tht' le 1r.1l'i11\( o[ lh" ~huuldt'r' uf th1· twu proj1•drn¡r hill, "hich • nde1'<' llw ,t'lllem"nl. Th1· darl. n·¡.,rion al Llw bnllrnn ol this \erlieal .11·1ial photu¡.,rraph 'hº"' llw pr<'senl irri¡.,ralt•d ;tll() euhhatt"cl an•a. S1•11 ido .1/,1! J•: fJ,,! .V lil

Fi1'(. 22. H1111" ni Armatamb« lot·at1·d

1war mile lrnm thc St•n icio ht•ad1¡11tll'lt·r.. al Lns Palmas. a suburb ol Li111.1. Tl1is ·~ uuothcr uf tlu- !Hall\ nncient 'itt·, in .111d arouud Li111a whích <:a11 lx- rt•adwd h) bu' or t.1'i hui 'º far it h;t' lailed to attract lht M rio11' attvntion o[ a1<:h.kolcH.~i'h ¡.:,1wli.tlh inkre~ting i-, tlu- wr-ll-pn-serv cd compound. l1mt'r ceuter 11,•r•· t-.111 lx- '<·t·n. to tlw h+t. ,1 larg,. high buildiiu; ancl ,, ,,.rn, of eourt-, ,111<l 1t•1 r.ll'•'' ,111cl lo tlu- riJ.(ht .. 1 1111mht 1 ol k" \\ ell-defíned t·ourl) ard' 1111, place ma) \H·ll ha\l hl'1'11 th1 pala<"<' uf 011i· ol tl11 L.11<! Period Chiel-, uf tlu- 111111.w \ allt·) 111 tlie had.itmund 111 tlu- 111;1in part of tlw 'ilt• t'all ¡,. '1'<'11 hahitalio11 tt-rr.1cc' lor tln p11p11l.icc. to~c:llil'r w ith contour 1.111;1 ), tli;1t mcauchr thruugh tlw nnn' '-t1111w 1•1 1 lu- w hite l111c, .m 11111d, rn p.uh-. I'he rum ¡,

violo Soh11. ah1>11t

data 011 wuter cJ1,<:har~<.' has so far becn collcetcd. Luckíly for our 'l11cl~ thc most complete records cxistcd for the riH·ts alonu the "\'orth" est Coast. This is not accidental. for this art••t is at prescut as it was in the past, thc largt•st uud most importaut ,u:n icultural zone on thc cutirc Coast, 011 tlH• has is of thc material collected. "e made two cornprclu-usiv (' :-.l'(s of graphs. hoth of which \\ ill he re-

produccd i11 \\

oler

(111(/

Liic. Ouc set sho« s the consider-

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uble 'var-h}-) car changes of tl« water couteut of each of tia· constal riv crs which lar~eh dctcnuiucs Ihc amount of Iand tluu can he irrizated (Fig. 10) The other sd of graphs show s thc aH•ra!!;<' monthly diseh.1r~c·., of euch of thcse rív ers, Thexo h'raphs provide a dt•a1 pictun, ol the tremendous st•.hon.11 Huctuations, with a hiah pnint ~<·m-rall) in vlarch and a low point about six months luu-r ( Fi~. 11 \ TI1is w ah-r patteru define ... th« agrÍt·11lt11r.d \t•ason in each ,afü·) Tht• 1110u,thlr vana-

.:40: 1; J 26 \ 156, E 126 \' 157

1 ~, /~

124 ;:.; 157112

iu thc Sierras but la~ of a month or two. Thm, \\ hilt> the pl'aJ,, ni tlw rai11fall sNson iu thc Sienas C'Omes g:<'nerally iu Jauuar} aud Ft•bruary. thc higlwsl walt•r dischargcs on thc Coal>l l"11alh eomc in ~ larch. üuriug our summer and carly f.1ll 111011tl1.;. \\hui then• is no rni11 in the Sierras. thc water co11ll'11l of the coastal riH•rs rca('hcs its minimum. Indeed, \Olllt' ol tlw \mallcr ri\ers ru11 t·o111pletely <l.r) Fo1 tht.· 111 \\<.·01111·1.1 trip alo11g tht• t.·c>.t,tal \alle}' during tl1is time t iom rdlect the gt'nt'ral rainfall p.ttll'ru

\IH>\\

water in a river was nccessarily utilizecl in the past or is so at present. lndccd, in the case of thc Santa. thc Chira and the Tumbes, thc three largest coastal ri\ ers, the absence of large coastal plains has madc it possible to utilize only a small fraction of the water in these rivers. But even in valleys like thc Lambayeque and the Chicama where therc is more land than can he írrignted with the water generally av ailablc in the rivers, the uncqual seasonal dístribution of the water results in hnv ing rnuch of it díscharged into thc Paciíic during the 1wriod of abundanee, Thcso problcrns were ulways present nrnong the ancients, they still cxist to<lay But now they can he solvcd tcchnically \Vhat delays their solution is a host of financia) prohlcms ami conflictina priv ate property ínterests. ~1r Suttou poiuted out lo us that uunua] íluctuatious in crop yields are not as sharp as the aunuul íluctuations in the availahlc water Thus, if during a certain ycar a particular piece of Jand has only 75 per cent of rhc uormal water s11pply, il still can produce 90 per cent of thc normal crop, while a 50 p('r cent supply can still produce 75 per cent of the normal crop, Thís phenornenon latcr preved signiflcant whcn wc lricd to correlatc water supply, cultívable land, aud population density in thc dillcreut valleys. At this point, Sl'\ eral basic facts which emeraed during the progress of our work rnust be stated. In the Iirst place, in most ol thc coastal valleys the amount of land culticated in ancicnt times u.:as equal 1 o or great er than that at prescnl. l 11 the sccond place, ¡n·a<·lirnll¡¡ a17 tlie land areas ac/1101/y ntlliix1ted 1101c werc u/so c11ftir;oled in ancient limes dming thc pcriod of ma:..iinnm irrigation. As we stalcd i11 ChaptC'r JI, this land is near the rivcr Conscquently, tlu land formerly ·tmder rnltivation, but now in disttsc. is f 01111d in the peripheral arcas of tlie 1

r;alleys.

is oftcn disappointing, for he keeps asking: "Where is the ríver?" \Ve also copied numerous graphs showing the tremendous day-by-day variations of thc water content of each river throughout the yeur Thcse variatíons vitally aff ect process throughout of the agricultura! the development thc growing season ( Fig. 12) The reason for studying and graphíug this data is

obvious. The amount of land in each coastal valley that can be irrigated depends upon the average annual water content of each rivcr This <loes not mean that ali the

In ordcr lo detenninc the maximum amount of Jand cnltiYated in each ,·alley in ancient times, wc had to determine first tlw amcmnt of land cultivuted today und then the a<l<litional amount of land cu]tivatcd formcrly (t seemcd a simpl<' projcct to determine thc prcscnt size of the culti"atecl area in each valley Tlw avaiJablt> Peruvian Army maps indicate approximately thc zone which is usually cnltivatecl now By means of an cngi11eering instrnmcnl, callc•d thc intograph, which is moved around an enclost'd 7011C 011 thc map. the Ul'l'a OÍ the .lOne can easily be calculatcd. \lr Sutton did this work for us. Unfortunately. this zone represcnts ~ross arca si11ce it includes roads, \ illagcs, smaller elevations and sw~Hnps.

Bnt, e' e11 though wc allowecl for these foctors, difficulties arose when wc compared the net areas for each valley with those found in government rcports. Not only are thc arca.-. gi' e11 in the latter genernll} lowcr, but those of dilTerent a~encies contradict onc another. especially in thc case of the most impo1iant \'allcys. Thus the Department of lrrigation has one sel of figures based on the amou11t of water fnrnished, whilc thc Department of Agriculturc has a11other sel basccl 011 erop returns. What complkates matters forther is that somc returns are bascd 011 cstimates of local gO\ ernme11t representati\'es ami othC'r.s on those of local hace11dados who, for ta" purpo:.t'!>. tt•ncl to sencl in rcturns that art> definitely on tht' low ,¡cJC'. Orw of our prohlems was tlw ironi11µ out of thes(' differencc•s, \a lle) h) 'ülley This w<> clitl in part by rcpeated conlere11ccs with various l<>ading officials of cad1 clt>IX\rtmcnt. ln addition, wc enlisted thc• aid of the local repn•s<•ntativcs of both clepartmC'nts in cach vallcy or group of vallcys. Two othcr go' emment agencies entcrcd thc picture :rnd complicatcd matters still fnrthcr One was the Direc-

Fig. 2:l. Thi' hilht'rlo u11published grouncl pl:rn ol a sile near Lima was made by Bauddil'r. tn addition to 13and<'lirrs ground plans of Pachat"a1m1t aud ChanChan, reproduced i11 Chnptcrs V aucl Vllf res¡>et'livdy, th<'rt' :1lso 1':1.ist his still unpublishccl ground p(¡rn of tite ruius ncar ~lagdl'lrna del ~lar ( Him::\l' \'altt•y) and those of Tambo Colorado ( Pbco \'a lle) ) , both prP~l'n (•d in the rnult~ of the AmPrican \hi-<•um uf ~nlurnl Tfütor~ AM\"11

¡ crcpancios uppeured. Thus wc spcnt parí of our time i11 Peru lryi11g to estahlish sonH• figur<' Cor the prcsent arnount of cultivated land of each valley that would npproximate the truth as closely as possible. Of <·011ri.(•. thc arcas oí cultivation íluctuate somcwhat cnch } car. especially in those va lle) s where there ls an crahundauce of land in rclationship to the water contcnt of thc rh crs. In such valleys more land is cultivuted duri11g years in which thcrc is a great <leal of water lha11 in ..dry" years whcn sorne land is allowecl to remain [allow Iu vulleys where t hr-n- is lirtle lund, Íl1 relation to the water supply, thc variation is not so great. sinc« lwre ali the land is usually cultivated every vear Hut vuch variations exist in thc agricultura) econom) of t'\<•ry eountry \faxinrnm ureas of cult ivation \\('l'C' usually thc ones finally acceptcd. Thc prohlem of calculating tlw additiona! amount of luud cultivuted in ancient times depended. oí course. upon the results oí our fleld work. Onc<' this work had been complcted and lhc rcsults mappod, the amount of additional land wns roughly calculntcd hy rncans of the intograph. The two sets of figur<'s were added togethcr and thc total rnax imurn arca cultivated in ancient times was ascertained. Although the results will be presented in detall in '\'ofn ami Life in J-\11cie11t Peru, it may he stated here that on tlw South Coast appro~imatel~ the same amount of lancl is cultivuted toclay as in pre-Columhian time~. Along the Central Coasl thc arnount is sli¡!}1tly Jess, but along tlw orthwest Coast always tlw main agricultura) cenkr prcscnt day cultlvated arcas are considerahlr¡ less than in tlw pa-;t. ln ali, probahly 1.5 lo 20 pC'r cent more

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cióu de Catastro. a kiud oí land record offlce, lisling the amount oí land owned by each individual. Tu sorne cases, the figures oí this olfice wcre similar to those of the A~ricultnral Depurtment. hut in others there were divergcncies duo to the Iact that ali arable laud is uot neccssarily cultiv uted each year The other offic<'. a new one, was conncctcd with the tax burenu, T lere the cultívated arcas, as scen on the aerial photographs, are measured by iutogrnphs and compared with estimares Irom other buroaus. Th is projcct had, howover, just been started, nnd in the ft>w valleys studied considerable dis-

land was c11lti\'at<'d along th<' whol<' Coast in thl' past. Sine:<• J>enl\·ia11 go' t'l'11t111·11t oílic:ials ha\·<' calculatC'd the prcsent day cultivated ar<'a along the whole Coasl to nm lwtwc<'11 1,250,000 and l ,500,000 acrc•s, it follows that i11 anc.·ic'nl times abm1t a quarter of a million <1Cres mon• lancl had heen nnder cnltivation. However, since most oí this additional mnount of land is found on the orth" c•st Coasl the prohlem oí all(·ient versus prcscnt da) culti\'ated areas centers mainl) aro11ncl this region. On thc basis of th<' maximum ammmt of cnlti\'ated lancl i11 each valley in ancient times. we of course co11ld esti1nale thc 1·elalive si7.<'S of tlw populations of thc ''arious valleys. As a result, wc were able to show that more• tl1a11 half llw coastal pop1datio11 lh ecl in the \'alleys alonM tll(' '\orthwest Coast, the n•gio11 of the Chim{1 EmpiH•. \Ve l'nlcrcd on lC'rnptin~ tho11~h dangenms wound \\ lwn ''<' tried to cstablish :.om<• kind of an ahsol11te population size for C'ad1 'a lle•} i11 the past. This "'<' clid hy prcparin~ an opcrational population coefficient hased 011 a 'i<'l"if:'s of factors which will be discussed in our main stu<ly By adding up the data for each of the ,·alleys. wc arrivt:•cl at a total coastal populaliou figure clefinitC'ly in C:\ccss of a million at thc period of maximum developrnent. Ob,·iously, the validity of our calculation dqwnch t•ntircl) upon thc corrccl magnituclc of the coefficiC'nt. Then. by additional bul C\ en morC' tenuous calculations. which will be trcatcd in our main study, we an'ivecl at n l<'ntati\ e figure for the size of tlw population oí thC' <·ntir<• Inca Empire at the time of thc Spanish conquest. The pop11 lation may have bec11 possibly about se\'en or eight million. a figure whid1 is some ..vhat of the same orcler a~ that givf:'n by Spanish estirnatC's maclc in the sixteenth

Fig. 24 ( up¡wr left) A parl of tlw lar~t p~ ramul at \faranga in th(' procc~;. of hciog demolished. Thi;. phologr,1ph ~lrikingly illn,trnl<•, tho tremtndou;. numlx·r of adobe brid.s thnt weut into tlll' building uf hue:c> 'tmC"turt',. \uch a~ tltis. ,\frum • Fil(. 25 ( lower left) \lidclt'ndorl, in his P('fu ( 1893:80 ), gi\·cs a plan uf tht• aucit>ul town of \larauga ll'allt•cl llu.1clca in :\liddenclorf\ linw ). ~ituakd 111 the lowt•r Rima(· \'allPy ju;.t wt>sl of Lima (see map, p. 24) Comp•lít' this plan with tlw pn•wul d.n aerial photogmph nn tlw oppo!>1lc pagc • Fíe:. 26 ( ngl1t) Al flr~l ¡:ilancP, lhi.~ photograph appcar. to be an unorganized mrw. of hl.1d. and "hite blotches. .\ctually, thP wltitc areas art' audeul mounds MHlW with stmctur<'s on tnp of thl'm, "hik thc dark or stri1wd a11•.l' an modern irrigaled fit·ld,. \lo .. t of thc connt·clinl( \\,,)1, .llld othrr small stmclnres tlut \WI'(' Oll('I' lo(•ated in thcsc flclds ha'c hel'll plougltt'd hack inlo lhc •mil. Stf\ll'htrP :0-.o. 17 in :\licldendurf' plau ¡,al llw e'lremc right of tlw pho1ograph. At the left of it is l\o. lG, tlw 11nuM1;dl~ larg1• rectangula1 P)T;\mid with walled stmoun•s on top uf it. To huild tht' modl'm road lrnm Lima to Callao (widc ohli1¡ut• lilw in tlw photogrnph). a corut•1 ol 1•ach of '\os. 16 ancl 18 h.1d lo lx• dl't11oli .. lwd ( ;,ee Fig. 24) ~o. 1 !l. i11 \\ hich many ancienl buriab Wl'rt' found, was almost c·o1upll'ldy deslrnyed. :0-,o, 15, \dtli its pet·uliar fonn, c·a11 he easil~ l1K·ah·d. ·" \\ell '\os. :!O and 23. Tht' rc•111¡1im uf lhe long wall can h" M·1·11 i11 tht' pholograph (parallel to th€> top t·d¡w) Tlw .. light!~ hent ''ª11 "ith t•ntr;111n·s al 2 and 3, :b wt'll a~ part o( thc wall running pcr¡wndknlar to il. tan al.so be d1•arly \t'c11. fhe t1erial photograph (~>,er. onh tlw up¡wr .md ntiddle part of .\lidd('ndorf' plan aud thus el&•, not ,1im, tlw l<mt'r part of tl11• W;\11 thal ,urroundt·d the cit} (A) or tlw 'lmdurl~ lwhm and to lhe right ot thh \\;lll. Thc volu11w b) .\liddu1dorf t·o11t,1im <1 dc>tailt>rl kt·} to his plan. Significanl ¡, his obsef\ alion that llu largt· m ramid, "ert• hu1lt 1111/mfr tlw town walls. a phc.·110111t·11011 of m hani7ation '>imil.1r to thal fonnd in Ch.mChan ( sce Chapler \'II [) Sut wio, J40 serie.>.

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century These calculations are naturally subject to revisión before final publication of our data. While worl..ing in Lima, we also decídcd to im cstigate the possibilitics of makiug sorne kincl of a rainfall map prcscnted 110 of ali Pcru. Thc doscrt Coast obviously

problems, Ior herc pructícally no rain falls. \VC' were intcrestcd maínly in the Sierras. Ior thcy are the source of the watcrs that llow through thc desert vulleys. Besides, the topozraphical und climatological complevity of this mountain rcaiou must have hcen the geographkal basis Ior thc Ullt'\ e11 growth of the various Sierra cconomios and cultures. which in turn intcracted with the more hornogencous coastal economies and cultures. Considerable vnriutions in annual raíntull occur along tl I(' si des of euch \':I lley The bottom of 011(' of the dcep intra- udcun vullcy» may he scmi-arld aud require irrigation for ngriculturul purposes: the rezíons uear the top rnaj hav e ~ufGcicnt precipitation to pcnnit regular

rainfnll agricultur<'; while the sides of a valley may have moderate but Iluctuatíng precipitat ion requiring irrigation rnainly as a stahilizing factor Considerable variatíons in rainfall, moreov er, occur throuahout thc length of cach of tlws<' valleys, as well as lx-twecn valleys of the Xorthern und those of the Southern 'ierras. A good rainfall map i~ therefore essential for lhe uuderstanding of thc compk-x climatie fouudutions of Sierra cconorny and society and thcir rclations to coustal c>co110111y and socíety, both past and present. \Ve thercf ore visited the J\ Ictcorological l ns ti tute to Hud out wliat data existed. To our dismay, wc learned that most of thc wcather stations wcre on the descrt Coast whcrc thcre is practicallv no rain. while those in the rnountains wcre few and far bctweenl . uch a distrílmtion of stations may make \\ ork eusier and more pleasant f or the meteorologícal ageuts, hnt the resulting lack of elata for the Sierras is extrcmcly deplorable. We thcn visited the motcorological ofllce of Panagra Airways Company at Limarambo airport. lIcrc we also searched in vainl \Ve <lid, howe' cr. flncl some good material conterning the neighboring cou11lrics of Ecuador, Bolivia ancl Chik•. The data publishcd by the Ecuadoriun ~overnrnent is especially comprchcn!>i\ t'. Conscquently, we were soon able to makc a prelimi11ar) meteorological map of Ecuador. which demonslratc<l 't'l') graphicall) the great t'\tremc:. of rainfall in dosel} rC'lat('d regions. It is tlw l..i11d of a map which we hope some cfa) to hav<' of the Penivian highla!lcls. R11t in adclition to the difficulties i11 ohlaining a11cl calculaling ;\l( thc <Lhovc data. we liad lwo othcr immediatc proble111s lwforc 11s in Lima. 011e was to obtain a jeep for our ratll<'r C\lensive ancl widf'spn•¡\d ficld work the othc>r wa~ to C\aminc the aerial photograph~ which the Pern\ ian Gm ernrnent had taken of tlw 'arious ,·allcys of

Fig. 27 { ri~ltl) Caiam.1rq11ill.1 whnse e:-.lt'n,jq 111111' :\lll''l to its fornwr grc·alm'''· "'ilu:lll'cl •ti llil' t•11u of a c¡ue/mula ahout lrn milC's (rom mw ni tlu· 111ai11 Lall' Periml t•1•11kr~ of tlw Himac \'allcy Ot•cupied b) llil' lnt'a,. it b 111entim1<•cl hr tlw ,i\ll>Pnth ce11t11ry Lima. 1L Spani'>h Chn111u.:l1·r,, Tlu d1·1N t·ont·t·ntration of c1111tig11011' home walls, ,}¡º" 11 i11 tlH' l'('llll'r of lhe photograph, indkal<'' thal Cajamarquilla structtlf('> of thl· cil)' :ip¡w;tr to he st•paratl'<I h' 'trt•eh. hut \11t"l1 ¡, 11ot tht h.1d a pop11lation 11111nlw1nl in the thousands. Tlll' 111a11)•-wnlkd u1w; thc ¡woph· prnhahl) mm l'd abuut hy walkiug 011 top ot thc \\'alis! At tlw righl b .1 larg1•, spadou~ C'Ompound. Pº''ihl) tlu• qnarter-; of thc rulers. AL thc kit, tlw lar!-(e pyramid. prohahl) tlw n·li¡.tions c-cnter, stands out 'har¡)I) Tlw irregular "hite lim·' l·11tti11¡.t aero•" the ruins are modern path~. whil(• tht· arca at tlw hottom ni tlw phnto~r;1ph represrnts mod1•rn lidd' .1nd urchard,,. \"i,ilt"<I ami d1·,<"Tibed in part b) a 1111mher of an·h:ll'ologi,h. Cajannarquill<l, by ih 't'T) \Í/t' ;1nd l'Ornplt"..il). has pr..-' u1ll-d a ",1e111aht 1•:-.ploratio11 "' .t tt•,ult of ih po~itio11 Strrido .Jl¡O; f, JJ8 abme the irrigated ll·H·I, Ll1i' '>ile has escaped the !.1le uf tlll' t•qu.1ll) largc and importan[ \ite oí :\faranga (lluadea) Thi-. b not a ja1-k-o'-l.111tt-rn or ;1 Ilallcl\\ et•11 p11111pJ..i11: 11 1' .111 ;11K11·nt t'l'fl'lllo111al \\ .1tt r ¡ug huaco) snpahm \ \' 17 8 t~ • Fig. 2, po,c·dly !numl i11 tl11 füm;w \';1lll') • \,\(Y II

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Aeríal Photography ín the Reconstructíon of the Post

AEJUAL PHOTOGRAPHYl This new technique has become a wonderful tool in reconstructing the past, Indeed, it has raísed archaeology to a new level. By a kind of prelíminary "armchair exploration," many uuknown ancient sites, whose díscovery by conventional field methods would often take considerable time and trernendous physical eflort, can now be locatecl easíly and rapídly. But more important, aerial photography makes it possiblc to obtain, almost at a glance, a comprehensive and dramatic picture of the archaeologícal remains of a valley as a whole! Incleed, one can casily establish the relationship of the various ruins not only to one anothcr, but also to present day sites and structures, as well as to the whole topographical setting of the countryside. Accurate ground plans of the larger complexes a factor of great importance in ficld work can also be obtaíned with little difficu lty Therefore, we decided to visit the modern offices and laboratories of the Servicio Aerofotográfico Nacional which is the mappíng unit of the Ministry of Aeronautics

of Peru, The Servicio is situated near Barranco, one of the attractive suburbs of Lima. We had heard that during and since World War II the Servicio had made aeríal surveys of many of the coastal valleys of the country We were recei.ved in a most kíndly way at the labora· tories and ali the facilities of the Servicio were put at our disposal. But when we began to make a survey of the photograpbs available, we were overwhelrned. And no wonder There must have been about 20,000 photographs covering the areas of our interestl This was more than we had bargained for But after we had recovered from the shock of hearing too much good news, we settled down to our task of making a thorough study of the material. True, the photographs had not been taken specífically for archaeologícal studíes, but rather for varíous govemmental and private purposes of which the most important was the determination of the size of each land holding. It thus became possible for government officials to "go after" the numerous large landowners who in the past had evaded paying their just share of taxes by purposely underestimating the sizes of their estates

Fig. l. On a hill overlookíng the Pacífic Ocean stands the Inca Pyramid of the Sun. This partly excavated and rebuilt structure dominares the extensive ruins of Paehacamac in the Lurín Valley Compare this oblique aerial photograph with the views shown in the lower ll'ft of Figs. 3 to 6 (pp. 40 to 43) Servido 0:1621 • Fig. 2 ( right margin) Carved wooden idol found in Pachacamac. Gt1illen • NOTE: Cuts in margins are designs found at Pachacamac.

apparently a universal Faíling, But for us, the photographers had unwittingly uncovered the existence aod location of a vast multitude of ancient canals and archaeologícal sitcs, many of them unknown to professional archaeologistsl Furthermore, they had brought into sharper focus the geographic pattern within which mankind on the Coast had evolved, a pattern whích, at the same time, mankind itself had partly helped to create, By transforming deserts by means of írrigation into rich agricultura! Iands, man had changed the very face of the earthl First of ali we wanted to check the results of our extensive 1940-41 field tríps. Then we were anxious to see whether we could locate canals and ruins which we might have missed in om· previous field work Five of the valley "mosaics," or composite maps made from photographs in series, we had studied in Dr Junius Bird's office at the American Museum of Natural History in New York. But here, at the Servicio, mosaics of many other valleys were available, together with the original individual prints from which the mosaics had been made. We spcnt about a month at tbe studios of the Servicio poring over the material concerning the Northwest Coast before we embarked on the ficld work in this region. But it proved necessary to return to the Servicio a nurnber of times during our year's stay in Peru, not only in order to study other valleys, but also to check the findings of each of our ficld trips. Since the work was of a painstaking nature and required a great <leal of time, the officials of the Servicio assisted greatly by permitting us to work long hours in their elaborate offices and laboratories. We generally stayed until ten each night

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including Saturdays and Sundays. Despitc such hours and the use of a "belt system" for handling photographs, this laborious, but exciting and productivo work con· sumcd more than three months of our stay in Peru! The Director of Aerophotography, the Faírchild Photographic Mission to Peru which scrvcd as tcchnical advisor to the Director, and the officer staff of the Servicio Aerofotográfico Nacional and its personnel assistcd us in every way possible in our studies. They gave frcely of their time and their knowledge of thc new tcchníquc of aerial photography, we spent many a plcasant hour with them being inducted into thc secrcts of their profcssion. In order to simplify the account of our activities at the Servicio, we have found it advisable to describe thcm as a unit rather than to present them in thc piecemeal fashion in which they were actually carried on. And the work was exciting! A real treasurc huntl As

Figs. 3 to 6. Pachacarnac, situated in the Lurin Valley, was one of tho most Famous of thc religious shrines and pilgrimage centers in all of ancient Peru. Its extensivo arca and the many nearby graves have since made it a Favoritc pince for trcasure scokers. Durlng the last century :md a half, a numbcr of grouud pluus wero madc of part or all of thís site. Three of thcso pluns of this arca aro presented on pages 40 to 42 (Flgs, 3 to 5) Rcccntly tlw Servicio made an aerial pbotograph of these ruins, page 43 ( Fig. G), which shows not merely their prescnt stato of preservation, but also Iurnishes a check on the valiclity of the diffcrcnt ground plnns, Thc three plans, as well as tbe photograph, hcre rcproduced, clcarly show the main Pyrarníd of the Sun - so namcd by thc Incas situated on a hill on the left ( see also Fíg. 1) To the right of the pyramid can be noted a smaller structure, the older shríne of Pachacamac. The rest of the site consísts largely of remníns of ancicnt living quarters. A modern road, which was apparently built over a previous patb, winds its way through the site (sce Figs. 4 to 6) The Lurín River, which runs south of thc nain~. can be S(•cn in Figs. 3 and 4. The Pacific Ocean is on the left. Fig. 3 shows thc main part of the oldest ground plan that we could locate. It was ma<lc in 1793 by Joséf Juan and is now in the Britísh ~1useum ( Additional ~Is. 17671) Photostatic <.'Oples are in Lima and in lhe Librnry of Congress. Accompanying the original pliln is a detaik·d description of the various numbered places in the sile. Consi<lcrations of space requirements have forced ns to place this <lescription in the Appendix. Our reproduction of thc plan is turnc<l sidcwisc in order that it can be better compared with the othcr drnwings and the photograph. During the nineteenth cenh1ry, more accurnte nnd dctniled drawings were made of parts of Pachacamnc and arl' fo11nd in tho works of Squier, Middendorf and others. The most comprchonsivc of these plans was ronde in 1892 by Handelier ( Fig. 4) nnd has until now remnined unp11blished. Courtesy of the American

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l"ig. lí \ .1ho\ • ) <11 td Fi~. li { nght) In 1 !l02. \h, l'hlc, íhe fallll'I ol P1·rm 1.111 ;11 d1¡11·olo~~. macll' the claborate ami urvurut« grcnrnd pl.u: ( l~1g. ñ l a11CI pubhshed it iu hIS volume, Pachacumac, 1 h.- plan ¡, '1111 lh<' uf Jij, work. In tite uppcr ldt comer of llhl1\ pl.111" Lli<• \11111.1<.1111::1 rn \ c·ar<f 11 t·11111¡lari,<111 uf l hl1\ gw1111d plan with the uerinl photograph (Fil.!. f.) rt·\1.11, 1}11 .1rc11r.1t 'l1111d,1rd 1tll< ""d h> a1d1;w11loithl'. Te 111pl1 nf 11° l.,111 \'irgin' <mee- r1·1.:011,ln1<:t1·d h~ Tollo 1 ,, ,. Fi!!. ti 1 1'111• • 11t ro,1t huu 111 uf iuoderu l"Í' ilizarion 011 the l llllJ' oí l',1ch.1t.1111,11 can h1• rn>lnl í11 tlu, uppcr riaht of Fig, ll. 1 h•n· tlw P.m \1m 11< .111 l lil.(lt\\ " hl 1< l.: 11111• e 1 v through ,\ comer uf thc ,¡, .. \\ lt• re :i <mall -cttl• 1111111 hns h1 cu huílt 011 sorne 11f thc uucxcuv atcd suucturcs, \lo'I ul lhl; '\lCll'Í" ruln- uf l'.H11.1c-.ama1: li;t\ 1 >• I tu he 1 l1~1rt cl ::,, 1111 ¡,, /011:J. t:tl 0\

we studied photograph after photograph we were actnally carrying on an intellectual quest for the dcad but unburied treasures of the past, There was always tremendous satisfaction in discovering new pyrarnids, settlements, Fortíficatíons, walls, roads and canals on a photograph. Indeed, it was even exciting to flnd such

ruins on photographs aftcr we had seen them in the field. For herc they looked quite differentl We would often exclaim Why didn't we see that there was another rufo right nearby when we were in the field? Why dídn't we seo that this walJ extended all the way up the hill? Why didn't we follow the "end" of this canal Ior another half milc and Iind its continuation? Sometimes it was difficu lt to decide whether a certaín mark ou a photograph was a section of a road or of a canal or perhaps just a scratch on the negativel But even if a set of pictures yielded no "pay dirt," the beauty of sorne of the photographs was of ten a reward in itselfl

After a prelirninary survey of the files of thc Servicio, we Iound that thorc wcrc aeríal photographs (individual contact prínts ) of thc followiug vallcys ( froin north to south) Tumbes, [equctcpeque, Chícarna, Moche, Virú, Chao, Santa, Nepeña, Fortaleza, Pativilca, Supe, Huaura, Chancay, part of Chillón, Rímac, part of Lurín, Mala, Chilca, Chincha, the branches of tbe Río Grande, and finally, Ocoña aud Sihuas. The Tea Valley has been photographed sincc thcn, the projeet having beeu finauced by a prívate association of agrículturists. Unfortunately, the Casina, part of thc Chillón, part of the Luríu, thc Cañete, the Pisco, as well as practically all the valleys to the south of thc Río Grande, had not yet been photographed. Most disappointíng was the Iact that when we Iirst arrivcd in Pcru no aerial survey had been made by the Servicio of thc northcrn vallcys of Chira, Piura, Motupe, Leche, Lambayeque and Zaña. And thesc were precísely the valleys which were among

Fig. 7 A previously unexplore<l "twin-town" scttlcmc11tsurroundc<l by hills un the southem bank of thc Lurín Rh·er, somc fiftcen miles fron1 thc sea, is shown in tbis oblique aerial photograph. Compare it with the three ground photogr:iphs, Figs. 8 to 10. The win<ling whitc line running irregularly below the ruins through the irrigated fields of ü1e valley is the modem road. Serr;icio 0:947

tbe most important for our study But the story had a happy en<lingl Shortly befare we left Peru the Servicio mado a lowaltitudc acrial survoy of tho Zaña and the upper middle Larnbaycque and Leche vallcys, Since the photographs turued out to be excelleut uud brought to light new aspects of the territory we had stu<lied in our flcld work, we extended our proposed stay in Peru by another month, We utilized this time to study thesc photographs and to make a short fleld trip to ínvestígatc somc of tlie ncw archacological sitcs which the photographs had revealed. Evcn from thc beginning, wc wcrc not without somc aerial photographs of this 11ortheru regiou. vVe discovered that the Servicio also posscssed photographs which it had made under contract for the International Petroleum Compauy aud which the company gi:aciously pennitted us to use. These had been taken as part of an oil prospecting survey and covere<l the lower and middle Lam-

Fig. 8. P:ut of the "twin-town., ruin seen from lhc ground. Thc buildings are constnict<'d of mud-brick (adobe and stcme. The dark arcas to ü1c right art• irrigatecl fields. Kosok • Fig. 9 (top, p. 45) Another part of the ruin. Kosuk.

bayeque and Leche, the Motupe, Piura, Chira and Turnhes Valleys, as welJ as the whole Sechura Desert. But because thcsc photographs were taken from a much greater height than that normally Hown by the Servicio, thc ruins and canals naturally appcarcd much smaller and wcre thcrefore rnuch hardcr to detect, Nevertheless, these photographs turned out to have sorne use, Since the negativos werc very sharp and on fine-grnin film, enlargements up to cight times the original size turned out to be surprisingly olear Once we had Iearned from our field trips thc approximate location of certain signiflcant ruins, we were uble to obtain exeellent photcgraphic enlargements of the sites, On them tbe general ground plan and many struotural details, which frequently were difficult to asccrtain frorn ground exploration, could then often be seen at a glance. We ulso hud enlargements mado of photographs of various uniuvestígated areas, which were difficult to survey by field work alone, in order to see if we could locatc ancient sites there. 'Ve were especíally successful with the enlargements of the extensiva Morrope-Lambaycque desert arca which showed a wealth of archaeological remains that had not becn previously known to cxist. In addítion lo these individual contact photographs, the Servicio posscsscs mosaic maps of many of the eoastal valleys of Pcru. Its technicians construct thcm by taking the individual overlapping contact prints and then fitting thcm together in such a way that their corresponding imagcs match. Ali of these fittcd prints of an area are theu pasted together on a huge board and a complete picturc of the valley is obtaíned. This is, however, a complex process, For here the problem of displacernent and distortion arises. As the photographing airplane follows íts course in "Ilying a strip," obviously i.t cannot always rnaintain the same altítude nor prevcnt a certaín amount of tilting. As a result, sorne scalo dífferences in both the negatives and the corresponding contact prints become unavoídablc, By claboratc calculations in the laborarories these scale díílerences nro elirninated and more uniform prints are made before the mosaic map is put together As a result of the inherent nature of the photographic process, there is also a slight displacemcnt and distortíon at the edge of each negativc and in its corresponding contact print. In the making of mosaic maps this is counteractcd by having the original aerial photographs made iu such a manner that each photograph automatically ovcrlaps about 60 per cent of the area of thc next one. Fig. 10. This wall in "twín-town," where the plaster has follen off, rcveals signilicant detaíls of it~ construction: lay1'r~ ol stone held

together by mud "cement." KMok • Flg. 11. Dcsign based on Bedia - Comish,

carved woode-n figures [rom Pachacamac,

The technicians then discard the slightly distorted and displaced cdges of each photograph and use only the more accuratc center scclions. In our type of oxploratory work thcsc imperfections played no important role. But they might have to be taken into account in rnaking vcry accurate ground plans directly Irom thc photographs. When thc mosaic of a valley has becn completcd, longitude and latitude lines are carefully drawn on it.

The mosaic is then dívídcd ínto rectangular sections of 40 by 50 centimeters ( about 16 by 20 inches ) Then a Iull-sized negativo an<l a corresponding print are mado of each section. All the largc-sized prints of each valley can then be aligne<l corrcctly next to oue another on a huge table and a truly swecping and cornprehensive pícture of the whole valley can thus be obtained. In dccd, this is vvhat we often <lid. For practícal reasons, these mosaic sections are filed in large looselcaf books wherc they can be consultad with case. The problem of corrcctly mapping a ruin or canal had often troubled us in our previous 6eld work, But now our problem was solvedl For by studying these mosaics W<' could at once determine the exact location of such ruins aud canals and map thcm correctly vVe soon succeeded in corrccting the positíon of sorne of thc ruíns whosc sites wc had entered in 1940-41 on thc Peruvian Arrny's topographical maps scalcd 1:100,000. We even díscovcrcd a numbcr of topographical crrors in the Army inaps themselves which resnlted from the process by which thcy were rnade. Conseqnently, wc had to "movc" certaiu hills, quebradas, and cven coast línes on the maps in order to have their position conform with the more accurate aerial surveys. We also madc extensiva use of individual contact prints in our work, Since a mosaic map is a photograph of photographs, it naturally is not as olear as the original contact prints. Thcrefore, it is usually a good idea to havo enlargements madc from thc contact prints. Thc increased clarity of dctail in the enlargement, thus achieved, more than compensares for thc slight displacements and distortions in the prints. There is another important advantage in studying the contact prints directly As we have mentioned, when the airplanc "Ilíes a strip" of territory, thc photographs run in a sequence with an overlapping of 60 per cent. This permits two adjoining photograpbs to be used in a stereoscopic apparatus, Whcn they are correctly aligned not always an easy task a three-dimensional effect of part of thc overlapping area is produced. This apparatus

Fig .. 1<!. l lere is another unknown ruin which wc locakd on the south bank of the Ludo River, some seven to cight miles from its moulh. Add1tiooal st~c~·es continue. a~oog. the sides of the hills farther up Lhe river. The heavy line running in an irregular fasMon around and Lh~m1g~1 the nuns is a modem 1rngation canal nol yel in use when the pbotograph was takcn. With the functioning of the canal, parts of the ru111 w1ll be plowcd un<lcr and thc Ian<l coltivatcd. Servicio 1003:150.

is, moreover, so constructed that vertical elevaríons appear greatly exaggerated in relatíon to horizontal distances. Thus slight clevations of mounds and ruined walled structures stand out promíneutly while large pyrarnids dramatícally jump up to meet the eye. Depressions, character-

istic of canals, Iikewise stand out in bold relíef. It was, therefore, possible at times to trace clearly the almost ruined courses of canals as thcy wound around steep bilis. Tn this way we could Iind and map certaiu canals much more rapidly and accurately than was possible by field work. lt was sheer joy to thus find and "Iollow" ;\ canal in a fcw minutes in the laboratory, a process which in the Ileld had prcviously taken us many painful hours or cven days on horseback and on foot .. Working with the stereoscopic apparatus, however, requites much time and patience, The stereoscope censoqucntly was use<l only whcn doubts arose about the nature of a ruin after photographs of it had bccn vicwcd with the naked eye or with a simple magnífying glass. Coutact prints had to be used exclusivcly Ior sorne vallcys for which mosuic maps had not yct been constructed, In other valleys, of which mosaic maps exístcd, photographs of <lesert áreas located at some distance from the cultivated lands, and thus of little interest to thc Agrículturc and Tax Dcpartments of the Peruvian Covcrnmcnt, had not been íncorporated into these mosaics. Y et these áreas werc of ten of prime interest to us. \i\le wcrc thus forced to depend eutirely upon the contact prints Ior our work in such arcas. One of the arcas which wc studied in thís way was the large desert plain to the north of ChanChan, thc ancicnt capital of the Chimús. By carefully studying each mosaic map and by cxamining individual prints with a magnifyiog glass and sornetimes with a stereoscope, we were able to locate and map probably all of the mujer canals and ruins, as well as most of the secondary ones tbat could be seen 011 the aerial photographs. Since the photographs of the varíous valleys were taken for diíferent purposes, with several types of aerial cameras, and were sometimes made under unfavorable weather conditions, the negatives were not always of the same standard. Consequently, the degree of enlargernent of the negatíves which thc Servicio could produce for us varied in díflerent valleys and áreas, Nonetheless. whatever the size of tho cnlargement, it always turned out to be of help to us. Wo had enlargcrncuts mndc of photographs of ovcr flvc hundred sites. Copies of rnost of these are at Long

Island Univcrsily. Others are at the AnthropologicaJ Institute of thc Uní' ersit)' of Trujillo, Peru, or with Dr. Schaedel. A list of these vertical aerial photographs can be found in thc Appeudix. Sorne of the most important ones are rcproduced in this volume. Dr Schaedel pubJished an articlc cntitle<l "Thc Lost Cities of Peru" in the Scientific Americt111 for August 1951, in which he describes how he uscd sorne of thesc aerial photographs in f mthering his own specinc archaeological studics. The use of acrial photographs nevertheless had definite limitatioos for our work. As has beco said, the photographs in the files of thc Servicio generally covered onlv thc irrigated areas of the valleys together with small strips of the adjacent desert arcas. The ruins and canals in the unphotographed desert arcas between the various valleys therefore hacl to be 1ocated by ground reconnaissance alone, a slow :md tedious opcration which wc carried on by means of u jeep, car, horse, or on foot. The field work, howcver, consisted of more than merely covering thc areas not recorded on thc aeríal photographs. \Ve visited cana.Is and ruins located on the acrial photographs mainly to obtaio a concrete and more detailed knowledge of them. Moreover, badly destroyed ruins and canals photographed under unsuitablc conditions, often could not be recoguized as such 011 the photographs. Field trips were necessary to determine whether certain ill-defincd spots on the photographs were natural mounds or ruins of man-macle eclillces. Such trips were important, cspecially in the large and complex Lambayeque area, wbcre the cumulative powcr of occa-

Fig. 13 (bdow, lcft)

sional rains during the past centw-ies has transformed many adobe pyramids into apparently shapeless mounds. Thus, by intensive fleld reconnaissance, we sometimes established thc cxistcnce of secoodary sites that we could not disccrn in the photographs. When we returned to the Servicio, wc could, since we now knew thc location of these ruins, "rcdiscover" them on the photogxaphs. On the othcr hand, a re-examination of the pbotographs after field trips would at times show complex:ities and extensions of sitcs and their ínterconncction with others which were not apparent during the fielcl work itself or which wc had not noticed in our preliminary study of the photographs. This meant that we had to revisit most valleys at lcnst once, sorne severa! times, to check the iofonnation obtained from the aerial photographs. But the great aid of aerial photography in making an archaeologicaf survey of an extcnsivc rcgion is obvious. lt provides an over-all pich1i-e of the region, makes possible the rapid location of major and cvcn minor sites, helps determine the structure of 11w;or siles, and can be used to accelerate the drawing of prcliminary ground plans. Thus it tremcndously reduces the time needed for general survey work in the field. But fielcl work still remains basic. Only by such work can the actual canals and structurcs of the past be studied and analyzed thoroughly, and the innumerable details be discovered that escape aerial photography, but that are essential for a real archaeological survey As in the military fielcl, aviation, while important, is, after all, chiefly an accessory to ground actionl

Parl of U1c rcconstructcd Pyr:imicl of the Sun at l}achacamac. Ko11ok • Fig. 14 (below, right) i\otf' th<' many human bones scattcm:<l about tl1e site. Kosok.

A lypícal scene in an

excavatcd, uncícnt graveyard at Pachacamac.

~ ~ 47 1

The Lar9est Astronomy Book ín the World: New Aspects of Ancíent Nazca

Ar:Ross T11t:: socrnssx ooxsr of Peru, about 250 miles from Lima, thcre runs a ríver callcd tlw Hío Grande. Like most southcrn rívers, it has cut a narrow gorge through thc coastal mesa and produccd a rnlle) where there is harelj enouzh room for cultiv ation. l311t in a large platcau region bcginuíng about thirty miles from the sea, this large river ..dissolx es itself," so to spcuk, into eight small brauches, which furnish the water nccesxury for irrigating l1w adjoining Helds. Thcse fic·lds n1T not extensíve. Ior thc rivcrs are small aud contniu water 011ly four to fi, e mouths n ycar Each valle) supporl!toduy, as it undoubtcdly dicl in thc past, a popn lation of

º'

erlappin¡! This Iautavtie :111d m> sterious complcx oí tríangles and trapczoíds was probably huilt ami 11.,t•cl by tho ancients Ior ustrouomk-nl obscrvations and relatcd ccren11>11ial c-ults. Thcse markíngs covcr lhc top of a platean, ~il11t11t·d iust ubove the Palpa Valley, which i~ pnrl nf the Río Cruude ~Y'tvrn: e' en the erodcd ~lnpt'~ ol the pluteau were nsed for mal..ing thc·,c• saered markings. On the lower parts of llw >lop1•> ure halntation terraees, "hile in tlw fon•gro11nd are the flckb of tlu Palpa \'ali•·> Sen:icio, 543 senes • Fig. 2 ( right ) South ol tlw Ing<·nio \ .dl1·> vtretches an ev eu grt•.1tt•r maze of marking-; It •·1111li11111·' lm -onu- fiftet•n to ~'l'llt) mil!', f.1rtlwr south into tlu- '\a/l'a \';11!1' uud t'' en be~ oud it1 The 'mal! 'in• of llw •·nlti\ ¡1tf'd urca of thc 1 ngeuio Vulley ( right) Illuvtr.ues grnphieally why this v alley, lik« thc others of the Hlo Craude '> \11'111, could support 0111~ a smul] T11 contrast are the hugc plutcuus. populauon ( see also F'ig. 12) on which the ancieuts wr-re o•ngagt•d in senrching for the s1••·rds of the Universe. It SP1•ms incn-dible, in view of their small populatlons that these littk ""k> s ;hnnld ha\c pt0d11red >uc:h a11 .11n:11inglv lar~·· n11111lx·r and 'ari<'ly of dcsert ''record.,:· kosok Fig. 1

left )

h11t'~. "roads,"

·'

f<'" thousurul •• 111d coutuins

0111) 1>11t' or two 'illa!!c..,. Because of location and elevation about 1500 Ieet ahovc sea level this r<'gion is not strictly coastal. It b even less Sierra. Iudecd, its churactcr includos elemeuts of both. Thus, it forrn-, the lwgi1111i11~ of an i11<:rcasi111~l) ek\ ated s<·ric•s of i111<·11sl\ c·I) cultiv ated brauch 'allPy'> oí tlw western semi-Sierra region. which exteuds southcast ,1

towards \1 <'q11ÍJ>.t •• 111d which includc-, -.11d1 un importunt ami lnstorically mtercstíuu sruall vulk y as the Colea (Johnso11. l!J;30) Furtherrnore. tite Hío Gr,111d1• n·gion has alwuys hcen tlu- natural sout heru coastal cntrnnoo into thc- southem Sicrru« pro¡w1 conucctiuu this scction of tlw Coast with \) acucho. \hauc·a). Cuzc:o and l'\ r-n T .akrTit icac-a ( Tiahu.inaco ). once the scats of ancient tu ltu res.

and still tln- d1iet t't 11tc·1s of l ndiun liíc. Fi11.tll). Ilu- IHo Grande bruuch v allev s. touether with the 11ei!!hho1 i11g lcu Vulh-y , comprise, in a wa). the -,011tlwr11 geographil'al ami cultural terrninux oí the South Central Coust, 111 this peculiar transition :.011(', the Inmous aneicut \tuc.~.t culture cvolved. Xame-d Ior the :'\a/(•a \·;\lle). the most irnpot tuut hrauch of th« Hío Grande. it l1a~ i11 man} 0

Paracas textiles have been founcl. l n the ~ azca arca, the uncients devcloped a <listinct type of cerarnics chameterized by their fine shapes. complex dcsign., and beautíf ul color comhinatíons. Of peusunt. "ceremonial" churucter the cultural products of azoa contrast sharply with thc rather secular nature of thc bcst Mochica material of the lorthwest Coast and thc mass-produced Late Chírnú goods. lntriguing and important as it is to unravel the socío-historicul roots of thc Nazca culture. we cannot uttcmpt it hore. On thc eontrary, we have anothcr mystery to add namely, thc so-called Xazca markings! Flying over thc dramatic desert plains ancl hills that strctch between the lower branchcs of the Hío Grande in southcrn Peru, one sees strnnge und uniquo notworks of lincs ~111d geometnc fignres. Thcy are visible in many places; sometimcs lacing back ancl forth in extrcmcly cornplex und appnrcntly

chaotic ways across un arca possibly more thun f orii] miles /011f!.

aud fir.;e to ten miles uside!

On more carcful íuspectíon. these fantastic networks are found lo consist of long stone and clirt liues. roads. trianules, uud trnpczokls. as well as drawings of unirnals plants. spirals and orhcr figures. sorne of which are still meaninaless to us. The raised cdges of the vnrious figures were mude by thc simple process of rcmovíng sorne soil and small stones from the enclosed arcas and piling them up in a uniíorm way nlong the sides. Many of thc sides are now only a few luches high and barely perceptible from tite ground, even ut dawn or dusk when the shadows are lonaest. Sorne of thc struiuht lincs and roads are Irom four to fi, e miles long! Thc trianglcs and trapczoids are nsuully immcnsc, ofteu mcasuring thousands of Feet in lcngth. Thc rnodern inhahitauts of lhc \'alley of lll!!;cnio.

Ju this vertical twrial mosaic "hkh cm ers n111d1 oí the regio11 sllll\\ n in Fig. 2, tlw multiplicil) nud complexity oí tlw marl..Fig. 3 (ldt) ings beconw l'H"ll more appanmt. ~ot<-, 11<·ar the middle of tlw photograph. '' t~ pica) "ce11h•r .. from which many line;os. road,. lriangle~ and trap<>zoids radiak. ~umcrom wnters of thí' l..ind <He found throughout tlw "\:l/ca an•a .• \t tlw lower left h.rnd .,ide uf thc pidurt• can be we11 fainl lr<ICt·~ of an ancient sl'ttlement \\hn>i• inhaliitanl~ prohahl) helpt•d mal..c the rn:mifold markings in tlw clesert (~<'<'ah.o Fig. 2) Tl1t• size oí tlw markings is indicakd by the fad tliat thc ohl1mg white spot '' ilhin one oí tlw tr:qwzoids nl•ar llw lowPr (pft hand comer uf th<' pliotogrnph is a modcrn íoothall fleld! Thr bbck liiu• running across tlw phologrnph is thc Pan Anwrkan l lighwny, whilt• th;· wh'ilP li11P with white hlotdws 011 Pach sidc of il is a dirt road leuding lo nearby Cahuachi. Tlw irregular'' hit!.' lines are 111odt>m foot paths. Serriria 524 · !JG. 99. 101 • Fig. 4 (below) ~laria Rdch•· made this planc·-1t1hle drawing afkr completing e\tc·n'i'c flcld nwa,urc•ments of a 'mall ''"c·tion oí Fig. 3. Tlw arl'a CO\ rn•d is ju~l a bon• the bc•nd oí lhe Pa11 American lligh\\ ,\\ whrr" thc ·\,hite" road hrn11che' off. Tlw dr:I\\ i11,g hring' out the m:tn) dc·tails that an• not 'isihlc on tlw photograph, thu, i11clic:1ti11g tºH'n mor,. clearly thc merwlwl111i11g 111:1,s of marl.i11g' tlrnt tlw ancient~ l"<Jt1\lrttcted. IndP<'Cl, tlw \'f'r)' richnc·•~ of tlie a,aiJnbh- 111a!L'rfal ofll'n mcrwhrlm' tlw indhidnal flekl worl..cr anti ~uggc·,t~ the need of a coll<·clhc· "uvey of nt least· tlw main arPas. Thc dottecl li11t• i11dicates thr Pan A111eri1·an l lighwa~·

Fig. 5 ( hPlow. righl) This photol-(r:1ph shows "hat tlw lincs ami "road," actually loo!.. liJ..e 011 the grn1111d. \;otice ho" \lraight they are and how thcy radiate in dilfrrrnl direction,. Tlw irrPgular whilt' lr:1cks in the forc·ground wcn' rnacl<' hy a rnodern truck. ílrirT1r • "ºTE: Jn lhl• margins of thb. d1aptN un· pktured i\a7ca t~1w huacos. Ko.1ok-íl1'111. Thc l\\ o "ith woodc·11 h.1<.t'' art• from tlw 1\\ISll Tlw lint' c·uh of :\azrn fiti:ure' found in th1 margin' are fro111 Mead and from Guillen.

ways been a socio-archaeolozical puzzle. For here in these minute, isolated valley s that líe scattercd ovcr onc of tlw world's driest dcserts, thc inhabitants produced techuically the rnost ndvunced, and artistícally lhe most boautif ul, textiles of the Amcricas. In its broador sensc, this arca should include the ncighboring lea \'alley as well as the Pisco. 11Par whose rnouth tbe wondr-rful ancieut

Fig. 6. An oblique aerial view of anothcr desort regíon covcred by sets of rnarkings. Sercicio, unnumbered series.

one of the branches of the Río Grande system, bnilt a Football 6cld in one of the trapczoids, where it occupies only a small fractíou of the enclosed spacel The dirt drawings of some of the plants and animals are Iikcwíse done on a largc scale, cxtending sornctimcs hundreds of feet in length. So far, no traditions that might indicate the purpose of these drawings have been discovered. The early Span-

ish Chronícler, Cíeza de León ( I Cha p. L)G{V), mentíons that ali the Indians in the Nazca Valley were killed in the civil wars in which rival groups of Spaníards fought for possession of both the soil ancl the Indians. And with the Indians. their traditíons apparently also períshed. Ione of the known records of the early Spanish Chroniclers explains the nature of the lines, however, unexplored local archives may in the future yield sorne information about them. The physícal existence of these drawings is wcll known to many pcoplc in Pcru today, for they can be ser-n clearly from the Faucctt planes that fly regularly over thís region. Sectíons of these markings can be notíced even from thc wcll-travcled Pan American Tlighway, which cuts right across sorne of the rnost important of these sites! In an articlc published i11 the Ptoceedings of the 27th Congress of Arnericanists ( 1939). Mejía Xesspe proposcd that the roads were of a ceremonial naturo, and he is probablv quite correct, But he goes no further in bis analysis. Later ou. in 1947. Dr Hans Horkheimcr puhlishcd a monograph in whích he suggested that connecting linos represented kinship línes connectíng the graves of the varíous members of the local clans. Thís cxplanation s01 mds rathcr laborcd, espccially since no graves have ever been Iound at thcse ccntcrs, sorne of which are situated on small natural híllocks. While investigating this region in 1941, T was suddenly struck with the thoughr that these remains could havo had sorne counectíon with early calendrical and astronomical observations. For many years, 1 had becn interested in the development of primitive science and realized the great importance of astronomical observations and calendrical calculations in hclning to rcgulatc the lifc of evolvíng agricultura! societies throughout the world. The aucieut astronorner-priests supervised the construction of sight lines of dirt, or of individual large stones. toward points on rhe horizon where the sun rose and SC't at dillerent times of the year, especially the stunmer and wintC'r solsticcs and thc two cq11inoxcs. Sight lincs wcre also made indicating wherc the annual appcarancc and disappearance of important stars took place on the horizon. Such markings defined the bcginning and ending of important periods in agricultura) life. Later on, the sh1dy of the stars and the calendar was uncloubtcdly also used to "prcdict" the coming of important evcnts. To us the azca lines seemed to be similar to thc astronomical-calC'ndrical marking tcchniqnes of othcr peoples. vVhat, however. makes them uniqne in the whole

flg. 7 ( lefl) Tlús figurt>. altached lo a long Lrapezoid of whicl1 <mly a part can he scen lwrc, was thC' (ir.~l one we diS(...'Ovcred in 1941. IL is 011 a plat<'au so11th of Palpa and just cast of the Pan American Ilighway \Vhat the drawing porlrays wc <lo nol know Reic11e • Fig. 8. A grouncl 1 icw of a "bulb" at the en<l of one of thc 'º6ngcrs" of the drawing~ in l'"'ig. 7 Such "'bulbs" can be sren on one of the rnurals :ll Pañarnarca, >Jepetia Valley (see Fig. !Oh, Chapfrr XX as well as in so111<· \fay;1 dntwing•;. Reiclw • NOT1·:: \Vhcn an elongaled trianglr is cul across, botl1 a tria11glc ancl a Lrapezoid are pro<lucl·d. Thcse two forms and thcir rclationship' to cach othcr rnay have hacl a spi>dal meaning for the ancients sincc none of the large rnclol.ures ha' e any other geomelrical forrns.

•o

:io

"º

100

meter a

workl i:. tlus casi iuunher ami tlu: complcx nettcorks thq¡ the lar ge desert plateaus. As W(' coutcmplated this vast achicvcrncnt of carly man, it occurred to us that we might well call it The Largcsi Astro110111y Book in tlic \Vorld. Once wc can rcad this "book," we rnay have a better understanding oí a statcment by Cieza de León: "Thcsc Inclians watchcd thc heavens and the sígns very constantly, which made them suc:h great soothsayers." Alter spendíng severa! weeks in 19.J:l in the ficld taking astrouomícal aliguments of sorne of the impcrtant rnarkiugs, I Found that a number of them poínted to the a solstices. Others might ha' e pointed to the Pleiades ver) importaut constellation Ior the ancients. I also Fouud ccrtain Iincs in different regions that hacl the sume direc tion, which indicated obscrvations i11 differe11t places of thc same celestial phenomena! When T returned to northcrn Pcru, l Iound tbc same situation. P~ ra111id:. i11 diílereut vallcys had similar sets of uzimuths! 1 hud no t inu- In cou tinuc the work, but it wus cleur to 1111· that a 111·" asp1·l'l of a ncicnt Pcrux iau a!>tro110111y liad come lo 1 ight. Bcfore lea' ing Pcru, I was fortuuate i11 beiug uble lo interest liss Caria Reicbe of Lima, who wus well-traíncd in mnthcmatics aud astronomy, in this problcm. Shc continucd the fklcl work nnd Iurther developcd tho thcorctícal aspects of thc problcm. A prclírninary rcport of sorne of our nndings was published in the May 1947 issuc of Natural Ilistonj. Later Míss Reiche receíved a grant from San Marcos University in Lima to continue her invcstigations. Her muin intcrest lay in trying to identify thc dírccuon of thc important sight lincs with the points on the horizon where the present heliacal risings or settings of associatcd stars can he scen. This is important, Ior C\ ery year euch ol the stars rises and sets at a slightly dilfcrenl point 011 the hori7on. Tables ha"e been computed gidng the amount of annual changc for all the important stars. By calculating thc dilference between the present position of a star and ils fonner positiou. as indicated by an associatcd or nearby sight line, the upproximate date of tlie construction of a sigltt li11e can he deten11i11ed! This rnethocl oí dating has becn uscd sucecssfully in Europcan aslro-archacology It was develop<'d dmi11g tlw lntter part of thc ninctecnth ccntury maiuly by Lhe farnous Brilish astronower, Sir Norma11 Lockyer fn his well know11 volumc. Stoneltc11gc ( 1906), Le cak:ulaled tlH· clatC' of thc c:onst:rudion of tLis great prehistoric monmnent to be aboul 1630 B.C. This conclusion was provecl lo havc

for111 as they spread over

.Fi~.

!).

Ct'n 111011i.ll lilw., "otched" into a hillside.

ñeiche.

F1g. 10. vlana Rt'id1t• standing in fronl of a part of a trapezoid lo luch two trian).(lt'' and \nnw "roads" are attaehed. Kosok • Fig. 11. el of markinl(s just north of Nazca. The Pan American lligh\\,\} i~ thc bluck hne thnt runs across the picture. Kosok. w

bt•t•11 of thc concct ordcr by rcccnl Carbon 14 mc.1sme11l<'nts which give the date as 1848 B.C. \\. ilh a probable Nror of + 275 years .. Miss Rcichc bascd much of her work on thc method of astronomi('(/l clating. It is a fonn of dating whid1 with few exceptions has bccn unjuslifia hly neglected in the archaeological work of tllC' Americas. l n Nazca, rnorcoYer, thc enormous numlicr of si~ht lincs makcs possible the use of a quantitative, semi-statísticnl nwthod of sh1dy, the general results of which slio11ld be far rcmoi;ed from the category of t11e accidental . Thc quc>stion at once arises \Vhy should peoplc entering the earl)' stages of civilization have taken s11ch an

F1¡!.

\.di¡·~

I:!.

Twu :.olit.1r~

tri.mglt·~ poi11ti11µ; to tltt• 11ano\\

h.1r;1< lt'ri,lk ol """·ral ntlwr "ruad,·· lm111cl 1111 tlll' h\11 p.ir.dh·I li11t·, tliat 1·m" tlw 111arl.i11~' .ir•· i11t·~ul.1r t>.lll1,. !'it rrido. 11111111111f>aed \l'1in. ¡,

TI,..

\a/t".I

TI,.. ¡ h.111).!;t' i11 diredio11 of tlw ··road .. p.1rt ol tht• triu11¡!l1 /Hllll¡>ll. 1110cl1•ru

Fig,, 1 ;J to 17 En lurgcd photographic details of the Palpa Vullcy r<'gion • Flg. 13 (abovc ) A detall sbowing a "cat-demou" figure do-;<•ly ;),sod.ltNI with a cornplcx of roads und trapezoids. This "cnt-demon" Hgur<' is also found un textiles and water jugs oí this region .md is probahly based on the numcrous mountain "tígers" of Peru. Scrciclo 5/;J:24 • Fig. 14 ( right) Two rathcr crudcly111.ul<• 'puah are hero associated with parts of a largf' triangle. The black 'POI\ withiu the triangle are small heaps of stones and .ir<• po"ihl) n·c·ord111g el"' icev, They have been fouod in many other cuclo-un«. • en ido 5!,.J :24 • Fig. 15 ( opposite page, upper right ) L'art of uu "cvposcd" dirt drawing. Bciche • Fig. 16 ( opposik pagt•, l1m1•r right ) The two stylizcd angular spirals aud the two sets of "pan pipes" nppcar to I)(' íntcrconnected so that the liues of their clc·,ig.1 Iorm n conrinuous path. At the top of the photograph are r('ntaim ot whut uppenr to be crudely-constructed human figurt•s. Thc irrq{1il.1r light linc, running horizontally across the photoyraplt are modcm pnths. Tho irregular lines running v crticnlly ucross llw photograph are natural run-offs, Servicio 54J:24 • Fig. 17 (p. 5(l, lower lcít ) Auother detuil showing small henps ni stones,

(}lD O

e .

IM o

e:>

intense interesf in astronomical observations? An analysis of social developrnents during thís period will answcr the question. With the rise of a more advanccd type of agriculture and the transformatíon of tribal socicty into the early pcriod of civilization, there developcd a more complex and orgauízed social lifc. Thís must havo rcsultcd in an incrcasing rcalization that there Iikewise exísted a cornplex organízatíon among the hcavculy bodíes, Whc11 it bccarnc olear that thc annual movcmcnts of the heavenly bodies could be correlated with thc annual progresa of the seasons, around which the uihole productice aud social urocess revolved, a fullcr undcrstanding of astrouomy becarne impcrative. But thcre was more thao corrclationl Iudecd, the precise, unrelenting regulariuj of the movements of heavenly bodlcs appcarcd to havc created and directcd. tite more fl11ct uating regulariuj of the annual seasons and the oven more Iluctuating social lile of mankind. The very hcavcns secmed to control the events on the earth beneath! Tl111s astronomy asan organized scicnce had to be bom. From the outset it was a practical science, for its main funclion was to produce a complex calendar whkh bcca1nc tlie reg11lativc meclwnism of th.e 11ewly devcloping agricult11ral prod11cl ive process. Jn a rain.fall cconomy, astronomically dctcnnincd prcdiction and "making'' of rain become thc csscutial parts of prnctical astronomy However, in an irrigation economy, prcdiction of the appcarance, thc risc, thc foil aud thc disappearance of the life-giving waters in the rivers plays thc main role. \Vith the emergcncc of a practica! calc11dar, special asb·onomical-calendrical rituals aod ccrcmonics begin to e\'olve arnund thc wholc watcr-clctcrmined producth•e process. And with these ceremonies a series of heaven-determined "auspicious·· as wcll as "c' il" days and periods is established that e\'entually influcncc · C\ cry aspcct of man's life from the erad le to the gnn c. But such organized astronomical investigations of thc mo,·ements of the sun, the moon, thc plancls and thc tars. togethC'r with the building up of a complex calendar, an invol\'cd ceremonial cycle and an organizcd mcthod of prcdiction conld not be done by the a\'erage person. A group of specialists was required th<' astro110111er¡>riest s. Thcse specialists built up an extt'nsivc systcm of obscrvations ancl calcuJations and cstablished i11volvccl rit11als of s11pplication aclclrcsscd to the hcavc11ly bodics, which sccmed to dominate the very life on earth. This combi11ation of truth and ignorance, of scit'11tiflc honcsly and social deceit, gave the priests a tre111endo11s control

F!f! - : .. : .. ·''· . -:....

.. ,

~ ~

over tlie people

for only the priests eoukl k11ow and apparcntly influcncc thc forces that controllcd human eles· tiny A whole ncw systcrn of intc'racti111i; forces lhus emerged, which, once establislwd, gn'W tlwo11gh its ow11 int<'rnal momentum uutil a complcx systcm of aslronomical-calendrical knowletlge gradually camc into csistcncc. Like the Mghly accurnte ~laya calendar, ~azcan astro· 11omical activitics probably expressed a kind of prccocious achic"cment tbat went far beyo11d tite JJmctical 11ecds of

thc pcoplc tliemsefoes.

These ash·onomer-priests untloubte<lly fou11d that thc more complcx and artificial their astrouomical-calcndrical 1..-now]cdge and ceremonial forms hecame, and the more they kcpt that knowlcdgc secrct, the more thcy could imprcss thc populace with tbeir own mysterious s11pcrnahlfal powcrs. These powers then becamc a 'al11ablC' <\SSet i11 strcngthcning thcir growing prh ilcged position. lndeed, som<' of this socially unneccssary "knowlC'd!!;('., was prohahly used <1uite consciously lo mislcad thc peoplc and thcreby to rnle them. The Genna11 scicnt ist, A k"md<'r \'011 Humboldt ( 1814 131), in discussin~ thc artificial naturc· of the priestly ceremonial calendar of thc Chibchas of Colombia. succinctly summarized this a~pC'ct of the problt>m as follows " the powcr of a class of socicty is oftc11 foundc<l in thc ignorancc of thc other (']asses. vV11cn \fichael and I arrived it1 Pcru, fiss Heicl1C' had

alrcady returned to Nazca to carry on additional Held work. We wcre anxious to see how far she had progressed in her new work and to fine! out how we could aid her When Mr 'eale of the SCIPA oflered us a trip lo Nazca in ene of his jeeps, wc gladly accepted.

Ar Nazca we settled clown at the govcrnmcut-owued llotcl de Turistas. Such government-owned tourist hotels are now operated in most of thc important cities of Pcru, and are of a high qunlity Corning, as we did. out of the hot, dusry desert, the Xazca hotel appeared to us at first like a wonderful miruge. Built only a few ~ ears ago. in a partly Spanish :.t~ le, around a large patio. it had beuutiful Howers growing alongside its walks. ln the ccnter of the patio a fine swimming pool gleamcd. Swirnming in the descrtl Thís sccmcd Iantasticl Around the patio was a covercd terracc with tables and chairs set Ior afternoon coffee or e\ cnína dinncr It was an inspiring expcricuce to sil cvcníngs in an easy chair and gazc through the open patio al the hlack desert sky illuminated b) thousands of bright stars the sarne stars that th» ancíent astronomcr-priests of Nazca had once studiod in thcir attcmpts to control nature and socicty! \Vhile in Nazca, we culled on Señor Bocanegra. whom 1 had met in 19'1 l at thc time he was Mayor of nzca and thc editor and owner of thc local newspaper He was still the owner of the ncwspapcr and, in this cupacity, lost no Lime in introducing us to the local Director of 1\griculture, the Director of lrrigation. and other oíllcials w ho supplicd us with informntion 011 present day agricultural couditions. They also pro' idcd sorne of our transportation into the desert arcas. Nazca was suflcrím; from a shortage of mear and other Ioods, a situalion typical of other valleys on the Coast. E' ery day one could Sl'C' pcoplc waiting in line ut tlw markct. Thís shortagc was duo lo the fact that largc• pnrts of the valleys, From the 11 unura on thc orth Central Coa~t to thc Nazca rcgiou. an• d1•, oted to thc culti,·ation of c:otton, amounting in sume• casc•s to as much as 80 to 90 pe1 C'C'nt of the total arc.•a of {'<lch rnlley! Cotton is gro\\ 11 111ai11!) cm largc and 11wdium-sized estates ancl e'\pOrtC'd to obtain thc highl) cksirahk .\merican dollar This for<'ign cmrency, unfort11natC'l), ís not uscd primaril} for importing food aml ma1111facturccl products for tlw 1wople. TL is, i11stead, im·c>sted nbroad or uscd for the purdwsl' of more la11d, more foreign rnachinery and more importcd luxmy items that ha, e lwc:omc V(:ry popular amo11~ tlw middlc and upper clas~c<;. Tite inadcquate foocl proclnction of the coastal 'alley~ has to be suppleme11tt•cl h~

imports from the ierras and from forcign countries. One official whom 1 qucstioned stated the problem simply ":\o onc can cal colton. 'Vhat we 1H•ed is food production. Evcn though our soíl is very rich, we are gradually starving bccause the land is not heing nscd in the intcrcsts of tlw twople." The same problem holds true for thosc Hllleys i11 the north which grow sugar for cxport purposes. while food has to be imported. Thcsc conditions dramatically illustrate thc difference in production among the ancients and thc moclcrns. Then. secwity ancl self-~ufficicnc~ of each region was hasic to the people evcn to thcir own rulers. \ Vith onr modcrn complex ec:onoiny and its alienation of property much of this sccurity and sclf-sulficiency has disappcarc>d for 111ost of the people. While awaitiug i\faria íleiche's return from an l'xtended ficld t:rip to Palpa, W<' l1sccl the SCIPA jeep whit'h had er brought 11s clown from Lima and made sonw trips the desert, re\ isiting somc of the old sitei. kno'' n from our 19.t l dsit. In addition, an intclligent local ~uid<• took ns to a nearby place calle<l La Estaquería, a p<:'culiar ancient site, whích contained thc rcrnains of twcl\'e rows of ninctccn wooc.len posts C'ach. Krocbcr ha<l visikd this site ( 1926) a11d puhlished photographs of il (1944) Ilowever, wc found tlw plac<> had bccn parlly cl<.'Stroyed sínce then. As a res11lt of the grnwth of thc nrarby grape industry, ma11) of th<' poks ha,·c bceu dug up a11d used as \'Ílle supports ( Fig. 27) Other sets of posts wt•re touud implantcd near tlw maín <>h·ucturc, but no regular desit,111 coulcl be establish<•cl tlwre. Sorne miles lurtlwr dO\\n the rh·cr. we found <l smaller bnt even more dilapidatcd sc't of posts. Thew two sites date back to pre-Spanish times. Thc posts 11lil) hm e supported tlw rools of houscs, but thcy are plac:cd too closc together to furni<;h <;pact• for a Ji,·ing quarlcr 'Vcrc the sites perhaps cc•remonial c:enters rclatC'cl to a11 astronomical-calenclrical cult? That evening W(' met ~(aria Rciche. who liad rdnnwcl from her three-da) fi('lcl trip in the nearhy Palpa Vallcy She bad man) thiugs to tell ahout her disco' erie~ of 11e\\· dcsert drawings ancl of new centers from "hich li11es and trapczoids ra<liatecl. \lost impo1tant. she héHI again founcL ín a nw11ber of ,·allc') "· lines \\'ith thc samt• orit·ntation. índicating that thc ancient 1 ndians had 1nade ohsen·ations in differ<'lli placC's of the same celestial pht11onwna! The next f pw days wc speut jointly visiting som<.' of the important sites in thc dcscrt that :'.\Iiss Heidw hacl locat<'d ín her cxtcu:.ive lklcl rC'connaissance, whid1 was aid<>d b)-· thc fcw aerial photoqraphs available. Then "e drcidcd to

º'

splít up our field work. ~Jiss Reiche continued to roam ovcr tho desert in search of new :6nds, accompanied by

her fit'ld assistaut, who carríed her theodolitc the principal surveyíng instrument necessary for detennining the uzimuths of thc varions lines. Michael and I, on thc othcr hund, decided to visit sorne of the dcsert drawings whose general position Miss Reiche had located. WC' had found only oue in 1941 and we wcre anxíous to uncover more of them, ~ lost of thosc wc studicd were within an honr's walking distance from the Pan American Highway Since wc had no jeep at our disposal during this time, we generally hoarded an early morning bus going towards Tea and had the chauff eur drop us oíl at the desíred locatíons. \Ve wandered around in the desolate desert until we struck "pay dírt", then we began to work. Since we were out all duy we had to take along our lunch. This usually consistcd ol rolls, bananas, oranges and a peculiar earbonared beverage called Cola Inglés, which, after having bcon exposed to the hot sun for half a day, tasted like sorne horrible witches' brew of ancient Nazca! \Ve had to do ali our field work on foot. Thc rcgion was too rocky Ior trucks or even jeeps, but, more important, the linos were so faint that the wheels of a vehiclc would havo ruíncd thc drawings. Towards evening we would return to the IIighway and hail the first truck that was returniug to Nazca. The time it took to return varicd, dependíng upon the espíritu of both truck and driver As a result of centuríes of strong desert winds, thc drawings are sornctímes rather difficult to uncovcr and piece together The line of the drawing is gencrally a path from one half to three yards wide wíth raised edges of dirt and srnall stones, which in sorne cases are now barely visible. The only way we could 6nd out what a drawing was like was to shuffie with our boots aJong a discovered path, thcrcby disturbing the darker oxídízcd surface of

the soil and exposing the líghtcr soil helow Sincc these drawings wcrc made like certain kinds of childrens' druwings, whcrc thc pencil never leaves the papcr and no line crosscs the other, it was often possible to shuffic along the whole path from thc beginning to the en<l. Thc rcsult was generally a huge, ligbt-colored drawing. lt was very important not to walk absent-mindcdly off thc pnth of the drawings, since this would ruin thc original design. Despite thc heat, the work was exciting, for aftcr wc had begun to uncover a drawing it was always a gucss as to what kind of design we would uncover! But our labors did not always yield positivo results. Sometimcs a lan!e part of the dra"ving had been oblitcrated hy thc winds of the centuries, or by other drawings later superirnposed by füe ancient builders. ~lost of the drawings we uncovered reprcscntcd birds or fishcs, th-Ough other animals, many spirals and sorne plnnt .figures were found (Figs. 18 to 26) A uniquc drawing was onc of two hands with only nin e fingcrs ( Figs. 1 ancl 19) ~ rost of the figures seemed to be similar to those fouud on Nazca pottery Sorne of thcm may ha\'<' been represcntations of sacrcd animals or clan totems. Thcy rnay have bccn "walked on" by tl1e pricsls or thc clan dming ceremonial processions, for each figure is always associate<l with a ceremonial trnpezoid or trinnglc. ln foct, the path generally starts from onc sidc of a trapczoid or b·iaHgle and then returns to it.

Fig. 18 ( above, left) A pair o( ha neis with only ninc flngcrs! This uniquc drawing is found nct1r a trapczoid closc by thc Pan American llighw~ty Although such lumds are known on ancient .Nazca pottery, this is the only dirt drawing of its kind ~o far discovered. The number nine is found in othcr parls o( Pena; it i~ co11sidered otc thc by many peoples of the world as imporlanl and sncrcd. 11ir1e gods of tbe underworld of the Mayn. Kosok-Relche • Fig. 19 ( alXln:) Partial view of Lhe pair of hands of F'ig. 16 as secn from a specially constructed ladder. The four llngC'rs :md thu1nb of one hand and the thumb of thc othcr hand can be <'a~ily r!'cognized. Tite truck in back is passing along the Pan American l lighway Kosok • Fig. 20 ( below) One of the man y animal-likc llgure construct<'d in Wisconsin by North American lndians. Though matlc in Lhe form of elevated dirt mounds, these figures a11d thcir • a7C'l countcrparl~ were apparently built for ceremonial - totcmic? - purpo~<'S. Thc actual size of the figure helow is about the same as lhal oí thc onc 'hº"º in Fig. 21. Dads and Squier (1848, pi. XLIV)

t 1

100 ft. to tM Inch.

' I,,

hood under control at least in part. While the secular rulers needed the priesthood in arder to obtaín tbe aid of the heavenly bodíes in ruling their own people and conquering new ones, they were, at the same time, interested in restricting the activities of the priesthood to those forms whích were useful in expanding the interests of the

We almost always found a small pile of stones near one or both ends of the trapezoíds. These stone piles may have been altars used for ceremonial purposes. The extreme length and the narrowness of sorne of the eoclosures suggest that they may also have beeo used for ceremonial races, a custom prevalent aroong many peoples of a corresponding stage of development in other parts of the world. We carefully copied the drawings that we found. Sorne of them appeared with explanatory text and descriptions in the December 1949 issue of the magazine Archaeology. A number of them are reproduced here, The drawings can be <lated once their associated enclosures ancl sight lines arn dated. In the meantime they could be stylístícally dated by cornparing them with similar designs on textiles and pottery which have been classífied into various periods. Much work remaíns to be done! In 1949, Miss Reiche published, both in Spanish and in English, a monograph describíng her work at Nazca. The monograph oontaíns many photographs and drawings of sigbt lines, enclosures, and dírt drawíngs not included in the artícle in Archaeology. Since then she has continued her work in the field with unrelenting ardor and it is to be hoped that she will soon publish the results of her extensive work. Lines, roads and enclosures have been found in other valleys of the Coast, though only as rare specimens. They have been reported in sorne valleys south of the Nazca region. Miss Reiche also found centers with radiatíng lines and roads in severa] places in the vicinity of Lima. Mr. P L. Thommen took us on a trip to another group of roads in a quebrada between the Rímac and Chillón Rivers. The roads at Queneto in the Virú Valley and the wide road in the Zaña Valley may also belong to this category However, in most of these larger valleys to the north such astronomical-calendrlcal lines, if they existed, have been destroyed in the course of time. And that is not surprising. As the population there grew in size and wealth and tbe governmcnt inoreased: its pouier, such simple astronomícal-calendrical lines, roads, enclosures and drawings as may have existed were gradually replaced by the much more elaborate and. expensive roads, uxills, pyramids, temples and [riezes, whose remains still litter these

oollesjs. Besidcs, as alreacly pointed out, with this growth of wealth, a secular military power gradually emerged and establíshed a secular state that finally brought the priest-

Figs. 21 lo 25. These huge drawings are found closely associated with trapezoíds and tríangles, Are they clan totems? Symbols of heavenly bodies? 0r both? Such huge animal drawings have been found also in other parts of the world • Fig. 21 (top) A welldefined, stylízed drawing of a bird about 400 feet long. The "road" parallelíng the wings is a solstice line. Beiche • Fig, 22 (next to top) This peculiar and undeciphered "fishíng polc" drawing is almost half a mile long! Spirals like the one here shown are found on other drawings. Reiche • Fig. 23 (next to bottom ) The two body divisions and eight legs of this figure indicate that it is a spider. Beiche • Fíg. 24 ( pbotograph) Ground view of spider drawing. The outlines of the drawings are so low that generally they can be seen only al sunrise and sunset when the shadows are long. They can be made more distinct, as in this case, by carefully draggíng a stone attached to a rope along the slight ridge, so as to expose the lighter colored soil beneath thc surfacc of darker pebbles. The straight line running across tbe drawing is an astronomícal observation line. Beiche • Fíg. 25 (bottom) This drawíng appears to be a crude reprcsentation of a Hying' pelican, a hird whích is common along the coast of Peru. Here both lines that fom1 the bcak bccome long sight Unes conlinuing in a parallel direction. Kosok.

state. It was no longer astronomy for the priesthood's sakel It was now astronomy for tlie sake of the statel The dominance of a secular power must have affected the quantity, the nature and the social role of ast:ronomical observatfons, calendrical calculations and public cercmonies.

57 f

The question remains: \ Vhy should such a poor region as Nazca have produced sueh elaborate and peculiar forms of culture? This question is not easy to answer since we do not yet have all the elemeots to Bt the puzzle. But as the result of an extended association with this material, we can venture a general hypothesis which may in a way encompass the problem. Specific hydrological problems of tbc Nazca area may have furnished a reason for such elaboratc astronornical observations. While the larger rivers in tbe north have water for a good part of the year, the branchcs of the Río Grande have water for only about five months. Duriog "bad" years there is even less water; during "very bad" years there is nonel True, in the Nazca Valley itself, this condition led to the building of tunncls that tapped the underground waters of the nearby mountains, but the amount of water collected had only supplernentary

value. It is tberefore not surprisíng that the priesthood would press their astronomical obscrvatíons as well as their astrological predíctíons and exhortations to the limit in the hope of increasing the supply of the lifegiving waters. Another factor is significant. In thc small valleys of the Río Grande no great wealth could accumulatc; thus no large constructions could be undertaken. At best, a few srnall adobe mounds could be erccted. Consequently, conditions oever arose whereby a secular state could appear except at rare intervals and theo probably only as an outside intrusion. And the Nazca area was too poor to attract any but the temporary interest of passing conquerors. Consequently, these vallcys, with very limited potentialities, in ali likelihood sustained mainly priestruled peasant societies throughout their two thousand or more ueor« of history. Since no great structures could be

crected, the priests and the people had to content themselves with easily built ceremonial lines and centers in the adjoining deserts. As they continued to build, generatíon after generation, century after century, and as the dry desert carefully prescrved these markings, there slowly emerged those vast networks of figures that today straín our credulity and challenge our understanding! Such heavy emphasis on astronornícal-calendrícal ceremoníalísm in Nazca society bríngs to mind the cultural forms of the Maya in Central América. The early priestdominated Maya had evolved an astronomy and a socialastrological cult that in certain aspects were probably similar to those of ancient Nazca. But here a curious fact emerges. As the Maya began to get richer and more powerful, they díd not -like the North Peruviaos - evolve a centralízed secular statel They produced no walled urban compounds, no fortresses, no palaces. On the con-

Fig, 26. This peculiar bird figure with t.he snake-like neck is the only one of íts kind so far found. Moreover, il is one of the largest drawings encountered. Each line represents a path about two feet wide and the figure can be "walked" from onc cnd to the other without crossing the pat.h. The entrance to the figure and t.hc exít run parallel Ior almost 100 mctcrs and then disappear in a "washout." The shaded area at the bottom is part of a trapezcíd which is more than haJf a mile long. The darker band just above it represents the edge of the trapezoid and is about two feet high. The small round circles represent small piles of stones. The broken lincs rcpresent parts of the paths that havo been destroyed by the elements. ote that the bírd has eleven fcathcrs. Eleven is a signi6cant nurnber in other areas of Peru, as it is, indeed, in other parts oí the world, It was used to signífy the difference bctwccn the nurnber of days in twelve fonar months of 291h days each ( i.c., 364 duys ), and the number of days in a solar year ( i.e., 365 days) These extra days wcrc generally devotcd to fcstívitícs. One of the Spanish Chroníclcrs informs us thut theso eleven days were eelebrated by the Incas, but t.hat the great ruler, Pachacutec, abolishcd calendrícal lunar months by introducing 30-day administrative months, thereby reducing lhe number of foast days at thc end of the year to five. Kosok-Relche.

trary, they merely built bigger and better ceremonial centers controlled by a priesthood that maintained its astronomical-calendricai cult. A kind of glorífied Nazca!

The problem, therefore, is not one of explaining the retentíon of the religíous ceremonial emphasis arnong the poorer Nazcans, but of expla·ining it.s retention among the richer Maya. Although this is not basically our field, we may venture sorne possible explanations. May not the answer have somethíng to do with the jungle geography and economy of the Maya in contrast to the irrígated agriculture of the milpa system with its many periodically discarded :6elds and the existence of dense jungle areas desert life of the Peruvians of the Northwest Coast? Apparently the low density of population around the ceremonial centers of the Maya as a result of the extensive separating the individual ceremonial centers frorn one another, helped to prevent a successiul integration of

Fig. 27 ( above) A view of the few remaining posts of La Estaquería ( see p. 55) Kosok • Fig. 28 ( below ) Part of the patio of the Hotel Turista in Nazca. Kosok • NOTE: The rare puma figure ( right margín) is taken from a Paracas textile. [ohn Wise.

these local centers into a secular state. By contrast, the intensive, írrigated agriculture of the coastal Peruvians in the larger northern valleys, their greater efficiency of productíon, their greater deosity of population clusters. and the closer proximity of these to one another, were undoubtedly factors favorable to an early development of a centralized, secular state in Northern Peru. The answer to the problem undoubtedly líes somewhere within this complex of Factors. But Jet us now turn to another problem: How highly developed was tbe astronomical and calendrical knowledge of the Peruvíans, and how did it compare wíth that of the Maya? Although the Spanish Chroniclers give us sorne information about the calendrícal system of the Incas, they are virtually silent about the astronomical-calendrícal kuowledge of the coastal peoples. This is most deplorable, since the latter probably reached a higher leve! in theír astronomy and theír calendars than did the Incas. We are, therefore, dependent upon the "récords" left by the ancíent Peruvians themselves. But here our efforts are blocked by the undeoeloped. nature of the Peruoiasi recording deoices and by our own limited ability to decipher those which we knoui exist, As a result, our present knowledge of much of ancient Peruvian astronomy is extremely limited or even non-existentl But this low leve! of Peruvian recording devices <loes not necessarily índicate a ]ow leve} of astronornical development. We often forget that only because the Maya priesthood deoeloped a glyph recording system, sorne elements of which accidentally have been preserved and are now partly deciphered, do we have knowledge of the high leoel of Maya astronomical knowledge and calendrical system.s. Without this recording systern and its survival, we would know as little today about Maya as we do about Peruvian astronomy and calendarsl We must, of course, admit that a definíte relationship exists between the degree of development of a priestly recording system and that of a priestly-controlled astronornical-calendrlcal system. But the correlation is not necessarily so close that a less developed recordíng system necessarily means a símílarly low level of astronomical observations and calendrical calculations. In other words, the correlatíon is not one to one. We, therefore, cannot discount the possibility that Peruvian astronomy and calendar construction reached higher levels than the undeveloped nature of the recording systern would indicate. In fact, thc nature of the deciphered parts of sorne recording systems and the amount of the undeciphered

recording systems suggest that both astronomy and calendars reached fairly well developed levels at least in sorne parts of Peru. The main problem in Peru, therefore, is the decíphering of recording systems. Once thís is done, we may be a ble to lift the veíl, at least in part, from the still shrouded mysteries of the past. The best known Peruvian system was that of knotted cords or quipus ( Fig. 32) From the Spanish Chroniclers we know ( Locke: 1923) that the Incas had traíned a special group of adminístrative officials called quipucamaqocs ( quipu. keepers) whose function was to keep (by meaos of the quipu) detailed local, district, regional and federal adminístratíve records of the size of the population, the amount of agricultura! and manufactured products, the size of llama and alpaca herds, the number of soldiers, and most important, the amount of the annual tribute! This information remained "top seeret" among the rulíng Inca. But the very efficiency and secrecq of the quipu system made it unnecessarq f or the I neas to develop any form of "writing" in order to carry on the complex administrative systern of their far-Hung Empire. Indeed, Montesinos ( ms, 1648) mentions a tradítion accordíng to which one of the Inca rulers prohibited, on pain of death, the continuation of a kind of wrítíng on palm leaves that existed among one of the conquered tribes. A politícally logical decision made in the interest of the ruling Inca group! For why should subject peoples possess the means of recording and transmitting information, especially if they were under the control of a priesthood, antagonistic to the rising power of secular rulers? There is an indication that sorne of the quipus or parts of them were also used as a mnemotechnic device for remembering certain historical events and traditions. It was mainly from the quipucamayocs that the Spanish obtained various historical data including the official lists of the Inca rulers and sorne of their achievements. Finally, the limíted study of the quipus by NordenskiOld ( 1925) indicates that sorne of the knotted cords may have been used by priests for recording astronomicalcalendrical data. This should not be surprising, for a recording system once established can be used to record anything within the range of its own potentialities. Deciphering quipus which were used as mnemotechnic devices is out of the question. It is barely possible that sorne of the specific knowledge locked up in the administrative quipus may <me day be recovered. Most likely of reconstruction are the astronomical-calendrical quípus, 59

sínce they must contain a limited variety of key calendrical numbers, most of which, moreover, are universal. At present, Mr August De Clemente, a research associate of mine, is making a systematíc study of severa} hundred quipus, loaned to Long Island University by Mr [ohn Wise, to see what information can be extraeted from them in regard to the calendrícal systems of the past. Such a broad systematic study of a large number of quipus should also bring out more details and more variants of this system of recording tban have so far been presented by Locke and Nordenskiold. Only a relatively small number of quipus are still in existence, because the Churcb burned most of them in its seventeenth century campaign to líquidate the still powerful "heathenísm" among the Peruvians. This destruction parallels the burníng of hundreds of Maya codices, of whích only three have been saved for posterity! Knotted cords are not unique to Peru; they have been found in many parts of the world. lt is known that the Chinese used them in earliest times before they developed their own picture-writing. Even the Mayas are supposed to have used them before they had glyphsl It is interesting to note that quipus have been reported to be still in use by shepherds in the remote parts of the PeruvianBolívían highlands in order to keep records of their ffocks. But even in ancient times quipus were not the only recordíng devices that were employed. By a careful study of ancient bags containing beans and by examination of paintings on ancient huacos, Señor Rafael Larco Hoyle, the Director of the Chiclin Museum on the Northwest Coast, has come to the conclusion that the Early Chimús scratched markings on beans in order to record messages and possibly other information. (Handbook, Vol. II). Fritz Buck of Bolivia has made a study of severa} thousand Peruvian huacos and has come to the conclusion that many of the symbols moulded or painted on them refer to calendrícal-astronomical or numerologícal data of that time. Unfortunately, most of bis material has not yet

Fig. 29 ( margin) Beans with different markíngs painted on huacos. According to Rafael Larco Hoyle, they are ideographic sígns (Los Mochicas, Vol. ll) • Fig. 30 (top, center) Drawing from a huaco showing a messenger carrying what appears to be a bag. Such bags, containing beans with various markings, have been found in ancient graves • Fig. 31 (right) Rafael La~co Hoyle suggests that this huaco painting represents ofílcials deciphering symbols on thc

beans.

been made available. However, in several published articles dealing wíth the well-known Lamabayeque gold plaque and wíth sorne unusual Mochica ceramics, Buck has tried to prove that ancient Peru once had a tzolkin calendrical system of 13 months of 20 days each, similar to that of the Maya. His theory has been met with skeptícísm, but the fact that Alexander von Humboldt ( 1814) found a 20-month ceremonial cycle among the Chibchas indicates that the unit of twenties had developed in South Ameríca, Arthur Posnansky ( 1945) attempted a rather logical calendrical ínterpretation of the ancient sun portal at Tiahuanaco, though bis datings of the site are impossibly

early Stansbury Hagar and Zelia Nuttall also deciphered sorne Peruvian calendrical material. lrrespective of the validity of the specific interpretations of the data by these various authors, it must be realized that sufflcíent material has already been accumulated to indicate the existence of early recording techniques. Thís is not surprising, for even more primitive people try to keep a record of important events. As a result of our work in Peru, we were able to discover several more ancient recording devices! While tramping over the deserts of Nazca, and wbile studying sorne of the aerial photographs, we discovered that sorne of the triangular and trapezoidal enclosures contained rnany small heaps of gravel (Fígs. 13, 14 and 17) It appeared that tbese heaps of stones could have been numericalcalendrícal-astronomical recordíng devices. The heaps we visited had unfortunately been partly demolished by modern paths or by the winds of centuríes, so that we could not be certain of the exact number of heaps in each enclosure. Perhaps a systematic survey of ali such enclosures would yield sorne positive results. But the most ímportant recording devices on the desert plains of Nazca are, of course, sorne of the lines and roads themselves. Once they are deciphered, we will know uihen they were built and to which heaoenlu bodies tl1ey were oriented. Thís information should give us a key to the astronomy of the past for at least the Nazca area. 'Ve were also to discover still another form of recordíng device of ancient Perul While looking through Dr Wagner's collection of Peruvian antiquities in Lima, our attention was attracted by a large Nazca textile whose

mounting a quiJ)u in prcpuration Ior ¡111 annlysis of its knot Abbott • Fig. 33. Thc ancient \la) a priests po'sessed u nurnbcr of natural and "artificial calendars." A small section of thc Dresdeu Codex ( see below) seems to contain nurncrical 'e~tii.(!''> In the \la)a recordinu S)~lcm a dot represents the number J, a line the numher 5. ola Iorrm-r thn·t·-tloirleen calendar (see Chapter 'XT) Fig, :l2. :\Ir. O!• Clemente, in the History Workshop of Long lsland Unhcr~ity,

systcm. Thiv quipu, one oí the larger ones, consists of more than two hundrcd striug».

desízn consisted of rows of rectangular figures, Our preliminary unalysis, summarlzcd in the caption to Fi~. 3-1. indicatcs that this dP~ign íncorporated basic calendrical data! Siucc thcn. Xlr De Clemente and l have begun to study photogrnphs of many additional textiles. Although the study is still in progress, results so far obtained tcnd lo confirm thc hypothcsís that sorne of these ancient textiles did record calendricnl-numerological data. It is not at all surprisiug thut the ancient astronomcr-prlcsts should have had wovcn for themselves valuable textiles incomoratíng

inniortant secret and sacred knoicledge of their pro/ ession. A nd it is not surprising that they were buricd with thcsc sacred kcys to the hcavcns and thc hereafterl Thompson

of theocracy which, in othcr places, was latcr brought undcr thc control of a rising secular state. Ilowever, we must indicate sorne other achicvcmcnts of thcse astronorner-priests. As they attemptcd to corrclate the accurnulating mass of astronomical elata much of it oí a nurnerlcal nature they began to speculatc aboul the 1111111erical aspects of the motion of the hea,·c11ly bouics, hopin~ thereby to obtain an iusü~ht inlo sorne aspccts of tlw unity of the celestial Cosmos. Ouc mclhod of spcculation consistcd of taking astTonomical-calendrical numbers and giving them cosmic signiflcance. Another mcthod was to Jook for a least common m11ltiplr emhracing. for instancc. thc numbcr of clays in lunar mouths. lunar .. ycars." solar years. \Tenus years. and so forth. 1 ndccd. thc ultimatc goal was probably an all-cmbracing number for ali the phenomena of the Universe! uch a numerology tended to become a stucly in itself. a ~tudy iu "hich certain numbers lost thcir original astronomical-calendrical significance and appcarcd ahstractl) a!> "sac:red" or "evil" numbers that cxplaincd and go,·ernC'd tlw ITeavens and the Earth. (Even toda>, in our modern iuc.lustrial society, many pcople still balk nt thc "cvil" number tliirteen without knowing why!) Tlw growth of an astronomical-calendrical-cosmological-11u111erical complex was charncteristic of such peoples as lh<;! Egyptians, the Habylonians, the Indians, the Chinese, and the ~laya, ancl apparcntly also the Pcruvians. 11orcover. 111a11y of the "sacrcd" and ''cvil" nnmbC'rs wcrc i<lentical throughout the whole world. And no wonder! For they had ~rown out of man's observation of the same motions of the same lieavenly bodies of the same U11ir;erse!

( 19.50) f ound, in several ~raves of Maya pricsts, what appeared to be traces of ancient codices, inclicating thc existence o! a similar burial custorn among the ~laya. Fiually, we must mcntion thc extensivo friczcs on 11 uaca el Dragón, situated in the Moche Vallcy On el ose iuspcction the markings and dcsigns of thc Irieze scem to suggest a cnlendrícal record of sorne sort. [11 this chapter we have pointcd out how organized nstronomical obscrvanons and calcndrical constructíons arosc out of the practica! needs of an evolving agriculturnl socicty Wc havo also inclicatecl that tho astronomerpríests used theír knowledge to achieve a position of powcr ovcr thc rest of thc pcople, thus cstablishing a kind

.. f"~

.. '\

·~4'i

..._,:;~·

:?~-~~; ji·--:-~~-

..,.

We were to disco' er still another form of recording device of ancient Pcru! \Vhile looking through the late Dr Wagner's valuable collection of Peruvian antiquities in Lima, our attcntion was attracted by a large azca textilc whosc design consisted of rows of rectangular figures. Our írnrnediatc analysis seerned to indicate that this de~ign incorporated basic calendrical data! Due to lack of time it was then impossible to make a systcmatic study of this textile. Severa! years later, however, we rcccivcd :t ~ood photozraph of it. Mr De Clemente and 1 at once be~an to work on an enlargernent of the photograph. Thc

tcxtile consisted of 14 rows of rectangles. In the sixth row thcre werc 37 rcctangles. They were nurrower than thosc of thc other rows and each rectangle wns snrrounded by dark cdgcs. Wc wcrc clclighted to fine! the number 37, for it is n nurnber that characterizes certain ancicnt calcndrical systerns throughout the world. Thc nurnbcr is made up of the sequence 12+12+13. Each of these numbers represcnts the number of moon-rnonths in a solar ycar 1 n this type of month i.e., the solar-lunar month, it takes Wt :! days for thc moon to make a complete "cycle" in relation to a given position of it to the sun. Twelve of such "rnonths" gíve a .. lunar year" consisting ot :35-J days. Thus this lunar year is about 11 days short of the basic solar year There are several ways of soh ing this quandary The method here used is to start thc second "lunar year" right after the first one ends. Then at the end of the second .. lunar year", the count is about 22 days behind thc second solar year, and at the end of three yPars the count

is about 33 days behind, To get riel of this great díscrcpancy a thirteenth moon-rnonth is intercalated. Thus the sequence 12+12+13 is created and the wcll known ceremonial cycle of 37 is obtained. ( Of course aftcr so many cycles a 12+13+13 cyclc is intercalatcd since there are always extra days left over ) vV<-' had now Found a definite record of a calendar that had once existcd 011 the Coast of Peru, the only record of which we then knew! Later 011 we were to find other references to thc .3-13 systcm in Peru and other parts of ancient Latin Amcrica. But more was in store! \Vhen we analyzecl the other 1:3 rows of rectangles, we cliscovcred that basically each onc had 28 rectangles, except that tlw top lim• had one extra and the bottom line two cxb·a rcctangle~. ftcr some calculation it hecame clear that this was anolhcr calendar but that it was a siderial-moon calendar. i.e., onc in which thc number of days are counted betwcen tlw appearancc and reappearance of the moon in a gii;en stellar constellation. Thc numbcr of days is 27' ::· Since people in early stages of socicty did not use fractions, they created moon-months of either 27 or 2S days. Calendars of both typcs hnve heen found in India. Thc significance of our fincl was that it represented a 28-day month, and a 13-month ycar thus prod11cing a 3(34-day y<'ar Thc extra rectanglc of thc íirsl row th11s prod11ces a 365-day average solar yPar ;rnd the extra t'vvo rec:tangles of tlw hottom give the :3(i(j days of the leap year 1ot ouly were we tlu-illed at havi11g fou11d a sccond typc of calt>n<lar on the Coast of Peru, tht• first C)lle of its kiud so far discovcred. but that both calcn<lars wcre on tlw same tcxtile an<l presented i11 a way that scenwd to indicatc interrelationships betwecn thc two calendrical systt'ms. Thus wc are confrontcd with additional prohkms, cspecially since each rectangle has within it one of fiv<• distinct designs. Attempts lo study tlw rectangle-clesign has so far ) ielded no satisfactory positive res11lts. There are tentative indications that such a calendar 111ig/1t han• t•\istecl among the very early ~laya (\\'illson) ,mcl amonl.( sorne of the peoples cooquere<l by tlw At:lecs ( Kosok) Hesults so far ohtained tend to c011finn a11otlwr liypothesis that other tcxlilcs in the museums of :-.¡ew York. Phila<lelphia and \\7ashington which WC'rc examilll'cl, containcd calcnclrical-numerical information.

Fiµ. 34 { ldt Calcn<lri<:al tcxtílc:. uf le\tilc·. Ko:.ok .

1'osak. Fi¡.(. :3.3

top

l)dail

The Tríp to T rujíllo

Arrrn IH\\ ing spent several months with Nazcan astrouomy , uerial photozraphs aud írriuation stutistics, we decided it was time to get out into the field. Just about thcn Dr Schaedel informed us that his jeep liad heen repaired and was ready for us. So we decided to leave Lima for Trujíllo at once. Lima is strategicully situated for travel in Peru. Severa] airplanc lines, a network of highways, and even a Iew railroads, connect Lima with the most important points on thc Coast, in thc Sierras and also in tho Montaña ( the jungle region) Outstand ing among the roads is the Pan American 11 Ighway, which runs a long the desert Coast Irom Ecuador in the north to Chile in the south, a distance of more than 1400 miles. Two other important highways have been built, One runs over the Sierras to Pucalpa, a town on onc of thc branches of the Amazon, the other, thc so-callcd Central Highway, winds its way in a southeasterly dircction through thc most populated section of thc southcrn Icrras until it reaches the Bolivian Irontier at Lake Titicaca, In addítion, thcre are several shorlcr

Fig. ;j ( righl) Pa"1•ngL•rs boarding a Central Bailway train al La Oroya. 111i11ii1g nnd smclter cily high in the Peruv inn Andes. The Cc•11t ral lhil"ªY t·li111b, íro111 Lima al sea level to nearly 16,000 IC'PI in I<''' thun 100 111il1•,, It i~ tll(' world's highe,t standard gauge railwa) und i~ a rnarvcl of ruilway cnginl'cri11g. Pa1111gra. Fig. 4 (far ríglu ) Thesc three bridges al diífcrcnt lcvels indícnuhow, in order lo gai11 de' atiou, the trains oí the Central Railwny wind their wuy through 65 tuuuels and across G7 brídges in the uurruw Hi11mt: gorge. 'I'he pholograph was taken Irom the Central Highwuy '' hich, for thc ruost purt, parallels the railroad. Kosok,

Fiq. l. Bu\ trnuvportutiun

i11 thc Sierra'>. K<J.wk.

Fig. !:!.

Llama trains movíng along thc Central llighway

Kasak.

in another four hours, be in the slcaming hot jnnglc:. of the Montaña whích contain thc hcadwaters of thc mightr Amazon! Thcse sharp contrasts within a small arca are characteristic of most of Peru. Thcy havo aílected its history enorrnously They also make un overwhclming and inspiring appcal to thc traveler Possibilitícs of travel by car and bus extend to other countries of South merica. As early as 1939 wc made a

trip from Venezuela through Colombia, Ecuador and Peru to Bolivia, largcly by bus! This trip carrícd us through a wondcrland of dramatic, ever-chunging landscapcs and

Fíg. 5. Thc físhíng village and summer resort of Arn ..-ón with its ancíeut graveyards uenrhy The Pan American 1 Iighway is al thc ríght. Kosok. • Fig. 6. ca" eed pattern on the beach at Ancón. Kosok • Fig. 7 ( margins ) A11<;Ón mumrnies and desígns. Rei.ss 1111d Stiibel.

roads that leave the coastal Pan American Highway and lead up into the high Sierras and. in sorne cases, clown into thc Montaña. Add to this the numerous spurs that Iead out from these roads and we see that Pcru has an extensivc nctwork of roads that connects descrts, mountains and juuglcs. llow closely these three zones have becn brought together by the modcrn road system is dramatically indicatcd by the following example. One can leave Lima, on the desert Coast of Pcru, and travel by car ovcr the Central Ilighway, which steadily winds up thc stccp sides of the towering Andes, 1111til one reachcs thc glaciers and snowbunks of thc Continental Divide at an altitudc of 16,000 feet all in less than four hoursl Then, descendíng thc precipitous valleys to the east of the Divide, one can, 64

climatic zones raugíng from thc arctic to the tropic, Since thcn there has been an extensión of roads and a corresponding increase of travel facilities. Peru today has a large numbcr of bus lines with low Farcs aud steadily improv:ing service. The buses do not compare in sízc or luxury with thosc in thc United States, for they are built and equipped to fit the low incomcs of the Peruvian peopJc. Our main objection to them, however, was that they were too small and the seats too close togetber As a result, Michacl and I were anxious to get the Eront seats wherc we could stretch our long legs. Bus travcl is always intcrcsting. One contínually cncounters peoplo of dilierent classes with the exception of the upper cJass. In the Sierras. thc passengers are mainly Indians, direct descendants of the ancient moun-

tain people, whíle on thc Coast, where the Spaniards killed or drove out a large portien of thc indigenous populatíon, the míxcd Indían and white laborers. shopkeepers and prof essionals predominate. Sin ce the people are ali very friendly and open, opportunities for convcrsation are boundkss. In this way, i11 the course of time, onc obtaíns i.nnumcrable snapshots, figurntively speaking, of various aspects of the lif e of the people. At times we also used thc local Faucctt planes, which conoect the importaut towns along thc Coast "v:ith one another and with sorne of the main mountaiu centers. Thcsc planes were inestimable time-savexs, but they also bad an additional value for tis. They flew at fairly low altitudes, enabling us to spot mauy significaot ruins. Our 300-mile bus trip to Trujillo took us about ten hours. Traveling along thc Coast is notas excitiog as riding through mountainous regions. But it has its own charm. llerc are only two kinds of landscape the endless, ever-prcscut desert flat, hilly or uncluluting, but always thc samc desert and the beautiful, green, irrigated valleys. Entrancc from the bleak, arid rcgions into these valleys is like the transition from death to life man-made Jjfc. As thc bus this capsule of human cargo wbips across tbe desert from vaJley to valley, one fccls as though projccted in a spaccship through a vacuum from one center of life to another Trujillo, which Jics in the valley of .Moche ( called Chimor by the ancients and Santa Catalina by the Spaniards ), is an old colonial town established by Pizarro in 1535, immediately after the conquest oí Peru. It was built adjaceut to the ruins of thc much larger ChanChan, the former capital of thc Chirnt'.i Empire, an<l likc ChanChan in ancient times, was the leading city 011 tbe Northwest Coast in colonia] times. For a long time, Trujillo remained a small fortified citr; ooly during thc last centurr <lid it, like other cities iu the counn·y, break clown its walls and spread out rapidly Today it numbcrs about fifty thousand inhabitants and is the third largest city in Peru. Its nearest rival in sizc on the Northwcst Coast is Chiclayo, further north in the Lambayequc Vallcy After the Wars of lndependencc. Trujillo bccamc the capital of thc Departamento de La Libertad, and it was here that Simon Bolivar the George Washington of South America foundcd the present University of Trujillo. The latter has grown slcadily and has ma<le Trujillo thc leacüng cultural ccntcr of orthwest Peru, both Coast ancl Sierra. In Trujillo we were warmly greeted by Dr Schaedel and his swcct aod hospitable \víÍe wbo invited us to stay

at their home. There we met many of their interesting Iriends. As soon as we were settled, we bcgan our work, Dr Schaedel took us over to the headquarters of his Institute of Authropology, at the Uuiversity of Trujillo, where he was training students in anthropology and archaeology Dr Schacdel's project was very comrnendable, for its purpose was to enable many of Peru's young people to bcttcr understand and reconstruct their own herítage. The Institute was the only one of its kind in Peru and had been organizcd by Dr Schaedel the previous year At the Iostitute, we met the staff mernbers and sorne

studcnts actively engage<l in archaeologícal fleld work. Among these were Señor Luis Cuttiérrez, the secretary of rhe Institute. formerly curator of the Rafael Larco Herrera Museurn at Chiclín in the neighboring Chícama Valle}'; José Manuel Cacho, the draftsman of thc Instituto, and Emilio Conzález, a student who spokc and wrotc Englísh Huently Each aíded our work in various ways. Antonio Rodríguez SuySuy, Dr Schaedel's leading student, was of greatest aid to us on a number of ficld trips. He is a native of the old Indían village of Moche, in thc valley of thc samc namc, and, as his maternal farnily name, SuySuy, índicates, is partly of old Mochica-Chimú stock. Indeed, Soriano Infante discovered that SuySuy

was the name of the caciques (local ru lers) of Huambacho in thc epcña Valley Antonio developed so rapidly in hís stuclics that at prcscnt he is carrying on independent investigation of ruins as well as making ground plans of sitcs. On thc basís of thcsc plans, plaster models of pyramids have been made at Long lslancl University by Mr John Storck (scc Chaptcrs T., JX and XV) \Ve met Dr Schaedel's friend, Don José Eulogio Garrido, anothcr resident of Moche who, with Señor Rodríguez SuySuy, accompanied us on severa] of our trips. A highly cultured gentleman, Señor Garrido knows many parts oí Peru extremely well, has written 011 many Facets of Pcruvían life, and posscsscs a penetratíng understanding and an íntirnatc and sincere feeling For the life ancl customs of his peoplc. We cnjoycd his excellent sense of humor and his sharp, lively wit. Although over sixty, he is vigorous, and 011 expeditions tears up and clown hills like a young man. Having establishecl ourselves in Trujillo, we brought our maps, photographs and other material to the Instítutc. We hacl rnany fruitfnl discussions with Dr Schaedel which rangcd from ha~ic geographic factors to details of cullmal scqucnces. Our general approach to these probJems was so similar that we founcl that wc wcre ahle to

complement cach other's thoughts and activities to a great degree. This combination of efforts yielded au improved manuscript and an improved set of maps. As alrcady stated, Dr Schaedel also coutributec.l ge11erously in the preparation of the present volunw. Our first practica) move was to devise a methocl of nurnbcring thc ruins wbich we akeady hacl entered on our three large Arrny maps in such a way that we coul<l record additionally discovered ruin sites 011 the maps later on without disturbing the cstablishcd 1111mbering

fig. 8 (lcft) Thc famous "P~\Samayo" a specta<.:ular slretch of the Pan American Tlighway betw<'en AJ1cÓn and Chanu\y In tbis typical scc1te, southbound vchicles are liued up wailing for the road crews to clear the hlgbway, which is constantly being covcrcd by sand that slides clown from lhe steep bilis above. Kosok • Fig. 9 ( ccnter) Acrial photograph showing thc Pan American Tlighway passing through a section of the coastal desert. The short parallel grooves lcading up to the highway are the rnarkings Jeft when bulldozers pushecl soil to tl1e highway u1 orcler to provicle material for the roadbed. Kosok. • Fig. 10 (lower right) The Pan Americnn Highway windi11g along the coastal hilli just to thc north of the Ocoiía Valley, southern Peru. Kosok. • Fig. 11 ( upper right) The Pan American Highway here culs inlo the side of the coastal plateau in soulhern Peru. Kote the waves breaking aga.inst the bottom of the plateau. Kosok. On the rclativcly lcvel Coasl, the Pan American Higbway follows in general thc routc of thc andent north-south truuk highway In the Sierras, however, where rnodern roads cannot exceed a certain gradient, a factor of no significance in building ancient "roads," the routes of the former rarely follow the latter.

Fig. 12 ( ubovc ) This unusually largc saud dune, called Cerro Purf'ur, lit.>s north o+ tlw v egetation zone ( black aren al top of photogruph ) ol th« Vtrú Valley This kind of large sand dune, unique for 111osl of tht• Coast of Peru, Is found mainly in the e't<>mh e Scchurn Descrt, much furtlwr north. The blnck line at the bottom lcfr of thc photogruph is the Pan American Highwav Sercicia, 11111H1111hl'H'd serles. Fig. 13 ( below ) \'iew of Salaverry, the main port Ior tho ~lodw nnd Chlcarna Vulleys. i\ole the ocean brcakcrs ut thc bottom of tlu- photogruph, ancl al the top and right, the surrounding desert pl.ueau. knrnk.

system. Our ncxt step was to work out a uniform system of symbols For the diílerent classes of ruins. Finully, we decíded to add a comprehensive "key" to each map, with the nnme, pertinent archaeological data, and bibliographícal rcfcrcnccs for cach sitc. This meant a grcat dcal of tedious work, hut whcn completed thcsc mnps would be a kind of guide to prchistoric Pcru, Whilc we werc cngaged in these various activities. Michncl was giveu a spccíal job. Wc dccidcd thnt it was nccessnry that thc maps be traced in preparntion for futuro publication. Whcn the tracings were completcd, we left two copies. reproduced by the Ozalid proccss, in Trujillo with Dr Schaedcl ancl the Institute. Later, as 66

we locatcd new canals and new sitcs from acríal photographs or from our field tríps, thcy too wcrc cntered on the maps. These will be published in our mnin study In order to assist in dating hy cu lturul periods those siles that wc wcrc planning to vixit, il wus dccided that Iichael and l should make surfacc potshcrd collections wherever possíble. As it turned out latcr, sorne mounds aud pyrarnids (huacas) yielded Fcw if any potxhcrds. The latter were generally found in previously excavated ccmctcrics oftcn situatcd ar a shorl dístance Irom the pyrumids. In all, we made bctw<•en sixty and l>C\ enty such collections and clcpositcd thcm at thc lnstilutc at Trujillo, where they are at present. Our project, which in 1940-41 had bcgun m<•rcl)' as one of locating and mapping ancicnt irrigation systems, had b~· now grown into one that indudcd locating all major m·chaeological sites. associatin~ thcm "hcrc possiblc "ith the irrigation systems, ''dating" additioual archacological sites by means of surfacc collcctions, and compiling a list of bibliographical refcrenccs to tlw J..nown sitcs. :\t first we did not rcalizc how much work lhis invoh C'd. But we soo11 became aware of Lhc fact that wc had to work at top spced to complete our survcy projc•ct within tlw allottP<l time. A worcl abo11t making smfac<' colkctions of pott<'ry Excavation of ancicnt graves for stratigr;1phic purposes as wcll as to scc what arlicles the ancients chcrishccl is always intriguing and highly informativ<'. B11l that was nol our flcld of activity; it W<ls that of professional archaeo!ogists. Howcver, the Jatter ha\'e madc only a very small number of such cxca\'ations. ~fost of tlwrn have been made by amateur or pr<>fessional grave rohh<·rs. the so-callccl l111aq11eros. Exca\'ating graves without pcrmission is illegal in Peru. But since therc are no law ('nforcemcnt officcrs to pre\'cnt gra\'c rohhing, it b a widesprea<l profession sometimes e'·en organizC'clin syndicat<>s. T n· deed, a spccial instnuncnt has heen inVC'ntt'd a long. pointcd metal rod four or morC' feet long with a hanclle at one end which thc l111oq11eros push g<•ntly into the ~rou11d wherevcr thcrc is a suspicious dcprt'ssion. Some of the lwaqueros have de' elopcd such sJ.. il1 thnt tlwy can often tell. by the way thc rod fcC'ls whcn il strikes an object as well as hy examining the poinl, whcthcr they havc hit metal, cloth, ceramics or only dirt and stoncs. Thcsc lwaqueros havo opcratcd along thc whole Coast for c.:enturies a11d have dug up man y of thc l<'ns of millions of graves that mnst havc accumulatcd during the Jast s<•veral thousancls of years. Thcy are suC'h an integral

part o! t he social M:t•11t• of the Coast that a popular souu ha~ l'\ en becn '' ritten about thern.

It has lx-eu snkl that thr only dillerencc bctwecn arehacologbl'> und lutaqueros líes in the Fact that the former dig in tlw da) tinte uud thc luucr al níght! Yet the diíleronce ¡., much moro 'ita l. The archnoologists kcep a carcf ul. w ritton aceouut of the contcnts of thc grn' es. as well ¡j<; of thcir si rnt igrapliy. to províde a pcrrnanent scicntific record ol tlw wor], uccoinplished. But thc huaqucros dcstroy much scientifically valuablc material as a rcsult of thcir mcthods of cvcav ation. Vloreover. siuce thc 11110-

1¡11cm.\· '>di their uoods surreptítiously , thc·) ft•;:r to cli' closc thc uuturc and place of origin of t hc articlcs, Sum rning 11p t lw situntion, Dr Ju lío Tello once rcmarkcd that 1non• tha119.5 per cent of the malcriuls in musoums uud pii 'ate• collcctions huve no "birth certíficatos." Tlw!-.e undocnnu-nted objects are uscful Ior dcmonstrating

tlw dillcrcnt

culture pcriotls and art snjles. But until sufficient sd1>11liriC' <'\('ª' ations are carricd out that can relate· th« 11('\\ materiul to th« old, most ol thc lattcr will possevs 11H>rc> aC'~tlwtic: thun sdenlifie valuc. thouzh \\ t' Since \\e \\ ere not pl.umina C'-Cª' ations

Fil!. H. \ l11111prdw11,1\l 'll'\\ ni tht tow n of Trujillo. the irri,l!.lll'd ¡l,1rh ol tlw "rnuu11d1111! \;llll'} and the desert loothill' uf tl11 \1 d1·., p.artl} covvn-d h} cloudv, Contr,1\I the ,¡7C' and 'prcadml! fon11 ol 1111><lt•t11 Trujill» to tl..11 ol l'il!hkentl1 century Truj.llo Fig. ~4 T]« ruin' uf 1·n1111t>11l ·cm m·d Tite aueu-ut ( ha11Ck111.irt• ht·} ond tht> lower left of the photozruph. Sc,,-i1 u), 11111111111/1111d .11 rín • Fiiz. 15 upper right uch lutelv urr- no" lcn111d 111111u~t 111.1jor dtw' of Peru, Pauagra • Fi)!. 16 ri).(ht H·1tlt r and ¡?OH·rum1·11t-op1·r.1kd ltotd Turivta at Trujillo. \ v it.w ol tht <·entra! admiuistrativ« building facing the main pl.l7a uf Trujrllu, l'wwJ.1.111 • Fi).(. 17 lowr-r right) Th« \\aitin¡.: n•1111 lur Fauet tt pl.111t·' .11 tlw foruu r Tnrjillo airport. Ko.wk.

~°'

(ií

Fíg. 18. Dr. Richard Schaedel in hís officc at the lustitute Anthropology at the University of Trujillo. !l.lvarez.

oí

watched sorne we pícked up brokcn pots whcrc we found them. This wc did cíther in excavated graveyards or in ancient garbage dumps (basurales) Such work may appear to be rather gruesome, but the scientific value of the results obtaíned overrídes one's sensitiviries about the dead of the distant past, Thc importance of ancícnt pots líes in the fact that archaeologists have discovcred that changes in cultural Forms are reílected in changes in pottery styles. Thereforo, pottery has not only been a convenient but also a basic inclex for a relative clating of tbe period that produced it. Potsherds, if large enough, are almost as uscful archaeologically as whole pots since they likcwise gívc material, shape and design. Since the clu·onological sequence of pottery types found on the Coast of Pcru has bcen fairly wcll ostablíshed, it is frequcntly possiblc to idcntify thc cultural phases represeuted ut a gíven prehistoric site by a carcful examination of the potsherds [ound on tlie surjacc. This is always true for tbe last occupatíou or occupations of thc site. Excavations are, however, sometimos nccessary to cstablish the earlier occupations. But by means of simple surface collections one obtains, with a mínimum of time and expense, certain key information about a site. 68

The task of looking for surface potsherds is often thrilling. The collector <loes uot pick up everything; for thcn trucks would often he needed to carry off the materials from one site alone, One has to be sclective and píck out only those fragments of pots that seem most signlficant. This work, of course, requires knowledge of the various styles of ceramics and thcir developmental sequen ce ( scc Chapter VIII) To make pottery more attractive, varíous deviccs were used by the ancicnts dcviccs which help us to classify the period and general región of origín, One very effective, yet relatively simple, rnethod of applying adornmeut consisted of lightly "spanking" the pot, while still wet, with a paddle, on the surfacc of whích a design had been carved. It may be pointed out that the potter's wheel ( or for that matter any other type of wheel) hacl never been developecl by the prehístoríc inhabitants of thc Amcricas. Thcrcforc all pots were "hand made." Pressed ware was a modificatíon of paddlcd ware, In this type of pottery thc design was pressed on the still wet clay Sharpened reeds were often used as stylí to incise patterus, while cut ends of reecls wcrc pressed on the wet clay to produce small circles. Sometímes evcn an ornarnent in the forro of an animal head or a human .6gUI"e was made at the edge of the pot, Most of these decorative dcviccs secm to have been applied to orclinary everyday utensils, usually referred to as utility ware. It appears that most of the common people nf the past were buried with such pots sometimes still covered with the soot from the fire for thcy have bccn founcl plentifully in the cemeterics along thc cntire Coast. Similarly, the common people appear to have been íntcrrecl in their everyday clothes the only oncs thcy possessed. In contrast, the priests, rulers, ancl officials were bmied with more elaborately prepared water jugs (huacos) apparently macle only for ceremonial and burial purposes. Here the professional artisan and in mauy cases artist had full refo in expressing his abilities. Wbile he utilizcd thc tcchniqucs alrcady clcscribed, be also employed paínting and rclief modeling. The painting was of two typcs, positivc or ncgative. Icgative painting is esscntially what a child <loes when he draws a design on an Eastcr egg with a wax pcncil beforc dyeing it, so that the dcsign rctains thc original white of the egg against a colored background. In positive or "normal" painting tbe design is of course applied dircctly In Tazca and related areas, the pot dccorators uscd a

Fig. l 9. A student of the Institute of Anthropology ote the aerial mosaic of severa! valleys hanging on Lhe wall. Alvarez.

whole palette of beautiful colors and the designs were either abstractions (later period) or intricatc compositioos of highly stylized cat-demons and other ani.mals, in a way reminiscent of similar priest-dominated and demoninfested cultures of Tiahuaoaco, Chavín aod the Maya. In nortbern Peru, the e1nphasis was placed upon developing novel forms rather than new colors in ceremonial water jugs. Here the unique stirru.p sµottt became very popular among the Early Chirnús ( r..fochicas) Here wc also found the development of excellent realistic fonns comprising plants, animals, houses, boats, humans (including some pornographica) This l:rcnd culminated in the admirable µortrait huacos, the fi11est ceramic product of the Americas. In baking the clay in open hearth ovens, the .\Iochicas usually produced reddish pots on which they painted various designs, generally in brownish-yellow hucs. This is the method uscd iu the finest .\fochka warc. But among the Late Chimús, pots were generally baked in closed ovens where lack of oxygeu produced the typical Chimú blackware. :'v[olds are known from very early Cupisnique times, but they were apparently used to the greatest extent by the Late Chimús on the Northwest Coast when a kind of "mass production" of various goods began.

In almost evory valley, as well as for each períod, characteristic shapes, colors and techniques evolved, When one realizes the multiplicity of possible combinations that this situation produccd, onc may more readily understand the complex problem of potsherd analysis. One may also perceive wby thc systematic study of pottery has bccome such an csscntial technique for establishíng relative chronology and regional distribution of cultures. In additíou, modern rncthods of analysís and forms of statistical treatment of potsherds have become so sophisticated that mauy subtle changes and outside iníluences in a culture, which would otherwise escape attentíon, can be detccted. Picking up potsherds turnecl out to be a time-consuming, albeit cxciting, job. But once we caught the "Eever" it was clifficult to resist stopping at every graveyard to

as to be able to write a short descríptíon, If we encountered potshercls, it became almost impossible to refrain from looking for sígniflcant types. After a time our eyes became trained and we could detect minute variations ata glance. Our SCIPA mechanic, Señor Portugal, had such sharp cyes that he coulcl often detect unusual kinds of ceramics from our moving jeep! An outsider must have found it strangc inclced to watch tlu·ee or four peoplc wandering around apparently airnlessly, with eyes intently cast upon the ground, occasíonally picking up an object and then throwing it away or putting it into a paper bag. On one occasion, at one of the ancient graveyards, wc saw a gentle young lady in scarch of treasnrcs excitcclly throwing around thigh bones, skulls, potsherds, and other rubbísh. Her actions were not surprising, for grave robbing is rnercly a specialízed, ghoulish Iorm of treasure bunting. And everyone has a bit of the treasurc hunter hidden away somewhere! Beforc we left Trujillo for our field work, we were intrigued by an interesting problem, which, while not germane to our main study, nevertheless could not be ignored. One daya mernber of the Institute inforrned us that he had heard of an eighty-year old wornan Irom the town of Eten in the lower Lambayeque Valley who still

knew sorne of the ancient Mochíca language! 'Ve were astoundcd by this ínformation, for we had been assurcd repeatedly that this ancíent language of the . . orthwest Coast had by now becomc extínct, We immedíately made arrangements to visit Señora Manuela Millones de Carrillo. Mochica was the most important coastal language of Northwest Peru at the time of thc Spanish conqucst and was uscd as a missionary language by some of the Catholic priests. In fact, a grammar of the Mochica language was printcd in 1644 by the Peruvian priest, Fernando de Ja Carrera, although a promised dktíonary by the same author never appeared in print. There are fairly definite indications that it was written, though the manuscript has not been located so far if it still exists! ~1iddendorf ( 1892) published a revisec.l version of thc grammar in German and .added a la.rge number of words which he was able to collect in the Eten-J\fonsefú rcgion of the Department of Lambayeque. By then the languagc apparent]y had disappcarcd everywhere but in this small area! Short vocabularies werc also publishe<l later by Villareal ( 1921) a11d by Rafael Larco Hoy le ( 1939) Tn 1948 Jorge Zevallos Quiñones pubJishcd a short, intcJcsting account of the grammars and dictionaries that were rcportcd to havc bccn written during the sixteentb and

Fig. 20. A Mochica grave, containing water jugs (huacos) and remains of a body. cxcavatcd in thc Chicuiua Yallcy by thc Larco brothers. Water jugs, fonnd in ali gn1vcs, symbolízc thc lifo-ghíng propcrties oi water in a dcscrt cconomy Kosok • Fig. 21. Examining a water jug thal has just been excavated. Kosok • Fig. 22. Two charming laboratory workers in the Chiclín Musenm, directed by the Larco brothers, trying to fit together the parts of broken water jugs. Kosok • Fig. 23 (upper right margin) Michael with a collection of bones. Kosok.

hunt for potsherds, The fever sometimes became so bad that whilc drívíng in a jeep wo oftcn had to make a resolutíon. "No matter what we see we won't stop!" Somctimcs it workcd, but sometimos ít didn'tl For alter all we were human! To ride in a jeep, past a níce, ancient, partly-excavatcd graveyard, or a garbagc dump wellstockecl with much interesting material, and not to stop, was just too much to expect of us. So we would jump out and say· "Five minutes ancl no more!" But somctimes we ran into interesting prospects then the five minutes stretehcd on and on until we lost all scnsc of time. Whenever we carne upon a ruin, we would naturally enter its position on onr maps and walk around it so

hav e not S<:'\ <'t1l('l'11tl1 centurics. huí tlic•\p mauuscripts ) et ht-r-u locnted. l Ie ulso has brouzht out un intcrestinu

corupn-ln-uviv e dictionary of ali the worcls so lur pubIished. 11 ¡., continuous researches should \OOn achieve Iurthei -.it,tnificant result-, Accompanied by Antonio Rodríguez Su) Suy. we visited thc okl \lochica lacl) who was tcmpornrily stuyins; with her murricd dauuhtcr, thc owner of a small hat shop i11 Trujillo, The dauchter told us that. w hil« a child. she hcrself had alway s vpoken vlochica with her pareuts. but by now had completoly Iorzotteu it. Thr- rnothcr. a li\'CI) ami i11t<•lligC'nt woman, wux at first hesitunt. Shc sccmcd to he uunble to rcmcmbci ali) of thc languagt'. But after thc con' c-rsution got uuder way she bega11 to rccall some worcls. \\'e' tried lo obtnin al lcust the words <kaling '' ith famil) relutionships, fo1 we thouuht we might thns clear up th« moot problern oí the kiuship system amone; the ancicnt \lochicas. Bul shr- eonld not rernember cnough o;íg111fka11t terms to cuablc us to reconstruct thc system. In thr- course oí scv eral hours of questioninu, she Iinally munaur«] to rccall about flfty words with their Spauísh equivuk-nts. Señor Hodríuucz <li<l much oí tlu- intcrroaatiou und took dow n tlu- w ords, Thes« are rvproduced 111 tlu- vppendix as List '\o. l. with Spani-. h uud Enelish equi. ulcuts. L'nfortu11,1tel~ [ew new words were added to th« known v ocabularv of the language. But it is ínteresti11g to note that th« forrns of the words wc obtained corresponded very closely lo those ziven h:v Carrera sorne thn-e hundred years agol

rnap ol tlu- luwc-r \Iodtl' l'('tllun riu. 21. r1,¡, uniquc- <'i¡d1t<·1·11th ''·'' 111,1<lc h} 1t "ª' tlieu cullcd \'111/c del Chinu) \ alJ..~ \lid1:wl Ft·\ j1'a>. wlto ,¡],o p11hl"lwtl .1 'mal! iníoru .1tlH' \ olume c111 ti,.• tortifü·cl thi' .111d 111•1uhhoring 'alk~' ¡,,.e Bihlio~r.1pl1~' tlu111uh i¡i\ 1•11 on an 1 \,l)-'l!t nlh'cl '(·ale 11,11\m• .111cl tl1< '1m11l sizc •>f Tmjillo. 'ºlt al-o that 0111~ m1<• m.1in irrig,1tio11 1.111.d ¡, ~¡,º"" "hich ~plih ~till 11am1·d .111d 1,till in u~e locJ.t, th1 \lmhka i11lo thrt•p l11.1nclw~. lhen•l" l11ruíshi11)!'. walt•r fm tlw l.111d~ surTll(' \l ol'lth .1 ~tt11al oncP lmmuhl "ater to rou11di111! Trnjillo. Thl' rna¡> l.\IH·, thl.' \tlt parh ol t lw a11dent l''1pital of ChanChau. ( incwfl•tth pht·ed) nf tlw l.1tl1 r \\l11d1 F<:.'j<Ío t•.11), ''niinl'd hous1·' uf tl11· Ch111n [Chimú] rukr, • •" \\1·1! ~ thl' nr 1rhy lh1.11.1 TolPdo. rh1• h\C> .mtil'nt cmab. \ índ1.111~·ac1 and \Juro. "ltidi r.tn abo'' Ji.id .iln·ach hn 11 .1h,1ndont>d "ht 11 tlH' 111.1p ".is tlll' ~lod111. m.1cl1. Tl11 '"º littlP pnud' 11•11•h1•d tlwir "·ller frmn tlw drain;1¡.w ami cli\ll ihult'd il by nf tlll' irn¡::alt•d íidcls lmtl11·1 llp Llw \ Tlw lo\\t'r pond \\l' llll'all\ of llw tcul-lik<' caual' to tlw fkld' bdcm 10111111 to lw still funclioni11i.:- tnd¡l\'

ª'

'"lt

'º

au,., .

I~ What Do We Know of Peruoían Pre-Hístory?

rnauy diflcrent peoples with ancient and evtcnsive cultures had existed along the Coast long bcforc thc Incas carne clown from the mountains as conquerors. Ilowevcr. any scquence of devclopment of thc cultures of cvcn the major v allcy who most of the Spaniards was unknown. Vlorcovcr, studied

the Indíans

strov e lo cvtirpatc

Iorms ol rcl igion

aud culture that still surviv cd From thc past. Thc problem of reconstructing the ancicnt cultures and thcir scquenccs was bevond the interr-st ancl nbilitics of thc colonízers.

\fax Uhle ( 1856-19-l.t). the f ather of Pcruv iun archacolog), was the first to distinauish. in thc \foche-Chicama urea. between au Earlij Chiinú ( Mochica ) Pc1 iod and a Late Chunú Period. a distinction which bccame thc key to ostnblishing the culture seq11e11ce~ of the past. Uhlc ulso showed tbat a rather ill defincd xltddlc Períod P\ii.t1•d hetween the two Chiruú pcriods, i11 which, amone other thinzs, strona híghlaud Tíahuanuco íníluencc w:1~ prescnt. Uhle made this classificatiou larg:1.·I) 011 the basis of his excavations at the Huaca del ol and thc 11 unca ele la Luna in the Moche Valle) ami thc rcsultnnt

study of

thc excavatcd ceramics ( 191:3) .vdditíous uud modifications havc sincc bccn madc i11

Fig. J. Au oblique aerial photograph of the rernains of the main wulk-d coinpounds that once comprísed the ancient cit~ ol Cha11Ch.nr, ueur the prcscnt dt> of Trujillo in lite xioche \ alk> Sld¡1¡¡1•1•-Jo/1ti~n11 • :;.0·1 i-:: Thc abovc linc-cut is that of ,1 detuil from Ch.111Ch.1n. Thc dccoratíve designs uscd throuchout thb chaptcr au• 1'10111 Ltdolw tl·lid' Ionnd 011 <rructures in 01 near C'lmnCl1<m

CHART

Economic·Polllicol Perlods

Dates

Pre-3000

l. Pre Agrítullurol Slage A. HUNllHG-beginnings unknown. Chlpped 11one1 found, dote unknown. Porollel lo fishing ond eorly ngriculturol sloges. B. FISHING-pcrolltl lo hunling but not rtloled

1000 8(

11. lnlra· Valle y Agriculturol Development (lloize; Beon) A. FORMATIVE PERIOD-probobly moite-roising selllers <ame from Sierros where they hod olready procticed elements of irrigotion ond spreod into lhe caoslal volltys 8. CULMINATION PEllODpossibly lhe volleys hove o moximum or neor maximum in irrigoted oreas ond in populolion size.

750 AD

111. fnter-Volley Economlc· Pollti<al Forms A. f()IMATIYE PERIOO. Durlng 1hl1 period various volleys thot ore lntemolly well populoted ond polllicoily well 019oni1ed moh roids or more regulor conquesls on neighboring volleys. lnvoslons ond lnlrulions from lhe Sierros also appeor.

1250

1532 AD

8. CUlMINATION PERIOD. The 1ulminolion olong lh• norlhwesl coost 1onslsl1 ol lhe mulli·volley (1) Chlmú Emplre (c.12SO1470) ottempll 01 u11nsion olong central <0011 ore only tempororily 1uc1e11ful. 121 Inca Empire from Sierros, conquers whole coo11, bu! wilh limiled hold on 1001101 volleys (1470-1 S32).

IV. lntercontlnental Sponlsh

lnferrtd So<iol Structurts

Buildings

Cultural· Technologlcal Deslgncrtion

Cultural Sequen ce

Oon1·? Hunting 8ond1

Temporory

Pre-momic

Pre·ogrirulturol

<ove

Pre-ogriculrurol

P1t-ogrirulturol

sheftm

Settled vílloge slru<turtt

Semi· subterrcinecn 11ru1ture1 ln 1oves olong coost

Pritll· do01Jno1td. Smctll 1ommun'tle1. Villoge federotoon ond proto·class -shucture

Mo-Jnds

(buriol') ond smoll ceremonial pyromids begon troind plotforms?)

Ceromic

(UJ)lsnlqut (Coonol (hovln)

Very Eorly

Salinar Gollinozo

Very eorly!ronsihonol

Mochi10 or Eorly (himú

Eorly

Culminotion ol Priell·dominoled soclelles ond beginning ol growth of se<ulor powtr. Closs IOlidiH forming into o volley federotion?

lorge Pyrnmidsby enlorglng eorlier smoller pyromids or by building new ones. Pyromid du1tm evolve ond/or previous duslers lncreose in 1ize

St<ulor power dom1no1ts• -orseculor dir1C1ed theocrocy. Mochico Empire indudet Chlcomo, Moche; exlends to Virú, Chao, Santo ond Nep•ño Volley in soulh ond ¡Hobobly porls of Jequetepequt in north

Wolltd compounds olon• ar rn 1onjun1hon wilh pyromid1

Coostol Tiahuono(O, tominghom Sierro, groduolly moves up the whole coosl from the south ond eventuolly IUtcteds the Morhiro fmpire ond culture

Middlt

A developed 1t1ulor stote. A central rufer, the Greot Chimú wrlh a sionding 0tmy ond odminislrotive oflidoll in vorious volleys. A developed rla11,odety. Prleslhood ploys mondory roleor hos betn obsilrtied by secular ruflng powers.

lorge wolled compounds ¡Hedominote oscenters of powtr. Pyramods wilhin wolh ore smoll. lorge pyromids (lrompost'I ort oui11de walr•

lote Chimú

lote

Mighnt quoiity of reollsfic (tromics

Moss ¡Hoduced reromlcs, ond gold ond silver goods. 8tsl COOllal orti1on1 ore broughl to Chon Chon

Coloniol

ColonJol

this general sequence of Uhlc. The most important of these was madc by Señor Rafael Larco lloyle and thc late Dr Julio T f'llo, who discovered a V ery Early coastal period, during which maize agriculture was intro<luced on tbe Coast. Señor Larco gave it the coastal name of Cupisnique bccause the potsherds charactcristic of il wcre 6rst found by him in the dry Cupisnjquc Valley He published his main findings iu 1941 in the volume Los Cupis1liques. Ou tl1e other hand, Dr Julio Tcllo named this period Coastal Chavín to indicale tbat it was a derivative of an earlicr Sierra Chavfn culture, a derivation which he tried to establish in his cxtcnsive field work. Somewbat later, il was dist:overcd that two transitional cultures had existed between the Very Early Cupisnique and the Early Chimú ( ~fochica) c11 ltures, narnely, a Salinar and a Gallina7.o culture. The existencc of tbe latter was discovered by Señor Lart:o, a11d the former was deRned by Professor J3ennett. A summary of the most reccnt refinements dealing 'vith culture scquences was presented in severa) charts, together with mucb descriptivc material, iu a collective study made by leading Peruvianists. It was publishcd in 1948 in a volume entitled Reappraisal of Peruvian Archaeology. Sorne of the main aspects of these cultural sequences are embodied in part of Chart I of this chapter Without qucstiouing the archaeological validity of these cultural sequenccs, it will be notcd that theit· general chronological classific:ation consists of a mixturn of econornic, technological, social, politicial and cultural categorics, which has dcfinite shortcomings from the point of view of our study. It thus becamc necessary to cstablish sorne sort of cl1ronological classification bascd on tbe uature and expansion of the productive process of tbe irrigatcd areas. Such a classification would have to take into account the fact that on the desert Coast each valley oasis hecame a kin<l of geographic framework within which thc cconomy, govcrnmcnt and culture of that oasis at first evolved. Later, some of these oases were united into larger economic and political complexes by federation and conquest. As a result of such an approach, it soou became obvious that the whole coastal scquence could be divided into severa] main periods I. Pre-Agricultura! Hunting and Fishing Settlements. (These were partly parallel developments and often continued through the ensuing periods). II. Organized Intra-valley Agricultura) Development. A. Formative Period. The gradual settling of cach

' The Anonymous Trujillano (ca. 1614) 2'11c [ollounng is o translntíon of p¡>. 2 and J of Chapter 1 of a histon} uf Truiillo by 1111 1111k1wum author Tire marwscri¡)I was fo1111d aud nablished. /Jy Bubens v argas Ugarte in the Revista Ilistorica, 1936. Puge 1 could not be locatcd: tite mlss/11g words at the beginniru; of uage 2 were eaten by mtcel 'tite mnnuscript lrsel] appears to hace siuce (nen destroqed hy the {ire thnt ,,wept the Notionai Llhrari] Íll Lima S()me ueors ago. Tbe translattou, os tcell <IS the otlicr oucs i11 this chapter, haoe beesv made as literal as possihle, and retaln praclically ali of the origiual 11u11c/1111tio11. As a result , the origino/ /favor of the manttscrivt has been maintained together usitl: the amblguity of certain passagcs, wliicl1 in tlie usual "free.. translations oftr11 tako 011 a deiiniteness and clearness not inhercnt in the original 1111muscri1Jt. The 011lr; change that has bee« made teas to rapltalt:e rmiformly the names t>f off the rulers. in thís housc reruaincd Ior ll1c period ol a year, perthe said ccrcmonles und of the communícatlon forming Iudians whom he was conquering he IParnPd that he hud with thc languuge, who obeyed him and gave him their daughters, From then on he carne lo take the namc of Chimor Capac [Chirnor = Moche ( Valley l ; capac = powerful, rulcr] cxccpt that he It is not lmown whence came thi~ hcra L? J hud scnt gnvc thcm to undcrstand thut a greut lord from tho other part of the sea. Thc him to govern this land yellow powders which he used in hís cercmcnics and the couon cloth-, which he wore to cover his shameful parts are well known in thesc lands und the balsa of logs b used 011 the coast of Payta nnd Tumhez from whích it is presumed that this lndian did not come r rorn u very distant region. This Taycanarno had a son who was called Cuncricaur, who ucquiaing more power than his lnthor, conquered the lndians and leadors of this valley, and he had n son who was called 1':ani;e11pince who was engaged in conqncring the valle)' up to thc cabeuu/a:; [lhti begitmings l oí lh<: SiC'rrn ancl at the same tim<: ovcrran thc Coast [to the south] as far as thc 11ueblo 11amed :'.\layao. wh<:rc lhe 'illage of Santa now stands, Pighteen !cagues [ 48 miles; aclua1ly the distance is about 64 miles mca~urcd i11 a slraight line) from lhis C'itr [TrujilloJ, and for the lowcr part lto the north] thc vallcy of Chicarna as far 11s [editor's itaHes) Pacasmayo [a fom1Pr MmP for Jequetcpcque] close to [!) the \'illage of Saña, twenty-four leugue!> (72 miles] from this city [From the abo'e it is clear that - an~npi11co never couqucred Zaiía. Actuallr Zaña is abont 8:3 milP~ from Trujillo. It is on the northcrn edge of thc cultivated land~ of the J..,quetepequP which arP about 72 miles from Trujillo.] After this Cuaericuur r .1 scveu caciques r rnlf'TS l COllSl'C\llÍ\Ply <.11c·ceeded him, bis sons a11d dcscendants, up to (lui.sta) ;\finchll11<;a111a11 [ll is nol too clcar whcther thc se"enth was Minchnn~·amun or wlwtlwr ~linchan~aman followed after the seventh) which was conyucror of the pueblos 1 p11('/;(o can mC'an na! ion, l:rncl, pcople, town. or "illage] oí this Coast up to Carbaillo [Chillon, 11ear Lima] and Turnbez [near the F:cuadorian horderj which is more th:in two hundred leagues [600 miles] of lan<l. i11 whose tune carne clown (roro Cu7co tlw Yrwa called Topa Yupangui with a great force of anns and mcn; who subjeeted all tbe llanos roa,tal pl:iins l and made him~elf srriM [lord, or ruler] of ali his ['.'.finchan~aman's) land, killing a grcal nunrbcr or Indians and taking ª"ay tlwir gold, silvl'r and othl'r things thal the)' had ancl he causcd i,,rrcat de~tnre-

!ion ('SPPCially in thi<; "ª""> of Chimor [~loche) becausc of thc rc~bttmc..-c whieh he e11c..-ou11krcd aucl l1e look with him to Cuzco the said Minchan~aman, whcrc he married him to une of Iris <laugl1ter~ and a~ lie hacl lwarcl that s.iicl ~linchan(;aman had a on callc<l Chumuncaur who was in thc valley of Caura Llluaura, Sl'e Chapler XXIII) with his mothPr who was a señora [ruler) of thh [;I he ltbe Inca 1 hacl him 1 alley [ancl] callcd Cha11quirglla11gua11 [Ch1111111ncaur] s11mmoncd u11d ordere<l him to go to govt·ru lhb land in place uf Iris falhcr ~lioch:111~am:in (who dicd in Cun·o) l thb phr:i'e crossPcl ont in the ms. J with the order thal he puy him [lhe lncaj tribute whidr thcy [l1e and his dC'SC'f'nclanl~I did until thf' coming oí the Spani:lrds and they sent him cach yt•ar lo Cuzco sil"er, dotl1ing and othcr things and womcn, daughters of the caciques [local rulers) Thi~ Chumuncaur hacl a son callee! Guamanchumo who go' emed tl1e whole land ancl al his death A11c..-ocuyueh, his son, ~uC'C't•ed1><l him in whos<' tim<' the pueblos of the above-mentioncd Coast were already diviclcd into ct1cic11;:;gcs (apparently local :ulministrath e and c·conomic (?) units headcd by caciques] bccaw.c as the ~ons r of the Chimú?l wcre 1nullipl> ing they mad<' particiones Lclh isions of land?J among thcmsclvcs and thcy gave to cach J)uebfo its hcad wilh the approval :md consent of the Ynga of whom lhcy wcrc subjects. [The mcaning of tire above sentence is som4¡lwhat ohscure. The translation appears historically the most logical 0111·. Il is ob,-ious tl1at sueh n brenking up of political and cconomíc power of the Grand Chimú would be to lhe i11leresl of both the lncas <t11d the yonngi>r hrothers of the Chimú ruler."] A.~ a result of thc dcJth of Ancocoyuch [, l hi~ brother, Caja~imcr tire power and the lord~hip ( se1iorío) of this rnlley ~im, took of Chimor, in whosc time lhc Spanianb entercd this lancl and subjecltid ali of its carir¡11es [loC'al rulers] and scriores [lords], from Tumhez which was the fbt port where they disemharkecl in the ycar 011c thousand íil'c hundn·d and thirteen [actually 15281 The said Cnjac;:imc;:im became a Christian and look thc name of Don Marlin and wlll'n lw clit>cl they interrecl him in the church of Santa Ana of this city from whid1 the ve1y nexl night tl1f' Indians took the body from ti)(' sepulclue and carried it to its interr111cnt acconling to thc rih.•s of lheir anceslors, and it htl~ uot h<'<'•1 possible to diS('O' Pr where it is. AftC'r thi' Caja~imc;:im, six Christian caciques, <le t-.:ndants of the pre\'iou~ 011cs haH• succeeded up to Don Antonio Cbayguar who is living today and is cacique of tlús vallcy of Chimor.

º'

lil A at a time when the Chirnús rai<led them an<l whcn the Incas conquered them later on. The length of each pcriod in lhe cconomic-polilical sequence indicated in Chart 1 applies only to the Mochica-Chicama area, and must necessariJy be c]iffenmt in other ,-alleys. This results in thrusting into the foreground the whole complexity of tbe problem, for it mcaus interrelating the indigenous decelopment of each oolley with the external forces tlirust upon it by conquest. The concrete solution of the problem depends on much more archaeologicaJ knowlccJgc than we have at our disposal. Since cultural growth and expansion are interrelated with economic and political growth and expansion, an attempt has been made in Chart 1 to link these two cll'veloprncots in thc ~lochc-Chicama area. This was not only the political and culh1ral centl'r of 1'\orthwest Coasl dcelopments, but it was also the only place wliere all tlie stages of political-eco110111ic evolutio11 u;ere consummatcd. In other valleys of the Xorthwest Coast, the cultural <levelopments, though influcnccd aud dominated at times

Fig. l!. A narrow pas~age betwcen two high walls thnt surround one of tl1e large compounds of ChanChan. Thc cornpou11<l is knowu as the Rivero group ancl can be located in Fig. 4 u11d 011 thc map p. 85, site 7 Kosok.

by the ~cncral Xlochc-Chicama

liad their

01rn

sequencc.

neverthelcss

local history. This is particularly true in

the extcnxive Lambayeque region, whose cultural l.equcncc has uot yct bccn completcly cstablishcd. Thus, intcrrelationships of culture sequences and economicpolltical sequences have to be studied separatcly for each valley or gro11p of valleys a study barely i11 tlre initial stagc of dcvelopmcnt. Jn the Central and South Coast valleys, which wcre barcly touched by the development on the Northwest Coast, dilicrcnt, though parallcl, culture scqucncos have beco roughly cstablished. Dctails of all of thcsc cultures can be found in Beappraisal ( 1948) as well as in Bcnncu and Bird ( 19-!9). Means ( 1931) and Handbook of Suutl¡ A11wricm1 ludians (II. 19-!6) Al present it is diíllcult lo gh e a Iairl, rcliablc absolute dating of the main cultural poriods, since archaeologísts are no" in thc proccss of drasticallj rcv ising thcir previous estimates. Until thc last decadc, it had bcen custornary to makc thc cultural pcriods, cspccially the carly ones, fairly long (see Mean , 19:31) In reccnt years, however, therc has bccn a stronz tcndcncy to shoi ten considcrably the duration of each stagc, Thi i apparent in the charts in Beappraisal. Sorne limited Carbon 14 datings done rrccntly secrn to have definitely upset this trend towards contraction. Dr Bírd's finclings indicare a date of uhout 800 R.G ± 100 for the Cupísnique remains that he excavated at Huaca Prieta in the Chicama Vulley This woukl push huck the date of thc com'it1g of thc maizc-growing Cupisniqnc cultures into the coastal valleys to JOOO B.C., if not earlíer Dr Bírd estimatcs that tho bcginnings of tho Iishing culture at the same Huaca Prieta might go back well beyond 3000 B.C., whilc thc appcarancc of (111 i11cipie11t pre-maize agriculture, snpplernenting the basic fishing economy, might be set tenratively al about 2500 B.C. For the rnethod used in making Carbon 14 clatings and the particular diflicultics cncountercd in making these clatings alonu thr- Coast of Peru, sce thc article "Radiocarbon Dating" by Edward S. Deevey, jr., in the Scientific American, February 1952. Sf'P also Dr Rird's article, "South American Iladiocarbon Dates·· ( 19.51) Vcry teniutiix: dati11gs of Mochica grave material seern to indícatc a vlochica period cxtending from the latter part of the Hrst 111illc11it1111 B.C. through the flrst part of thl' Hrst milleuium .D. Such tcntntíve carly dating for the important ~Iochica period would ddinitcly indicatc that thc St11rm uncl

Fig. 3. Ruius uf a part of Cha11Cha11, wilh lhc foothiUs of the Andes in the background. Kosok.

Drang J\Iiddle Pcriocl

wlie11 variuus valley aml mouutain pcopks wcrc marching up and clown the Coast attcmpting to co11q ucr 011<' auutlicr startecl earlier an<l was considcrably longcr than had bccn previously assumcd. According to Dr Schacdel, this is partly con.6rmed by the larg<' amount of }.[iddle Period ceramics and architcctural rcmaius which he found al various sitcs. Only the approximate dating of the Late Chimú Period in thc ~lochc-Chicama arca <loes nol seem to require any important change. 1t mi~ht be pointed out here that the .\1iddle Pe1.od )asted lon~est in thC' \" orth CPnh·al and South Central coastal :neas. J3ut, as we proceed north, we Snd that in each suc:t·essive ,·alley, the pt'riod appears to ha' e bf'f'll shortcr lndeed, in the Lambayeque Complex. ~liddle

Pcriod potshcrds are practically 11011-existent. However, it is hest to wait 1111til more concrete infonnation ii; accumnlated bcfore drnwing definite conclusions. A worcl aho11t thc Iucas. Tlie records of 'arioul. Spanish ChroniclNs indicalc that thc Inca conquest of the Coast took place 011ly six.ty or seve11ty years bcforc lhc Spaniarcls arrived in J 532. Scarcity of Inca potsherds on the coasl supports thc tra<litions of such a limitcd pcriod of occupation. Allhough more e;\lensive Carbon 14 datings are essential in order to s11pply absol11te dates more closely relate<l to thc actual cultural stages in the past, it is safe to assume thnt the clmmologirnl se4ue11ce of nilt urcs will 1101 clian{!.e, only ccrtain moclifications and reSnemcnts wi11 appcar as our archaeological l"nowleclge incrcasPs.

'J he short grrwral surv C) of tlu cultural 1 'ol11li011 ol tlu- cousta] peoples just presentcd ¡.., buscd almos] <'nlin·l:ou archaeologicnl material. The qut•stio11 arÍ'<'S \1 t· l here uu lcgcnds and traditions that 1t·crc u rtuc» doscn d11ri11g earh] Spanisli times thut tell ns about tll(' l 11di<lll c-oustul cultures aud thcir history? Thcrc are, hut tlw~ are few! And thcy tell us littlcl

The fe" who wrote about thc l ndiuns

concentruted

mainly on the history and institutions of thc 1 nr-as thc great ruling power when the paniurcls a¡ riv ed. Besidcs

the [neas had already dcstroy cd tlw spcC'rÍie Iorms ol politícal organization and part of the social structure of the Chimús. To the Spaniards. the Chirnus "ere jnst eme of the mauy coustitucut peoples of tlu- conquered Inca

Empire. Systematíc historical and archaeolouical research methods would have becn m•c.:<•ss;ll) in order to collect and collatc in early colonial time« tlH' c1101 mous amount of inforrnation then extunt conccrniuu ancient Peru, But history and archaeology a<; scir-nces díd not exist in colonial times; they wcrc not established till the IJÜ1ctecuth ccntury Thereforc, wc hav <' to content ourselves M present wirh the morscls at 011r disposal in the hope thut futuro archívul rcscarch will Furnish more information. which would cnablc us ~rndually to pnsh back ccr-

tain aspects of the historie period into the now extensive but unknown prchistoric pcriod. The most importanl rnutr-rial ou thc Chimús and their Emplrr: is fo1111d i11 Ca lancha ( 1638), the Quipucarnayocs

Fiu. ~- \ t rti1 .rl .u-rial photo¡(r.1ph ol thc t!rl'aler part nf the remains ol aucrent C'hanCh.111. The til), \\ ith ,1 population ol possihl) fift) thou: .. un] w " 1111d1111htt-dl) tlu- l.1nu·,l urbun "le in thr- Americas. Euch uot· oí tlu- \\ alkd compound-. probably lmilt nt difft>rt·nl tinu«, ,,ppt•;u' lo ha\ 1 hn·u ,1 di-tinct "w urd" or section ol lhl ut), uud '"1' í11h;thitt-d h) divtinct d,rn,. tribt'' or other rnon 1!1·H'lnp•·d ad1111111,tr.1tÍ\ • 1111i1, of thl Chimu,. \\"ithin tite c:ornpoun<k t·.1ch •·uhil·k rt•ptt "'nh .1 ,1or,t!(c hin or the lh ing t¡uarlero; ul .1 f unih Srn111 of llw lar¡:wr tmib \\Cfl' undoubtcdl~ n•,t•ned fin the t hi111Í1 ari,li1ut1c\ \!oto• the 'irtu,il abscnc< of pyra111i1h "itl1in th~ dt) ll 1., 0111~ 11t1/,1idt tlw t'ily thal a number of lan¡;c p~ rnm1d., ·uc lowlt•<l. Tlri' prohilhl, indkate' thc .,uperior posilio11 nf llit• 'l'<:t1lar pmwr all(l tltl' inf,•rinr po,,ilion nf thc priesthnod. Thc d,nl.. '''Clio•h of lh1· pl111tc11,:1nph 'mrn11nding much of thc cily are 111aí11l) t·ulli,alc'd :11·1·a' lhat lnl\ e !(rndnally encroached u pon the ru111'. Tl11 in1•g1il<11 d:trl.. u1l·.1., ttl tlll' righl o~ lhe photograph are r1l n ltl\\1•1 lnd lh:111 tli1· l'Íl~ :md an• cmNNl :it prcscnt by rl'C'd., :md hn"h \\ltit·h ar•· f't·tl h)' ,111,,oil drt1inage. SC'rl'if'io 10!,: 111Mnlr w·I • l'iS{. l) ( margin) Polislwd Ch1111Ú bhwkwaro>. Ko.w1k-íld11.

ít

(~,/-.

.,,,... 4•Jll·~ -s ... -., .-1. ... ;.

trf ;:I~·---.- - ~ -

"->t . . -.·

·~ ""•mo·Utmt) ... ,,.. ,.~"11/~~

\ ~ I

----. .-··.

.. . ..

~- .. ~·

( ms. l&U [ 19241) ancl Cabello ( ms, 1586 [ Hl51 J ) <.:a lancha was a [esuit príest who líved for sorne time in the [equetepcque Valley The Quipncamayocs rcprcscnt a short account collectcd from the descendants of the quipu keepers ( see Chapter V[) Cabello de Valboa was a pricst who Iivcd Ior a long time in Ecuador and thcn travelcd i11 Pcru, where he collccted sorne of the Iolk Jcgcnds. Cabello also gives an aecount of the northern bayoque arca with a list of rulers of that reglen.

Lam-

Recen ti y, Hubén Vargas Ugarte ( 1936) uncarthed two very crucial pagos of a manuscript part of a hístory of Trujillo written in 1614 in Trujillo by an unknown author who will be referred to here as the vnonymous Trujillano. This documcnt for thc Ilrst time ~¡,es a traditional list of sorne of the rulers of the Chimú Ernpire

ami meutions somc of their conquests. Severa! partial accounts, often contrudictory, of the Inca conques; of thc Chimú Empirc are extant. The) shed sorne light on the latter period oí thl' Chi1111'1 Einpirc as wcll as on parallel coastal cultures and political structures. This conquest is dealt with hy Ciezu ( 1553), Cabello (ms. 1586), Sarmiento (ms. 1571 ), Llzárraga (rns. before 1602), Montesinos ( ms, rn.i2) anrl Garcilaso ( 1601), who givcs by Iar the most detniled, though still incornplete, account of this significa11t rnilitary vcuturc. ln modern times, Squíer ( 1877) was thc Rrst to give a well-illustratcd s11mmary of t!IC' 111ai11 coustul cultures, together wíth quotations Frorn original sources of the material then avuilable. ~ liddcudorf (J 801), Ilolstcin ( 1927), .\Ieans ( 1931) and l Iorkheimer ( 1944) Iollowed with summaries incorporating more r<'c<•nt historical ancl archacological material. Professor Rowe. in his short and well-writtr-n mono-

graph, Thc Kingdom of Chimor ( 194 ), attempted the first organízed aceount of Chimú .society and th« history of thc Chirnú Empirc. Howev er. he does uot exhaust his subject, Therefore, we hope that in the near future be will be able to publish a more exteusive and detailed

Fíg. 6 (left) l\ grouud pluu drawn by Bandclier in 1896. and hithcrto unpublíshcd. of the main parts oí ChanChan. Compare the plan with thc obllque aerlal photograph abovc, right, and the vertical aoriul photogr.tph on pp. 76 and 77 Many of the compounds can be onsily ldcnt iA<>cl • Fig. 7 (abo ve, right) Another oblique aerial view ni ChanChan, :iHor<ling a compnríson with Bandelicr's plan on the oppn~ite page. Shippee-Jnhn.son • Fig. 7a ( margin) Ancicnl lwai:o of a ~lep p) rfü1Ji<l. Baessler

study. including a systematic presentation and critical evaluation of ali tlw SOlll'CC' mat<.>rial availablc. In order to make the development of the Chimú Empirc an<l its relatio11ship to the Incas clcarer, a schcmatic chronological chart ( Chart lL) has been made of thc list of Chirnú rulcrs as gin•n hy the Anonymons Trnjillano, togethcr with the generally accepted "officfal'' list of lnca rulcrs. Li111itt'd Chi111ú material from Feyj<'>o ( 1763) has also bccn used. Cabello's list of Lambayeque rulcrs has IJeen give11, to whieh has bt>en added some of the cinta

prcscntcd b) Rubiños ( 1781) in his docmnent on the colonial descendants of the Lambay<•que rnlers. Thc chart hcrc prcscnlcd is pnrt o{ a lnrger onc ckawn up in 19ci6 in conncction with our study on "Absolnte Chronology in thc ::\e,\ World."' \Ve have, at present, no way of testing thc validity oí Lhc list of kings. Thcy may have been altered jn transmission from gcneration to gcneration. Tnclt>ed, th<' Parly pnrts ma) have even been forged in order to give nncient roots and traditions to tl1e ruling houses. Ilowever, the

. ¡

more recent parts of the lists are probably closer to the truth. Whatcvcr thc validity of these lists may be, until further information is uncovered to preve or disprove them, thcy wíll remain useful in probíng into the prehistory of ancient Peru. We ignore Montesinos' list of more than onc huudrcd Inca rulers, since no one so far has satisfoctorily related the list to the acceptecl Inca chronology Since no absolute dates exist For the rulers of the Chímús and Lambayequc, each rulcr has beco assigncd a reign of 25 years (i.e., a generatíon ), a príncíple which is uscful in obtaining a relatively absolute chronology

p~ ,.

''J"' '''"""M• '·' P11l.v,o

lo1

<Jl (yt¡;

from traditid'nal prehistoric lists of rulcrs. For the Incas, two tradltional lists of dates have been handed clown to us, one by Sarmiento ( ms. 1571), thc othcr by Cabello (ms. 1586) But these lists assign to many of the rulers ímpossibly long reigns of up to 011e hundred years each and are therefore useless. Módem writers have tried unsuccessfully to revise thesc lists. We therefore assurne, as we did above, an average reign of twenty-Iive years for each Inca. Rowe ( 1945), howevcr, acccpts the traditíonal dates given by Cabello for the last four Inca rulers. Since the traditions about recent rulers are more likcly to be nearer the truth and since the gíven dates are not un-

(l11,,1o.r ra111¡m/,.,,.¡,,¡,, ru ,J n...... ''"'""''"''

'°"In lttm .A.'""

tntLl< .~....}""'' "• y

1'""""

:l7

~.<-,.-

.........

...t.~ ... -~ _._.., t

IJllr uuuor

reasonable, we tentatively accept Rowe's proposal and includc thcse dates in our chart. A comparative genealogical study of rulers in México and other parts of the world iudicares that the average length of the reígn of a ruler tends to be closer to twenty years. This is likely when we consider the fact that the generatíon principle, in which son succeeds Iather, rarely holds true for more than severa] generations. Succession is often through brothers and cousins which shortcns the length of each reign and thus shortens the duration of the dynasty But until this problem has been analyzed in grcatcr dctail it migbt be wcll to be generous and allow a traditíonal 25 years for each reign. In any case, the relatioe lcngths o{ the thrcc dynastics which wc present, i.e., the Inca, the Chirnú, and the Larnbayeque, will not be seriously aílected by this act of generosity From Chart TI, it becomes clear that both the Chirnú and Inca dynasties began at about the same time, i.e., the middle (more prohably the end) of the tbirteenth century From the analysis by Rowe ( 1945) of the conflicting accounts of Inca development as well as from the material prcscntcd by thc Anonymous Trujillano, it may be provisionally concluded that both Empires becarne really extensivo in size only during the reigns of their last fonr or five ru lers. The earlier period was apparently utílized to consolídate local power and to conqner neighboring peoples. If we study the líst of Lambayeque rulers, severa! thíngs stand out clearly Tn the first place, no matter how short we make the so-called Interregnum, the beginning of rhe Lamhayeqm_. li11e, with .Naymlap as the foundcr, appears almost two hundred years earlier than the beginning of the Inca and Chimú lincs. Sceondly, thcre is no indication that the l'\aymlap line ever developed an "Empin(, indecd, it is improbable tl1at Lambayeque

•

Fig. 8. Rc:prinl of the drnwing madi' by Bishop ~lartínez ele Compañón of thc "Palace of the Cbimi'1 Kings," one of the brge wall<>d compoumb of a11cieut ChanChan.

..... "f-t•.. •

Fig. 9 (abov o ) Vortical norinl photogrnph of tlw T~d111di group (S<'<' Fig. 10) Thr- vmull cnclosurcs wcre probnbly Jil i11g qunrters

whilo the open 'PnC'l'!> wr-rr- probably public squaros used Ior varíous purposr«. The dark rectangular area is a "uuik" about l"cnty h>et deep. Al tlw time Tschudi v isited it, lig trees wvic gruw iug there. '\m,. there ;111.• 0111' w ild reeds that un- Íl•d h~ vubsoil moisture. The "t<1J1k" mav l1:H e beeu used 111 uncit-nt lime' us a sunken garden or as a water reservoir. Serdcfo lfl.~:./() • Fig, 10 right, top) C101111cl plun uí tlu- Tschudt group uí ChanCh::m. The plan 111ade b~ RiH'IO ancl Tschudi in thc lll'\l hnlf of the nineteeutli cc-uturx Co111pMC' this plan with Fig. !l • F'ig. 11 ( margiu ) Clii111Í1 hlur·l.."an• rcprcscnting a housc with dccorated pillars. ~ult• tlu- 1110111..c~. chnructcnstic of Chimú warc, al thc baso of the spout. J\/11.v('o Nacinnnl-Cuillen,

"ª~

rulers ever organízed a state comprising thc wholc Lamhayeque Complex (seo Chapter XVI) Thirdly, it is clear that after the lnterregnum caused by Chírnú conquests? thc ncxt thrce rulers werr- Chirnú oíllcials, whilc their successors wcrc appareutly local rulers uppoínred hy the Incas. Their descendants appear lo havo contínucd thcir position during Spanish rule with, howcvcr, onl, nominal powcrs. Owi11~ to conAicting statcrncnts in Cabello the maín sourcc of the Lambaycque list-, thc identities and sequence of some Inca-appointed rulers are not quite clear and the list may have to be slightly revised if more accurate archiva! material is found. Since the Inca conqucst of the Coast probably took place about 1465-1475, sorne sixty or scvcnty ycars íu advanee of the Spanish conqucst of Peru, we should expect to possoss considerable Spanish data dealing wíth the Inca conquest of the Chirnús, which might also throw sorne light on the iustitutions of the latter But, as statcd, only a Few Chroniclers wrote oí tradítíons thcy had hcard concerning thc loca couquest, However, theír accounts are incompleto and contain numerous contradictions whích have not yet beco sucecssfully resolved. Severa! distínct, but apparently unrelated, campaigns stand out. Two carne dowu From the Sierras towards CharrChau (Cabello, Sarmiento) One campaign was none too successful, as the Following quotation Frorn Cabello ( 1586:497) indicates but it is known with grcat ccrtainty that th<' ani1y of the Yngas attacked suddenly those of the wide and spacious valley of the Chimo, a11d held it<; inhabitants in fcar. and shut in for many clays behincl thcfr high walls, from here wilhout having achieved results for thc time being (sin liacer por entonces cf eclo) lhcy procecdccl to Lhc lau<ls irrigated by the river called Pacaz mayo, and they upsct ( l11rbaro11) ali these valleys and by thc uppcr part of th<• ~epos they relunwd to Cajamarca. Sarmiento ( ms. 1571 Chap. XLIV) brieHy mentions how Tupac Y11panr¡11i conqucred app.1rently also from the Sierras the valleys of Paca¿mayo a11<l Chimo \.vhich is 11ow Trnjillo, which he destroyed being that Chimo Capac íwasl his subject. " Thcse lwo short qnotations furnish the only evidence, so far availablc, of an lnca invasion of Lhc Chi111ú Empíre by way of Llw Si{'l'ras. Thc two accounts if correct do not seem to rcf cr lo one an<l tLe same campaign. contrary to the general ac;sumption. Cabcllo's account de-

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scríbes wlwt appears to have bcen a preliminary skiJ'mish or an unsuccessful attack, whcrcas Sarmiento's bricf ancl somcwhat vague remark st>ems to r<'f Pr to a punitive exped ition following a previous conq uest or perhaps Lo thc conqucsl itsclf. \ 1 ost of the information we have of the conquest o( the Chimú Empirc by the lucai. is foun<l in Book \'f of Garcilaso, who devotes severa! chapters to this matter According to him, thc conqucsl camc alo11{!. t11e Coasl fro111 tlw Sm1tl1. Garcilaso not only takes up the conquest of the whole Central Coasl, bul also shows how, later on, tlie l neas and thcir coastal allics captured Paramonga, the southern outpost of thc Chímús, and thcu <lrove them hack to thc Santa Valley Ilere the story of thc campaign ends withoul mcntion of the co11q11est of the main part 1

The Yungas,

the Prehistory

and Origin

of the First lnhabitants

of the Coasts of Peru

This is a transtatlan: o] tlie most important sections of an orticle by Julio Ylctor Pachcco cntitled "Los Yungas, Prehistoria y Ortuc» de los Primeros Pobladores de las Costas del Peru" and published in Truiillo fa the now defunct magazine, Ciudad y Campo, Ja1111an11926. The first part. of the artícle Is summarízed in the fir¡¡/ three paragraphs. The remainder is a literal translutioti of the articlc. Pacheco stntes that conditions o] prchístoric lífc in Peru are rcvcalcd by urchaeologicnl remains, The highest civílizations were those that devcloped in desert lands which had to be írrignted. The Yungas, thc ancicnt inhabitants of coastal Peru, dwelt in such a The región and they achievcd thcir splcudor relatively t>arly Quechua-Aymaras ot the Sierras progressed more slowly, but because of their strength und youth "ere in a position to conquer and dominare the Yungas. Pachceo then quotes directly from the lost manuscript oí the priest Pedro <le la Cruz: "The dcstrucuou aud loss of this puebla [cau mean nntiou, lnnd, people, town or village] was duc to the Incas - and the Mochicas werc the Iormer inhabítants honored by their reputation as workers. Wo scc that they had spcnt much gold in thc constructiou of their great and populous city [ust like the cities oí the Pentapolis; that aJI the products which thcy had in their kingdom were thc results of labor and the Íl'rtility of the bot soil, indeed fertile for man}' reasons: the omcs [keepers of history and lcgeuds] of their mee say that the city was destroyed by evil and impious people and thnt their grandfathers fled to other rcgíons, that kon [a deity] out of resentment had gone to the sea, leavíng his people abandoned" Pacheco thcn meditares on how ChanCban refiectcd ull thc hídden mystery of a lost cívilízatíon, and continues in hís own words: "Facts founded only on tradltion, when thcy urc turued into hístory, gcnerully lose the critcrinn of truth in leavíng [? 1 their source, nnd separating themselves dccciviugly from reality they aequire i11 tite imagination of the historian exaggerated tints of extravagance, "These prostituted storíes which are passed Irom fothcr to son and which do not derive from orderly scientific principies, arriv e in the course of time to succceding generatious profoundJy altered and rcsi~t thc a11alysis of investigation as well as thc <lissections of criticism scvcre and impartial. "Bt•cuusc of tl1e oature of thP magazine and tl)e narrowness of its colnmns, this small articlc which we now prPwnt cannot be amplilled with dtations of historie proof, which would occupy maoy pagc~. \Ve havc made U)iS condensed articlc, wlúch is taken in parts írom fragmf'nt.~ of a work which I have writtc11, u11<l wbich has been inspíred by tl1c lcstimouy of stoncs and ceramics, which the obscurc past hides with blind avarice, within lhe sarcophagi of its dcad or in thc piles of n1ins of its monuments [;] serving as principal guides Lwere] the manuscripts (autografos) of the Dominican pudre, Pt!Ciro de la Cn11, ('onfessor of Vaca de Castro [an carly \ it'tlroy of Peru] and tllose of thc same order [ : ] Peclro Domingo <le la Asuncíon de Santo Tomás and the historical notes of Father Meneses; these docwnc11ts being found in the semi-<lestroyed archives of an ancient convent, writtcn, partl) on paper, partly on parchrnent, in tl1e year 1545, and where the badly drawn Lati11 charattPrs are mingled with thc chainlike script o( the anthor.

"The prosperous state of the Chimú, the cxtenl of tl1eir dominions and tl1e pre~tige of their arms, placed the coastal pcoplc (pueblo yunga) among the forcmosl in America, and of th<• Continent of Hot Land5, as they called it. "As indu~trial people, they wert> the first to employ bronze for their plo11ghs, wcapons, and othcr implcmeuls; they were great for, aidecl by thi> fertility oE thc soil, they sowcd agrieulturalists vast cxpauses of land ami cttrric<l 011 a trade with the peoples (pueblos) of the (',oast; it scems tl1at sorne Phoenecian colonics ldL traces of lheir sojoum 011 thcsc regions. [ 11 "The pros¡)("rity of this kingdom aroused tlw 1.'(J\ elousuess of the Inc~. am.l cspecially lhe fear caused by thc fome of their conc¡uests; thus it was that, beginning with the reign of Pachacutec, thc troop~ of this Empire of thP Sun were prepared for the military conqurst of tl10se settlecl north of the Tahuantisu)'o. "Thc ca111paign undertaken against this kingdom is one of thc most important found among tllc núlitary traditions and legcnd5 oí thc Iuca Empire, not only for its political adroitness but aJso for the success of its imperial ar111s. "The Incas initiated Lheir conquest with cx¡x:<litiom of obser\'ations, [scouting eApcditions] aod ,-arion~ battles were fought int<>rmittt>ntly for many }'ears, in which fortune was generally advcrsc to the Imperial arms. So, after these defeats, it was decidcd in Cuzco to proceed with 1111 all-out effort to conquer the Yungas. "Wheu lhe Inca Tnpac Yupanqui ascended the throne, a grcal expedfüon was organizcd in co1runand of his son Yt1panc¡11i, a young 1111d bra'e gennal who had prcviously revealcd cxc.'Cptional qualilie , distinguishiog him~clf in the campaign against and tbe subjugation of the Cajamarcas and Huamachucas. Yupauqui launched his campaign agaiust the Yungas with twenty-two thousand mcn. First he made an alliance with various IXl\\erful caciques [local rulcrsj who, having bt>en conc¡uered and subjugated by Fcll-kumPisan, king of the Yungas, ha<l been foreed to ac.knowledge his ~uzerninty, and pay a corresponding tribute, bcing almost incorporated into tl1e nationality (nacionalidad) of the Chimús. "But the go\'eming rulers ( regulos) of thosc pcoples (pueblos) who extended from Supe to lea, and who Lthe rulers] were called Chuquimancn and Cuyusmancu, had kept a deep hatrcd of the Chimús. and provcd lo be a powerful h1•lp to the imperial troops, who now found a safe base of operations, which permitted tlwm to operatc alo11g l11c Irootier against the armies of .Fell-kum-Pisan. "Ilattles wére fought almost daily and sieges of fortresses lastNI u long time, tl1is is evidcnC'ed by the huacos found in the cxcavulions carried out in the fortrcSStJS aud in many places an<l 1mehlos of Yunga origin now dc-.stroyed, on which [huacos] can be sccn the horriblr mutilatcd n·111uin~ of prisooers of war still drt>ssecl in thcir Quechua garb. [These mutilated figures are from thc Early or ~lochica Pcriod (Sel' Chapter XI, Fig. -13) a"'l<l Lhus do not prove Pacheco's contention. Ilowever, this docs nol mean that thc.' Late Cliimús and Incas did not indulge in the practice of mulilution, common throughout tlic world until very recent times.]

"The stubborn resistu11cc aud lhe valor with which the Chimús themselvcs forced Yupanqui to abuu<lun his military defe11ded \"enture. He rcturncd to Cuzco and aftcr a long period of prcparatiorrs, carne back with three large am1ic~, co111111t1llded by the linPst gcncruls of t11e Empire. The stn1ggle was bloody and dernstating. This is proveo [!) by lhc multitudes of destro) <>d cities and nhan<lonc<l \ illages which tlw Sp:miards found wheo they carne to Peru. Thc greater part of thc iuliabilants hacl b1•en t>ither remo\ c<l lo other regions, in accordancc with Inca eustom~, ur, as refugees in liny hamlets, tlwy Uvccl a life of degradation and misery, which prt>vt>nted thcm from offering thc ~lightcsl resistance to the [Recenl sludies tend to indicatc that there wu~ u conquerors. partial depopulation of thc Co~t as a re~ull of the Inca Conques!.] "Finally, fortune tumed against the Chimú, aud defeated i11 Paramonga, he rt:lrcalcd lo tbc Xorth. The Quichua~ ad\'anced iu a series of battl<•s, capturing an<l destroying the greutcr part of the coastal fortrc~scs. Among the most important was Chiquita Yap, an enormous bastioo with many parupcts which ex:ists loclay [Pacheco undoubtcdly means Chiquitoy Viejo, on the southcm c•dge of the Chicama Valley He somcwhnl exaggerntes the size o[ thc sile.] retreating precipitously, took refuge in the '"Fell-kum-P~au, fortresses of his capital the city of ChunChan. Yupauqui laid si1•ge but, sin<.'C tl1c a rea of the city was \"ery extensi\"e, thcy [ the dcfenders j could Aght to ad\rantagc, ai<le<l as they at'>o \\ere by irnmense supplies of maize, so they could not be starvcd out. And since on the other hand tbtJ Imperial troops were not sufficiently numerous to press the siege, it was very fcasible to renew Lhe supplies [of ChanChau.] "As we know, lhe ancient Peruvia11s were very skillful in mattcrs of hydraulk-s and irrigation. They ltlle Incas) therefore cut off the water which suppUed ChanChau. E~en today one may sce tJ1c dry river bed whose watl'r ahundantly supplied the capital. [Puchero Yupanqui apparently refcrs to thc ancient canals now in disusej ordered the altPration of thc course gi\'ing it a11otl1er course which has not bccn <liscovered to tl1is day; but ChanChan reccived water from hydranlic works located in a pluce callcd Challuacocha about se,·cnty kilo1neters from CbanChan by means of hiddcn canals; for a long tim<> tll<'y <lid not lack water, until tl1e canals, revealed by a traitor, wcrc <lestroyed and tlwn the cit)' deprived of its water surrend<>r<>cl [such hidden canals, if thcy ex:isled, ha\"C not yet been locntcd.] "Fell-kum-Pisan with<lrcw with his troops, abandoning the city Father Mc1ies(•s rebtes that, when Yupunqui cntered ChnnChan as víctor he was arua:t.ed when he saw the wealth and beauty of the great coastal city, built according to an immeuse plan wilh straight and alig11c<l l!lreets, ful! of light and sun and much superior to the coarse and semi-barbarían co11structions of Cu7.CO. "Possibly tlle Inca prince dreamed of making thb city the capital of the Empire on asrending lhc lhrone of his ancestors as he later <lid, after conq11Pring Quito."

Fragments of the Unpublished Work - History of the Valleys of Chicama, Virú and Santa Thls arücle 1.cas puúlishcd by \fíctor Julio Pachaco in the Truiillo newspaper "L<1 ludustria,' Murch J.'?. 192-!.

Chimú textile. Metropolitan. :\Juscum o/ Fi¡.:. 12 (p. 82 margin) Art • Fig. 13 (a hove) A detall of a partially destroyed Irieze írom Ch:111Ch:rn. Kosok • Fíg, 14 (below) Two Chimú huacos excavutcd at ChanCh:111 by members of the Trujillo Iustitute. Uighly bui nishcd surfaer« are characteristic of Chimú ccramics. Schaedel.

'" we have indicated pre' iously, on conquering the kingdom of the Chimú, tbe Incas made no víolent trausformations in the religton or in the institutions [of the Chimús]; their [thc Cliimús'] king, Fcll-Kum-Pisan, continued ruling with a certain índependence alter the peacc cclcbratcd i11 the temple oí Kong, and ímposcd by Yupanqui (the Inca ruler] (;] and notwithvtundiug (alter?] the Iirc und the destruction of their beautiful capita] of ChanChan, the urban population took un a rural aspcct, resettling in the Chicama. Chimú [.\loche] nnd \'irú Valle> • transfernng thc court to u place [µut"blo], of which the ruins still exist, near the fortres of Cluquitnyap, sítuated within the area of Hacienda Chiquito) Through thc interventíou of Yupanqui the [old] animosities of the caciques Chuqulmancu and Cuyus Muucu iulíng to thr- sonth, against tho Yungn kíng, Fell-Kum-Písan, were wcakcncd [;) but ut liis [Fell-Kum-Písan's l death, bis son nnd successor, Abhar-Occo, had very little inílucnee in thc admiulstrutiou [of the Chimús ], as the policy of the [Inca) Empire daíly reduced bis power. Follo" ing the 1 ncnv' doctrine ni ¡w.wdul ahsorption, they be itun to mix the Yunga population with seulers frnm other r<'giom•. principally Quichuas, and they also brought muny Cusqueños of illuv triuus ancestry, in order to make propaganda for the languagc und Ior the cult uf tho Sun; mixing the civilization and the gocl, of lhe Chimú wíth thc cívllízntíon and gods of thc Tuhuantisuyo. nb,01 b ing them insofnr as possihle: anrl ar tho sanie time they wcre initiutcd intu tlw Iarming practices oí the consta] lands. lryin¡:: lo acclimatíze thc crops of the Sierra, priudpally Ll1e potato :rnd thl' ollnco, taking in e'ic:bangc sccds :1nd shoots of fruit [trt'<"'] ami 0Ll1er proclucl s. They tried to dh 1<lc tl1c fie)d, (terrenos) into topM [fnr:i nnits of

laod ml·asun•111l·11t. 'urying in si7C' in diHerent rcgiu11s] at·c:ordi11g to the pra<:ticcs of lhe Inca Empin•, hut those [the l,111d~J uf tlll' Coast ha\ing a di~tinrt topogrnph} from those of tlic 'il·rra and :1buvc all Llw mcthods of irrig;ltion heing different. tlw ':mw [Chimú] distribulion [of laml] "ª' nmintained suhjt'rt to thl· \:\me custom and policy of concentrating vast cxtcnsio11s of hrnd in [the hands uf) a fcw proprielors, su bdi"iding only production [produce] hy tl1c mcthods thal we havc stuclic<l, while covering fin lh<" p:irt of Pachecoºs unpublishPd and lo.st work] the prehistory aud th1• ~pedal scctmn [d1•uli11g "ilh] the Chimú Kingdom. According to thl' Donúnican Pedro de la Cruz, a tracULion sustuim.-cl h> thc u"ti' L>s and that "'ª' conlaint'd in the manuscript.~ of this religioso [monk]. thc lands [uf Ascopc) belon¡.t<•d to a nohle Yung:l who di.-d in the ye:ir of the struggles that took ph11:1• \,efore Ll1c ~urrcnd<•r o[ ChanChan; tlw ,.1nw tradition s:iys, lhat, at the time of the Spunbh im asio11, thc ~asl extension ol l:mcb c:¡IJed As-cocp [Ascope]. which in thc Mochicu languagl' 1111·a11s mouth or entr:rncC', b1•long<'d to the C11mra [ruler) Huasataca of the lmperial fumily [uf tl1u l1!L"as) \\'hen Pinrro. or hetter sai<l Almugro. founded T1 ujillo in tlw year l.'5:15, th<' fanúly of the wraca that possessed thrn1 fk·<l to tli~· Sierra, n11d "lwu the Spaniard' !fütrihuted the land of the ,mcient Chimú thc sht1T(' of Capita11 Don Bartolomé Tin(l('<l ' c.,hero. was 132 faneg.idl'> ( almost 1000 acre>) within who><' ur<·a i> located today thc city o~ Ascope. This assignment was mncl<' by the 6rst Co1regidor Don Diego <l1• }.·Jora, os were also tho~P of tlw Chicama \'allPy :111d th<' other holdings of the Corregimiento of Trujillo; a cc.•ntur) latt-r when the )¡md wa~ :ilrt'ady in thc poi.scs•ion of his grandson Don Pedro Ti111K~1. lw [Pedro] obtai1wd lt•gal title.

of the Chimú Empire. We l('arn merely tbat Lhc Chimú ruler submillcd to thc Incas. The accounts of the three campaigns bere prcscnted are not ncccssai-ily conb·adictory; indeed, they may eveo complcment one another Jt is not impossiblc thal the southcrn campaigo took place during thc interval between the campaigns mentioned ouly bricfly by Cabello and Sarmiento. A latcr, final conquest ( or rccooquest?) under Huayna Capac, thc next to last Inca ruler, is mentionC'cl by Garcilaso, Cicw and Cahello. But thc Lhrcc accounts of tbis campaign are in many ways conflicting. Thc existence of this last campaign is also <.:onfinned by sevcnteenth century ]ocal traditions in Jequetepeque, as attested to by Ca lancha. and b~' existin~ local traditions in Lambayeque, noted and collated by Augusto D. Lei'>n Barnmliarán ( 1938) OtLer complete or partial campaigm. of which we know nothing or which are included in the contra-

dictory accounts of what appears to be oue campaign, ma y of course havc takeu place. But even greater nf'h11lousness sunounds Lhc actual conqucst of tbc .\lochica-Chicama unit and tbe captme of the Chimú capital of ChanChan itsclf. Garcilaso omits Lhis crucial part of the campaign entirely Cabello and Cicza do like·wise ancl defencl thcir omission by referring to the vague and contradictory nature of local reports. This almost complete lack of informntion concerning these key events is surprising. Possibly, following thc conquest of this region. or thc supprcssion of an unsucccssful revolt, many inhabitants of this regían wcrc sla11ghtered and thc rcmainder sent as colonists to other parts of Peru. In turn, colonists from other regious might have been scttlcd in thcse crucial vulleys. The vague and contradictory iuformation about which the early Spanish Chroniclcrs complained could be accounted for in this way But until ne'' archival material is found, the prob-

Fíg. l!l. A pnríial v iew oí tlw wnlls oí ChunChan.

Kosok.

Fig, 16 ( above ) The rnain outer "ali oí Cha11Chan. Kosok • Fig. 17 ( below) A v iew of the so-called "J1111gt•1111," inside ChauChan. Kosok,

lcm of thc [1~ca couquest of the hcart of thc Chimú Ernpire, and especially the capture of ChanChan. mu l rernuín unsolv ed! Oue day, as we were sippíng cin;;;ano at the Hotel To111 ista i11 Trujillo, Dr Schaedel, to our great delíuht, tole! us of an article that Señor Ortíz Silva of Trujíllo had loancd hirn. This short article, written by Julio Víctor Pacheco, had appeared in 1931 in an obscure and now def unct local journal, Ciudad y Campo ( City and Country] lt dealt with the Inca conquest of the Chimús and was represcntcd as bciug an extract from an unpublished work by the same author, entitled Histonj of the Valleys o/ Chicama, Chimú and Virú. Pacheco claims Ihat this work is based on unknown manuseripts of three sixteenth century pricsts, namely Padre Meneses. Padre <le la Cruz, nud Pedro Domingo de la Asunción de Santo Tomás. These rnanuscripts wcrc supposcdly written about 1545, i.c., ouly ten years after the Spaniards founded Trujillol This was clcctrifytng news! The recovery of these early rnanuscripts of the three padres might bccomc a Iaudrnark in our historical reconstruction of the Inca conquest of the Chimús and of thc socicty aud government of the latter Howcver. our attempts to locatc thcsc manuscripts wcrc unsuccessful. and mar efforts to obtain information about their authors yielded only limitcd rcsults. In the standard clght-v olume biogrnphical dictionary of Mendíhuro, neither Padre Meneses. who is supposed to havo left historical notes, nor Padre de la Cruz, Father confessor to the Viceroy Vaca de Castro. are rnentioned. Neither is the third author, Pedro Domingo de la Asunción dr- Santo Tomás, listed. But probably Pachcco meant Frey Domingo de Santo Tomás, who is known for his Quechua grammar Not so well known is thc Iact that when Frey Domingo arrived in Peru uround 15:3.5, he helped to found the Dorniuican Order in Trujillol He studied the native languagc spokcu in the Mochc-Chicama urea and used it to prcach thc Cospel to the lndians, who admired and supported him because he always defended their interests, Apparently. he left this regíon about 1515. Such a man very likely would h:ne written sonwthing abont lndian life and traditions in thi:. rcgion. Jt was found that the other two clcrics had also bclonged to the Dominican Order at Tmjillo. To our dismay, we lcamcd that the cootcnts of tbc loeal Dominican <1rchive!. in Trujillo had been remo' ecl to the main Dominican archives in Lima about ten ~ ears ago. Recent inquiric>s

secm to indicate that oon-members of the Order cannot me thc archh es. which. morcoH.·r. are m1eatalo~ued ! Perhaps thc nrnnuscripts are not eveu in thC' Lima ar chh cs. Could they be among Pachcco's pa¡wrs, togetht•1 with thc largc volume which he daims to ha' e writtcn? Pachceo <lie<l more thau twenty-five years ago withcmt din>ct heir~, nnd attempts by Dr Schaedel an<l Señor Garrido to locatc his papcrs have so far proved uusuceessful. Sincc these important manuscripts may not be uncarthed for somc ycars if at ali an<l sincc the Puchcco article contains some new uúormation, we decided to print a trnnslation of lhe more importaut parls of thc article ( pagc 82) It is difficult to determine at present whether the Aowery language of tl1e article should be altribute<l to Pacheco or whether it is a mere rchash of sorne of the florid passages he found in the writings of his thrcc Chroniclers. In addition to this article, Señor Garrido found anothcr, bul shortcr, artide by the same author. printcd in the is!>ues of :\farch l and 25, 1922, of the local Trujillo papcr. La Ind11slria. This article wr prrsent on p. 83. s we read these articles. we are struck by the fact that Paclwco\ account of the Tnca conquest of the Chimús is in 1rnln)' ways similar to that of Garcilaso, lhouig1 Pachcco's co11tains more details of tite campaig11s and ~ivcs information about t1w s11rrender of ChanClian. This indicatcs thal Pnchcco <lid not copy from Garcilaso. The question then suggcsts itself Could the manuscripts of the thrcc pricsts lrom whom Pachcco took bis material ha,·e been also th<.' source of at Jeast part of Garcilaso's account? For Garcilaso had visitcd Trujillo during thc periocl whcn these three clcrics were supposed to have rcsided therc. An answcr to this question would thcn also rcsolve, in part. the c1uestion of thc ,·alidity of Garcilaso·s account, whieh was 11ot actually writte11 till the end of the sixteenth century What is also striking in these articles is the uame gh•en the ruler of tJw Chiant'1s who was defeated by the Inca:.. Here he is called Fell-1.. um-Pi'lan, a name quite diHerent from any of thosc {{Í\ en b) thc A non} mous Trujillano! In fact the name resembles thal of F<tllenpisan. the Incacontrolled ruler of Lambayeque as listed b) Cabello (see Chart II) Fallenpisan is tlw ruler Cabello nwntions as ha,ing been taken as a host11g(• from Lambaycquc lo Cuzco by thc Incas. \\'hat conncction could therc have heen hetween the Lamhay<>q11e und thc Chimú line? Could the two rulers rnr11tioued ahon• han• heen the same ruler or relate<l rulers? Could the Lambaycquc

CHAN CHAN THE

line have been linked wíth the Chirnú dynasty following

the conquest of Lambayeque by tbe lattcr? Could the last names on the Chimú king list be another forro of the Lambayeque naines? Or could thcre havc bcen a mistake made by Pacheco, the three Chroniclers, or the Anonymons Trujillano? These and a host of othcr cnticing questions suddenly confront us questions about which we can merely speculate as we grape in this twilight zonc between history and pre-history To confuse thíngs furthcr, Fell-kum-Písan is saíd to have had a son with the unusual name of Abhar Rocco. Here, likewíse, there is no counterpart in thc Chírnú lisl of kings. But ncithcr <loes such a narne appear in the Lambayeque list! Wc also hcar for thc llrst time of a coastal Cod Kon who Hed to the sea so rerniníscent of the Sierra tradition which lleyerdahl and his Iarnous Kontiki expedítion nsed as 011e of the bases for thcír vcnturcsomc tripl

CHAN-CHAN

METRDPDLIS

CHIMU

ANCIENT URBANIZATION BETWEE N THE SEA ANO THE PANAMERICAN HIGHWAY

*''

CITY

.StA\.I UJ l'PtSM UO -

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Fig. 18 (below) Antonio Rodríguez SuySuy stuudiug before a pnrt of ChunChnn. Schocdel • Fig. l!) ( right) Plan of ChanChun drawn 011 the basís of thc nerial photographs. Couzález.

LEGENO -

rr•f•cdltt J,rf rodd wdh1'1 lhe rui'I~ ro ti.e tourl>f• Ó•<•u>t Chi'tf f'O'"~ of 1nftr~Jt /r,.ut º' wcll·f'"''""' conJ,f,o,, •/ ti.#

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..... ~· c~,.,.,,f • .,,,5 •csco.,/~s ~fº''¡¡,/~ sif•s •/ ~'"'r"l sm~lllnJ overr.s --=: SECTIONS Z: ~ CITADELS -¡z re/lo f l'fA/f.TINE$ CO,.,PAÑON Escorr~s /3 2 GRAN C:HJMU lluac:• "Et O/viJo • .3 lJANDELIEf'I( 4 UH.LE A"""'º T:,cl,ud/ lb Huamanclwmo 5 CHA.IHVAC

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u Stflll ~f'lf

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lldp is acce>tctl

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(Lal.rr•nto) t fhtt wcy .to-in~ wtaftrla/

-t

LA8EIÚNT0 VELAfltDE $QUl~R. C:A.&.VA~ÍO J>I? LO~

1951

PPOJECT

to r,lan tite anc1ent caP.,f·d/. E. Gonzá/ez :i-ds ju•t ¿in••/,•tl ti.e il~tailtJ

c.faJtf .,,,..,¡,llT 8

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25 2<>

27 Z&

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ff higo

LI foY•f A ne x « V•lardt

PRINCIPAL •HUACAS·•¡¡¡¡¡¡:-

dra¡ón El Obi"/'º co ..<hitJ El

19 20

Ar1eico lf uac :i

Trcr. J.uac~s El l,;go• Li'nral

E~,.,,e,-.,¡/da

r .. ~,,1,,~,.,."'

RAINíAll MOUNTAIN AGRICULTURE WITH SOME IRRIGATION

OESERT MOUNTAI NS

..,.

..,..,

7..,

lit,000 FT.

IAN(IEMT 1

ROAD•

1 ¡ I 1 1

....

e-vese

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Z900FT

sooo rr

OESERT MOUNTAI NS RAINFALL MOUNTAIN AGRICULTURE WITH SOME IRRIGATION

5200FT.

l'i,300i=T. '"'12.000FT.

SINSICAP

l't,000 FT

RIO MOCHE

8700fT.

.... PAiH

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11.000 Fl

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OESERT MOUNTAINS

Pacific

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THE MOCHE-CHICAMA COMPLEX The Center of the Chimú Empire ..

1---+--i---+--+---4mil4s

A.rts af thc Jcquctcpcquc Vamry to thc north,of the V1rú Valle y to thc 'outh, and of thc 4'djaccnt Sic rras a re to thc includcd ;., or<Jer to thow thcir relationsh•pt Mochc-Ch1camo Compfcv. Thc dottcd areas <lrc thc irriqotcd parts of c&<h valfcy. Thc 1a-.¡c blac:k doU are importatit ruin,. Thcdoublc fine ii thc P~n-Amcrkan 11ig111 ..ay.

77'

Thcrc is also mcntion of a temple, Kong ( the seat of the god, Kon?) where the treaty between the Chimús and J neas was drawn up. It might be appropriate to mention that about 25 miles up the foche River we carne across the ruins of an ancient site which had the sígníficant sounding name of Kon-Kon. The similarity of the name Ko11 in both coastal and Sierra legends seems hardly accidental. According to Pacheco, the surrender of ChanChan was said to havc becn cfíectcd by the cutting of the water supply by the enemy rather than by force of arms, This account is similar to that of Montesinos ( ms. 1642) In addition, Pacheco's two articles contain the Ilrst known references to a fortress of Chiquita Ynp from which the Chimú ruler carried on his last srruggles against the Incas. The ruins of a walled, Iortress-líke compound called Chiquitoy Viejo can be seen today along the southcrn boundary of thc nearby Chíeama Valley {see Chapter XI) and is probably the compound Pacheco mentíons. Incidentally, identíficatíon of ruined sites mentioned in early documents has so far been rare in Peruvian archacology. Perhaps of greatest significance is the one sentence in the sccond articlc ciling the existence o( a Corm of land tenure and tribute-collecting among the Chimús different from that of the Incas and apparcntly indicating a more highly developed form of land concentration among the former Unfortunatcly, Señor Pacheco does not give us a direct quotation, nor does he develop his owu statement. What new ínsights into the Iíves, government and hístory of the Chimús will the lost manuscripts of the three Dominican príests yield us if and when they are found? Undoubtedly, there is also addítional, valuable material on the Chimús and other coastal peoples hídden in the archives of Lima, as well as in the local archives of the communities, churches, haciendas and certaín notaries in the various valleys. No one has yct madc-a thorough survcy of thcse archives. The results would of course have to be interrelated with additional archaeological investigatíons, thus bringing together the two basic sources for the reconstructíon of ancient Peruvian socíety A systematic investigation of thcsc archives may also yield rich material dealing with the vírtually unknown síxteenth and seventeenth centuries in coastal Peru. It might throw direct light upon thc trausítion from Indian forms of life and administration to Spanísh forros, and, for the first time, give a correct picture of a vital ecorwmic

and cultural region of colonial Peru.

~I The Moche Valley: Regíon of Capítals ~

~~. i~ \/

V isrrrxc THE COAST 01: P.cJ\u for tho first 11¡L..._J time or study ing the map of this region, 0111:' is oftcn be" ildcrcd b) the laruc nurnber oí v Jllc·) s. most of tbem appcarínz to he v cry much alike and quite oíten possessíng exotíc, unpronouuceable namcs. Only after one becomes acquaínted in cletail with thi" Iascinatíug región does ene rcalízc that each valley has a distinct "personalíty," with íts own geographícal-hy drologícal, archaeological und cultural characteristics standing out in clcar relief. To hclp thc rcadcr grasp thc iuterrelationship of these apparently isolated Ya lle) cases, ''e shall prcscnt them in ~oups. ince the main purpose of our study wus Lo hclp rceonstmct the ancieut socíetics of thc Xorthw est Coast of Peru, nnd sincc the most cxtensív e political unit that evolved there was the Late Chimú Empile, these various vallcys ha' e been grouped according to what appear to have bceu the major zoncs of thc Ernpire. In additíon, each vnllcy or valley complex has b<'C:'IJ gi\'en a "subtitlc" in order to stress sorne important characteristic. These valley groupíngs are lisred as sr-ctious e, D, E and F of thís v olume and are organized as follows: ection C: The Center of the Chimrí Empire. This ccutcr consistcd of thc rclativ ely srnall Moche Valk). contnining the Chimú Capital of Cha11Chau. and thc larac ncighboring valley of Chicama to the north. During the period of the Empire, if not earlier, thcse vallcys wcrc connected by means of a large canal whích brought water frorn thc Chicarna Valley to the ficlds of CharrChan. Scction D: The Northern Zon<> of the Chimé. Empire. This zonc included thc larue [equetepeque Valley,

whích is separated from the Chicama b~ Iiftecn miles oí desert. Farther to the north are the small Zaña, the large Lambaj cquc. thc small Leche, und the very small Motupc Valleys. At present, the latter thrcc Iorm one irrtgation unit. Our studíes show that in ancient times this irrigation unit was connccted by complicate<l írrigat ion syxtcms with thc Zaña aud the [cquctcpequc to the south. This fivc-vallcy unil was thc largest contiguous economic area on the cntirc Coast of Peru and ernbracPcl prohnbly about one-thírd of ils cultivated area. Tl1us, il r<'J)l'f'Scntcd the most importa11t eco1101nic scction of tlw Cliimú Empi.re. Consi<lcrnblc tcnsion must haw de' elo¡wd heh' een the política) C<'nkr of ~ra\'ity of the Empin• situnted in the :_\foche-Chicama rt>gion aml the cconomic strcngth cncompasscd by this fh e-\'alley unit. During its final expansíon period thc Chimú Empirc extended still f-urther north and included the Piura. Chira and T11mhPs Vall<'ys a11d possibly part of coastal Ecuador This region. which may be characterizPd as T/1e Far Northern Extcr1sio11s of thc Chimil Empire, is touchec.l 11pon in Chapter XXIV Sectíon E: The So11ther11 Zo11e of thc Cliim1í Empil'e. South of the ~loche\ allcr kty the outhern Zon<· of tlw Chimú EmpirC', composc>d of a number of small 'allc) oases. Ruoning from north to south they arC' a~ follows: the \'ín'1. tl1e miniatnn• Clino. the Santa. tbc Ncpeil:\, th<• Casma, the tinv Culebra and the IIuarme) TheM' valkys are consíclerabÍy isolat<•d 1 ro1n onc anothcr, and wc w<·n• able to determine that in the past they wPre ne\'<-'r councctcd to one anoth<•r h> t·n11al systems. Onl) whcn we come lo thc Path ilca area forther south do" e fincl a m111tiFig. 1. honu trie projttllon of J recomtnictinn of l loat,1 el Dragón dr:l\\n b' Antonio Hodru:rnez SuySu~ Su• pp. 1-1 and 15 for a A erial photogrn;1h uf .1 "ali ol this p~ ramicl • Fig. 2 ( right) view of 1 Tu,am 1·1 Dr.1J:(or1 hefore e:-.c.l\ .1tinn. Sen ido 104 series.

¡ valley unit. 1 t might not he amiss lo cousider this Fortaleza-Pativilca-Supe Complex, which in its Early and Middle Period was culturally part of the Central Coast, as thc southern anchor oí tho Chimú Empirc during the Jatter stage of its existence.

Section F Tlie Southern Extensions of tlie ChimlÍ Empire. Thc rcports of sevcral of thc Spanish Chroníclers índicate that thc Chírnús had extended their power by mcans of tcmporary conquests evcn Iurther south along the Central Coast. These extensions inolude the Huaura, the Chaucay, the Chillón-Bimac Coruplex (in which thc prcscnt city of Lima is situatcd ), and thc ncíghboring smull but important Lurín Vallcy Therc is even sorne evidcnce indicating that the Chirnús had made excursions ínto the South Central Coast as far as thc Cañete Vallcy and possihly as far as thc Nazca ( scc Chaprcr XVLC)

conquests of other valleys could have taken place. Smaller valleys like the Vírli, for instance, may have been able to achievP an earlicr political nnity, hut woulcl 110t have liad the strength to conqner the larger neighboring vallcys. On the otl1er hau<l, wrger vallcys, likc thc Chicama and, evcn more so, the Lambayeque, may lwve been too l.arge to have bccome more thnn looso política! feclerations. Pcrhapsl Environmental foctors also uncloubteclly h<'lp to explai11 thc polilical prcdominancc of thc ancient ~,loche Valley To the south stretchecl the long protcctiv1~ dest·rt, bcyond whích lay thc small, politically wcak Virú and the insignincant Chao Valley On thP other lia11d, to Lhc north, bcyond thc narrow desert, lay the large Chicama VallPy B11t as a rPs11lt of its very size, the latl<.:r may havc consistcd of a ntimber of political units that wcrc nl l)('st only loosPly Í<'clnated. Eac:l1 of thcsc unils could

LI a vi 11g prcscuted th is genera 1 classification of vallcys to thc Chímú Empirc, we can now turn to a description of sorne of our nctivitics 111 the Moche in rclationship

Valley

ince

archacological

Dr.

Schaedel

monogrnph

prcparing

a dctailcd

lived und worked for almost three years, we will restrict ourselvcs to a baro outline of our activitics ihcrc, The Moche Vallcy, considercd rclativcly small, at prosent has a cultivutcd arca of sorne twcnty-Ilvc thousnnd acres, On the basis of our survcy of thc ruins of ancíeut canal systerns, we- huve teututively concluded that this areu 111ay huve had nlmost twice as rnany acres under cultivution in uncient times. As a rcsult, the ancicnt toche Vnllcy might be classifled as having been almost med i11 m-sizod. l n contrast, thc 1wigli hori11g CJ1ka111a Valley to the north had, Iormerly, a máximum cultivated arr-a possihly triple that of rhe [ochc. Why did this small to medíum-sízed vloche Vallev, und uot the larger and riche-r Chicarna Valley, bccome thc political-rnilitary center of the Chímú Empire? Thís question caunot be adequately uuswered on thc basis of our prcscnt knowlcdge. Howcvcr, sorne suggestíons may be thrown out that may help to "Fenc« in" the prohlem. Pcrhaps il was thc fcr,;cl of devclopmcnt of the productive forces reachecl by the coastal societies of a11cient Pl'l'll that madc a small to medirnn-sized valley, with a srnall lo rnecliurn amount of water resonrccs, thc 11t0st adva11tagco11s in size for dcveloping the greatest amount of intraü(ll/ey eco11omic, social a11d political Cfmtrali;wtion. And such a centralization of the greater part of the valley would have becn ncccssary beforc rclativcly permanent

Fig. 3 ( ldt a11d right) Wooc11•11 ido], ío11nd by Dr Schardrl whcn hr wn~ cxi.;arnti11g lluuca ('\ Dmg6n. f'or dntails ser thc Spring ]!)51 iss11c of Ardwc11logy • Fig. 4 (:1bow) lkrthn Hojas, studcnt of archaeolog)' al thc Unhl.'r~ily oí Trujillo, poi11ts to Lhf' relit·l d(•t·m·atíons on onC' of thc outsidc wulls uf J luttt•r1 el Drag611. Srlwedel • Fig. 5 ( bdow) Studcnts 1111d workrnl·n oí the Trnjillo lnslit11t<' denring the wnlls oF llunca d Dragó11. Tite jl.'cp frcquc11LI> l1St'd by tlw nuthor can be sccn herc in its hcst co11ditio11. Sdwcdd.

about this vnllcy, in which he•

have been absorbed by the \loche tl1rough a combination of strong externa! military prcssme and shrewd diplomatic manc11,·crs. This wo11ld have 111fül<' thc Chicama Vallcy a kind of "host" that economically fed the smallcr lrnt hett<·r organizc•d t\lochP \'alley Thc combining of thc two the11 prochrced the bnsis for a powerfol economicpolitical u11it. Calancha refers to thc marriagc o( Chacina, thc "rulcr" of Chicama, with thc Grand Chimú at ChanChan, thus apparently symbolizing s11cl1 a lmio11. Once such a rclationship had heen established, the l\focheChicama 11nit would hPconw a key ecouornic, polilical, and military area, ready for further expansion. Otlwr l'nvironmental factors that may havc aidcd the earl)' political growth of the l\'[oche Valley were undo11 bterlly the specific gpographie naturc and social [onns of the nearby Sierra rcgíon and their interrt>lationships with those of tf1e Coas l. But our inf ormation about this prob-

lcm is now too meager mcntion it herc.

to permit us to do more than

Díd the Moche contain capitals during previous periods? ccording to thc archaeological studies of Ilafael Larco Hoyle, there may have been a Mochica "Empirc" cousistiug of six vallcys · thc Chícama, Moche, Virú, Chao, anta and Nepeña, Mochica cerarnics have also heen Iouud in thc [cquctcpcquc aud as apparent íntrusions in the Larnbayeque. But the díscovcry in a widespreud arca of thc samc ccramic and possibly architectural styles <loes not necessarily imply a correspondingly unified poli/ ical orgauization, It is possiblc, howcvcr, that a mature theocracy interrelated in various ways with a strong group of rising secular chiefs, 011e or thc other in control, could hace estoblished such a rather unique "E111,,ire'' Since the Huaca del Sol. thc largcst \lochica pyramid, lies in the Moche Valley, could not this huaco and its surrounding structures have becn thc capital?

a relíable Inca garrison. The Moche thus stíll 1 emaincd the "capital" of the Chimús. But the "empíre" hud lost most of its terrítory aud its rulers mosl of their power Whcn the Spauinrds arrlved they found a Chimú chief still Ji, i11g with sorne of hís people in ChanChan, undoubtedly drearning of the great power once wielcled by his ancestors, WJ1y <lid the Spaniards, shortly alter arriving in Peru, establísh Trujillo. situated as ít was next to the ancient capital of ChanChan, as Lhcir "capital" o( thc orth? Were any of the factors that led to the huilding of ChauCbau by lb.e Ch.imús in tJ1c ~loche \'alley still pre~ent? Furthermore, did the Spaniards fcel that it would be advisable to establish tlieir northcrn "capital" ncxt lo that of the largest coastal pre-Inca capital, and thus through puppet Chimt't rulers maiutai11 bC'tlcr co11trol OYer the people? The Spaniards, wbcu thcy Grst arrh ed, after all knew little of the relati' e slrc11gth and rcsislancc power of the coastal peoples. Bcsidcs, thc paniards soon found out that the ancient "capital" of Lhc Chimús and its surroundings still contaiocd many buried h·easures that had Pscaped the ravagcs of the Inca~.

Trujillo's central locatio11 near the potential ports of Huanchaco, Guañape and ~lalabrigo rnay havc hclpcd in the decision. SalavcITy, the 111odern port of Trnjillo, then known as La Garita, was used onl) sporndically in colonial limes. In addiliou, in the upper parts of thc Moche Valky cutting d.irectly into the Sierras, the Spaniarcls found important dcposits of rnctals. Thest' tlwy llegan to mine and scnd via Trujillo and its nearby ports to be loaded on thcir ships bound for Spai11. :\11 of thest' factors collectively must have played some role in making Trujillo the northern "capital." Could "'e but kwe a record of the session at which the colonial authorities decided on tJ1c site of Trujillo! Let us now turn to some of thc archacological aspects of the ~loche Valle} Thc ancicnl city of Cha11Chan gives this valley its unique di~tinction ( sce photographs in Chapter \'Ill) This cit), thc largcst of Iudiau lunerica with a forrnn population of pos ibl}' about .6fty thousand -. consisted of eleven hugc li\'ing c:ompouu<ls. each one snrronndecl hy adobe wall about twenty to twcntyfive feet high. Most of th<' walls are still stan<li11g

Fíg. 7 (below, riglil). A wnllcd road Lhal lends from thr northem outside wall of Ch:mChnn to <mr of thr main cnnals in Lhe Moche Valley is shown in this obliquc acríal photograph. The c:rnal can be seen in the hackground. Thc two p:m:illrl lín('s cuttíng o.cross the road are the railroad and the Pan Amcrícnn llighwuy Ko~ok.

So Uttlc is known of the hcctic scqucuce of highland and coastal influenccs that characterízed thc subsequent ~lidd1e Pcriod that it is Irankly impossiblc to statc whether the Moche Valley continued Ior sorne part of th.is period as a capital. \Vas perhaps ancicnt Calinclo ( Fíg. 11 ), in the míddle part of the valley, the capital during this period? Later on, according to thc t\nonymous Trujillano, Taycanamo, the legcndary Iounder of the Chimú dyuasty, hegan his reign hy conquering a srnall portien of the valley, 1Jis dcscendants succeeded in uniting all of the valley and then comrnenced a series of conquests of neíghboring valleys, Those were governed by the Chímú rulers frorn thc rapidly growirrg city of ChanChan. After the dcfeat of the Chimús by the Incas, the latter, as was customary, left thc ruling Chimús "in powcr," probably under thc dircction of an Inca "Cauleitct" and

Fig. 6 ( abovc) Ancícnt wullc<l roa<l, on thc p0111¡Ja north uf ChanChan, Jeadi11g from thc ~luche Vallcy to thc Chícamn. Ih wiclth of O\<•r W\l'nly fe!'l L~ unusual for an ancient road. J:...osok.

Fíg. 8. A sectiou uf ll 1t· lurgc cunul that once connected thc Chicama and vlochc \'alk)' uud uuusfonued the desolare, barren landscape into onc CO\ crcd with ).(H'cll H'~dalio11. Kosok • Fíg. 9 (lcft margiu ) Wakr jugs showing' (top) a "kan-to" l) pe uf house on a circular step p) rami<l ( ,1 very rare form), { ceutcr ) a steeproofed hou-,e \\ íth fro~~ on tht• qablc, aud (bottom) a similar type of house un .1 rectangular 'lt•p P) ramid, Baessler

and make a drarnatic impression upon botb traveler and scientist, Each compouud coutains the rcmains of many rooms usually grouped nround a court, long and labyrinthine corridors, uted structures with rooms and passugeways thut uppear to be palaces, and usually one small Rat pyramid with adjoíning plaza. It appcars possible that each of thcse compounds was inhabited by one of the clans or tribes that made up the ruling groups of tho Chimú Empíre. A nurnber of large pyramíds are locatcd lJ/1/sitle tlu- walled compouuds, Indicatíng the secular, urban natura of the compounds and the weakened power

<''"'

of thc priesthood. Ilowever, the Empírc was destroy cd by the Incas sorne sixty to seventy ycars bcforc the Spauíards carne, and the Spanish rccords, thus far díscov ered, tell us little about thcsc pcople und thvir capital! But oven if new rccords should be discovered (seo Chapter VIII), large scale nrchneological exca vatio ns would ucvcrthcless unearth a wcalth nf ruutcrials, expréssivc of the social and cultural lif<' of this ncrvc center of the Chímú Empire, that rlocumeuts by thernselvcs could never yícld. Xlorcover, it must be rernembcrcd that while documents are not always rcliablc, aud traditions of tbc past are even less dcpendable, the cxistcnce of many physícal structures and ímplemenrs found by archaeologícal techníques can ne' cr be deuicd. ll i only our interpretation of the social mcaníng of archaeological discov críes that may be íncorrect, \Ye revisitcd ChanChan se\ eral Limes. Our main íntercst lay in sceíng how the tremcndous water deuiand o( this large city relaterl to the irrigation system of the wholc Yallcy This systen1 wc had }argel}' worke<l out aod mappcd in 19-JO--U, partly with thc aid of ~fr Yerne Graut. In 1948--19 wc made, on thc basis of the a<>rial photographs ancl add itional fieltl survcys, sorne modifications ou our rnap. \VC' wanderc<l thrnugh the forlorn remains of this once grcat mc>tropolis to scc if we could co1111ccl tbc ca11als l hal had once brought water i11to the city with the rcmains of thc canals within lhc city .Hut our attc111pls e11decl in complete foilure. For we could fi11cl no canals within thc city, with tlw exception of a few small 111o<lcr11 oncs! As we wandcred around, wc pondered the reason. The only C\planatio11 we could venture lay in tlic facl thal ccnlmies of destruction hadcompl<>tcly filled tlw canals inside thc city with clebris. ArchaeoJogical c~ca' ation!> should show the presence of such interna! canals. In this rcspect. ChauChao contrasts sl1arply wilh lhc largc. archaeolo{tically une~'Plored, urban center of \purlé in the northcm \fotupe Vallcy, where thc canal srst(·m in most of its detaiJs is dearl)' visihle both from the air and the ground (see frontispiece) J ust to the east of the Pan American Highwa> and north o~ ChanChan is lhc medium-sized Huaca el Drag6n, which Dr chneclel and his assistants were in thc proccss of CM:avali11g. Thc last time we were tberc, a continuous adobe friC'l.C more than 500 f<'et long hacl bcen clcarC'd. Thc <lcsign gm·e us the jmprcssion that jt was associatt>d with calcndricnl rf'cords, ancl seemed to us anothL'r cxamplc of thc many calendrical rcmains that so far have bc>en overlooked by bistorians and archaeologists. Fil{. JO. Au iuleresliug region. north<"a~t oí Cerro Cahr.1> ( (..;oah 11 ill), "ll('re a major road. a major W:\ll anrl a major <'anal ~ ul ,1c;ros., one anothcr. en;ido 104 :5!15

Since 011r last \ isit, the íutcrioi of the huaca has h<.•P11 uted h) Dr chaedel and Señor Bodríguez Su) Su) J\'. a result. it lx-came clear that thís huaca had not uctually bccn constructed as a solid adobe pyrarnid l111t <ls a temple <.·onlaining a xe-ries of rooms. But during the cen turk-s lhl' adobe walls had crumbled and filkcl tho rooms, crcating a ruin which appeared to be an adobe mound (Fig'i. J to 5) Sorne Iifteen woodcn ídols, tog<>tlte1 witl: asvociated matcrials, werc found i11 thc coursc oí C\ca' utiou. These Hnds, aloug with other cvídence, partic11lml> the typc and style of Iriezes. led Dr Schaedel to date this site as belongíng to the :\fiddle Period. i e . thc pcríod shortly beforc the building of Chan han.

C\t'<l\

Jt should be pointed out hcre that 011 thc wall of a small mound in thc Chotuna group in thc Lamba) eque Yalll·) Further north, we Ionnd a small portien of a frie:t.e similar, in man> ways, to that of H uaca

el Dragón ( see

abo Ilorkhetmer, ]9+1·42) This may well indicate cultural interrolatíonshíps that must hav e lx-en stronu duríuu tlw Middle Period, Bnt more evcuvation in this mound, as well as in sorne similar mounds, must be carríed out hr-fore any relatíonships can he dcflnítely estnblishcd. Outside of ChanChan wo locntod sorne twenty-five archaeological sites in the Mochc \'alky, most of thcm pyramíds and population ccnters, vlany siles listed on OL1r maps refer to more than 011<' pynunicl at euc-h site, In sorne valleys there are clusters with ns mnny as twentyf¡, e pyramids íu thcml Ali ol thr- pyramids are Ilut-topped, for they were probably used by thc priests for carryiug on religious cerr-rnonies. A fc•w of thern contain vcstiges of rooms on thc top platform, indicatiug that they were probubly inhahited h> the priests or by secular or semi-secular rulers duriua the long periods of

.fig. 11 ( al>oH·) \ parl ol tlw l.ug<' ;-,fidd]e l'eriod ruin of Calrndo 11c>lk·<l iu <I <¡t1d)l(u/a at the loot ol tlw hilk Xot<' the largc rt•t·tan?'1.1l..ir 'lrudu1t• "1th a Il' mmid or pakt<-e at 01w t•nd. appartnll) thc fonnt•r hab1tutm11 uf a rult>r. \luch of the Tl''>t ol tht• ruin ton,i\b of hunclrnb uf 'mall ~touc-" alle<l roonb ( "'' lt>"\l) Sf1ip/l<'<'·Í<ll111so11 • Fig. 12 ( kft) .-\ntuufo Ro<lngue.t º' '>11) 'ittin~ 011 .1 'tone on whith ha!> b<'en can ed lhe outlmc; of u l.1c{'. Tlw ,1ci111• ;, loe all d 1:.1,l of Simbal near Chachic on tht. nortlll'ru haul. of Rto Cha<'chita. 1'o.wik • Fig. 13 ( bdo\\) An dahoratl' l) P<' uf \\Ult 1 jug 'howing a coa~tal hons!' wilh pitchc<l roof ( 111cl1c·ati11!-( Siu-rn otigin?) and high gable. ThP fignr<' portr.1)' <lll arrogaul rnll't \Call-<l lit c1oss-leggecl ra~hion. Rnr.s~lr.r

transition towards a secular state. Flat-topped P) rarnids w ith ramps or tcps havc becn found iu mauj parts of the w orld. .\s far as we know , such pyramids werc built prirnari ly for oeremonial purposes and phl}<'d a role ~imilar lo thal o( churchcs in Christian com1r111nitic'I. it11atccl, likc thcs<', on onc sidc of a central squarc \\ ith ~ccular sh·uctures opposite, P}Tamids, like churclws, wer<• tlw e<'11ters o/ tll<' lici11g. However, when prit•sts and chicf~ cli<'cl they ob\'iously desired lo be buric<l i11 or bc~ide tlie hol) pyrnmi<l just as in Europc rulers and bishop-; desired lo be bmiecl in or ncx.t to thc holy church or cathl·dral. Li1..cwisc, thc rest of the pcopk wanted lo be b11ried in thc hallowccl gro1md around or ncar thc pyramid, just as in our own civilization many persons dcsired to be buriecl in the graveyard

.tdjoining the ~ illuue

church. Thuv, near the centcrs oí the living are olu-u thc ceuters of the dead! But vuch ce-rernonial p~ rnmids must not he confused with tribal or rO) a 1 burial mounds or pyrarnids w hosc ¡irimary ¡n11 J>OH

was the hononns; o/ tite dcad ( sec p. 12) Hut why wcrt; L)) rumids buílt IJy llH' príesthood at ull? \\'e• cannot, so far. reconstruct much ol the social psychol ogy of the past. Hut onc thing stands out. Py rarnids are locatcd on flat coustal plains, rarcly are they found in mountainous region!I. 1 t seerns quite likcly that umonu 1110t111t:1i11 peopl« t he priest carricd on services from a smull hillock. Whc11 these people n10' cd to the plníus, artificial

inouuds wt-rr- huilt for carryinu

011

rhese sr-rvices.

r 11 uddition, when conducting h i-; services Irom an

uccustomcd mound, tht• priest. b) lllt'<llll> of his elevateel position ubove the worshippers. emphasized bis social, c11l/111al and. latcr 011, nolitlcal superioriu] oi;er thc co111111n11 neop!«. For, archiíecturally, a rnound or pyramíd is the caxicst and most pri111ili' e way tu achicvc hciglit. Whilc it is true thut in Peru the growth of pyramíd building appears to come with the !!rowth ol prlestly power. at a later tíme pyrarnids mil} also hav e served

Fi¡.{. 1 G. \'C'rtil'al lll'I ial plootogrnpl1 of 1 lwtl':t de los Chino~. Th< p~ rn miel. "l iid1 i, 11mtk of slone u11d l':tl tlt, apparcntly rt'C't'ÍI Nl ih 11;111u: in llil· 11i11l'lt•t•11tl1 Cl'11tury fw111 a 1H'arhy settl<-m<'nl <H liunal 'itt· of Clmtl''l' t·ontract lal)(lrer~. !)('l' l~il('. l .J and 15. 'itrricio J04:50i • F1~. 17 hdow) !'>t·1ior J<N' l<~ulo,l!io Garrido lornwr editor of l11d11\trla. tlw leading '\orth Coa't cbil~. tlh dir<·dor of the Ard1;wologk,tl \lu~eum of lh< t nht·r,it) of Tmjillo 13< 'idt· him is a11 old /111a1111cro from ~lodw "ho \\orked for L'hl1 in 18!HJ "h<·n the fir~l l'\t':tl .tt1om of ~lochit,1 ruin, werr m.1dr al tliP 11 uaca de la Luna. Thb pyramid can lw M'<'t1 in t lw hac-kgrnund ltl l11t• loot of the hill. Sd111r•df'l.

"º"

Fig. 14 ( .ih\l\ l) Pl,l\tt-r ni Pari-, modc 1 ni 1 tunea de lo~ \111110' und surrouudina structure-; made h} John Storc], on the b'1'i' 11í a ground plan drawn b) Sd1;11·rld and Rodnguw The vtcep rump- ll·admq from leve] 10 lt•H•I \\l•n• probably cumpoved of 'tone >lt'P': the present 1-<111dition of the r11i11 mal-es ib rt'l~11"lrndio11 dofficult. t'l' Fii.{' 15 .md Hi. Kosnk, • Fig. 13 ( bdo" ) Crouwl v u-w lru111 ''" ad1a<:l'nt hill nf the ~lrnw aucl 1•at1lo Huaca d .. ]11, Ch1110,, 'howing ih pn-wut dilapidatPd l'o11ditiru1. chuedel . Sl'I' .11"' F't!!'.' U und 1 R.

secular rulcrs,

For once an archltcct urol [orm has bcen

erra/et/ il 111ay then he uscd [or other than tts original purposes.

In Peru 1110st pyrarnids as well as other strnctm1•s were huilt of 1.unbakcd mud brick:. (adobe) On tlw Crnlral Coast 'er~ lar~c· r(•ctan!!uhu bloc\..., of ~unbal..(•d mud.

eral fot't wirlr- ami Iout; ( adobánes¡ werc oftcn uscd instead ol adobes. Iu man) oí the constructious rough stones werc sr-r in mud. A~ a rcsult oí occasioual rains sorne oí thc mud has washed off the adobe pyramids. Th11s, most pyrarnids have lost thc sharp contours thcy rnust huvc possesscd originally On tho h11g<' plaiu north oí thc cíty of ChanChan there are no pyrarnids C'XC('pt thc small Huaca el Draµ/111 uud th« cornpunion l luuca Tacayunmo just across thc Pm1 vmcrican J lighway In thís plaín, \\')H'l'C' W(' spent time lraC'ing canals und roads, wc lound thrcc ancicut roadx that 1Nl toward the Chicama Valley The most inu-rcsting of thesc> roads parullclcd thc sea se' eral miles inlnnd und sccmed to hav e come Irorn Chn11Chnn. lt wux about twcnty-Four yarcls widr- and had walls oí stone \\ hich hud oriuinully becn ubout si Icet high. Thesc d uucnsionx arc> 11rms11a11 y la rg<' ami i nd icat e thut it must have 1><'('11 espcciully important. The wnlls ~udcknl~ ondod in thr- dPsnt in two wr-ll-huilt pillur-likc construc tions ol stoue that muy hav e Iorrncd. ni onc tirnr-, thrportals thnt co11trnll<'cl th« cntry lrorn thc north ínto the Moche Vallcy and ChmrChan. Beyond thcsc posts, Iuiut traeos of tll!' cuntinuution of thc rond. but with much lowcr walls, could be clctccted i11 thc windswcpt clcsert to the north. Later, Dr Schucdcl made n trip in his jeep conflrmlng thcse traces. But even thc traces disappeurcd as lw upproaehed tlu- Clika11n1 Valle> ( Fíg, o) On« of tho other roads, which parallclcd thc 01H' nH·11tioncd abovc, was cousidcrubly smallcr and was perhapof unothcr construction period, The third road ( Fig. 10). much Iurther inlnnd. was probubly purt of thc north-south trunk hiahwuy thnt passed the Huaca del ol. A Fourth "rond" rr-maint-d a mystcry lo us. Flanked by Sl'\

Fig. 18 ( nhov e )

1 h1.1c:i d<'I Sol, pr<'sumahly lh<' l.~rgest pyrrimirl in P1•ru. Kosok • Fig. 19 ( low<'r l1•t1} V<'rtk:il nPríal photograph ol ali ¡, h.fl oí lluaeu del Sol. A largo rnrl "' llw origi11al h11(1('(1 W(l'o wash<•d (IW¡\) h1 lhe :1C'lion of llw \lcl('h(' niw•r. Tlw l'011rsr o~ 1lw rivcr \l':l' slightly Jlt('rl'll in Spaubh li11u:s by u locul la11dow11er. who l1uped l'H'11hmlly to wush awa~ lhl· wholc pyru111i<l i11 or<lcr lo íi11d lhl· trea~11n:~ thrtt w<·n· n1111ort•d lo hl' lmricd "ilhi11 il. Co111parc 11 ilh fi¡,¡. 20. For a c:lctm•r vicw lu111 lhc pholo¡,¡ruph up<,idl.' dow11. S¡¡rr.;ida 101;:208 • Fig. :.!O ( low<'r ri¡(hl) Cround plan and sidc ell'\(1lion~ of llual'a del ul druw11 by 13ishop ~lartíncz de ornpanon • Fig. 21 (pre1 io11~ page, ct'11l('r colt11m1) ,\ pkcc of dolh a11d ,L cl:ly c11p. bolh in Tialnrnnacoid slylc, found in tlw l luaca dd Sol. Uhli:. ll1ul

:r..uJ.J,S~Y-.

\Ve also in\'eStigated the ancient canal S) stem on the narrower southern side of the valley By mea1111 of our acrial photographs we werc ablc to trace on the ground the large old main canal. which had once lcd thc waters tlirough a gap in thc bilis Lo thc whole rcgion south of the Huaca del Sol. \Ve also found many pnrts of a smaller canal "intcrtwined" with the main canal ancl apparently dating from a differP11t Parlicr? pcriod. The misnamed Huat:a del Sol, thc largest pyramid of ancieot Pcru, togcther with the ncarby Huaca ele la Luna, was possibly the centcr of thc anciC'nt }.[odúca ceremonial

high walls, it led Irom ChanChan Ior n distauce of only a Iew miles in a straight line to thc ncarby major

Moro Canal. Was this a ceremonial road to the sacred waters of the main canal? Was its astronomical alígnrnent a sacred one? Did it also carry water to thc city? Perhaps it fulfilled all rhree of thcse Iunctíons ( Fig. 7) 1 n checking the ancíent canals that had run through the hugc plaiu north of ChauChau, we couccntratcd on a canal that must once havo had not only cconorníc but also political significaoce. It was a large canal which had its intake quite a dístance up the neighboring Chicama Valley and which brought water to the 6clds ncar ChanChan. If our ficld obscn ations are correct, it also connected with the Moro Canal, the largest ancl liighest acequia madre ( mother canal) on the northern side of the Xloche Valley Did this canal indicate a control of the Chícama Valley by thc xtoche, or vice versa? Tf it already existed in Early Chirnú times, Its control may have been in the hands of the Cbicama rulers. During the \ Iiddle Period, cither ol the two vulleys could have controlled the canal. During the Late Chimú era. when, as we know, ChanChan dominated both the vallcys, this long canal must ha' e bcen under the control of the Chirnú rulcrs in thc \loche Valley Such interoalleij canals, of which wc wcrc to Ilnd a number, always índicate closc economíc relationships, B11t thei] cannot by thcmsclces gioc us a dcfinitc answer to the political relationslnps exlsting in the post, Since 110 aerial photographs of the arca through which the Moche-Chícarna canal ran were avaílable, we had to follow it 011 the ground i11 orclcr to map it. Thc terrain was too rough for the jeep and no horses were procurable at the time we were there, so wc traccd thc canal on foot. It took two days to traverse this barren, lonesome and forbidding región which containcd not thc slightest sign of lífe. And here, less than fh e hundred years ago. a lush vegetation liad flourishcdl During our walk alongside or inside the canal which at times completely disappeared we searched for potsherds that might help date thc canal. \\'e lound very few. and they wcre generall)' crude ware from which no satisfactory cultural period affiliations could be established ( Fig. 8) Whilc stuclying our acrial photographs at the Servicio, "e wcrc surprisctl to fi11tl lhc n.:mains of a ,·cry cxtcnsiv(' setllcmcnt thal strnddlcd sevcral important canals ncar Lhc "nct:k" of the ~loche. Thcsc ruins wcrc la ter stuclied in grcat dctail by Dr Schaedel and his assistants. Calindo, as thc scttk1ncul is callcd, is an cxcccdingly fasci-

F1g. 22 ( lt:ft margi11) Late Chimú metal , ase. Muelle • Fig. 23 (top) cñor C,1rrid11 ancl lriencl~ at a ~loche \illage fiesta. Sdwcdcl • F'ig. 2-1 ( nbo' (', ldt) A l111:al 111u~ic: group in ~loche prcparin~ for a r;1<lio hro,1dc.l\l. Scht1Nltf • Fig. 2:> ( ahm e, right) Señor Gttrrido dancing at thc ~loche ''illage fil·sta. Sclwcdel.

nating ruin. E\tending for se\•eral miles, it is intcrsccted by many roads ancl canals aod is bounded by high perimeter walls and hundreds of roorns and housc-foundations pacl-('d now in staggered form against the steep hillsid<", 11ow filliug tlw plaiu of a slopiug quebrada. Not much cvidence of desecration is to be found. Thus, it wo11lcl serin to lw a site wLich, if eompktcly c:-.cavalcd, would revea! much data about thc social organization ancl daily lifo of a typical North Coast tow11 of thc ~lidcllc Period of perhaps 1000 A.D. or earlier (Fi~. 11)

cult in this and neighboring "alleys (Figs. 18 to 21) On this small southem side, and almost al thc f oot o( thc Huaca del Sol, lies the old Indian yilJage of Moche. Tn 194.5, the American anthropologist, John Phillip Gillin, pu bl ished an interesting study of tbis villa ge and succ<'ssFu lly n•corclPd somi> of its ancient traditions. We also visited the small Huaca Pelada, sit11nted hetwrc·n Trujillo and the sea, wbich was just in the process of bcing excavatcd by Señor Julian Castro, 01w of Dr Schncdcfs studcnts. He had found, among other things,

a carved

box of balsa

wood

and some llama burials,

Huaqueros have- often found sucb burials along the Coast, índlcatíug the wíde use of thc llama in this región, cithcr for ccrcmou ial purposes, food for the upper class, transportatíon of goods between Coast and Sierras, or Ior all thrcc purposes. One of the most importanl of our field tríps was to thc Poroto arca approximately twenty miles up the xíoohe Valley Therc we located an involved systcrn of ancicnt canals running at different levels aloog the sides of the hills. On another tríp, we disoovered the main canal which wc traccd as far as Shirán, several miles Farther up the valley As a result of a trip on the other side of the Moche Ri' er, we located other ancient canals. These trips cnabled us to determine that formerly a kind of irrigate<I "pockct" had existed here which was separated by a narrowing of thc vallcy from the lower coastal part of the Moche Valley At the same time it was separated by a long narrow chasrn from thc Sierra typc of cultívatcd rcgíons [urther up the valley In 1911 we had díscovered thc existencc of similar pockr-ts in thc epeña Valley at foro, in the Zaña at Oyotún and in thc Lambaycquc at Chongoyapc. Al prescnt thcre are still cultivated areas in these pockets but, as at Poroto, they are much srnaller than they had been in ancient times. The Poroto pocket in thc Moche is thc smaJlcst of thc four mentioned. Each of the other three is still large cnough to maintain an economic and social cxistencc

sorncwhat distinct from that of the main part of the valley In fact. each has its own administrative unit anti irrigatíon official aud coutains a town of at Ieast several thousand inha bitants in whích the life of the pocket is ccntercd. In ancient times. when the area of each pocket was larp;er, and when transportatíon to the maín part of the vallcy was not by bus or car, the economic, politícal and cultural independence of each pocket must havc bccn considcrably greater than it is today Archaeologically, thcsc pockets should be intcrcsting to explore. They were undoubtedly occnpied when in thc carly past thc Iirst scttlers moved down from the mountains. But it is possible that their full developrnent may ha, e takcn place in thosc pcriods of the Peruvian Indian cultures when strong population pressnres on the Coast reacted upon these pockets and forccd thc fullest utilizatíon of ali possible lands here. But no one has yet tackled this problern. \Ve were also concerned with sorne settlements aud ruins aloug the sea. On several occasions we visited the old Indian fishiog town of Huanchaco, situated in a CO\'C to the 11orthwcst of ChanChan. Such fishing villages were established some five thousand years ago .in the covcs which liue the dcscrt Coast of Peru and Chile. Sorne of them exist till this day Thus they represent the longcsl consecutively settled sites in coastal Pcru and Chile! As the original agricultura} settlements expanded in si:r.e and n11mher, the role of fishing and fishing communities must also have grown steadily And no wonder!

Fish was the major source of aninwl proteins for t1ic coastal population in ancient times. True, sorne llamas may llave bccn slaughtered now and then, and sorne huntüig done in the middle aud uppcr reachcs of the coastal valleys, but the amount of meat thus procmcd was so small that at best it sufficed ouly for thc chicfs, priests and high ollicials. The great mass of people had a basic d iet of corn ( starch and minerals) and beans (simple ¡;egf'ta/Jle proteins) Thus, for the more complex animal proteins tl1ey had to depend 11pon fish. The cold Humboldt current as it passes along thc Peruvian shore has always beeu tccming with enormous <1ua11titics of fish, more thao enough to feed the whole coastal agricultura! population. The sea has thus been the ~rcat food !arder 1t is therefore not snrprising to lcarn from Calancha that the sea hacl heen one of thc important gocls of the ancieuts. For the same reason. thc fislt motif was used extensively in pottery ancl textilc dcsi~ns. How was tbe fishing done? Undoubtedly, as it still is clone in Huanchaco and other coastal communities by mea11s of caballitos ( little horses) These are Aimsy \'CSsels made by tying together hundles of rccds which grow i11 11earby rnarshes ( Figs. 26 and 27) They are similar to those seen today on distant Lakc Titicaca on the Peruvian-Bolivian highlancl border They are manned b} one or two pcrsons and venture at most only a ÍC\V miles off the coast. But this is sufficient, for the .6sh-laden H11ntboldt current hugs the coastline on its northward drive. Drawi11gs on l1uacos from early Mochica times show

Fig. 2G ( lcft) Thesfl boats for off-shorc fishing, gencm lly collcd caballitos (lillle horses). are made of severa} bandles of totora reeds liecl logNJ1er. They date from }llochica times, ~ome lwo thouf>and )car' ago, if nol earlier. The scene is at llnanchaco, an ancient fislúng scttlemenl north of ChanChan. Whcu not in $e, the cabollilos are placed 011 cud lo dry Kosok • Fig. 27 ( cenler) Boy riding a caballito 11t·ur llua11d1aco. Kosok • Fig. 28 (right) Fi~hcnncu from lluanchaco. Scll(Jcdel • F1g. 29 (right margin) Priest sacrificing victim. Bacssler

'1111ila1

hoah iudicatiuu thcir aucicut oriuin.

111

lact vome

ol thom are shown '' ith elaborare "royal .. trappinus indrcal i11g thal thn wcrc pi obably tho hoats ol both the rulers nud thr- pooplr- (see Chapter X\'ITl, Fig. 10) Bul clic! uot thc uncicnts have larger boats? As far as wc know, tlw~ did not. The principal trce that grows ulunu th« Coast is the small. gnarled algarroba. which is 1111~11it('d [ur hout building; Coul<l thcy ha. e uscd the lar!.((' halsu ralts so cornmou in the Cuay a<111il Ba) n·gíon o! l~t:uador. copicd uud popularizcd b) thc modci n Ko11 l iki evpcditíon? True, the various Chimú rulers ma) h¡l\ t .icquircd sorne as curios or as booty , but thcrc is 110 indi

'º

cntion far that the) play ed an) economic role 111 tlu lif e· ol the people. Thiv may ser-m odd. But. 011 in' estiuation. il bccouu« dl'lll that the nncicnts <lid not necd such ralts for u<>hin\! purposcv, their caballitos suffíced. For political and milit.11 \ p111 poses. the laraer balsa rafts w ould. likew ise, prohabl) have prov ed of little help. The Pacific, unlike tlH' Cna) aquil Basin, is uol an inland sea and thereíore did not pro' ide "short cuts" whcre balsas could he uscd lo

achanta ge by tradcrs or conquerors. Since in Peru the sea nwrl'I) Iollow s the coastal plain. there "as no advantngt• in sending troops. supplics.

or booty b) sea.

Indeed,

ronds parnllcling the sea ancl often alongside it mude pos~il>I(•

111or<'

rupid trunsportation

of materials and

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thue wcn- a more etficient means of kceping control tlie componcnt vulle) s of coastal "cmpires."

º' er

\\'ith thc comíng of the Spaniards, thc sen becan to pluy a11 ('11lird~ 11e'' political-military role. For b) con-

trol of the sea From tcithout, thc inv aders easily brouuht euch coastal vulley

under control b) [andina troops ami pro' biom fi om Spain at thc numerous harbo1s "hich dot tht' coa'it ol Pcrn. ome of thcse troops in turn were march<'d up 1nto the ierras to help maintain the initi.il t·omJU(' t of tht· Incas b) the paniards. As il result. tht "d" '\ 11<•." i.1• .• tlw long north-south Sirrra road that had hl'l'll tlw political-111ilil•lr) bacl..boue oi thc Inca EmpÍH', lwg.\n to J¡\JJ iuto disuse. ln tum. the sea hecame the '\q•l l 11<.a road ... b~ mea ns of which panish Pº" er c:o11ld h< rnai11t.1iiwd and lh<' highly-pri7ed loot of P1•rn )>('111 lo lht· "111otlw1" cou1itr) Tbus, for the firsl ti11H:', llw M'a lwc:anw the prime facto1 in thc political ancl milil,n) (Olllrol of Pl'ru!

l"i)!. '10 J, ft lll;llgin Lall' Clii111\1 1nt:'l:1l lt11;11) l1·adi11)! i11t11 tlw Sit•1 r:" l" S. A111111

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A Tríp to Cachícadán ín the Síerras

ONE

UAY IN TRUJILLO, we learned that the Institute jeep was taking Captain Arboleda, a gcographer and a Former Peruvian Army officer, up into the Sierras for sorne work. Señor Carrido, Michacl and I wcre invíted to join him. We gladly accepted the invitation, for we had been working on the desert Coast For several months and wcre worn out with the steady grind. The Captaiu, who was in bis seventies, was a jovial and lively fellow wbo kept us entertaíned duríng the trip with many stories of bis various experiences, both professional and amorous. I bad beep through part of this región in 1941 on my visít to Iluamachuco, whose ancient hilltop fortress had once been the capital of a powerful mountain state. But it was a worthwbile experícnco to go up the Moche Vallcy again through the various vegetation and habitation zones rangíng from the hot, dry coastal desert to tbe wct, cold Sierra. We welcorned every such trip up a coastal valley because it gave us a chance to study anothcr counectíng link between Coast and Sierra. Of special interest here is the relatively uninhabited region that separares these two main population zones. Theoretically, this region can, of course, be cultivated by means of irrigation but there is no land to cultivate! Here the Moche River, like most of the other rivers on the Coast, runs through a relatively deep, narrow chasm where the valley bottom contains practically no usable soil and where the sides are too steep and rocky to permit any cultivation. Only in a few Favored spots, on sorne dizzy mountain heíghts, <loes one occasíonally see rainfall crops. Thís comparatívely uninhabited rniddle zonc, which is a characteristic feature of all Peruvian

coastal valleys, has separated the Coast and Sierra populations into two distinct econornic, política) and cultural units throughout their hístory The naJTOW paths and roads up the vaUcys have been thc only links that have connected the peoples of the two zones. Paths and roads have always been the veins and artcríes uniting geographically disparate peoples. At times these roads were used for pcaccf ul, dcmocratic tradc purposes; at other times they carried brutal, conquering armies and thcír rcturning traíns of loot and tribute. But in every case, roads represeni some [orm. of union. They connect people and propertu. This thought struck us on our trip, since we had, until then, spent rnuch of our time studying walls and walled compounds whose Iunctíon was to separase peoples and propertsj. It then suddenly became clear to us - uxdls divide, roads unitel But both evolve simultaneously and ínteract upon each other's development, as mankind, in its struggle for property rights and control, ríses from the prímitive agricultura! stage into modern industrial society The trip to Cachicadán in the Sierras took sorne eight hours. We zigzagged along dízzy roads up the steep and ever-changing mountaín slopes for síx hours, Fínally, wc rcachcd the blcak, cold, wet and wiudy puna (high mountain pasture ) that stretches throughout most of Peru along both sidcs of thc Continental Divide. This desolate reglen, impressíve in its vastness and lonelioess, is beyond the limíts of trees and cultívated crops. It is covered in part with ichu, a kind of tough grass generally not eaten by the small herds of sheep that occasionally graze hcre on the fcw softer grasses and herbs. Here we passed the large and dangerous copper mines of Quiru-

Fig. l. Bcll tower in the historie Sierra town of Huamachuco. Kosok.

97 1

Fig. 2. foclern highway crossing the cold, trr-eless nnd nninhnhitecl puna, the louesomest and most desólate part of the Andes. Tho black spots in Iront are: small lakes. The white spots are islands oí snow and ice or rock outcroppings. U S. Army 43-L-79 • Fig. 3 ( margin) Child of the Ancles. Kosok • .Fig. 4 ( right ) Fiesta scene at Santiago de Chuco. Schoedel,

vilca, whcrc tbe workers dwell in miserable houses near the ominous míneshafts. Wc crosscd the Divide at an altítude of sorne )4.000 feet, and shortly thereafter wcre happy to arrive at Santiago de Chuco, the largest mountain town of the entire region. After a hot drink, whích cheered us up consíderably, we descended the winding rnountain road to the bottom of the warrn aud plcasant valley of Huay-

chaca, wliich connects with the Chuquicara Valley ( see Chapter XIX) There the road ascended thc othcr side of the valley until our jeep finally reached the attractíve settlcment of Cachicadán. Cachicadán has a considerable number of thermal spriogs that have been known since ancient times. Sítuated on the channing mountainsidc with its many poplar and eucalyptus tn:cs borclering the roads and walls, it has ali thc makings of an important watering place in thc Iutnre, A t present, however, ít is merely a srnall, attractive Indíau village, wluch is visited hy a lirnited number of vacatíonists and modcrately ill pcoplc who havc heard oí the curative value of its baths. The írnportant valley of Chnqnicara, just mentíoned, is a northeru brauch of the Santa. This valley, with its surrounding cultivated rnountain slope-s, is an urea of Iaírly dense population that connects clirectly with the upper Santa area to the south ( Callejón <le Huaylas) and with the Cujamarca arca to the north ( see map, p. l O) In ancicnt times, thcsc arcas also boasted a Iairly dense pop u lation, as índícated by the man y Incl ian villa ges dating back Lo thc past. as well as by the numerous ancient ruinecl sites, most of thern still unexplorcd. The Peruviau Army maps indicare extensivo remains of an olcl northsouth T nea roacl in this rcgion, probably the main truuk liue of the Inca Einpirc, counecting Cuzco with Quito. On thc maps are also índicated a series oí ruins dotting the mouutain crest that separa tes the Chuq uicara and the Chao Valleys. On thc hills borderíng the southern side of thc Tablnchaca, in thc arca constítuting the present day province of Pallasca, Dr Schaedel explorecl interesting rcmains of a munber of important sites. Antonio Hodríguez SuySuy carried on sorne preliminary archaeological reconnaissancc in thc Santiago de Chuco region. A broad archaeological survey of the whole Sierra region from Cajarnarca sonth to the upper Santa should throw h·emenclous light not merely on the nature and iuterrelati011sl1ip of tLe ancient cultures of thcse coroplcx :neas witb one another, but also on the interrelationship of the Sierra cultures witb t110se of thc Coast. Such interrelations are ínclicated by sorne arcbaeological finds, and even by a few <locumentary rcfcrcnccs, but thcir cxtcnt and character are still only vaguely known. In thinking about the natme of the interrclatlonship between Coast and Sierra, one is led immediately to thc problern of trade. But unforluuatcly, with thc e."ception of a fe.._v short remarks mude by severa! of the Chroniclcrs, tl1ere is no iudication of thc nattU'C and lhe amount o(

trade that exist<>cl in ancient Peru. Nor is there rnention of a trading class, so important among the lcss developec.1 Aztecs of Mexico. True, the existeuce of local markcts is occasionally mentioned, but thcsc probably were bartering centers for various craft objects, specialties of one or anothcr ncarby villagc, ancl for ecrtaü1 fruits, vegeta bles an<l herbs whose cu ltivation may, for sorne reason, ha\ e bccn localized. It may well be supposed that clming severa! tho11sancl years o[ occupation and growth a considerable amount of inter-valley specialization in many products took place. These proclucts may then have been carried regularly by traclers from va lle y to vallcy T ndf'ed, sorne objects may eithcr have passcd through many valleys and through many hands or have bC'en carried ali thc way by '1ong distance" trnclcrs before they finally reachecl their ultimate

buyers. uch trade was carríed on by various peoples of a much lower cultural leve! ami ecouomy i11 hoth . orrh und South Amcricn. But we would expect an even greater amount of uadc to havo prevailed bctwcen the Sierra on thc ono hand and thc Coast on the other For Sierra and Coast each produced distinct raw materials and crafrsrnen's goocls. n coudit iou that undoubtcdly led to an cxtcnsivc C\change system between the two regíons, The Sierra ulsn ) ielded copper, silver. and gold. whíeh were highlr prized und w orke«! i11 great quantities cm the Coast hut whích werc- not mincd therc, Cícza de León ( I. Cha p. LXVI 1) rnentions the Iact that while in Motupe he was inforrned that the p<•opk thcrc lradcd with thosc of the Sierra al certuin seusons. But why díd most of the Chroniclers foil to describe ~OmP of this trade or mention thr- tradr-rs? \Vith the growth of the Inca and Chimú Empires, se' eral things probably happened to this trude. í11 tlw first place, ns the rcsult of conquest, articles of frade became arttcles of I rlbute! They still kept moving Irorn vullcy to to tlu- capital of vulley, but uow mniuly i11 mw direction the conquerorl Muny nrticles were still transported, but fcw wcre cxcluinged. It may well be said that in thr- Inca transportation 111Fmpirc and probably in the Chímú

creased, but frade dcclined.

Fi¡:,. I') :111d ti. Strect sccne- in mountain villagcs. Tlu- wull-, nrv made of mud hrick, the roof~ of orange rile. K<Mok

Anothcr aspect of the problcm must be mentioned. uud later the Incas <:011q11t•n•d a Whcn thc Chimús wealthy region, they not only established <1 regular tribute huí ulso sent back to their capitals thc bcst craftsmcn thcy c·milcl capture, tlms making these cities the l<'ading art and craít centers in Peru. This obv iouxly reduccd still furthcr the umouut of trade that had existed in previons times. Finully, we must consider what may also lx- an irnportant factor in our problem. In Calancha ( m.. 1 IT. Cliap. l I) tlwrt' is an intt>resting passagt' Tlw Chimo irnposed upon ali his vassals the dut,· of paying tribute. and among othcr lhings he cmployrcl six thnusand Indians to bring to him From the hi~hlands gold, silver, copper and othcr producls. E\'t'n if tlw 1111111lwr 6000 may be an exagg<'ration, the statement is still important. But sorne difficulty ariscs in i11tt>rpreti11g it. No Chronicler mentions th<' Chimt'1s ns having 1wrma11ently dominated territory in the Sicrras. ln thc light of this, how coul<l they obtain trilmtr• from füc Sierras? \Vhile absence of any reference in the Chroniclcrs lo Chimú co11qucsts of certain pa1ts of thc Sic>rrm; may not neccssarily be proof that conquests did not occur.

l~i¡.:. 7 A11 um1~uully intensif:lrd form of terraccd forrning ( 1111!1<•11(',v) lound in the produce of 1 luamaehuco. Ship¡W1'-}olrnw11 • Fig. 8 ( 111argi11 uud p. 97) Ceremouial wooden se1'pln'' with H1•c·111l) motif"s found in :-.lollqmta 11ear Cad1icndú11. Corrido-Cadw.

Fi~. !l .• \notlwr lh c·ly flestn scene at Santiago <IP Chut·o. Sc/111('t/e/.

the statcmeut of Calancha llla) poiut lo souicthing clsc. \light it not be interpreted to mean that thc Chímú rnk-r harl a tratle trrati] with his Sir-rr» nllir-s, 1111dC'r the tcnns of which the latter shipped metals in t'\c·lrnng<' Ior fiiw cotton textiles and othr-r coasrnl products much in dcmand i11 the Sierras? H this were true. would il llave meant that thc Chírnú ruler, in acldition lo t'\acling the onr- way trihutr- within his ornpirc, 11my abo lur, t' takr-u OH'r thc [ormcrly unrczulatcd lrmk "ith hb allics ancl conv erted it into a state 11101iopoly? A11cl H tlw Chirnú« hud done this. why could uot thc Inca stutc also havo eontrollcd and taken over such trndc? Summing up. we can state that [ust lx-íore the un h al of the Spaniards apparently most lar!.(c'·\C'ak I nult: h,«! come under the control of the l nea state uud h,id becn l.lrgC'I) transformecl into tri/ni te. 111 other words, tlu-nwai. much transportation ol goods but littlc frade \Vhen the Spaniards arriv ed. th<') "C'r<' vo nmazed al the w calth and organízatíon of thc Inca Empire that their main mtr-rcst was to lonl tlw wealth, l'\talili~h an organízed tribute S) stem and develop their own íntereontinental trading system. In other "01 ds, t lu- (·011q11t•rors did not e-are to nor were tlw~ nbk- to undersrand important [ucets of tlu- economy of tlu- couqucrcd. Only today' can we begin to píece togc•tlwr our scunt 1-110" lc•<lg<• oí ti re na ture ancl developmen t of a 11ci1•11t l r.ulr-,

Fiq. 1 O ( I< ft) A11 unu-ual aerial 'k" ni '' rl'l.1th • l~ ¡,.,PI vcction ni tlt< \nclt·-;. 'howi11g au .1pp.Ht·ntl~ l'11dlt•" 1111111h1 r ol rhacrus vm.rll <·1ilth atNI plot-, of Ja11d l '> srnu] '1·H·4 'I • I· i.(!:. 11 lwl1m 1 T~ pical mntmtain road "1th t~ ¡)IC'.d truck. kornk

]00

Heart of Mochícaland: The Chícama Valley

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IOL1GI 1 UITLI! IS L""'O\\'.N A llOUT TI\.ADE

and traders in ancieut Peru, more information Iortunatcly is available concerning pricsts aud their activitics. It has already beco pointed out in Chapter Vi thal thc príesthood played a leading role in tbe dcveloprncnt and direction of early auricultural societíes. Along the J. orthwest Coast, this priesthood stagc took place during thc Very Early or Cupísuiquc Pcriod and rhe two transitionnl Suliuar and Gallinazo Periods. But it was dming thc Mochica ( Early Chimú) Períod rhut thc outstauding prlest-dominated socícty apparently rcached the clímax of its developrncnt In both creurive abílitíes aud powcr lt is the ancíent .\lochica peoples who are Iamed Ior havíng constructed numcrous large. steep adobe pyramíds. But, even more important. the Mochícas produced, as a result of their hi~hl) dcvcloped artisric workmanship, thc nuinerous heautiful ceremonial water jugs thut arc> the príde of the Americas, Of all thc coastal valleys, it was thc Chicarna that de' eloped thís Mochica culture most widely and íutensivcly vlorcov cr, ít wax probably maintained herc after tli« other valleys farther south had entered the so-callcd \liddlc Pcriod. Even toda), when visiting various ruins i11 thr- Chicama Valley and examiniug excavared ccrarnics

Fil-(. l. 1\ side of l luaca Fachén, a typical solid adobe cousu uctiou oí the Mochica Pcriod. Thc vertical srreaks on the pyrumid uro thc n·\lill of the occasionul ralns 011 the Coast of l1e111. Scf1ot·del. e, The line-cut ahov e i~ that ol n Mochica huaco, G11illc11. Th« decomtive rules in lhis d1.1plu are fro111 Larco 1 Iovlc's Los stochicas.

'º1

three tunes that of the Moche Hiver just to the soutb. Thc arca under cultivation in this vallcy at preseot is likewisc> almost three times as large as that of the Moche \'allcy Likr- tlll' ~lodw and rnany othcr rivcrs 011 the Coast of Peru, thc Chícama Hows southwcsrcrly, thercby cutting the coastal pluíu iu such a manncr as to ruakc thc north bank thc largor one. However, unlike rnany valleys on the Coast oí Pcru, thc Chicama has more land in its eoastal plaín that can be cultivated by the arnount of river water availablc, This is not only true today when the main crop of the vnlley is the water-consnming sugar cane, bnt it was also true in ancieut times when muize, which requíres

\V H. Cruce & Company

:\t both of these haciendas,

largo milis are operated for the manufacture of whitc sugar, most of whích is exportcd ( Fígs. 2 to 12) Thírd in size and sitnated geographically betwecn thc ubove-mcntioned plantations is Hacienda Chíclín, property oF Señor Rafael Larco Herrera, a formcr Vice Prestdcnt of Peru, It contains thc famous "Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera." which is undcr the direction of Señor Lnrco's eldest son, Rafael Larco Hoyle, assisterl hy his brother Constante Larco Hoylc. Señor Rafael Larco IIoy le created and developed this excellent rnuseum. which contains sorne oí thc Ilnest l\lochica and prevtochíca ceramics and othor artifacts. He has also

The Chícamu \'ali(·~ b onc uf the lending sugar prodndng r<·ntN~ in Peru, This senes of photographs taken by the author nn various sugar plantations on the Coast íudicatcs sorne uf the maiu steps in the growíng and prepnring of sugar • Fig. 2 (top, left ) An aerial v iew of Hacienda Chiclín surrounded br fields of sugur eauc • Fig. 3 (nbovc, left The pl.1nting proce s. in which short sectíons of caneare dropped into prr-pnrr-d Iurrows. l lacienda Paramongu • Fig. 4 ( ubove, centcr ) A lield ol gro" ing Migar cane with the Iortress of Paramonga in the background (-.c•1• Ch.ipter XXlI) • Fig. 5 (ulx» «, right ) The burning of a ficld ulter th« ~·ano• has ripened. This is done to get rid of the dead "lea ves" that wonld interfere with tlw >ugar l \lrnd11111 process. Al Ll1c <.;1nw tiuw tlw burning of the íif'lcl, lt'''' e~ thc ashcs a~ n fertili:i:cr Cor the nt•\I t·rnp. Since il is filled with ~ap, lill' ~ugllr <:m1e stall.. <lo<:~ uul bu111. 1 lndendn Pthapt). 0

in the mus('11m at Chiclín. one is struck hy the predominancc of ~lochica cultural remain owr thosc of other periods a cou<lition Jcss marked in other \'alleys. Thus, thc Chicama Valler can trnly lw callcd lhc hcart of ~focbicalancl. Before cliscussinc; forthcr thc prohlcms of thc culture and history of t he Chicama Valley. Jet us glalH:e at its geographical-sociological fl"atures. Througl1 il courscs the largc Chica111a Rivcr, which has an a\'erag<' annual water discbarge in C'>Ce6S of onc billion cul>ic mctcrs, about

102

much less water than sugar cane>. was the cbicf crop. Toda}. lhc 'allcy is dominated by four large sngar lwciendas, Casa Grande. C:arta\'ic>. Chiclí11 and Chiquitoy. cach of which represents an integration of a numher of smallC'r oncs. Casa Grande, the largest hacienda on the Pcru' ian Coast. extends mainly along the upper and mide] le portions of th<-> valley, whcrc, as in olhcr valleys, the best soil is found and where the most irrigation water is availahle througl10ut the ycar Farther clown the valley. and ne:-.t in size, stretches HaC'ienda Cartado. owned by

F'i~. 6 (top. right)

\\'orkt.'r~ wilh nrnchete• culting the soot-CO\ t·rcd .1fler the ficlds ha'<.' l)('e11 bumed O\er Hacienda Cartn' io • fig. 7 ( directly ahoH') Empt) r.1ilroad cars are drawn hy 0\(.•11 ln tlw lií'lds wlwre they ar<' loaded with thc cut sugar <:am•. l l ul'ie11da í.arttwio.

'>ni:(tlr

e;111c

directed much of the flcld work necessary for making his collection. Chíquitoy ís the smallest of the four haciendas. It is situated in the lowest pnrt of the valley's south side. uud contains, among significant sítes, the ruins of Chíquitoy Viejo, discusscd in Chnptcr VIII. The old Tndian connnuntdades have been largely forced out of the upper and míddlc part of the valley by the r-vpansion of the haciendas. Those whích still rernain intaot, to a certain degrec, are Ascopc, Chocope aud Paiján, Chícama. on the south 011 tite north side, and Pueblo sido. l 11 the lower part of the v allcy, ncar thc sea, are fo1111d Santiago de Cao and Magdalena de Cao. In early colonial times, these communidadcs still playcd n rclativcly important role, and dcspite the incessant pressure Irom the haciendas, the dcscendants of thc aucicnt ludíans hcre have to this duy maintained sorne of theír land and water rights and a limited amount of local selfgovcmmcut. Tt is signíficant that today the large and wcalthy Chicama Valle) has 110 important towns, no administrath e or cultural centers, no important ports. Whilc Puerto

~ 1

Chícama, ncar thc old port of Malabrigo, has bcen devcloped as a port for Casa Grande, the main port Ior this valley is Salnv crry in the neighboring vlochc Valley Much of the politícul, econornic, social and cultural lifc of the Chicarna Valley centers around Trujillo, situated in the Moche Valley near ancíent ChanChan. Thc rclationship between the two valleys appf'ars to be a contínuation of the one that existed in Chimú times if not earlier (see Chaptcr IX) As in 1940-41, we made our headquarters at both Casa Grande and Carta- io, whcre we werc lodgcd in fine guest houses and servcd excellent meals. In additíon, we were gíven the use of cars, trucks. horses and guides. Hacienda Chiclin likcwise generously Iurnishcd us with ali the aid we requestcd. At Casa Cranrle. thc German engineer, Señor Kuks, gave us considerable hclp, as he had in 1941. By means of the detaíled flt>lcl maps of the hacienda and through knowledge gaíned in his own work cluring the past dccadcs, he was ahle to dírect us to a number of archaeologícally unknown mounds on tbe lauds of the hacienda. In fact, on bis frc'<> days, he gladly joinc'd us in our e:..plo-

Loacling the railroad cars. Thc canc is bronght on mulehack from art>as some clistance from thc tracks. Fig. 8 ( bdow, left) Loaded railroad cars at the sngar reflnery In the for!'gronnd arr lic:>ld wo1l..ers. Jlacicnda Pátapo. Cartavio • Fig. 9 belO\\)

l lacienci'l

Fig. 12 ( 1ight) A sct·uc in thc :.ugar refinery at Hacienda Carta\ in. The boilers are not visible 1-incc lhey are in m1olhcr purt o[ thc building. \ln~l uf thb is c"'porte<l; thc rt•..,l i~ med b} thc 1\ftl'r heing e:i.tracted, lhl· producl has to be refined to lwc·onw white gr:1nnl:Hed sugar middle a11d uppcr da.-.scs of the country The great mas~ ol thc people, who cannol afford Lo lrn) "hilt' ... ugar, u.,;c the unrefintd cbrk hro\\11 sugar whicl1 is produced in thc many small extracting pl:rnh fnund throughoul Pern. Tlii' produd. t·allcd clwnclLrn, is pre,,ed into large t·akt's and sold in all the local markt'ts.

Fig. 13. \\ orkers' houses on a coastal sugar 11acie11da. Although this is a modl'l scttlcment, each family ha~ onl)' On<' room with a door bul no windows. The "sentry boxcs" in the middle of th<> strcct arP onthons<'s; hehind each one is :i t:t)1 lrom which watf'r is drawn For drinking and cooking purposes.

The cane is dumpcd into <l trough from Fig. 10 (lwlo\\, lrft) which it is drawn into chopping and grindlng mnchines in the rPfült'T}' to lw prl'pared for sngar extrnction in hug<> vnts. Hacienda After the cane has heen boiled Pátapo • Fig. 11 (below, right) in water and nll the sugar has been exlrncled, thc dry pulp of Lhe cane i~ senl lo tlw fomace antl u~etl a~ Ful'I for b11ilin~ otllcr sugar cano ~olulivn~ in the vuts. Hacienda Pútapo.

rutíons. Hi interest in archaeologícul rl·111<1i11s had lcd him to excavare partially a huaca, already i11 the proecss of destruction, in which he Iouud scvcral adobe eolumns. onc with remaíns of polychrome painting ( Figs. :'31 nnd 32) Our main tasks in the Chicarna Vallcy wc•re thoso of eheckíng our previous work of locating and mupping the main canals and calculating the rotal arr-a Ionnorly 1111d1•r cultivation. We had prcviously discovered two largo canal systems now no longcr in use. The OJH' 011 rho north siete consistcd of a number of long, purullcl canals that once had írrigatcd thr- wholo of tlu- lar~t' Pampa de Mocán ( Fig. 19)

\Ve tried to follow sorne of the major

canals of this system in order to St:'e whcthcr any oí thcm conrinucd around Cerro Yugo into thc windswept dcsert arca known as La Vaquita. i11 the dircctiou oí thc jcquctepeque Valley But neíther by flt'ld work nor by aerial photographs were WI:' able to fiud any traces oí such an extensión. Nor did questioninu of local inhabitants unearth any tradirion of fonncr c:ulth ution .. \11 wc could locate were sorne minor canals, west of the Pan American Highway, which at oue time had extended thc cultivated area of this lower part of the vallcy a mile or so northward ioto the desert, On the south side of the valley, there are also a numher of 1011~, parallel, aucicnt canals, pnrls ol which are

Fig. 14 ( abov t) A sectíon of the ron tour e-anal that once carried "a ter lor a distanee of more than forty miles from the Chicarna V:illc•> lo ChanCh:tn, in tlw \IO<'hP \'alley Kosok • Fig. 15 below, seconcl from loft ) An nnusually fin!' huaco from the Very F.arly or C11pi~niq111' Pt riod. C11ille11 • Fig. 16 below und 111argi11~ Other huaco» Iroiu tlu- prlest-domiuated Cupisnique Period. Handbook, 11 • Fig. J7 right Anothe: v iew of the hugc canal described i11 Fig. 14. l11sitlt· tlu- euuul is thr- SCIPA jeep; alougside it are Se111)r Portugul, 111¡.:t·mlrn \'h;h aud thc uuthor Schaedel.

~till 11sl·d ( Fig. 27) The cana Is nin southwesterly, pass Chiq11ito~ \'il·jo ( Fi~s. :37 and 38) ami the lone i\liddk Period 11 U<H:a Colorada with its walled compound ( Fiu;

:3()). and co11li1111c southwurd to a point whcre thcy coinpk-tr-ly disappcur in a srnull desert quebrada. In tracing tlw canuls.

"l'

cncountvred

un uucicut walled road that

pussed hoth Huaca Colorada and Chiquitoy Viejo and disuppearcd lo thc south in llw dcscrt in thc zcucral arca of Cha11Cha11 ( <;('(' Chaptcr l.X) and to the north in the cultivnted Ilclcls ol thc Chicama Vallcy Our- o! thr- larucst und most importaut ancíent canuls on the Coast is thc Chicama- \loche Canal mcutioncd i11 Chupter IX. Originating in the upper part of the Chicama \a lle) abo' e Sausal. it follows thc coutour of lite hill» .111d pal1~1·-. ahm·c· thc systcm just described until it reaches La Cumbre, the low divídíug rídge bctwccu the ~)111~---

Fi).!. 18 ( lx-low ) \'i1·" oi' ti gurdcn at the home of oue ol the ad111i11i,lrnloa' ol l la1·i1•rnl11 Cartnv io, Chícama Valley Kosok • Fig, Hl ( right ) 011e of thc old canals that run through tlw P.1111pa d•· :-.1od11. This pholograph t'aught thc typlca] atmosph .. n- of tlucoastul descrt short ly bclorc sunset. Kaso]: • Fig. 20 ( righl. lwlow) Purt oí tlu- J,1rg1• coutuur (':lll:ll thnt onet- connected tlw Chicumu uud ).Jodw \'allt'y' ('<'t' Fig~. 11 .n«l 17) Senido 171.JHI.

( ·~ ·-- --~.: ~ .

~-·

Chic.una aud .\loehe Yalley!> ( F'iti;1-.. 1-t, 11 and 20) From thcrc it contiuucs, as dcscríbcd in Chapter l.\.. until it renches the fíelds of ancicnt ChauChan. having coursed a dístancc of sorne Iorty miles. \\'hile the canal obvíously had been used principally to carry water into the- Moch« Valley, at least duríng one period, it had also becn used to cultivatr- land wirhin rhr- Chicuma Vulley, a foct that became clear to us when we Found a numbcr of large branches of the canal that re. . mained witlriu the Chicama \ alley itsclf. T ndeed, it is possíble that the latter brauches had becu huilt before . . it was dccidcd to cxtcud the canal íuto the Moche \ "allex

Fig. '.!l ( lcít ) .\ unique lmt rather crude map draw n hy thc cighteenth century bivhop, \l;trtinez dr- Compañón. <howing the two main canal-, of the Chicarna Valley

F1g. 22 :thm 1·. left .\11 ••\tt·u,ion ol the laruc .bco¡>l'uqueduct ( opp<"ik Preluce huilt. koMik • Fiu. 2:1 \ ahm (', ccnter ) \"ie'' ol a p.trtl~ dc;lro~ ed canal 1t ausal.

e ldt ".111 111<1~ J,.. ti 11• n-main-, 11! l.1t••1. l 1i¡du:1 canal "ª' Fil,(. ~-1 111'<1,~·, 1i~ht .\ ,,-diun at L.1 Cumbre, o[ tl1l' larze intt'n;tlJe, canal <.lio\\i11g ~turno· erubankun-utv. Kosok

111.t"Í\

lv•\t•k

We also attcmptcd to trace the course of the main aucient trunk road, as well as that of a secoudary one, across the cultivated sections of the valley Only near Pueblo Chicama, Paíján and the abovc-mentioned Chíquítoy Viejo are the entrances of the roads into these areas clearly visible. We tríed to trace the roads Iarther across the irrigated region by studyíng aerial mosaics the best way of discoveríng vestíges of ancient roads but we were unsuccessful, Modern tractors and bulldozers of the haciendas have destroyed practically all

traces of the roads. Large and médium size adobe pyramids, most of which probably wcrc built in thc Mochica Pcríod, characteríze the Chicama Valley But it is not unlikely that if tunnels wcrc dug through sorne of thesc Mochica pyramids, the core would be found to consist of smaller pyramids of thc carlícr Gallinazo, Salínar, or even Cupisnique Periodsl For mound building seems to have been typícal of these older prícst-domínatcd societics. The pyramids of the Chicama Valley are generally quite stecp, and sorne of them havc rematas of room structures on top of them. Many of them stand alone in the midst of green Ilelds, Most of thc associated structures such as plazas, houses, walls and connecting roads that once may have existed, have beco destroyed by mod-

ern hacendados, who have ploughed back into the ancíent soil all "obstructious" that wcre not loo largo to destroy Other Chicama pyramids, however, appear in clusters, in which there is usually one large pyramid surrounded by a number of smaller ones. These huaca clusters were probably large-scale ceremonial centers. just as the individual huacas were probably the seats of local relígiopolitical units. Examples of these clusters are Las Tres Huacas on the grounds of Hacienda Chiquitoy and the largor more important La Campanilla huaca. group just to the east of the old town of Santiago de Cao at the southem tip of the cultivated area of the valley (Fig. 40) Near the buildings of Hacienda Cartavio is Huaca de ~lonjas, surrounded by a number of smaller mounds. The archaeologically unknown ruin of Malabrígo Viejo at thc northwestern desert edge of the valley may also be considered a huaca complex. This site was seco by us from the air and later vísited by a member of the Institute who rcported finding many huacas and other structurcs. But the ceramícs from the site had so deteríorated in the salty soil that a definite period dating was not possible. The Iocollope híll, surrounded by various pyramids, walled compouuds, and terraced earth and adobe mounds ( Figs. 28 to 30), also represents a type of huaca cluster,

Pre-Sponish Serpentine Furrows

Spanish Straight Furrows

O¡tection of woter Aow

Fíg. 25 ( left and above) Typical huacos of thr- Salínar Period. which represents a transition from the V ery Early or Cupisnique Pcriod to the Early or Mochica Period. Ilandbook, 11 • Fig. 26 (top, right ) Pre-colonial type, S-shaped furrows. See also drawíng at eenter, rigbt. Kosok • Fig. 27 ( bottom, right) A series of parallel canals, dating from ancient times, extendíng from the southwestern cdgc of the present cultivated area of the Chicama Valley into the region around Huaca Colorada. The central canal is now used as a run-off for surplus water from irrigated fields. As a result, a narrow bancl of \egetation lines tJ1e edges of tJ1e canal. Kosok.

107

. t

hut it is clifferent Iroin the usual Chicama l) pe. Jt is unalozous, rather, to the much largcr und more impressive Purgatorio group in the Leche Vallcy ( scc Chaptcr XV[) Finnlly, we must call uttention to what 111oy havo becu tlu- most extcusive pyramid grouping in thc Chicuma Valley The grouping consists of tlw larg<' luuuas of 011~ollapt·. Salitral. Leche, Sonolipe and Rosario. ali situated 011 the uorth síde of the valle-y within a 111ik or two o! H these pyramids W('I'(' once politically ouc auothcr unified. thcy must have constitnted thc doiniuatinj; huaca complex of the valley Thc acrial photographs of 1110:.t of thc indiv idual huacas

are. with a Iew exceptions. not reproduccd, bccause thPy are not \'ery ímpressive. This is duc in part to thcír hav ing been taken at too great an altitude to show details

~~)~)(~)~)(~)~)(~)~) Ruins o~ tlw l:1rgP hillside ,it<• of vlocollope. Fíg. 28 top, lett eme ol tlit· principal vtochica ~ilt'• ni' tlw C:hic;\m:\ Vulley Thc rn1111l·m11~ lroles were made by h11a1111ems, who h:t\C' 111w:1rtlwcl a trcnu-ndous numbcr of fi11l· n-d nud ll'l1ik /111111·m fr11111 tlu· ;111l'il'•íl 11ra1 .,, that cover the wholc ruin. l\otl' tlil· n•d1111¡.(11lar platfnnn~ 011 díílercut levels of tho hill. Thc rectangular <'1wh•M1r{' in tlil' low cr cerner h probably a Late Chimú cornpouud. SC'rridv 171 :.J.J(J .\locollopt• Ceramics. Sclwcclcl-Coc:hv. • l'ig. 29 bottom, lcft C.1) ~ lodelr-d animal. probahly prc-vlochic.i oranw· warc, h) P:irl uf tlw inner surfac:c• of a griltt>r bowl th.lt \\;IS used lo l!ntl(' yuca 2\onl' c ) .\ lochica red ware. (el) \ lochic« red w.rrc. 111oh. \ludum inodeled blackware. ( t) \lod1k.1 red wnre, g Part of h ) '1\011-.\lochiea blackw are, ( i) Proh.1hl) pn•-.\ lochicu 11 11111ld. 11aH.'. j vlochicu H'll w are • Fig. :~O lwlm1) ~" 1ior Go11z:1kt \\ uh storagc jars uf thc .\lod1im Pi-riod lelt h) /111111¡111•m1 .rt vlocollope. Below the jar« ¡., a ~to1w-l111<'<l ¡.(1.l\l' Scl1t1<'dd.

108

~!?··

dt·arl} 1 o sonw ('\tl•11t it ¡., abo the n-sult of tlw huaca» lw' in!.!; lux-n purtly destroyed hy occasiouul ruius aud b~ thc doprcdutionv oí t1 easure hunters. ( onwq1w11tJ~ ~rn1111cl pluns ol moxt of tlu- structure-s are dillicult to druw St•1im l{,lf¡1t•l Larco l Ioyl« has had gro1111d pl.111-; mude hut vo lar ha' not puhhshed thr-m. Sorne arch.u-olouir-nl sur' t'~' h<IH lxeu made h~ Dr Schaedel. aud a s111 J.tt'l' c·<·rami<· ~un e~ l1a\ lxx-n rnadc h~ Dr Ford. hut n-port ~ ol thc 'il' vurv <'~ s ha' l' not vet been published. S1•11or Hafac·I Larro llo~ le• and his ~taff at thr- Chicllu m11,1·11111 ha\ 1· doi«- the major urchaeolouical w or], in thi-,

Fig. :~:: ( .1hm <' Tl1<• largc· l l n.«:a Hosnr in, xituatr-d 011 lu- 1101th ,idc· ol tlu- Cl1it'a111a \ allt·y. ;t lr-w mik·' [rmu llw Pan .\11K·n1w1 l la~ll\\ a~ 1 Jii, /111111·" .111d 1111.H·as 011golla¡w. Suhtrul ,1·t• Fi14. :34 L<'t'lil' uud S111111lip1• 111.i) I""'' t111c1· Iormcd a huge l1111u·11 d11,t1·1 ('t't ll'\U. J...11\tlk • i"i.~. 1 ( lwlm1 \'1•1lical at•1ial pltotngraplt 'lum 1111.\ lwr) hu¡.:1· 1" 1a1111t1'. pmhabJy from vlochica lime' Ongollap< ,tl lht ldt. ~.tlitr.11 111•.ir LIH' <·1·111t'r Thl' 1t•eh111(411lar structurc- i11 tlu- lii·ld 111a~ tlatt J..,111 uucient timl' .111d 111<\) have t'011111•ckd tl« /11111c11~. Dr l'onl 1·\· .1mi1wd th•· n•d;111g11la1 vt ructu rt- on the top of Ongoll;1pt• ,111d n•port1·d th.1t 1t \\';" proh.ibb built in tlu Lile Chimu Pcriod lor 't·111l.u. d1·l<·11\h1· Plll(lO\<'\. n11ri11g both tlw Coa-tal Tinhuanaco ,11111 Luu Chi111i1 Period». v.iriou-, pyr.unid-, dati11q h:ul.. In \l11d1k.1 .111d ('\('11 1m•-\11wlik:1 l11111·' 111:1) ,imilarly l1aH' bct·11 n·-1•t·e11pil'd and ll'td ,,, lurtiflt'cl ,itt''· ~l'rl'itio fil ·J¡¡ í

Fig. :ll (.1hmc•) l11gt•niP10 Kuk-, uf Cava Crande lhn-reudu with ¡,;.. lit•lrl t'I('\\ t'\t•;l\alin!! '' small l11111ca. The <':\el\\ ati1111 hrouglit to liglil l"o ndolw 1:01111111", rure struetun-s i11 coastul urchitccture. To tlw k-It tw1 IJl' sc•<·n tlw { 1td~ of t't111ical adobes. chnracteristic ol tlw \'1·1~ l~arlr or C11pi~1iiq11P l'Priod • Ftg, :3:¿ below) l11g1·11iern Kuks ~1a11di11g ht·~itk a (•011111111 011 which. b;Hd~ \ isiblc. are the runreruniuv ol a pol~chro1ue fri<·.1.e. 'I'hc columu found d11ri11g tlu ('\t'a\':tlion ol 011t· ol tlu- 11101111d, 011 Casa Crandc· l l,1de11d.1. 0

"ª~

vallcy Somc of thcír results have been puhlished in two monogruphs of a planned eight-volurnc series on thc Mochica culture. Señor Hafael Larco Hoyl« also has published reports on the Satinar and Cupisnique culturcs, as wcll as various artícles on relatcd subjects. Thesc rcporls are of extreme importancc lo our understanding of (he prchistoric cultures of the Northwcst Coast, but thcy are only tho first part of a complete study The fact that Señor Hafael Larco Hoylc's rnain flndíugs havc not bcen puhlished is regrettablc. since the information he has gathered could possibly gí\'C us a hetter uuderstand ing of the social structure of thc Mochica Period. thc length of its duration, and the naturc of its politícalmilitary expansiou, At thc bcginning of this chapter, it was stnted that the priest-dominated soci1•tiPs exísted dur-

intervalley conflict (UI A and B in Chart l. p. 72) lc<l to thP estahlishnH·11t of thc 1m1lti-valley Chimi'.1 Empire. Theoretically, tlwr<'fore, we sho1tld c•xp<'C't to fiucl thc elcmf'nts of secular powcr de' cloping in sorne form dming the ~lochica Periocl, the period of c11/111i11ati011 of pricsll) power a11d rult•. Thc problcm is this J Low can we detect or by indirection deterrninP. that suc:h secular forces cxisted'( Morco,·cr, how dicl thc·sc s<'ctilar forces C'\L)f<'S). themselves? Thc availablc• t'vidence is nwa~er, though illmninat ing. ome of it is arfo tic; sorne of il is archaeological. 1 f "e studr the many portrait huacos that ha\'f' ht'e11 u11earthe.d from \loc:hica gra,cs, "l' find that while <;Orne still ha,·e clistinctly priestly ckcorative characteristics n'minisce11t of prcvio11s pricsl-dominated cultures, th<'

Fig. 35 (left) A ¡.:roup of Mochica stylc bird huacos. Chiclin-Kosok • Fig. :rn (ubove ) Huaca Colorudn. in the now barren reuion south of Chiquitoy Vicj«. Significant is lht• lnrgt' walled co111p1n111d, ncljoining th<' pyrn111id, which is characlt·rhl1t of Lhe '.\liddl" P1•riod \\ hen tllc Lmmition lrom pri1,~tl) c-ontrol to sernl;ir nile was taking pla1·1·. \Jl)lv the long rnmp lcading lo the top of tlic pyrnmid. Tlw hl:wk spots are .ueas of !''c-'1' .1tin11. \'ole al<,<1 tlw l.1rg1· <:aual at the top of tlw plwtograph; :ll 1 lw hottom is thc sanw road a< lht1t ~how11 i11 Fii::. :{8. Knsnk. F1g. 37 {below, ldt) \·ertic-:11 al'ri.tl photogrnpb of n \\'alkd compou11<l lnm\n Chiquitoy Viejo, borderimi: the v1:gctatio11 o[ the modern 11 acil'llda Chiqu1tm. nn tlw sn11th h;1nl.. of the Chicama Rh t'r Th1< may be llie ::111t'it'nl C:hiquit:l Yap, thc citadd which. ac·c~1rdi11g lo legend, wa-. tal..1·11 h) the Tnca-; hefore thc Chimú capital uf CliauChan surrC'ndt•n·<I. t\ole ";thin thl' larger compound a \lllaller \Htlled compound w1tlii11 whicl1, in lurn, i-. ,\n ele\'ated stmctun.> containing SC\'Cn11 ro<Hm. ChiquilO) \'icjr> is onl' nf the Íl'w w;dlcd compounds in thc Chicama Valley Sen>kü1 171 ;224 • Fig. :18 ( lwlow, right) An obliqm• aerial \'kw of Chiq11iloy Viejo, also show11 i11 Fig. 37 In 1 hP 11ppcr right comer ar<· rt•111ains nf an ancie11L roa el that once conn<'<t<'cl tlw ~loche\ alle) with tite Chieama \'nllt•\ 1'n.1ok.

ª'

ing thc Very Early ( Cupisnique ) and the two transitional alinar and Gallinazo Periods aud reachcd thcir culmina üon during the Mochica Pcriod (II B in Chart T, p. í2) At its cuhnination, a dcvclopmcnt must, however, contain cmbryoníc or formativo elements of 11ew social forms thnt break out as indepcndcut characterístics or forces in the succeedinz period. The new forms may rcpresent eitlier dPgent>ration or a de' clopmcnt to a higher level. \\'e do know thut aftcr the Mochica carne the Xliddlc Poriod ( Coastal Tiahuauaco ) Thís períod to judge from our knowledge of other valleys markr-d the- growth of walled cornpouuds. which cvcntually bccnrne the domínnnt form of archítccture in the Late C:hi1111í Period. But most important, this ncw architectural Iorm was an expression of the rise of a secular militar) power in which thc sr-cu lar rulers t'\ cntually dorninatcd the priesthood. Jn the process of doing thís, the secular rulcrs not only conqucrcd a single' vallcy, but started a struggle for control cr other valleys, Tn the case of thc Chimús, thb

º'

110

)

of t 11<•111 an· of mcu whose faces exprcss a secular. worldly powcr and a kind of urbaneness not fo1111d durin~ th« eurlier pe-riods, ThC' lx-st portrait !111C1co:s hav e a sternuess nnd simplicity more> akin to the busts of Reman st atr-snu-u than lo tlu: Ir-atures of uucient Egyptia11 aud Huhylouiuu pricsts or the ingrown. stylized. over-decorutt-d products oí Chaviu ami \laya thcocratic societies, Fmtlwrmort.•, H "t.' -;tucl~ the druwings on sorne of the \lod1i(·a [nuuo», w« fiud uot ouly priests with their demon m.1sk-. .uid other related trappings, but also warriurs '' ith thcir secu lar chicfs. Iudced. in Fiu, -17 we set'

f1111'sl

a 1111mhc r of c:hi<'Í'i being carried on litters before their kadiu)! chicí. w hu \il'> on a kind of throue. li .1 gro\\ th of secular forces took place durinu the ~lochica Pt·1 iod. a chronclogical study oí thc luuico»

lo~ic-al '<'nÍi<:alron O) extensi. e stratigrapluc e\.Cil\ ations. For. ni. has bccn poiutcd out, thcrc are no strntig1 aphic data cm most of the huacos in our museums uud prh ate collcctious. Iudecd, "t• ~c11crall~ do uot cv c11 kuow Irom \\ hich spccific valleys in thc Mochica culture complex most of thcsc huacos come! \lon'o' er such an aesthetic-stylí tic sequence i11 itself docs not nccessar il) tell us much about thc C\ olutíon of thr- social si ruct urc it rcpresents. ince the classífication is bascd 011 a limitcd number of spccimcns, w c do not know in which periods of this sequeuce the "secular typc" und in" hich pci iods thc .. pricstly typc" huacos prcdorninate or w hcthcr the percentage of each is ubout thc .. ame in ali pcriods. 011(' ot her quesí ion c-onccruíng Mochica culture arises

Fig. ;39 ( abov c-) /\ gro11p of unusual huacos modeled in the [orms nf potato-shaped human figure,. Clucltn-Kusolc • Fig. 40 ( rrght ) The rcgulnr and irregular white structures ri~ing out of this modern sugar cune Fidd are the remuurx uf ancient adobe huacas thut once fon uecl u huaco dmtPr. ni \\ hil h lluaca C,1m¡xmilla ( lt>ft center) mn~ J.a, e bt-en thl' priul'ipal 'l111d11n·. Conncctin~ wnlls nnd houst•s prub<1bl~ ..,i,tt·d lw1l' but il tht>) did the) hn'e bt>en plo"ed undet -\t tl1t' lclt. 11ot i11 tlw photograph. are additional fwacas. Scn;icio JiJ.5 J.

'"º"º

mi~ht support tlw t ll<'ory of such a development. But 11nfortunalcly tlw .\lo<:hica St) le has never bcc11 adc<1uatdy subdi' idc·d d1ronologically True, Scilor H.afael Larca lToyle ( 191l8) has made an aesthetic-stylislic a11al) sis of ~lod1ica /111(/l'OS an<l has dividcd them into a scri('S of p<'riods ranging from the earliest, most primitive forms, tbrough thc highcst artistic furms to thc last stagt's of clt·c·acknc.·e. Professor John Rowe, workin~ with archaeologi<:al matl'rial carcf ully collccte<l by Uhle. arri\'l'd at u clivision of pí'riocls that apparently snpports Señor Haf;lt'I La reo l loyle's analysis. \Vhilc this ~eque11cc' 1na> haH· i11l1L'l'l'llt artistic \'alidity. it still awaits chrono-

Why ;tn• \lochica ccrnmics arlistically thc fü1c~I, 1rol 0111) in tll<' Chicarna \'allcy but also in ali of the .\rnerica.,? \Vhile it is prematurc to try lo answcr such a qucstion al presc•11t, it mi~ht not be amiss to poiot out that tlw integration of the c11lmi11ati11g powcr o[ a pricst-domi11alt>d soci<'t) with its wcll-cstablished art fonm ancl techniq11('S and the' igorous. risi11~ secular force!> "ith a l1..•11<lc11C) (o\\'ard a ne\\' artistic ,·itality mi!.(ht lrn\ l' h<.'lpc:d to produce tlw cultural Aorescence characteristic of lh<> \fochica Period. uch a situation woulcl not be unique to Peru. In Europc, "hen thc Golbic st) le rcachcd fü lii~hcsl sta~c

of de' elopment, it represr-ntcd hoth tlit• culminatuut Pº" l't ol the medieval Church und the n~i11~ powrr of th« the merchants .md j.!l'O\\ i11~ towns, whose inhabítants, a1 tisans, not only helped to pa) far the cnnvtruct ion of r-ut lu-drals hut also. by thcir increasinu acti\ ities, g<\\ e ímpetus to the development of tlw; art 'l) lt· iutn ib higlwst fonn. Other cxarnplcs in Europeun and \sian art devclopuients could be citcd. hut it is irnpossibk- to do so lrcre. It is sullicient to indicate that the 't'I') du,tlit) .ind umbiv nlence of vlochtca society could be tlu- bases ol ol ils high cultural achievernents. For a detuiled ,111:11) t he rolatlonship of urt foruis aud social structurcs, see the 1111mero11s stimulutínz publications of t lu- Cr-rman art

.,¡.,

historiau. \Vilhclm Hauscnstcin.

Bul if we assume for the time lwing rhat sr-c-ulur

lmn•s

"t·rt· ~n.>\\ úig in power wilhiu thc Inuncwork of a theo t'l'alit· Vlochk-a culture. W<' are supportocl h:i Soúnr Halacl Lurco l IO) lc's theory that there attuall) cxisted a Mochica pnlitical and militar)' e1111>ir1' Irom thc' Chicumu Lo tlw Xepeña \'alle) s inclusiv e. Priext-dominatcd social unitv are gcnerally lirnited in sízc. em1si\l in!.!; of si1 q.~k

communitiex or zroups of communitics. Throuuh their of the movements of tlu- lit•a\ t'lll) bodic-, and the lll) steries of thís world. the priest» can dt•\ elop a l..110\\ lc•cl!.(1'

superior position O\'Cr their 1wopk h) thrcutcnim; them with punislnnent by thc dcmons thut i11kst hoth this world ancl the next. But thc aohicv c•111e11l of cxtensive militar) couqucsts and political oq~a11izatio11 n-quires militar) an<l political specuilists, uamclv the secular chic]«. Thcsc, of cour e. have always exlstcd nlongside the príesthood. But when a eertuin le' el of material de' elopuieut has bcen reached in 'odl't) t he vcculur chiefs are better equípped to carry 011 conqucsts with their tribesmeu-soldiers. first for loot and lator for regular tribute. \\'hcn thc secular chiefs are fina 11) succexsfu]. they are uhle to estnhlish a secular stutc hascd 011 ;\ el.is" '>OCiet) in contrast to the priest~. who gen<'rall) ar<> at bcsl abk to prnd11c<' a kind of proto-class ~oc:iel) "ithin <\ limit<'d an·a. But there is often a long t rm1siti1m slagc, during "hích the priests a11d llw !>Ce u lar chicf s need each other lor territorial expansio11 ancl to control aud con~olidate tltC' c·u11qm:red pcoples, at the sanw tinw struggli11g with each other for interna! conll·ol. Perl1aps such u condition c."istetl in thc .\lochica Periocl. t\l cC'rt;\in titnt''> tlw priPsts may have maintaincd conh·ol, al otlwr linws lhC' secular ru lcrs 1mt) h<\\'e won out. P<'rhaps tlw \ 10('}1 ica PNiod rqm.•st·nted a kind of tlll'ucracy lil...e thal of Tilwt. where

\ 1h,m11111 lrmn .1 \loduca 11p¡1lr ldt l Purtr.iil ol "l1al appl,u' tu 11<· n wn1l.1r \lod1it~1 rnkr Guill< 11 • Fi!!. 12 lo\\l'I ll'Íl ¡1111mhm1 11l t"' 1·1im1· ... Out' 111.l) llit l..iud' or mutilabon tN·d \(11(•111(01 l111at'I" lhal 1ll1l'trall Lorco lioylc • Fig. 13 ~ lid11\\ bl• ,J1ocl..t·d al '>Uch rcn·lation of 111a11\ hrut.1lit) l11 111.111 h11l "l 11111\t ru11t·ml><o>r that unLil 'e~ rt·<.-..·11t t1111t'' 11111trlalío11 "·" ·""' p1 .11 ti( rd i11 our own "c~tl'rn "ci,iJization." \ \l\ Ff hi:. 11

1111111·11.

l IZ

ª'

tht> soldíers Iouuht lor lht• Chíef Priest: most liJ..el). al Ll1t• climuv ol \lod1i1·a pol it ieal pm\ cr, rhc secular ru kr'i \\ t•rc• the

<Hit'~ \\

ho <'\pandcd Llw Empirc.

Thc fi11di11!!;:- ol 1111' Viri'1 Evpcdltion indicate thut there was 110 grad 11a 1 in fil trat ion ol \1 ochica c11 ltu ral to1111o; intn \'i1 vlochicu <·<·ramic·s appeared suddeuly , probably i11dicati11~ a \lot"hka tnilitar) c<HHJllCSl with pO!>!>ibl) som« ú.

.\l()(:hica <:olorli/atim1. \<;~umi11g that •I vlochicn Empirc cxístcd lor a convidcruble l imc. ''e· miuht conclude that it extended into tlu- so-calh-d vhddle P<•riod. durina which it cxpunded southward to tlu- '\1·pena Valle-y, w her« it carne iuto ('011llict \\ ith tlu \t1·adil) northw ard-mov ing 'Tiahuauacu cult11H'. 01 ·1 iuhuuuuco "Ernpire." The latter then slo« 1) puxhed 111<' \í()(;hic:as hack, ,,1fü·) alter 'allc). uutil th«

vlochicn

Empir

1·

ami

ulturr- orumblcd. even in the

CliiC'ama \'ali<·)

This vituatiou culture coní iuur-d

lllll)

holp to expluin \\'h) the Moohic» in tht· Chicama Valle) Tire

1011~

Vig. 44 ( 11p¡H·1 right 1 Thi-, 11ni<¡11t• lt•\tile lrom the Peruv ian Coa..,l lit" 11ol lx·t·11 datr-d arduwulogkall) rbe sun and the moou ol» iou,J) bring ít 111lo 111, categorj of astronomtcal-calcndrlcal tcvuk v, '\oh'. iu 1111• oulr-r cin·l1 ol llw si111, th.it thcu- are elcce« figure\. Tlu- 1111111lx·r ''''' unportant .11110111( m.111) ancieut ¡koplc:~, for it represente the cl.1)' ldt r .11 lh< u1d of .1 ycur based on a lunar-sol.ir <'y<"lt• '•'<' Chapl1•1 \'I) Tlu- oth1•1 fig111t'' 111<1\ 11'11·1 lo tlu· pluuet», <·on,tdl:1ti1m' und índrvidual 'tar' or llw) 111.1) Ji.in llllrel) uumerical \ignifkanc·t•. P1•rhap' '011w ,\\¡,iring \c-i<onli\t \erse<l in positional astronomy can -.oht· tlw 111}\tt·t\ 111 tlii, lP\l1l1 . \.\l\' 11 • l,.1)-( . .tri [owt-r kit '.\ lochica /11111c11 clH·or.11t·d w ith lnrd-, .md pl.1111 .... \.\/ V ll-Reln • Fig. W lm\ t·1 lº•'nh-'t '\ h11111·11 '""" i11g '<ºf'llt'' 1 rom .uu-ie-nt \lnchiea life 'l'l' Fig. -17 A..\1\'11 Rt•111 • Fig. li hol10111) I'hi-, 'l'l"llt". copied from the huaco 'liU\\11 in Fil!. 1fi. ,}¡"''' lul\\ 11~·.11 rnlt•r, make their obei,aHce lo tlw <lud rnlt'1 S1 l\;llll<, 01 ,¡;¡,<''• p1ec<·ded h) 1u1111er'>, earr) llit"1r 11111,krs 011 lill<'•'· Tl1l' chid ruin 1-. '<',tlt•d 011 .1 <:OH·rcd throu<. 011 tht top ol .1 \mall P) r.m1id l / 1111ro clr.l\\ inp:' o( lhi' l\ pe giu• ui. i11'>igbl mlu '01111· ª'IWl h o{ tli< "'t i.il ..,lrntl11n· ot \lochic.1 \ot·il"l) ..\.\IS 11-.\J ''"'' • J'ig. ll°' ( lo\n1 1 il'ht Thi' ,lt•111 \Í\.1!!ed lll'ml. d1arncten,tic ol 111;111\ \ lod1u·:1 portnut l1111wo.\, 'll~f,tnh .1 'tro11i.(. 't'< ubr ruin Tlll' n·.tli,111 .111rl 'i11lit' • '¡111·"' el 111 111am \lodut 1 l1ttm·o.; ¡, g(•1wrally <ttyptc¡tl of th1 "ti ol •t p11r1·l~ pril 't-<lu111i11.1IHI '<>t it'I) Gt11fm11-n"r1i11/!..

º"

fal't that many xlochícn potshcrds are found thcre at al a situation unkuown in othcr vallr-ys most e\ er} site seeins lo confirm this h) pothcsis. Thís situation may also expluin why so [cw pure Consta! Tíahuanuco potslu-rds huvc becn Iound in thc Chic;1111a Vallcy and why pracof thc tícally no walled compounds, so characteristic Coastal 'J'iuhuanaco Períod. wcr« liuilt. \Ve can spcculate Iurther thut ufter thc rising secular power of tlw \fochicas liad grndually bccn ovorthrowu h) the riliin~ secular power of the Coastal Tiahuanaco culture, the lnttcr was dcfcatcd. in turn, hy a rising <;e(·11lar powcr f rorn the Lumhaycqur- n·[{io11, w hich evpandc-d throu gh t lw Chicaum \' alley i nto the nea rhy \ 1 ocho

Valley

1 lere, thr- Chimú

cly11.1sty establishcd an

(>\

('I'

<.''panding einpirc i11 w hich the secular pow<'r final!} became predorníuaut to an cxtcut unJ..11ow11 nnywhero c•ls<' in th« Amcricas. Howev er, the prohlr-m of tlu- socíal structures of the \lod1ica. Coastal Tiahuanaco and Late Chimú Pcrkxls Perhaps the in the Chicarna \'allc•) rcmains unsolved. uttempt lo solv e it will necessitate a sturly of Ihe Chicama and nearby vloche \'allc) as a 1111it. EH•n though the 1011~ Chicama-Moche Canal may have lxx-n built 0111> during thc Late Chi111t'1 Pcrlod, the nearuess of thc two vullcys to each other makes it uppear likr-ly that wluu went on in 011e scriously aflected events in the other But until Iurther serious archaeolotrícal t''l.Ca\ ations a1 l' cnrried 011 and thc rcsults published, we will huve to content ourselves with scientific speculutious bascd 011 ailable uud with the the meaucr amount ol material

ª'

artistíc enjoyment of the ma11y heuutiful huacos that hav e ('01111:'

clown lo us Irom ancient \ r ochica ti mes.

(

TLIB l'IORTHl.m

Seetion J): Clrnpters Xll- ~VI ZONE OF 'rus CHl~IU E)1PIRE

Crossroads of Cultures and Empíres: The Jequetepeque Valley

T....:

Mocunc-Cmcxvi,« unit was thc poand at a11 Parlier Empirc time had bccn the center of ~lochica culture. l lowcv er, the Xorthci n Zonc of lht• Empire was the 1•conomic hinterland for it had a much more extensive cultív atcd arca which supportcd a much lnr~l'r populution than the M oche-Chicnma unit. Thís Northern Zouc, as poiutcd out in Chapter IX. líes

litical cenrei of thc Chírnú

lo thc uorth of the \ 1 ochc-Chicarna unit ami consísts of a C?;eographically distinct ~roup of fi, e valleyx, namely, the

largc [cquctepeque,

the srnall Zaña. the lnrgc Lambay-

cquc, the small Leche und thc still s111al1N Motupe. As thc result of our Hekl work, descríbed in part in thc following chapters, we wcre nblc lo dctcnuine that at one time. probably during the pcríod of the Chimú Empíre, if not earlier. ali of these 'a lle) s had Iorrued a hydro-

logieal - economie unit, that is. thoy had been intcrconnccted by means of irrigatiou l>)!)le111!). \Ve also 1•stahlished the fact that this cornplex unit then had embraccd almost a thírd of rhc cultivalcd aren of the wholr- Coast uud more thun half of that of the Chirnú Empire! We know little of the political anti military histor~ of this rcgiou. Tliere are only a Few hints about it in the limited sources wc possess. According to native trudirions

Fig. l. A ~triking exampl« o• ho" tlw snnd and nlgm robu 1J11,he" eombiuc- Lo t•mt•r what was 011r.:c un extensive plnnued 'llé <ituuted alongside the main anr-ient hi~lrn:i} northwest ni Cerro C1ñoncilln. The 1111\1'~ i 11g;, ni tlu- ll'ft 1111\l' th« uppearuncc of ubandoned plots irrij.(.1tt:d nnti] 1dati' t'I} urodern times. St:reido l 7fl:2fl4.

This site. culk-d La Pampa. líes to tht

recorded h> tho Anonymous Trujillano ( 1611), the Jequctcpoque Valley was conquered by 51all~·enpinco, tite third rulcr Thís event, if we follow Chart TI in Chapter \'111, took place probably around 1300 .\.D. Unlortunately, our inforrnant is silent ou Iurthcr northern conquests un<ler the six succccding rulers. All we learn is that Miuchancurnun. the last índependent Chuuú ruler ( defeated IJy tlic 1 neas possíbly about J.1.75), was in control of Ihe whole of northorn Pern up to thc Ecuadorían border Howev er. the chrouíclcr Cabello. in hís seventccnth centurj account of the Lnmbayeque región, lclJs us that the Chiiuú rulcr 1 rom ChanChan had once scnt a govcrnor by the name of Pongmassn to rulo the Lambayeque Valley, north of the jcquetepeque. Accordinn to onr r-hart this cv eut should have takon place sorne time after 1100. Iu othcr words, the militar)' conquest of the ~reatf'r purt of the '\"orthern Zone h~ tlw Chimús appcars lo have bcen a slov, uud appurt-ntly late process not at ali surprisíug in v iow of thr- siz<· und complcxity of this zone. This indicates that the n•í?;ion hud a long pcriod of local cultural dcvcloprnenr, most aspccts of whích are still unkuown. Thc slory oí th1: political seizure of this Northcrn Zo11e by the Incas is C\ en moro vague. Apparcntly therc was 110 real military conquest at least Cabello mcntions noue. Possibly ufter the destrnr-t ion of thc Chímú power the local rulcrs of tho various regions in the ~orlhC'rn Zo11c submitted voluntarily to tlw mit.dit) Inca hosts and contiuucd lo rule under Inca control. One oí our tasks in Pcru was to determine whcthcr the Xortheru Zoue had al any lime bcen connected by canals wíth the :\Ioche-Chicam.1 umt, and rf not. ho« closely the irrigatc-d arcas of thc J cquctepeque and the Chicama had approuched euch other in the pasl. Trimetronon uerinl photogruphs muele by the Uníted States vrrncd Forces durlug World War TI included thc prcscnt desert arcas scparatíuz thcsc two vallcys. But tlwy wcrp taken at s11ch .1 t.rreat height that thc> dt't.úh wc "ere .intcr csted in were in mosl cases not clearlr clelineated. Fnrtlwnnore. no Sen itio acríal plwtograplis wer<.: rnadt· oí this clesert. wíth thc C\ccption of tl1e narrow regions borclNing tllt' l wo vallc•p. Therdore. pral'licall} all om findings here \\t•rc based on extcnsivc ground reconnaissanc<' malle "ilh a h·nck in 19-10--H uut.l \\ ith a jeep in 19-18- J9. Althoue:h wc cruised through thís desert an•a on various occasions, wc disC'overed 110 major ancienl canals. Questioning of inhabitants of hoth adjoining vallt>ys likc'Wisc yiek1<'d ncgati\l• rt>:-iults. 0111} a le\\ minor canals were e' cnluall~ loc;ltt•d. thcs<' had onc<.' slíghtl} extended 116

thc írrigated áreas of the Chicama Valley towards the north and of the [equetepeque Valley towards the south. This absence of canals connecting the two valleys meant, contrary to the first ímpression we had obtaíned in 1939 (Kosok, 1940· l 75), that the Chicama and [equetepeque Valleys had always been distinct hydrologícal-economic uníts in aucient times. The only connections we could find bétween the Chicama and [equetepeque Valleys were the remains of two old roads. The more important and better preserved of thc lwo iotersects the present Pan American Highway a few miles beyond the cultivated area of the Chicama Vallcy Without much difficulty, we traced its walls and roadbed partly into the jequetepeque Valley We found extensions of this same road in other valleys and intervalley desert áreas. As a result, we were able to recenstruct on our maps most of the coastal trunk road all the way from the Chao Valley to the Motupc, a distance of about two hundrcd miles. This road, like most other ruins of ancíent Peru, is usually designated as "foca" by the present day inhabitauts. Undoubtedly, this trunk road was used and developed by the Incas, but it must have beeo, at least in part, the transportation backbone of the earlier coastal Chímú Empire. Indeed, parts of it may havc been built during the Middle or even the Early (Mochica) Períod, While Dr Schaedel and I were recounoitering in the desert arca just north of the Chicama Valley, we observed the rcmaíns of another road. It ran in a northerly directíon, parallel to thc main ancient road, and about midway between the latter and the ocean. Though it was late afternoon when wc discovcrcd the road we nevertheless decided to see where it would lead, We recount our experíenees, not bccausc of the importance of this road, but because they exemplify some of the problems we often encountered in the field. Doubts of the road's antiquily arose when we discovered that parts of it had

been made leve! by cutting through the slíght ridges of land that ran in an east-west direction! This was not at all typical of ancient roads, which usually ran. over the tops of hills and ridges. We also looked in vain for roadsíde walls, another Ieature typical of ancient coastal roads. Consequently, we decided that this road might have been an old colonial carriage road, which had beco buílt as leve! as possible to permit the easy passage of wheeled vehicles. Nevertheless, we decided to continue to see what would happen. To our dísappointment, even the Iaint traces of the road sooo petered out. So, as on previous occasions, we continued in the same direction to see whether we could pick it up again. After a short time we suddenly encountered, on a stretch of flat terrain, the rernains of an ancíent walled road running in thc samc northward dírcotíoul It soon passed the remains of an olcl tambo ( ancient rest house ), nestled among three distinctive hillocks. Thc ruins looked familiar! Soon 1 rccallcd them as the same tambo and the same section of the road we had encountercd and rnapped in one of our ficld explorations of 1940-41 and then later had located on the U S. trimetrogon photographs! Wedecided that this road could llave been a continuation of our previous road. \Ve surmised that the so-called carriage road may, aftcr ali, havo been an ancient one, with parts of it leveled off in colonial times to permit the passage of wheeled vehiclcs. We did not attempt to follow the road farther north, since it had become quite dark and we were anxious to get out of that desólate región as soon as possible. After cruising for almost an bour in an easterly direction through desert gulleys and aroun<l monte bushes, lit 11p garishly by the headlights of the jeep, we were happy wheo we finally rcached the Pan American Highwayl In 1940-41 we had explored the northern extension of this road but found that it soon got lost in the monte that grew in tbe beds of the dry Cupisnique Ríver When

Fig. 2. An obliquc aerial view showing the peculiar form of the lower Jequetepeque Valley The river, while descending to thc Coai;t, pa.sses from (1) obliquely to (H) where it enters the Pacinc Ocean. Overhead is a small loma cloud. The main parts of tl1c valley are as follows: (A) Town of Jequetepcque; (B) Mouth of the Jeqnetepeque River; (C) Ruinsof Pacalnamú (seeFigs. 6to8); (D) RuinsofFarfán; (E) Town of Guadalupe; ( F) Town of Chepén; ( G) Cerro Tafambo ( see Figs. 14 nnd 15); (JI) ~fain canals bringing water from the Jequetepeque River at ( 1) to the large northern side of the valley, past tl1e Río Scro de San Crcgorio, to the Pampa de Zaña ( both beyond the right edge of the photograph) U S. Anny 107-R-45.

we st11died our map we decided that if this road had continued beyond the river beds as it undoubtedly did it would have joined with the westerly and smaller of the two aocient roads that ex'tend through the jequetepeque Valley farther nortb. According to sorne old maps and the reports of various local people, another ancient "road" exists between the Chicama and Jequetepeque Valleys. Still occasionally used, it runs along the seashore for about fifteen miles from Malabrigo on the northern edge of the Chicama Valley to tlle southern edge of the Jequetepec1ue Vallcy We had no time to follow this "road." But we followed a wcll-preserved section of an ancient walled road, several miles long, wbich extends from the shore to the town of Pacasmayo. This section could well have beeu a continuation of the shore road. In ancient times, such northsouth roads following the coa~"t line appear to have been fairly common because the flat beach was often a natura) highway Before describing our work in the Jequetepeque Valley proper, a word ought to be said about the Cupisoiquc Valley The latter is actually a long, dry quebrada running in a northwcsterly directioo betwccn thc Chicama and Jequetepeque Valleys. Only during sorne exceptionally raiuy ycars in thc Sierras docs some water flow down this coastal valley lo 1941 we used one of the sturdier trucks of thc Peruvia n Road Department to carry on some limited reconnoitering into the parts of the valley directly above the Pan American Highway lt was an extremely rngged trip through a desolate, forbidding area covered by innumerable rocks of all sizes. No ruins of any kind were located. In 1946, Dr James Ford, of the American Museum of Natural History, studied the remains of a nnmber of primitive houses farther up the valley They had apparcntly been built around a small, now extinct, "lake." This site represented, most probably, a temporary settlement buiJt in aocient times during a rclativcly long period of unusually heavy rains in the mountains. During this period water came down the dry valley, accumulating partly in a small natural depression, thus forming the lakc. Later on, with the return of a normal, drier period, thc lake and its surroundingscttlemcntdisappcarcd. When we visited the German agriculturist, Mr Hammerle, at his stock farm in the Jeqvetepeque Va1ley, he told us that thcre were sorne minor canals in the middle part of the Cupisnique Vallcy, probably somewhere below the general area of Dr Ford's investigation. Twenty-fivc 117

1,.

ycars ago, when he hud led mule trains [rorn the míddle [equetepcque Valley across thc Cupisnique Valley into thc Mocan region of the Chicarna Valley, he had often come across these minor canals. However, as a result of a number of unfortunate circumstances wc wcre unable to vísit thosc canals and localízc thern on our map. Mr Hamtucrle pointcd out that these Formcr Inigated habitation siles probably were similar to thc temporales,

which are to be Iound today at various places on the Coast of Peru. Teuusoroles come into bcing in those rare years or series of ycars when an exceptional arnount of rain in rhe mountains brings water for a f ew days or weeks clown into sorne dry coastal valleys or quebradas. Then pcople From neighboring valle) s come into these regions t emporarili] aud divcrt the water onto sorne nearby levcl ground. If there is sufficient water. a meager crop of corn can be produced. But, cluring the ycars when the water does not uppcar, these plots are abandoned, Archaeologically the [equctepcquc Vallcy propN presents a peculiar problcrn. While the Chicarna-Moche to the south and the Lambayeque Complcx to tlie north developed distinct "local" cultural Iorms, no such distinct forms havo thus far been ídentificd b) archneologísts for the [r-quetepcque! Thc ceramic collections from this valley at prcsent indicare mainly importations, imitations or ínfluenccs of Cupisnique, Mochica, Cajaruarca, Lambayeque, Chimú aud, Hnally, I11ca stylcs. The valley seerns to have becn a kind of meeting ground or crossrouds of the cultures of thc adjacent coastal aud Sierra regious, But the jequetepeque seerns to havo h<'l-'11 more than just a cultural crossroads, There are sorne índications that at eertain limes it had also been a political crossroads, For thc incas, the jequetepeque Valley was obv íously sígnificant. Thcir maín control center for thc northern part of thc Peruvian Andes was Cajamarcn, where Atahualpa, thr- lust Inca rulcr, was deíeated and killed by Pizarro. But apparcntly the Incas had also uscd Cajamarca as an indircct control center for tlu- rclutcd coastal valleys. The controlling armies and administrntive officials of the Incas could be dispatched directly clown the jequetepeque to thc neigbborin~ coüstal \':tllC'ys to the uorlh and south. Jn this sense, the J<'q11<'tetw<1ue \'allcy became a loe.ti crossroacls or nodal point for al least a section of tlH' foca Empire. But in earlier ( Chi1rn'1) times tliis 'allc) had apparently already playcd a somewhat similar role. As mcntioned above, Ñan\enpinco, thc third Chiinú rulcr, had con118

<pu"'rt>d the valley prohablr at thc cu<l of tl1e thirlccnlh cC'ntury Calancha ( 1638) tells us a similar story of the co11qucst of thc vallcy by Pacatnamú, a general who servecl one of tl1e Chim{1 rnl<"rs. Tt is not clear whethC'r lhcsc accounts <leal with thc sarne conquest or two separatc conquests. For our presenl purposes this is immateiial. \Vhat is important is the foct that the accounts show carly control of the valley hy tlw Chimú Empire. Bul more important, when later on the Chimú Empire extcnrl<.'d its power farther 11orth i11to the Zaña and Lam-

Fi~. 3 (left) This •ertical arria! phutograph shows a ,l•ctit111 of uue of Lhe Lwo ancienl norlhso11th tnmk highways where it crosse> lhe Pan American Iligl1wuy {widc black üuc al bollum) and part of the vegetation zonc of thc Jequetepeque Vallcy ( dark st•ction at top) Thc roa<l is thl· 111ore westerly and po,sihl> thc oldcr of the two highway,, ParaUcl to thc road ami at 'ºllll' <lU.taoce from it arp thP rPmains of two walls. This arrnngemeut was also found in thc Pampa de Tl·ca¡m 1u the }P<1111•t1•pt><¡t1P \'alter as well as in :.omc other vallers. The purpose of thcse walls ha~ not )l'l been cll'lPrmi1wcl. PPrhaps thP}' werc med to zonc off state propc1ty alongsiclc the road from local 'illage propnty and to keep state troops and messenger' from eomiug into clirect contact witlt ,u()jt•cl local population~. Srrrirln, 170: 166.

Fig. 1 (abo,·c) The samc ruadª' ~ho"n in Fig. 3 photo~r;1phcd at thc point where il crosscs tlw P;\n American Highwa> '\otc llmt tl11: ruad is dircctPd strai11:ht towards the lowcst notch in the nParb>• hill~. Also note its con~lructiou: it is ele, ated sliizhtlr ahm P the leve! of the land a11d de~·' not ha\'(• thP e1"tom.tr} side "alis. Tbc paralld ""11' (.",\llnol be seen hPr<'. Knsnk.

bayeque, the Jequetcpcquc Valley became a crucial politícal-military base. \Ve also know From Cabello de Valboa (llI, Chap. XVJ) that thc last of the Chimú rulers had a military alliance with the rulcr of Cajamarca in the Sierras, since upparently neitbcr ruler was strong enough to conquer the other, and both Foarod the growing power of the Incas. \Ve know also that, when the Inca arrny attacked Cajarnarca, the Chirnú rulcr scnt contingents of troops to the Sierras, though this did not prevent the final victory of the Incas over both. But before the Inca victory, this milítary alliance tended lo make the [equetepeque important as a crossroads for tl two powers, since most troop movcrnents between Coast and Sierra probably went up and clown thís valley lt is possiblc to go up to Cajamarca through thc Moche or Chicama Vallcys, but thcse routcs are much more difficult and time-consumíng to negotíate than thc one through the jequetepeque, Evcn today the quickest bus trip is through the latter valley \Ve do not know whethcr the aforementioned role oí thc jequetepcque Valley goes back further than the Chimú Period, for thc nature and extent at that time of thc relationship of the coastal valleys to one another and to the Sierras is still complctcly unknown. However, it is very likely that in this general area, trade and tribute routes from the Coast to the Sierras and from consta! valley to coastal vallcy would have crossed this strutegically located jcquctcpcquo. The Jequetepeque Valley, onc of the Iarger oues along the Coast, contains a cultiv atcd area about the sarne size as that of the Chicama to thc south, Sugar aud rice are today the main commercial crops. \Ve are fortunate in having a brief reference to this valley by Cíeza de León, Spanish soldíer and outstandíng Chroniclcr of Peru (T, Chap. LXVIII). Writing as early as 1548, less than fiftccn ycars aftcr the Spanísh conquest, he found thc valley to be the most fertile and populous one he had encountcrcd since landíng at Tumbes in the northl Cieza furthcr reports that great quantíties of cotton cloth were made in this valley He saw many flowers and trees, and the branches of the latter were covered with thousands of varietíes of birds a condition hardly characteristic of the valley today The Jequetepeque Valley has a rather peculiar shapc. While the ríver Hows from the mountains almost in a straight line to the Pacíflc Ocean, the vallcy, unlike that of thc Moche and Chicarna, has no broad coastal plain that spreads fan-Iike clown towards the sea. To the south

of the river there stretehcs for a distance a plateau which is too high to havc bccn rcached by ancient canals, thus lirniting considerably thc arca that could be írrigatcd. To the north of tho rivcr a chain of coastal bilis near the sea prevents eultivation in this region. Thc only place leve! and Iow enough to permit the extensive development of inigation is a plain wedged in betwccn Lhc eoastal hills and the foothills of the Andes. Since, however, the land here slopes slightly downward all thc way to the Zaiia Valley in thc north, the culti"ated area could he extended as far as thc lattcr vallcy. Our sludy showed tbat this extension was actually achieved, probably in Chimú times, ií not carlier The main canals crosse<l, as man y still do, thc bed of the small and genera lly dry "river" of San Grcgorio, called in its lower scction Hío Chamán (see Fig. 2 and map, p. 146). In the míclclle of thc widc irrigatcd plain to thc north of the Jequetepeque River líes Guadalupe, the main town of this area. Established in the sixtcenth ccntury by the Spaniards, apparently near an old Indiau síte. it soon became an important pilgrimage center, a position which it still maintains. Ilere, <luring the scvcntcenth century, thc Jesuit priest, Calancha, wrote an account of the still extant folk traclHions and c:ustoms of thc ancicnt Jndians To thís day, his of this rcgfon ( 1638: JI, Chap. JU) description has remained one of the few valuablc sourccs we posscss conccrning these peoplc. A good English summary can be found in Mcans (1931) Calan cha tells us among other things that thc I nd ians of the Jeqnctcpequc Valley worshipped the moon as their deity and that her temple was then called Signan (Fig. 18). Tbey also worshippcd the three belt stars of the constellation Orion, whieh the Spaniards callcd los tres Marías. To the Indians, two of the stars were offic:crs of the law chasing the tbird, a thief. Apparently legal cnforceme11t of property 1·ights was held to be a reflection of eternal hcavenly relationships! These Indians as well as othcr eoastal peoples calculate<l their year ( and probably their calendar) by the Pleiades, which thcy called Fur This is not surprising, since in the Southern Hemisphcrc, in rcgions witb seasonal rains, thc annuaJ disappearance of the Pleiades marks thc bcginning of tl1e rni11s, thC' comi ng of the waters in the riveJ's, the beginning of the anfoocll nual agricultnral cycle Calancha says thnt thc ancicnts believed mankind had descended from fom stars. Two of tlwm gavC' risc to kings, cbiefs an<l nobles, while the other lwo were the progenitors of the workcrs! This woulcl ínclieate that class

distinctions had become so set that the two main classes of society even ha<l separate divine ereations! That Calancha does not mention tbe priests in his social classifieation may be an accidental omission. ílut it also might indicalc that Lhc priesthood no longer played an important role as a part of the upper class. This would further substanliatc our previous statemeuts concerning the growth, towards the end of the pre-Spanish period, of a secular upper class at the expense of the priesthood. Calancha also gives us tbis interesting admonition of

Fig. 5. .\larkct da)' in the main square of Guadalupe. Kosok.

119

"Now the oíllcial marriage sponsor to a bridal couple you are marrícd, but bcar i11 mind that you must always be equully industrious and ec1ually ardent in lovc, Ior you

rnust always be equals in the state into which you are cntering." Does this mean that despíte the rise of a secular class society, generally accompanied by a risc of patríarchy, this marriage admonition indícates that worncn still had maintaincd sorne of the rights which they had possessed in a11 earlier rnatriarchal stage? This dernocratíc adrnonition is at variance with the low social status which wornen are supposed to have hud in ancicnl Peru. Or was the status of women not so low as is generally nssurncd? Calanchu dcvotcd only a fcw pagos to thís folklore, but be did somewhat better thau Cieza, who wrote laconically durina his stay in 1548 "Thc natives tell sorne traditions of their Fathers. whích bcing Iables. I shall not write down." \Vhal a pity that Cieza was so contcmptuous of thc culture' of tho "heatheus." 1 ot far from Guadalupe líes thc old town of Chepéu, the markct ccnter of thc northcm part of the valley Other smallcr settlerncnts and several minor haciendas dot this northern region. The only large haciendas of the valley are thosc of Talambo and Limoncarro, thc lattcr owned by Casa Grande Hacienda in the Chícama Valley

F1g. 8 .• \ dose oblique :ll'ri,1! 'ie" of thc "palttl·e.. ,hown in flg~. 6 and 7 \Jote lhe size a11d ~lr11('111rc nf the liat-lopped p) rami<l which do111i11,Hcs tlw surrouncling rectnngular stn1durc~. Kosok.

011 tht- soutlwrn side there ar{' fower haciC'ndas and settlements, for herc tbe cultfrated arca is smaller. The two most important colonial and probably pre-colonial towus are Jcquctcpcque and San Pecho ele Lloc. But the dcvclopmt-11t of coastal and forcign tradc in thc 11i11eteenth and twentictb ccnturies has now made tlw colonial port of Pucusmayo, situated some six miles to the south of the mouth of thc jequetcpcque Hiver, the leading town oC thc \'Ulle~ Unlikc Chimbote in thc Santa Valley region, Pacasmayo h<\S no natural harbor. Ships anchor alongsi<le or near thc large mocl<·rn steel picr thnt juts far out into thc ocean. The distincth·c feature of Pacasmayo is a widc boardwalk along the ocean front, which is a popular promenade ceuter in the cn'ning. lt runs from the Hotel Ferrocarríl ( Hailroad Hotel) to thc spacious ancl rathcr pleasant Cl11u wher<> the lead ing citizens of the town

Fig. 6 (ll'ft) The land mass shown in this dramatíc vertical aeríal photograph appears, at first sight, to be a peninsula. Actunlly il is a peculiarly shapcd plateau (barran('n) with thc wavos of the Pacific beating al it~ western síde, and sugnr cane fields bordering its southeastern side. The ruin, called Pacatuarnú or Barranca, is one of the largest and most important 011 thc Coast. On the western síde of the slte are a largo number of adobe pyramids that possíbly compriscd an ancicnt ceremonial cenu-r. Their weathcr-beaten condilion indícates that tbey represent thc ulder part of the site and prohably date back to the Middle or e' en Early Period. The mujer part of thc site is covered by numerous compounds that apparcntly were living quartcrs, their better prcscrved state tends to indicate a Late Period con~trnction. Thc largcsl walled compound ( ccntcr of photograph) with a more clearly deflned and more complex pyramid in front of it, mar ha'e bccn the "palace" of General Pacatnamú, who wa!> M·nt írom CbanChan by thc Grand Chimú to conqucr tJ1e 'all(•y of Jequctcpeque. ' ole al tlw right of thc pbotograph the cu1Ycd defen~ive wall pamlleled by a dry ditch or "moat." Proba bly the ditch was produce<l whcn tJ1c soil was excavatcd for building thc> wall. Anothcr "moat" cuts across the mid<llc of tJ1e ruins. To tl1e right of thc picturc severa! large canals were found but no remains of cultivated flelcls coulcl be located in the canal region. Al thc foot of the ba"anca (extreme left of tJ1c photograph) a i.mall modern scttkment can be seen. Serncío 170:96. Fig. 7 Tlii~ oblique arria! \'Íew, wlúch '' t- t·aulo(ht from a low-flying Faucett plane, shows part of thc n1in~ of Pacall1amú at a closer r:mge than in Fig. 6. N'ote how the walls and pyrarnid¡¡ ns wcll as thc quebrada :'\t the right of tlw main ruin stand in sharper relief than in Fig. G. Al thc IPft center of the photograph can be ob,fcrvecl part of what might have bee11 tlw "palace" of General Pacatnami't ( see Fig. 6) Kosok.

i assernble cvcuinas to driuk, rcad. play ~ames and chut about the <'' ents of the duy Thc Iown also boasts of two rnotion picturc theaters which show thr- latest vmcrican and Arucntiue horror films. As in 1941. wc rnade Pacasmayo our headquartcrs and

stayed at the Fcrrocnrril. Siucc our previous trip, the Pcruvian cmrnent hacl taken it er, reuov atcd it and

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put it in the hands of a compctcnt Italiun-Swíss hosu-ler From thc halcony of our plea ant room wc lookcd out over the towu sqnare ami thc expansc oF the Pacific, Ouce settled there W<' mude thc usual rouuds of thc gov-

ernmeut officos. \\'e w erc Iortunate in ulso rnectinu thc editor of the local puper, Señor Carlo« Rios, and his '011. who spokc F.nglish Hucntly They showed a real intercst in nncicnt Peru, nnd had rcprinted sorne portíons of Caluncha's work in their pnper \\'e W<'H' wannly welcomcd by thcm und were introduccd to a numbcr of people who aided us in our ficld work. From Pacasrnayo we ulso visitcd thc ncarby hume of

Fig, !l. vdolx- ruin'> uf \lorn \"iejo a-, 't't'n lrom the air. \l thc bottom, mkldh-, just ahm t• thc dark irríuatcd aren. i- thc main pyuuuid with ih ••0111ph•\ ol w.rlls. 1 lerc the '>iµ;11ifirnnt potshcrclv divcussed in t lu- u-xt "<'fl' louud. Ahove anrl lu the left •>f tlu- 111ai11 pyramid nre a nurnbr-r of ot lu-r structun-s whir-h are in a much [)l)(lí<'r 'tall' of prcvcrv utiou than tlu- n1,1i11 p~ ramid .. \t th~· riglu the Pan American l ligh\\':l) cnts throuzh pa1l of thc 'ik. Sc>n:icio JiO· 21;~ • F'i).(. 10 (margin and ceutcr ) Potvherdv lrom \loro \'it>jo. KMok-\\ ry1111

Señor Hümmcrle. He and his family grC't'tt•d us hcart ily and invited us lo Kaff ce 111ul Kuchcn. During latcr v isits, we enjoycd sorne fine Corman dinners \\ hich Mrs, Hiimmcrlr- ami her daughtcrs preparcd. 1 "ns 'ery surprisod whcn ~lrs. l lümmerle hamle<l me a s111all book of íleld notes whieh 1 had unk11owi11gl)' left tlwre in 19-11 and had gi"cn up for lost! But most importanl . ..\lr IHimmerltls intimatc knowleclge of thc '<1lley, g<ti1wcl c1 S<'' ('ntl dccnclcs of acti\'e life, aidcd 11s mat<'rially in our ill\ Pstígations. Tl1<' 'ülll') contains rathcr ('\tensh <' a11d fairl} W('tl pr<'scn ed rl'mai11s of Sl'\t•ral '"loca" (probabl) pre-l11cn) roads. in<:luding the forrrwr main coastal lrunk roacl. The prcscnt Pan American Il i~hway cuts thest' at SC\'eral poinls ::md thcy c:an he seen withoul lea\'i11g thc highway ( Figs. :3 and 4) Tho~e pnrts that nm throu!-!h thc pn'st•nt da) cultinlted arC'as are diffknlt to local<' hecause. i11 man~ ca~cs. Lht') h:n e bcc.•n plo11ghed mHkr h) thc c11lli\<1Loro;.

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122

Only by lining up ali thc acrial photographs of thís valley eoulcl we trace the Forrner courses of the roads. But, of most unportancc, the vallcy of jequetepequc is líttercd with a great variety of ruins along the desert edges as well as within the cultivated areas, More than forty dístínct sítes were located. visited, and mapped.

The largor northcrn side of the vallcy contains the grcator nurnbcr of sites. Outstaudiug among these is ancient Pacatnarnú ( Figs. 6 to 8) Dramatically situated on a dcscrt bluff ovcrlookíng the blue Pacific as well as the green flelds of the [equetepequc Valley, this maguíficcnt site is eme of thc largesl ancl best prcservcd ruins of aucient Peru. pparently it had been an extensivo ceremonial sitc containing many small and medium-sízed pyramids, dating Irorn the Mochica and the Middlc Periods. 1 t also eontains what sccrns to be a more receut Chimú type compound, sítuated in the eastern part of the settlement. This compound is very líkely thc palace referred to by Calancha as having been built by General

Pacatnamú after he hud been sent by his Chímú sovereígn from ChauChan to rule over the J equepeteque Valley A smaller, but nevertheless signiflcant, companion ceremonial ccnter líes across fue river just south of Pacatnamú. Herc are the tall Huaca <le las Dos Cabezas (Two H eads) baclly destroyed by man y treasure hunters and many extensiva but unexplored structures. General sketch plans of both sites have been mude by Professor Kroeber (1930), whilc Profcssor Docring ( 1952) has excavatcd sorne Mochica gra\'es at Pacatnarnú and is rnaking Iurthcr excavations in the [cquctepeque Valley About eight miles east of Pacatuamú líe the extensive ruins of Farfán. Thís is a Jarge and important prehistoríc urbau sítc which stretchcs along the prcsent Pa11 American Il ighway sornewhat to thc north of thc rivcr Thc ancient north-south trunk road runs right through thís settlemcnt, paralleling Ior a Iew miles thc prcscnt Pan American Highway The uncxcavatcd ruin consists of many walled structures and a few minor pyramids. During scveral visits to the sito, Señor Osear Lostaunau of Cuadalupe Found and collected ceramics of many periods. from the ~tocluca to the lnca. Talambo, with nearhy Huaehaco, is the third large ruin on this ba11k of the river (Figs. ]4 and ]5) Thc sitc consists of habitation terraces, stone-walled fortificatíons, wallecl cornpouncls ancl pyramids and once musl hin-e co11tro1Jed the cntranec ancl exit to the narrow upper part of the valley After we had ,·isitecl Talambo, Dr Schacdcl and bis assistants mane a grouncl plan of the main pyramicl f..'H>uping. H11achaco has been partially cxplorcd by Seiíor Lostaunan. It was at Guadalupe that we fü:st met Sefior Lostaunau. the a<lmiuistrator of the local hospital, Afora. who possesses an intense scientific interest in the culture of the Indians of the past. Señor Lostaunau is a cornparativcly

Fig. 13. Ground dew of tlw t1dobc Tlnaca E,lacas showing side platforms, taken from a pusilion near thc lowC'r ldt cunwr of Fig. 12. Thc vt·rtk:al crosioll lint·s the sides of the huaco wcre caused by rains thal fcll occasionnlly during thc c:enturies. Kosok.

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Pig. 11 left) Thc unin·rs;d magichtn, thb time at a foir at Guadulupe in the Jequetepeque Valley, exhibils his bng oí lricks. The fnirs i11 litis .region date back to easly colonial tiJllcs an<l possibly to thc prc-Sp<tnislt pcriod of Pcrudan histor~' Kosok • Fig. 12. Thc pyramid of Estacas (The Stakes) is surrounded hy ill-deflned rnins and masses of cbrk mo11te bush<'s. Unusual in its torm, the pyrnmid is on<' of thc largcst structures on the Dry River of San Gregorio. The approaching fronl rnmp cloes uol lead dire<.:tly tn the summit, hut rnlher to a liase• platfonn from wltich sidc rarnps n111st be followed to rt•ach thf' top of thc pyr;1mid. Servicio 170:'f24ii

123

FiJ:l.

14.

A comproheusiv

t•

vertical acrial 'icw of the sprnwli ug nuns of Cerro Tnlarn bo ( cerner and right ) and the remaius of neurhy J l uuchuco ( left )

'iluatl'd un tlw nnrth bunk of the jequetcpeque Hiv er. At thc western fool of tlw Cerro (extreme right of the photugraph ) b a largt· reetungulur Chimúlil..c walhxl compound (A), ccntainiug a dirt uud stouc pyrsunid. Otlwr rce-mngular structures can be noted ncurby Not far [rorn (A) are s1•\ eral budly damnged udolx- py r.unicl-, ( 11) of an appnrcntly earlicr constructíon than (A) lkl\\t'('ll tht•st• pyramids are the remains of an aucíent canal (C) Beyoud the uucivut cuual the 111ai11 inoderu ca11al cun lx- sccu clearl~ dcflncd by two parallel whitc lincs, Thc bluck arca <1h0\ e the luttcr canal represents modorn írrigated fields. The Irregular whítc litH' running past the ruin at (A) is a modcrn local dirt rond tn l lu.rch.ic«. Thc Cerro itsell is covered with ma11) terraces co11tai11ini;: stoue-w nlled hnhitat ion ,,ite~. ti' wr-ll ª' uumcrou- ~tonl' w;11l' built for dt•Ít•11\ÍH.' purpo'<''· Adduinnul -trucrures. not shown. exist in the aren adjaceut to tht• re_gio11 at the ri_ght of tlw photogruph. This major site of Cerro Tularnbo u11doubtc<ll) controlled the nec], of tht jequetepequc \'a llev, w hich hcre b unir ubout a mile wíd«, Little 1, kn0\\11 of ancieut Huachaco .111<l 11othi11~ of its relationship to Cerro Talarnbo. lnll'n•,ting in Iluachaco i~ thc trapczoid [orm of the main structure within which walled <ubdiv ivionv can lw deteeted. "\ote also th< \ .1rio11' n•<.t.lll't'lllar tructures [urther up the quebrada. Tln- hill to tlu- righl of tht 1¡urbmcla contains addittonal rectangular structure-. well ª" numerous habitation terracv- Th, peculiar ,lta¡w of the composite photograph ¡, dm- partl) to the fad that dHlerenl secuons "ere enlarged at difft·rc•nt tim1·<. and partl) to tlw ÍJt·t that tlu- S1·" ic 10 photoizraphs cm er only parl of the arid hill) 1egio11,. <'tl 1do J iO ·fi!i7

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Fig. 15. Crouncl 'iew of o p:1rl oí the right section of Fig. 14. The main rectungular ~ll ucluic with ih eartl1 and sto11c pyru111i<l (A) cau be clearly sccn and corrcsponds lo scctio11 (A) iJl Fig. 14. Abo'c ( B) are thc thrcc ol<lc·r au<l more damagcd adolw pyramids. Thc ancient canal ( C) nmning throu¡.ch thc pymmi<ls and Yisiblc in Fig. 1<l can harrl> be sr<'n in Fig. 15. The main modem canal, horclen•d by trrf'S, :rnd thf' cultivat<'d fields are in t lw far bacl..ground. Schaedel.

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Fíg. !ti. Dr. Schnedcl 1:ro..,..,i11g thc jcquepeteque

River near Tnlarnbo in a11 accvpu-d prehistoric 'l) le. Itodríuuez S11ySr111

young man who devores all of his free time lo archaeology and at prcscnt is carrying out a systcmatic study of the practícally ncglectcd archacologicnl rernuins of thc

J cquctepcquc

Vallcy

W e spcn l severa 1 ver y happy and fru itfu 1 days wi.th the

charmíng and oblíging Señor Lostaunau. lle accompanied us on some of our ficld tríps in a valley where he knew almost every Foot of the way He has visited mauy ruins in the valley on foot and horseback and has Foruied a signi6eant collection of textiles and ceramics. But most irnportant, he has drawn accurate grouud plaus of a number of outstundíng sitos. lle is now making a detailed ground plan of Pacatnamú which he has visited nurncrous times. A conscicntious and pcrsevering worker, he deserves moral uud material assistance in his important work. A trip to \loro Viejo yíelded unexpectcd aud valuable rcsults. These ruins are situated on the Río Seco de San Gregorio, just west of the Pan American I !ighwa) and about Iivc miles north of the town of Guadalupe. On several previous occasions when passing through on the Highway, we hnd noticed this rathcr inconspicuous site. 'Ve had ignorcd it, for local residents had insistcd that it dated back only to colonial times. But during one of our return trips to Lima a careful examination oí the aerial photographs of this urea convínced us that al least part of the ruins must li<l\ e bccn of a pre-Spanish pyrnmíd

type. Our subsequent field trip confirrned this ( Fig. 9) The ruins of Moro Viejo consist of onc major pyrarnidlíkc structure, several sma1ler mounds, and other ill-defíncd adobe constructions scattcrcd arnong the algarroba busbcs. Thcse rernains. as well as anothcr small pyramid and sorne hadly destroyed structures on the eastern side of the Pan American Highway, indicated the probabílity that this whole arca had once becn a major site, possíbly the main site, in the valley of thc Río Seco de> San Cregorío. lt is along the "banks" of this "rivcr," which since ancient times were irrigated by water from the [cquetepeque Hiver, thut thc intcrcsting Huaca Estacas ( Fígs. 12 and 13) and other síguificant pyrarnids, located on our previous trips, are situatcd. Anothor surpríse awaitecl ns at Moro Viejo. As we bogan our usual procedure of pickiug up potshcrds, we found that a good portien oí thcm wcrc of a lype we had not cncountered in the many surface collections we hncl so far madc in othcr pruts of thc Coast. This unusual t}1)e consistcd of dark brown-to-orange dcsigns on white-tobuff background and appeared strikinglr remioiseent of Sierra ccramics. "'e learned frorn Dr Schaedel that the nearesl affinity to this type of warc is to be found in the so-called Cajamarea cursive. I cvertlwless tl1ere wcre signiricant differences, especially in the kincl of paste. The Moro \'k·jo type of warc, found sporaclieally as far north as ~lotupe and as far soulh as \loche. inclicates a dcfinite ancl specific Siena :influcnce. Accorcling to Señor Rondón oí Chiclayo, this ware is pa1tic:ularl) common to the i\ancho region in thc upper Zalla \'alley. a site which can bt• reached at prcsent clirt>ctlr from ~foro \'iejo by a path that verr likcly dat<•s back to ancienl times. Thc so11thern side of the Jequelcpcque \'alley, though smallcr than the northern, showed n11 ahundance of inter-

Fig. 17 ( lt ft) A erial 'it•" of se' eral '>m.111 l111acm. "ith i,urrounding n·t:langular slrncturcs, risiug out of lhC' rice fltlcb east of San José. ThC' TÍt'\' formers adapt thcir fü·Jd, to tlw more rcsi~tant walls of th<' ruin. Sc:rvic:io 170 ·387 • Fig. 18. Accnrding to Father Calnutha, th<' ancients worshippc<l lht• moon, which tlwy <:alled Si, ancl hui 11 a "tpn1ple" in its honor. Local tra<litio11 claims that J luat•a Si¡.tnnn ( ri¡.tlot ). siluated south of tlw lown of Guadalupe, is thii. lt'111plc. olt' thnt thc partly de,trorf'cl J)yr:imid is surrounde<l br an a<lolw \\ali. The upper pbtfon11 ¡, gufü•d wiLh holes from tria! "t''-<"ª' ations" ma<l<" chicíl) b) h1111t¡11t m~. St•n:ido 170:,U!/

126

esting and unexplored site!>, a few of which we shall mcntion. The monte and sand-co,·cred arca to the south nnd southwest of the prese11t town of San Pedro de Lloc, in thc rcgion labeled with thc old .\lochica word Sincapc on the A rmy map, attractcd otir atteution. AJter somc gro u ncl recouuaissaucc and el iscussíons la ter with Dr Sehaedel, we surmised thnl Lhcrc were sorne remai11s of au old settlcmcnt in this area. Archaeological exploration of the area whieh is jnst below thc prcsent limits of culti' ation of the southern hank of t11e ri,·cr shcmld bring much unknown material to light, material that should also revea! nspects of the relationship in the past of this vallcy and thc Chieama to the !>Outh. During one of onr sojourns nt Pacasmayo, when wc wcrc without trnnsportation, thc local SCIPA e11ginccr lent us his jet>p and chauffcur f or st'vcral days. As a rcsull wc:' wPrt> able to makc an cxtensive h·ip up the vallcy as far as Tt>mbladera, which for our pw·poses could be considered the terminus of thc consta] part of the valle} On tlw way up. we stoppcd at severa! Chinesc hocie11das wbich we had visited in 1911. There are quit<' a numher of Cbinese settlccl in ali parts of Pcrn, many of who111 are traders. Some own n•staurants where tlwy sc•n·c a fine array of real Chi11csc dishes, creativC'ly ndnpled to thc culinary habits of the Peruvians. Othcrs c11gage i11 agrieulture, ancl somc evt·11 owu small haciendas where tht>y employ J ndian laborers.

Fi~. 19. This mixr-d min, on its \\'U) to Chilete and Tembladora, i-, eltuggin!.( past the Iour stone and dirt mounds of ~lo11lc Grande. This photograph. takc.·11 1 rom thc top of ouc of thc 1110u11tls, shows anotlu-r mound ou the othcr sidc of tlw trnin. Kosol«, (Littlc Fig. 20. The imprcssiv« and extcnsiv« ruins of Ventanilla Wmdows ). situated in th<' narrow part ol the valle) ,ibm L' 1 lacienda Tolón, are shown in this vertical aerial photograph. The densely paekt•d structures cvntcr nbout tlie hul-(t' .ulobc J)) nuuíd. Note the lurgc wulls on the hills snuated 011 oppnsilf side~ o~ the quehrada. • \bo note how occaslonal waters, that llowed clown tbc quebrada d11ri11Jt man~ ccnturit-v, ha' e washed .1war part of tlw vite. The bnnk uf the jequctcpeque is just l~lo\\ the bottom of tlw photogr:iph. The curv ed liuev ,1t tite left of tlw photogrnph are thc tracks oí lht> rnilroad rn111ii11g [rnm Pacasumyo to Chiletc, Thc black spots are al~nrroha bushes. Scrt'icio 170:4~0. í

Thc [irst Chinesr- hacienda WC stopped at \\'<IS r Iacienda Tecapa. Thc owncr grected LIS i11 a very Iriendly manner and, to our pleasant surprise, rccalled our v isit in 1941. Alter the usual polite preliminary conversation, he took us up lo thc loft of onr- of his buildings wherc he sbowed LIS a largo number of boxes fillcd with cerarnics that his ernploy ces had dug up while working ou the hacienda, 1 lc oponed scveral of thcse boxes, and a superficial examination showed that the cerumics were rcprcscntative of various cultural pcriods, ínclucling l nea. But hcrc, as in museum collections. nothing wus seen that would indicatc the cvistcnce of a distinct local style.

After

a round of Coca-Colas, which the hacendado

produccd Irom his electric rcfrígerator, his two politc but lively sons, born and brought up on tlw hacienda and now atteudlng colleue, accompuníed us on an extcnsíve rcconnaisancc. \ Vhereas, in 1941, wr- had bccn a ble to flncl ancl map only a Few canals and sites in the Pampa de Tecapa arca, we wcre now able, through the aid oí the excellent Servicio aerial photographs, to makc a much more comprchcusiv e and systematic surv <') Driv ing our jeep carefully over the rough tcrrain. we soon disco' ered that the wholc Pampa de Tecapa was literally covered with canals. Furrows, walls, roads, and tambo-like structures, \\'<' cv eu lound a wide ancient roud with a double set of walls, similar to the onc describcd on page 118. Betwccu thc hacienda aud thc small Cerro Pitura, on thc south bank of thc river, in the sr-ction north of the prcscnt raílroad. W<' encountcred a series of wallcd adobe enclosures and structures as wcl] as a numbcr of small pyramids. Purts of thc pyrarníds were CO\ ercd by algarroba trees and w ind-blown soil. After bidding fare\\ ell to our host. "(' conrínucd up the vallcy, w hich, abo' e Cc•1TO Pitura, suddcnly hecomcs very narrow Onr m-vt stop was at Tolón Hacienda. likewisc owned by a Chinese family Aftcr iuvítinu us for lunch and prespnting us with a Ilvc gallon can of gasolinc for our jeep, thc owner cxnmined our aerial photographs aud maps and pointed to rhe places whcrc sorne of thc old canals that wc hud locatcd in 19~] aetuull , termiuated. We thcn crossed the river to the northorn hank and continucd 011 the road to Tembladera, As W(' drove ulong. we could scc additional ruins directly bcsidc the road as well as alouz (he hillsides, ;\lan) of the ruins we hud airead) spotted on the aerial pbotographs. ~lost importaní of the siles W<·n· those of Los Leones, and a group of four srnall rectangular dirt and stone mounds 1wtween Monte Grande a11d Ch11111~úl. which wc cxa1nincd ( Fig. 19) From Tolón to T('m blaclera the characl<'r or the ruins changed. Stonc· co1npletely rcplaccd adobe; hillsidt' structmes bi>camc more• mmierous, though smallcr in siz<' than in the \'alk) bclo" Tolón. \Ve hacl no\\ c•ntered the lowcr r<'aclws of thc Sierras. On 011r <wrial photographs. wc had locat<'d sonw ruius ancl canals abO\ <' Tembladera as far as Chikte. the tcrminus of the railroad from Pacasmayo. B11t this region was alreacly sonwwhat lwyo11d the eoasti\l zom· proper to which wc' liad confinccl our work. So W<' merely cnterecl these sites 011 011r rnap and clcciclt>d lo k:l\'c thcm to archaeologü.ts to C\plorc at some f uture clat<.>.

128

XIII

Caíamarca: Síerra Ally of rhe Chímús

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i· ::.·:~: .;·:., l':..:flj ~ CAJAMARCA to see the place .s:where a forrncr ally of the Chimús once had Elourished and VISITED

~· • r:

'L?>'i}

from which later thc Incas had wielded their extensive power over the whole northern part of Peru. VI' e also wished to make the tríp up the steep, narrow [equetepeque Valley in order to study there the specific forrns of transition from desert coastal zone to rainfall mountain zoue, As has been pointed out in Chapter X, these transitional areas are important, so we used every opportunity to ríde up and down coastal valleys. In addition, such tríps always passcd through sorne of tho most imposing mountain scenery in the world! Three thousand or more years ago, sorne of the earliest agricultura! settlers carne clown these valleys to the Coast. And ever since then conquering armíes have marched through them, dragging their loot a long. On more peaceful míssions, llama trains have carríed a variety of products between Sien-a and Coast, thus forging economic as well as cultural links between the two zones. Wíth the coming of the Spaniards these zones were brought closer together Trade and tribute were increased, llamas were replaced by mules and horses. These, in turn, have now given way to buses, cars, trucks and railroads. We decided to make the first part of the trip up the [equetepeque Valley by means of the narrow gauge raílroad that runs from Pacasmayo to Chilete, a dístance of

about fifty miles. We took the fast autovagón, a kind of very large motor car equípped with flanged wheels tbat fit the railroad tracks, instead of the regular, but much slowcr, "míxed traín." The motorman obligingly stopped the overcrowded car at a point not far from the ancient site of Ventanillas so that we could take ground pbotographs of this ímportant ruin. About noon we reached the terminal at Chilete. From here on, since the valley bottom rises so sharply, the extensión of railroad construction into the Sierras would ha ve preved too cxpcnsíve. After a quick lunch in a small restaurant at Chilete, we looked around for a bus to take us up into the mountaíns. But ít was Sunday and no buses ranl \Ve finaUy located a lone truck about to leave for Cajamarca. After making a "deal" with the driver we climbed aboard, Perched on the front seats next to the driver, we had a wonderful time, enjoying to the fu1lest extent the beautíful and inspiring trip into the Sierras. Though the Continental Divide here is only 11,000 feet hígh, while in the Moche and Rírnac Valleys, respectívely, it is 14,000 and 16,000 feet, the joumey nevertheless continually províded new thrills and dramatic vistas as the truck slowly pushed its way up the endless series of hairpin turns along the precipitous mountain sides. Wc crossed the Continental Divide ]ate in the afternoon and soon were able to discern in the rapidly approaching twí-

Fig. l (left) Typical mountainside farms at the upper limits of cultívation in thc Andes. Note thc narrow road as it winds tortuously back and forth along the terraced slopes, above which tower the rocky, sn ow-covered mountain pcaks. U S. Army 112-R-101

Fig. 2. Meditation. Kosok.

129 1

light, thc bread green vallcy of Cajamarca stretched out below Suddenly the city itself emerged into viewl Darkness had descended when the truck pulled into Cajarnarca and parked in the dimly lit main plaza. As we alighted, we saw Iudians in their Sierra costumcs crossiog the s<1m1re on their way home, while the large loudspeaker of the public radio was filling thc entirc square with overpowering music that seemed strangcly familiar \Ve listcned for a moment spellboundl Yes! lt was Stokowskí's orchcstral arrangcrncnt of Bach's powerful "Toccata and Fugue"! As one tremendous chord after auother thundered toward a gigantíc clímax, ít seemed as if Bach were expressing in his music the power of the rnighty Andes, where peak aftcr peak towcrs into the endlcss heavens. During many anothcr cvening on the plaza werc wc to hear sorne of the world's finest music, whilc thc Indians passed by lrnmming their simple. plaintive songs. 'v\le found a clean and attractive hotel with a balcony looking out over the square. Directly across the square we located a goocl restaurant with tasty food. Ancl we were pleasantly snrprised to find that prices at both hotel and restaurant were much cheaper than those aloug thc Coast. But rhat whích attracted us most to Cajarnarca was its wonderful, sunny but cool and cncrgizíng mountain climate, together with the calm and peaceful atrnosphere that seerned to pervade the town. Originally, we had planned to stay only a few days and then rcturn to the Coast to writc up sorne of our .6eld notes whilc thc dctails wcrc still frcsh in our minds. Instead, we decíded to do our work here in this wonder[ul place. For thc ncxt two rnonths 1 rcwrotc most of the first draft of 'Vater and Life on the basis of new material 1 had [ound. \ lichacl díd thc typing. He also recalculated the elata we had collected on monthly water discharges of the coastal rivers in orcler to obtain annual averages based on the agrien ltural year, i.e., from ench October to the followiug September, in place of the calendar year 11sed by the Dirección ele Aguas. This broi1ght thc resuJts more iu line with the actual agricultura] process. In his free time, ~ lichacl stud icd with a good local guitar tcacher, thereby further i11creasi11g his repertoire of Andean songs nnd dances. There is practically uotlúug Jeft at Cajaman;a now to remind onc of thc facl that ít was once tbc capital o( an important Andean state. Ali the old b11iklings have been destroyec.l by conqnerors. In place of them. a typi('al Spanish colonial town has been hllilt which consists f'ig. :l. \'kw ot Cnjamarca with surrounding mountains. main square near center of city U S. Army 4J-L-115

Note

mainly of rcd-tilccl Spanish type houses surrounding a main plaza and several lesser pla7.as. Almost nothing is left of the struc..:turcs built dming the short lnca period. All one can find is a moderate-sized room the one that Atabualpa. thc last of the Inca rulers, is said to have fillec.l witl) golcl and silver n~ssels ü1 order to pay the ransom exacted by Pizarro. In the suburbs, all one cau see are somc tlwnmíl baths callcd ''Bafios de los Incas." When Alexanc..ler vo11 Humboldt ( 1849 430) visited one of thc ruins of Cajamarca, he met Astorpilco, the local Indiau cacit1ue, who claimecl descent from thc ancient Atahualpal \Ve clid not find any living descendants of Astorpilco, though a thorough search might bring sorne to light. \t\'e dicl, however, ascertain that the various local archivf's contain valnahle records and documents from early colonial times, which should also givc insights into sorne aspects of the pre-Spanish period. A systernatic study of the archives, together with archaeological rescarch of the typc bcing done by Dr Henri Heiehlen in various parts of the wide Cajamarca Valley, w.ill eventually cnablc us to reconstruct something of the naturc :rnd cxtent of the ancient statc and society of Cajamarca and its antecedent cultures. In thc ncarby mo11ntains is the well-kuown sitc of Curnbemayo. Here, inciclcntally, Dr Georg Pctersen of Zorritos (see Chapter XXIV). had survt>yed, as he Jater infon11ed us. au ancient irrigation canal thnt lecl to this site. To his surprise. he found that, as a resnlt of a number of local topographic-hydrological factors, the canal took water from severa] strearns on the "drier'' u;estem side of thc Continental Divide and brought it to Cumbo-

Fig. ·1. lnside the garden of a lwl'iemla ncar Cajamarca.

Kosok.

mayo, located on the "wetter" easiern sidc, This was indeed a unique phcnomenon in Pcrul In Cajarnarca we were prívileged to makc thc acquaintanee of thc above-rnentioned Dr llcnri Heichlen, a French archacologist who, together with bis wife and [ellow worker, Paule, ancl their swcct littlc daughter, hnd been living in Cajarnarca for sorne time. Dr Rcichlcn had been carrying on impurtant excavations in the environs of Cajamarca and had rnade severa) scicntific trips further north in thc Sierras and assocíatcd lowlands. s a part of bis work he was also carrying out a program in thc far northern part of Peru which he cxpects will yield a more solid Foundution for uur prescnt rathcr vague theories concerníng Ecuadorian-Peruvian interrelations in the ancient past. During <me of our vísits, he outlined to us a cultural sequence for thc Cajamarca urea, comparable to a certain extent, with the establíshcd coastal sequences. Intcrcstingly euough, the finer of tho ceramics, i.e., those of the Cajamarca ll pcriod, appcar to have developcd during the time that thc artistícally rich Mochica culture was progressing on the Coast. In hís house, which was fllled with pottery, skulls, and stone carvings, he showed us two distinctly _ azca type huacos, appnrently trade pieces, which he had excavated near Cajarnurcal He also told us of a hilltop that had been terraccd in such a way that it rescmblcd a step pyrarnid possibly an ancestral form of thc coastal pyramid. Or was its form the result of eoastal influences? \Ve lived for several rnonths in Cajamarca, and we sooo becarne part of the whole Andean way of life, it is essentíally J ndiun with a Spanish colonial vencer to which American gadgets havc becn added. As already indi-

Fig. 5. Church procession in Cajamarca.

Kosok.

catcd in Chapter l \', in Cajamarca and the remaiuder of the northcrn Sierras the Spanish influcnce is stronger thau in thc Central and South n<les. Therc are more SpanishI nd ían mixtures than pure-blooded Indinns, and practically ali lndians speak Spauish, Moreover, the llama, faithful servant of the Indían, has completely disappeared, though traditions arnoug a fcw of the very old inhabitants in Cujumarca indicatc that it survíved there up to a hundred years ago. But the evidence of Spanísh ínfluence tends to be misleading. Although only a small portien of the Indians still speak Quechua in addition to Spanish, they have on the whole mai.ntaincd lheir Jndian c.;ustoins. In other words, thc Indiau way o( )ife stí11 gives its stamp to thc whole rebriou, a fact by which one is incrcasingly imprcsscd. the looger one stays in Cajamarca. \Ve often \'ÍSited thf' market and took walks out into thc co11nt1yside. Evc11 as wc worked on our balcony, we could see the Jndíans with their short, rapid strides mo,·ing across the squarc bclow us. They went to market, took their habies to the ncarby churches for baptism, participatcd in processions, carne home in a meny but suppressed mood aftcr drinking their weak c/1iclw and strong a~uardientc. And cach day we conld see the funeral proccssions, mostly of the poor, with rclativcs carrying thc cofnn and thc fcw friends of the departcd straggling on behind, clad in their c•very<lay clothes for they posscssC'd no others. For weeks therc was an epidemic of measles, and daily W(' coul<l see the coffins of littlc children being carricd across thc square by their parents whose tearless faces noncthclcss rcvcal<'cl t he sacl story Despite the epidemic,

Fig. 6. One of Cajamarc:ú

the govemmcnt sent no doctor to help these forgollcn children. although a veterinary was available for sicl cattle on the large haciendas. ~lauy of thc ti.ch lands of the \'alley phún have becn absorbed by largc haciendas whos<> owners havc lurncd the old corn-growing lands of the Indians into grazing grounds for thcir cattle. The ln<lians live mainly in thc

main strccts. KosoJ..

Fig. 7

Eutrance

to the Colegio de Belén, htúlt in colouial

limes.

poorer hill lauds whcre they cultivate small plots. But in order to obtain cash, sorne of thcm must work part of thc time on thc l10cie11das in the valley Living much closcr to the I ndians than we had on tbc Coast, we camc to understand them better and to sharc 131

their feelinus in ma11y ways. Behind their toic featurcs often lay a mixture of contradíctory emotions. The bitterness cr their lot has evpresscd itsclf partl) in resíguation, but also purtly in a hope and a stru~gle for a better life in the f11t11r<'. The lndians of the Sierrus wcrr- once

º'

.Fig. 8. Audeuu 11111,idan playing the <111< 11<1 with mu hnnd and the dn1111 with th1 other. a fairl) common íorm oí 'º111wman band" k1ht1k.

a grcat pcoplc. Thcy still ha' e ureat potentíalities. not merely in the arts but also in their ability to overcorne thcir miserable condítions and produce a more humane way of lile for thernselves. Many un ufternoon, while ut work on our balcony, we could hear a blind beggar on thc square playing thc sad mountuin songs on his quena, a srnall native wooden Hutc. vuelcan music has warmth and an intirnate. personal pathos rarcly found in folk rnusic of this level of developmcnt. Dcspite its relativ el} limited emotional ranue, it ncvertheless seems to encompass man's relation to the ov erpowering Andes around him. Much has heen written and suid about "Inca" music of both prescnt and past, But most of this is a product of the ima~ination. Actually, W(' kuow littlc specifically conccruing thc music of thc ancicnt incas or of the othcr ancient mountuin or coastal people. Ali we possess are i11strtmients [ound in a11cic11t graves or pictures of í11sln1111ents /)(IÍ11ted 011 huacos. Two kiuds of mclodíc instruments evistcd. thc quena, a woodcn Ilutc. and the antara, a kind of panpipc. Both are still in use today, thouah in '' slightly modified form. Drums, cymbals, whistk-s, bells, rattles and a sort of bugle hav e also bccn Found ( Figs. 8 to 11) \Vhen díscussing instruments, scak-s, rhythms, and melodies w« must bear in mind that they hnd undoubtedly devcloped dillerently in the vnrious parts of the Sierras and thc Coust, ln thc lattcr r<'gion. whcrc the ceramic uud tevtile arts had reuched much higher levels than thc~ hud in the Sierras. it is not unlikely that the art of instrurnent making, the ele' eloprnent of scales. rhy thrn and mclodies had likewise rcachcd much higlwr )(', cls. Bcsidcs this, the instrum<•nts 11s<'cl and the mnsic played h)' thc "court" musicia11s of the J nea ancl Chimú rukrs or tlw powcrfol priests W<'rc' prohahly more sophisticated than thosc of thc simple farrncrs alHl slwpherds. Tlwse diff<'l'cnccs doubtless account. in part, for thc different c:onclusions that vurious wrilcrs have drawn con-

Fig. !) (far ldt) Andent :\l0chka dt,I\\ ing of 11111s1e1<1n'; on<. blo\.1-~ a co11d1 ,Jwll, thc otl1er a horrHha1wd b11¡.cll'. AMSII • Fig. 10 (.ll'lt) l la11d earn·d woodcn quc11<1. 1\1\tSJJ • Fig. 11 (right) hngk or "trumpet", Ant'i1•11I i1i-lru11wnls, ( upper left) hon1-sha1)('d ( right) 1111turrn 01 pan pipes. ( lowcr ldt) thn'lº kinds of q11e1w.v or llutl',, l'ttt•h \\ith a <liffcrcnt "scalcºº \M\ JI

cerning the music of ancient Peru. To really answer the question of Peruvian musical instruments, it would be necessary to study the musical instruments on the basis of the differcnt associated cultural períods. But this is extremely hard to do at prcscnt, since, as has been pointed out, more than 95 per cent of the archaeological material in museums and prívate collectíons has no "birth certificare." Can wc at least determine what scale thc ancíents used? Here we run into the saine difficulties. \Vhilc visiting the Chiclín Museum in the Chicama Vallcy, l played the various Ilutes and clay panpipes that Señor Hafael Larco Hoyle had found in Mochíca graves. Nonc of them indicated an organized pentatonic scalel Various writers have, however, claimed that they found instrurnents which produced pentatonic and even diatonic ( seven tone) scales. On a coastal huaco there is a drawing of

two connccted panpipes that jointly may have had a cornplex scalc. Professor Wagner of Lima showcd me a raríty, a panpipe that oould produce our modern chromatic lialf tones, and which he insisted carne From an ancient Paracas grave! The existence in ancient limes of this módem type of scale is extrcmely doubtful, the instrument may perhaps have beeu an early colonial product. As wc know, thc Indian artisans continued their crafts into colonial times, using howcvcr ccrtain Spanísh inuovations in thcír work. However, not uotil most available instruments havo beco scíentífically studied can onc deny that sorne coastal musícians iJ1 the pay of hígh pricsts or secular rulers may havc devclopcd ad' anced scales and rather complicated instruments. But thc musical instruments of the common people were probably quite simple, producing "scales" which at best fiuctuated around. tite JJe11tato11ic. What kind of music did the ancients produce on these instrumeots? What kind of rhythms, what kind of melodies? We do not knowl Obviously, the melodies were limitcd by thc gcnerally narrow tonal range of their instruments. They were probably simple, but anyone who has heard a shepherd play on his simple Rute must have been surprísed at the melodic cornplexities sometirnes achíeved. Bhythms were probably also simple, but this cannot be stated definitely, for simple melodies may have utilized complcx rhythms. It is likely that sorne of the coastal melodies, and perhaps rhythms, were more complex than those of the Sierras. We are, however, safe in assumíng that organized harmotuj and. counierpoint did not exist. But what happened when the Spaníards carne to Peru with their modern diatonic-chromatíc scale and theír

Europcan instruments? The Spaniards gradually íntroduced into Peru such European instruments as the organ, thc guitar, the harp, thc violín and later the clarinet. Of these, the guitar becamc rnost popular among the Indians. Thc definite íntervals oí these instruments very likcly

just atrophied under Spanish domination or were unwittingly absorbed into the new culture. It is only in the Church music and in certain limited "art" music that the European scale and harmonies have been able to maintain themselves as a thin "upper !ayer" in the musical lifc of the country The chord-fonning ability of thc guitar resu]tcd in a characteristic Andean harmonization of folk melodies. Thcre are ooly two European type triads ( chords of threc notes) that ca11 be formed in the pentatonic ( five-tone) scalc aod which sounded acceptable to both thc conqueror, and latcr on the conquere<l. One was a minor chord, for instancc, A C E based on thc A of thc A CD E C (A) scale, and the other was a major chord, CE G, bascd on thc second note C. Incidentally, the mode given here is unh·ersal in the Andes. The usual caclence achicvcd has thus been onc in which thc mclody starts with the minor chord, then riscs to the major chord and at thc end drops back to the minor chord. Today this is still the fundíi111cntal seqttence tlwt underlies all Anclean mus-ic and gives it its inherent and clwracteristic form of sadness. Sometimes the melody starts on the major chord, but it ahnost always ends on the minor The basic sequcnce is a peculiar wclding of a specific mode of the pentatonic scale with limitcd harmonic forms bascd on the diatonic. For a detailed presentation of the evolution of the pentatonic scale and its various hannonic possibilities in tcrms of modem musicology, see the excelleot and uoiquc volume of Yasser ( 1932) on the cvolution of tonality

Fig. 1~. An anta"ª origin. Kosok. Fig. 12. Andean Avoman.

Kosok.

transf orrned the varíous incipieot forms of the five-tonc scale into the organized five-tone scale now found throughout the Andes that is, if this scale had not already been attained. Today this scale is the basis of all Andean folk music. Evcn on thc Coast, whcrc European musical infiuence is strongcr, thc pentatonic always forms thc basic framework. What happenecl to possibly more advanced fonns of thc Indian scale, we do not know Probably, like many other aspects of coastal culture, they

(panpipe)

made of day, indicating ils coostal

Fig. 14.

An "Amfortas"

of the Andes.

Kosok.

What the rneloclic contributions of the Spaniards were. we do uot know lt is uot unlikely that simple Spanísh songs, espccíally thosc basically pentatonic in their forro, were gíven the "Andean treatment" and became part of the folk music, The Spaniards obviously also iutroduced their own rhythms. To what extent sorne of thcsc paralleled, enrichcd or simplified the ancient Indian rbytbms, we Iíkewise do not know Today the triple rhythm is uscd; but the duple one is the more usual, The most common one in the dances is thc dactylíc form of the duplc meter ( J Thus, the íntegratíon of thcse Indian and Spanish ele-

134

meots has resulted in the present <lay Andean fol.k music often mistakenly called Inca musíc. Of course, other foreign clerncnts have also beco absorbed. For instance, we heard an Inca foxtrot, popular throughout the Andes! The form and rhythm were those of a foxtrot, the melodic line with harrnonic sequences was Andean, i.e., based upon the pentatonic scale. In 1939, while collectíng sorne Andean folk melodies, we heard a theme that scemed to have been takcn from Gilbert and Sullivan's Mikado! But our grcatest surprise carne when a group of mountain Indians, who were then visiting Lima, announced to us that they would play a real foca song for us. What did we hear? The New York [ewish song "Bei mir bist du schoen" played with Andean trirnmingsl After our initial astonishment, we realized that its plaintivc charactcr was not at all íncongruous with thc Andean atmosphere. When I meotioned this toan Indian scholar he calmly answercd: "We Indíans and the Jews are similar in ccrtain ways. \Ne are botb oppressed peoples and why should not the music of two oppressed peoples be similar?" Such ahsorption and remolding of new elements is true of all living music of the people and helps to give Iolk music its many-síded character The instrumental cornposition of Anclean musical groups of today díflers from village to village. Besídes thc ancient quena, panpípes and hand drums, one flnds guítars, víolíns, harps and clarínets, In recent times even the easíly played saxophone has wheedled itself into thís motley assortment of instruments. Sorne combinations sound bcttcr than others, sorne are better trained, sorne play more in tune, but al] of them produce the same Anclean Iolk musíc, The scholar and artist may ask What is the olclest and most unadulterated forrn of Audcan music that one can hear today? The answer to this question obvíously cannot be stated unequívocally But most likely it is thc music perforrned hy the lone quena playcr, in sorne iustances, to the accompaniment of a small hand-beaten drurn. The sad melody, in most cases, is characterized by a complex dcscending line. This is thc kind of musíc one often hears played by the itinerant beggar on the street or the lonely shephercl on the mountainside. Once a c11llural renaissance gets forther under way in Pcru, as has already happened in rviexico, Brazil and severa! othcr Latin American countTies, the music of the Andes will undoubtedly play an important role. Jts warrn. sensitive sadness and its emotional depth, together with its strnng but never brutal rhythmic qualities,

posscss tremendous poteotialities for the future development of a truly great national music. We wanted to stay longer in Cajarnarca in order to absorb more of the Andean life and to complete our manuscript. But our time in Peru was running short and we still hacl field work to do on the Coast as well as sorne aerial photographs to study in Lima. We therefore bade goodbyc to the fricnds '"'e bacl made and boarded the semi-weekly plane for Trujillo on the Coast. By bus, the b·ip takes more than a day and a half, by plane, twenty minutes! And the plane trip is both fascinating and informative. After tbe plane leavcs the lush green landscape of the Cajamarca Valley and passes over the Continental Divide, it cnters into a region charactcrizccl by the growing aridity of the coastal side of the Andes. While sorne of thc highcr mountains still support a rainfall crop of wheat and maize, the valleys are completely dry Bnt soon thc mountain tops, too, lose their greenncss until finally, as the coastal plains appear, the whole countryside becomes completely arid. But here, on thc banks of the rivcrs, the fertile gree11 irrigated oases, the wonderful products of man's labor, stand out in bold and welcome rclicf.

Fig. 15. Modern .. French hom" made fro1u the horns of cattle. This instrument, made in Tinancayo, is in the possessioo of thc author. It has been tested by a musician friend, who succceded in playing modern sy:mphonic themes on it. Kosoh.

El Huntín9 Canals on rhe Pampa de laña

TooAY nm LABCE, Hat Pampa de Zaña is u desolate and windswept dcsert plain. It is crosscd only by the cars that speed over the Pan American Híghway on their way betwcen the Jequetepeque and the Zaiia Valleys. But once this barren region was filled with life. ln order to ascertain thc total area fonncrly under cultívatíon, wc had to trace the ancíent extensions of the prescnt day írrigation system of the [equetepeque Vallcy into the Pampa as far north as possiblc. Wc also had to trace the irrígation remains from the Zaña Valley as far south as possible, And these roads of iuquiry led to the kcy question Did these two systems once meet and thus forma Zaña-jequetepeque hydrologícal unit? In 1941, we had discovered sorne of the extensions of these systems in the Pampa. But with the truck wc then had, we were able to enter only part of the Pampa and were thus unable to solvc our problem. Ilorscs wore difficult to obtain and use in this extensive region. Howevcr, the Uníted States trimctrogon aerial survey of thc Pampa de Zafia was now avaílable, and it provided LIS with a general picture of sorne of the major canals to the east of the Pan American Highway But thc aerial photographs, while giving LIS an over-all picture of the Pampa de Zafia, were taken at such a great height that many detaíls esscntial for our ground survey were not visible. The aerial photographs of the Servicio also preved of little use, for only short sections of ancient canals wcre visible on the margins of the cultivated areas of hoth the Jcquctepeque and Zaña Valleys. We were thercfore forced to locate practically all of the canals in the Pampa by means of ground surveys.

What we woulcl have given for a helicoptcrl With it we could havo hovered over each canal at will and then slowly and deliberatcly have Iollowed it to its final disappcarancc. Before leaving New York we had visitcd the offices of severa) helicopter manufacturing companies in order to intercst thcm in our exotic, non-profit rnaking, scicntific project, But it scems that the helicopter has not come of age sufficicntly to meet the dcrnands of paleohydrology, Ior we would have needcd, in uddition, a special helícopter crew, spccial replacement parts and a special service station. Sorne more Fortunate scientist of the futuro will make use of thc helicopter and thus clarify ali the details that our ground survey could not hope to do. And may he have at hís dísposal a good set of aerial photographs of this región, which undoubtedly will sorne day be made. But most important, may no unusually heavy rains, like those of 1925, occur again to complete thc destrucríon of the rcmains of these ancient canals, thus rcndcrmg the work of scientific reconstruction impossible. But, since it is impossíble to do the work o( the prescnt with the tools of the futurc, we resigned ourselves to our ground survey methods. In fact, we were happy that such a thing as a jeep had been invented. And we were very thankfuJ that Mr [ohn Neale was able to lend us a SCIPA jeep for our work. Canal-hunting is often an exeiting experience! Tbe usual method is to crnise around the region wherc the remains of cunals are said to exist until they are actually located and then follow them. In such dcsert work, the jeep proves dcfinitcly superior to tbe truck. ílut the jeep, too, has its limitutions. Whcre the canal winds ulong the

Fig. l. Hcmains of one uf the many ol<l slo11c-li11cd <.:anals that once brought water to the Pampa de Zafia. Cerro Colorado is in the background. Kosok.

135

sides of hills, the only way to do the job is on horseback or on foot. Even with a jeep, there are often difficulties in following a canal on level ground, For strong sea wínds blowing across the region for centuries, together witb occasíonal raíns, have, at places, almost levclcd off the elevated sides of thc canal and filled the canal itself with

soil. In such a case, one points the jeep in thc general dírectíon of what rernains of the canal. Then, as one peers carefully along the ground in front of the jeep, it often becomcs possible to follow the vestiges of the canal for many miles; late aftemoon or early morning are bcst for this work because, at those times, even the slightest elevation casts a shadow We spent the equivalcnt of a week i11 carrying on ground reconnaíssance, zigzagging in our jeep back and forth over the Pampa de Zaña. After unsucccssful initial attcmpts at following rnajor canals, we located one, east of the Pan American Highway near thc Jcquctcpeque Valley, which ran straíght north in thc direction of the Zaña Valleyl Though it often seemed to disappear, we always could scc, almost straight ahead, sorne slight elevation or dopression which indicated that we wcrc on the right track. A fcw times, we seemed to have lost the

canal; but when we climbed on top of the jeep and pccred both backwards and forwards we could, figuratively, tie the two ends of the canal together Wc werc thrilled when, after many hours of this rather exciting adventurc, we found the canal actually entering the Zañu Vallcyl There, after making a turn to the west, it appeared to have at one time led into one of the ancient canals from the Zaña River itself. The Zaña canal was in a much better state of preservatíon, indicating that it had been uscd later than our canal from the [equetepeque. We have often been asked: "How do you know, after a canal has disappeared for a distance, that when you latcr on píck up the trace of a canal it is the same one and not another?" Of course, one can ncver be absolutely certain, cspecially when there are a number of canals in the sume area, and when parts of thesc canals have been completely oblitcrated by the elernents, But the basic answer must be: "Water always runs downhill." Therefore, in following a canal, one has to train the jeep driver and oneself always to keep moving ahead at obout the same leoel as the sloping Pampa. At first, this is a little difficult; but, with sorne practíoe, ít can be done. In such cases an altimeter does not help much because it is not sufficicntly scnsítive. However, a good driver can tell by

Fig. 2 ( left) Stone and dírt pyramid with a partially-destroyed ramp still visible. The pyramid is at the foot of Cerro Colorado and just east of the Pan American Highway Kosok • Fig. 3 (right) Part of the ruins of Chérrcpe Antigua, located near the southeru limit of Pampa de Zaña, and not for from Cerro Colorado. SinC'C this photograph was taken, part of the site has been placed under cultiv ation. Seroicio 170 ·606

136

the response of the motor whether the car is traveling on an upgrade or on a downgrade. To be sure, at times, one runs into varíous snags. A common one occurs when a canal, after entering one side of a quebrada, disappears (as a result of centuries of periodie washouts) only to reappear on the other side of the quebrada in the form of two or thrce parallel canalsl Anothcr type of problem occurs whcn another canal appcars at an angle and cuts across the canal under investigation, indicating that it was part of an earlier or later system of canals. In such instances, knowledge drawo from previous experiencc, as wcll as a bit of common sense, is helpful. Often, when a canal is traccd along the hills fonning the sides of a valley descending to the coast, the canal appears to be rimning tiphilll This optical illusion is causcd by the fact that the tcrrain of the bottom of the valley slopes downhill more sharply than does the canal. Howcvcr, one is unaware of thc downward slope of thc valley; one notices only that the canal seems to be rising gradually along the side of the hills above the vallcy bottom. Therefore, one gets the impression that the canal once carricd water uphilll While dealing with this subject we should like to draw attention to an incidcnl that occurred during our 1940-41 tríp. At that time, we were in the Santa Vallcy whcre an old, unused Inca canal had been cleaned out and repaired by a young cngineer from one of the Together with sorne villagers, we werc haciendas. excitedly waíting for thc water ~ be relcased. One of the men shook bis head skeptically and said "The young engineer who is in charge of tMs work must be crazy He must have studicd too much at college. He is trying to tell us that water is going to nm clown thís canal wheu actually anyone can sec vcry clcarly that the canal is running uphill." But wben the water was releascd, it ran merrily along the canal f ollowing the contours of the hill just as the engineer had predictedl The villagcrs shook thcir hcads with astonishment. Sorne of them admill<'d thcy must have been wrong. One exclairned. "My goodness, wbat they leam in college nowadays!" Another remarkcd "The Incas were certainly smart peoplc building canals that could lead water upbill." And it must be confesscd that it appeared to us as though the water werc actually runnfag uphilll l3ut Jet us return to the Pampa <le Zaña. The job o[ tracing sorne of the other canals raiscd a number of problcms. In the general reg:on whN<' wc had found the canal

Ftg . -l. The m.1í11 part of a plan of the "Inca" road and tambo in the northenvtern part of Pampa de Zaña drawn b} Marrinez' ele Compa1ibn, Bishop o! Trujillo (PI. 86)

Fig. 5. Another vtructun- of Chérrepe Antigua. The Pan American 11 ighway can be seen in the upper right comer Scrdcio 170:/JOIJ • Fig. G. The "Inca" road that crosses the Pampa de Zaña (see also Kosol: • Fig. 7 ( right m:ugin) An interesting cactus Filo(. 4) Founcl on the Pampa de Zafia. Kosok: • '\'OTE: Thc ancient design on p. 138 was uniquc to Peru and to other parts of ancicnt Anu-rieu. Rehs and St1ilH:I.

described ubove, we encountered a considcrably largor canal al a higher level. In order to extcnd the canal across an extensiva dcpression of the terrain, thc ancients had constructcd a mampuesto, an elevated aqueduct built of dirt, This aqucduct, the longest we fonnd in Peru, extended for approximatcly five miles. At certain places it reached un elevation of more than twenty-five Icct. Thc aqucduct itself was obvíously easy to follow, but when it approached more elevated ground, tbe dividing rídge bctwccn the jcquctepeque and Zaña Valleys, it ran along the ~round and then disappeared. \Ve cruiscd around for a while aud finally found what might once havc becn an elevated contiuuation of the aqueduct. But thc lattcr, i11 turn, suddenly disappeared at the edgc of a srnall <¡ uebrada. 1t did not make sense to us that the ancients should have troubled themselves to buíld a long, clcvated aqueduct mcrely to dump the water into a quebrada. Of course, they could have taken thc water out of thc quebrada f urthcr down in order to cultivare thc lands of that región, yet, to gct the water to thc quebrada thcy need not han' built a time-consuming aqueduct over the low arcas. They coulcl havo constructed a much more easily built contour canal which would have brought the water to the quebrada, though at a slightly lower level, With our jeep we then crossed over to the othcr sido of thc narrow quebrada, and for many hours cruised around in the general direction in which thc canal should havo continued. But no traces of it coulcl be seen anywhcre. Sincc this rcgion is swept by cxceptionally strong winds Irom the Pacífic Ocean, the remaining section of the uqucduct-canal, if it cxisted at ali, may have becn destroycd durtng the past centuries, Or there may have bcen a war or internal upheaval that preveuted complclion of this project. Possibly the great rains of 1925 had dcstrorcd thc whole canal system hcrc. In any case we coulcl not soh e the problem of its tennination. TT<>r(' was onc of lhc few places where we coulcl not satisfactorily locate the termination of a major canal. Our failure did not discourage us too rnm:h, sincc it affected our end results only to a minor <legree. Ji'or, to judgc by tlie coutour of the land, the amount of additional lu11d that could have been cultivated by a11 t'xtc11sion of this aqucducl furthcr towards Zaña would havc prohably arnountcd to only a fcw pcr cent of thc total arca of thc Pampa de Zaña fonnerly iniga.tecl. Ali reconmtissuncc discusse<l so far had heen macl<' lo tlw (':ISt of the Pan American JJighway, which cnts right

across thc Pampa de Zaña. In this region we traced other canals that ran for many miles to the north in thc direction of thc Zaña VaUey But none of thcsc canals seemed to have continued into the valley itself. \Ve did, however, locatc thc remains of the main north-south lnca road which is crossed by the Pan American Highway aucl which once led áght into thc middlc part of the Zafül Vallc•y This road with adjacent tambos has hecn describe<l and mapped in part by Krocber ( 1930: 90-91, PI. xxix), but he <lid not attempt to trace it furthcr lt is interc:.ting to note that at thc cnd of the eighteenth centmy Bishop ~Iartínez de Compai'íón had already made a ground plan of onc of these tambos (Fig. 4) The remains of the walled road indicatcd somcthine: wc had already noticed in other parts of thc Coast, nnmely, that with rare exceptions, the ancicnt roads were widest and best constn1cted where they crosscd the cultivatE'd and populated parts of the vallcy Ilowcvcr, in tht• clesert areas between the valleys the roads became narrower ancl, fiually, uoth walls and road disappcared altogether Thís ubscncc of thc road structures today rnay, of course, be due to their dcstruction by the desert winds. But lhcrc rnay be another reason. Thcse struclures may nevcr have beco built! Accorcling to sorne Spanish Chroniclcrs, the ancients often substit11ted, in thc dcscrt arcas. a succession of upright wood<'n poles. This policy of building thc largest aucl most imprcssivc roads in the regions of densest population is of C'ourse characteristic among ali peoples, a11cicnt and rnotlcrn. ile!>i<les the above-mentioncd tambos, and two minor stone-walled constructions alongsidc an old canal near the Pan American Ilighway, the only ruin that we fonnd in tlw Pampa to the east of the Pan American Hil{hway was a largc, low platform huaca near the mamp11esto w<' h<l\ e already deseribed. Ironically, a mo<lern tclegraph polc of thc main north-south telegraph linC' now stands on lhc top of thc pyramid. Since the pyramid, as far as we knew, had no name, we christened it "Huaca Palo Telfgrafo (Telegraph Pole Pynunid) and so cntcrc<l it on our map. Not far from the ruin we found severa] dozcn brokcn water jugs, all typical black Clúrnú ware, two of which are show11 011 pp. 135 and 136. Thc stylc of thc potshcrcls tended to conflrm our previous imprcssion that this wholc Pampa hacl bccn a rcgion of maximum extension of agric:ulture duríng the pcriocl of thc Chim1'1 Empire. To what c:-.tcnl it was such a region during an earlier pc>riod, W(' could not say Thc ahsence of remains of any real habí-

137

• tatioo sites on the extensíve Pampa seemed to indicate that, in Chimú times, it may have been state land, cultívated by people living in villages near the present day population sites or in temporary reed or algarroba huts erected on the Pampa ítself. The Pampa may well have been cultívated also in Inca times and perhaps was tilled to sorne extent in early colonial times. But ít is quite safe to assume that, with the advent of the Spaniards, the main part of the verdant Pampa gradually or suddenly became a desert región. In modern times, on various occasions, very limited parts of the Pampa have been put back under cultivation and then abandooed, as the fresh condition of sorne of the canals aod furrows indicates. The water jugs that we found had apparently been broken by inexperíenced and clumsy huaqueros, for some of the huacos were still one-half to three-quarters intact. Curiously enough, in 1941, we had come upon a similar collection of broken Chimú jugs near the same place. The conditíon of the soil índícated that thís was the site of an old graveyard. Significantly, it was situated near the holy pyramid, the church of the ancíents, whose proximity would impart imaginary blessings to the dcad. The remainder of the Pampa de Zaña, the part west of the Pan American Híghway, caused us even more troublc. Fer days we cruised back and forth in thís regíon, whích extends almost up to the sea. We were soon convinced that what sorne of the people in [cquetepeque and Zaña had told us was true: The whole Pampa was once covered with old irrigation remains. Canals wcre everywhere, and they seemed to run helter-skeltcr, without rhyme or reason, indieating possibly díflercnt oonstruction periods. In sorne places the canals had been destroyed by the elements, a factor whích added to the general confusion. Our problem was one of working out the system and of mapping it without aerial photographs. Finding the limit of irrigation near the sea preved dif6cult. We went to the area, just north of the [equetepeque írrigated area, where a few of the aerial photograpbs indicated the beginnings of several large canals. Ilcre we cruiscd around, following each major canal lcading north into the Pampa. Señor Lostaunau, who accompanicd us on somc of the trips, was of great assistance, since he had traversed part of this regíon on horseback. Evcntually, wc hit thc major canal nearest thc sea. To our surprise it continued for many miles in a northwesterly direction, becoming lost, fioally, in the unearthly, desolate región at the castern slope of Cerro Chérrepe. Many fairly well138

preserved secondary canals and furrows gave mute evidence of the labor and energy of the Indíans in bringing life into these forbíddíng parts, The well-prcserved state of portíons of the canals brought up the eternal question: IIow far into modem times was the system used? We cruised around further in order to see how the main canals "fitted together " Though the elements had destroyed part of the canal systems, we were, nevertheless, able to determine that the system as a whole extended almost two-thirds of the way to the Zaña. In this entire region we found few potsherds, and these were mainly utilitarian. We found no structures except a very small pyrarníd on one side of a canal, sorne three miles from the present zone of vegetation of the [equetepeque VaJJey, and an associated small walled compouod on the other sidc of the canal. A difficult part of our task entailed the entcring of the canals oo the Army topographícal maps. What we did was to judge the length of a canal by the kilomcter gauge on the jeep, and determine the general direction with a compass. By following varíous related canals this way, we could check our results to sorne extent. Anothcr way of checking sorne of our main points was a simple triangulation process. We applied this process by relating our position at a particular point on the Pampa to the varíous hills that were visible on the horízon, bilis that were also indicated on the Army topographical maps. Acrial photographs, when made, will undoubtedly modify sorne parts of our map. In order to study the Pampa near the Zaña encl we d1·ove to the ancient village of Mocupe near the southern border of cultivated land of the Zaña VaJley There we wcre happy to fincl sorne of our friends who had helpecl us in 1941. We were most fortuoate io meeting again an old guide who owned a small farro in the oeighboring area, and who agaio accompanied us oo sorne of our trips. He helped us locate severa} major ancient canals on the south side of the Zaña Valley Thcse canals had once marked, as far as we could determine, thc maximum southern cultivation zone of the Zaña arca, which zone, in sorne arcas, appears to have been close to the canals from the Jequetepeque. 'vVe drove the jeep on a zigzag course over the Pampa in the 1·egion between the Jequetepequc and Zaña arcas where we found sorne "odds and ends" of canals. There were sorne places, however, where for a distance of a fcw miles, we could find no remains of canals. Ow· various informants from :\!!ocupe insisted that the rains of

1925, the heaviest and most destructive sinee ancient times, had destroyed many canals that formerly were visible in this region. We were inclined to accept their statements, inasmuch as these rains had causcd similar destruction in other parts of thc Northwcst Coast of Peru. On one of our trips across the Pampa, we s11ddenly carne upon faint but clear traces of the walls of a wide road, hitherto unreported. The road ran in a straight Hne from a point about .6ve miles south of the village of Mocupe in a southwesterly direction and vanished gradually in the region of the former location of the smaU settlement of Santa Rosa on the lower Chamán River This river is the continuation of the Río San Gregorio and carries the surplus water to the sea from sorne of thc cultivated areas of the Jequetepeque Valley Near its mouth is the present smaU settlemcnt of Caleta Chérrepc. The unusual nature of this road indicated that it might have been a colonial one that had once connected the Zaña and Chamán Valleys. While prepariog the manuscript for this book we re-read Calancha and were surprised to find what was probably a referencc to this road. For Calancha relates that sínce tbe vallcy of Za1ia did not have its own port, the town of Zaña used the port of Chérrcpe. Consequently, all goods coming to ancl from the town of Zaña and this port must have passerl over this road, for its course is the only logical one connecting these two places. Since Zaña in early colonial times was an important administrativc center, this roacl must have once been exteosively used. Tbis sitt1ation possibly cxplains why this lower section of the Chamán, while being geographically part of the Jequetepeque area, today belongs administratively to the Zaña Valley While we thus succeeded in tracing the main irrigation and cultivation interconoections between the Zaña and Jequetepeque Valleys in ancient times, the subject is hardly exhausted. Once aerial photographs of the Pampa are made, the actual courses and conncctions of the various canals will undoubtedly become clearer to us. And when the helicopter can be uscd, thc problem will come still closer to solution. In addfüon, archaeological explorations and studies of local and national archives should yicld material that would provide insight both into the practical relations between these valleys and into thc charactei· of thcir domination by the Incas, Chimús and carlier conquerors. Indeed, information may cven be obtained of a possiblc temporary domination of the Pampa at one time during the Middle Period? - by thc Lambayeque-Zaña unit.

I~ The Valley of laña: A Connectíng Línk

ZA":,,

occupíed a strat<•gic position in tlre past, Ouri11~ thc Late and possibly tite Xliddle Pcriods, its írrigated [ields were extended up to those of the [equetcpcque lo thc south and thc Lambuy<-'<1ue to the uorth .• \l that time, and evcn before, the valley must have pluycd a11 cconornic. political ami cultural role grcatcr thun its sízc would seern to warrunt. Limitr-d historical records show that this exceptionul role T.m

continued

VAt.LEY

clown into carly colonial times.

The Zaña Hiver can be clussífled as moderatclj small, with an average unnuul water contcnt apprcxirnau-ly

the

sume as that uf thc Xlochc. The valley. írsolf', which is long and narrow, has three natural divisions. Thc upper purt consists of a somew hat triangular-shaped in·i~<lled pocket which wc dctcrmincd had heen considcrably lurgcr in aucicnt lime:. thun it ic; at prescnt. lt is administered today by thc old town of Oyotún situated ncar tbc u ppcr The shape whcrc rczion

cnd of thc pockct, middle part possesscs a kind of clougatcd oval and extends Irom Cerros Motetr- ami Culpón, the vallcy is '<'f) narrow, to npproximatcly the of Ceno Guitarras, Hacienda Ucupe aud thc ancícnt scttlemcnt of vlocup«, a distance of about Iifteen miles. l ncidentally , tlu- latter places are cut h~ tluPan American H ighwa ~ Thc ndrninistrativ c ccnter of thi'> main part. as well as of the v allcy as a whok-, i:. th« uncient pueblo of Znñu. Thc economic and politicul

power uf thís pueblo. hov, C\ <'I', is not grcat al prcscut since rnost of this part oí the valley and sections of tlw upper and lowcr parts are owned or controlled I>)' the large Hacienda Cayalti. This hacienda employs ~e' erul thousand laborr-rs. includiug mauy Sierra immigrauts and

Fie. l. The lar!'<' hillsid« ruin of Cerro Cuitarrn» in tlw Z.1íia Vallcy , showing tlw large crrcurufereutiul '"111 of stoue 111 tlw Ioreground. was photographed fro111 Pardo) :'lli1wel's plunc. The \\:111 ¡, tlw p.rrt of the ruin 1110,1 ea,íl~ 'l't'11 [rom the nearby Pan \nwril·a11 l li¡¡;hwa~ w hich i' barely 'L'ible in tlw lo\H'T left hand C'Oml'r ot thi' photograph. The white tri;.uu(ll' 011 onc of thc hilb "a~ mad<· b) tlw Pt•rm i,111 Gco<lctic: Sune) Tht• Cl·rro Cuit.ura' rt"irion depended mainh 11po11 c.mab from tlw La111haH•q111• HiH·r and prohahl) n·pn·"·11h·d an 1111tpo't of tlw e\p:u1din~ Lamh.n l'q11e ( Collique) cultur<' 'º111<' tinw h1 fon· tlw Chimú 0<·<·11p:1t111n. rhi' hill~idt• ~ite is 0111· ni th1• ht•'t prl'wn i>cl ruin' ol coa,tal Peru ( 'l't' H rtical at>rial photogrnph o! thi' ruin 011 ne\t page) The na1111 of tlw 'itt• h \omctirne' 'lJl'llt•d Cnro C:11il;trra. Kowk. 0

• •

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Fig. 2 ( left ) Part oí the ruins of Cerro Cuünrra«, showing severa) hills partl> cm ered with the rernains of rectangular habitation sites, can hl' <.1·<•n in thi' vertical aerial photograph. Xoh: the large and Pxtcmi'c pron-crive wulls around and ov cr tln- hill«. Partly encircling the bottom oí the hílls is a largo, uncicnt canal (acequia madre) whieh once Irrígated the flelds below it, Visible at the lower right are sections of smallcr canals, probubly post-dating the main canal. Fnrther right stands thc lonc l uuca ~liguclilo in a large desertcd 11cm111a which is covered wit h mnny cana Is and [urrows oí the past. Only a srnall portien of the pompo can be seen. Tite wide bluck linc ucross thc lcft sídc of the phutograph is the Pan American flighway (see Figs. l. 3 und 4) Servicio ;]330. Fig. 3. Thi photograph was taken from a ¡)oint near the crest of one of the hills of Cerro Guitarras, looking clown upon the Note the terraced, stone-wnlled structures ( see Fig-; 1 and 2) cacti. typieal oí sorne of the hill> regious of thc Z.tiia-Larnbayeque 3H':t, gmwiug :unong thc ruins. The Pan Auu-ricun 11 igltway can be seen at the top oí thc photograph. Sclwl'c/('[. Fíg. 4 bclow) Model of the ceremonial l luucu \liguelito. The Iorrn of the 1waca appears to be the prototype of most stcp-Twacas of thc Coast, It contains two steps, or levcls, with a ramp culting the Brst und lending to thc second, maiu lcvcl, Scpurating thc latter into twn scctions runs a wall, ahout sb, fect high, which contaíns a doorway cormccting the two sections. The lower rear leve) is not as high as the lowcr front level. A smnll Iormlese mass of abodes not in model ). spread on the ground juvt below the wall, gives thc í111pn•"ion that it once was a stainHI) leadinq to the fronl and/or reur 1111> k-vel. TIH' purpose of tlu- long low evtension juttiug out from thc lt·lt front leve! 1' not ch-ar Storck-Ko-ok, í

sorne migratory workers. On both desert sides of this sectíon we found extensivo remains of ancient canal systems índícatíng that much more land was cultivated in ancient times than is requíred for the prescnt sugnr crop of the hacienda.

The lowcr part of the valley runs from the Pan American Highway to the sea and eonsists of a uarrow stretch of relativcly poor land. But here, as indicated in Chapter XIV, we Iound extensive canals on the southcrn side of

kuown. 111 fact, Kroeber ( 1930 91) statcd that in crossing the valley on thc main highway he had not noticed any ruius, a statcmcnt all the more surprising since the híghway passcs several pyramids and cuts through part of the important sito of Cerro Guitarras. Actually, both sídes of the valley, from above Oyotún ali the way clown to the sea, are lit tered with ruins of ancient canals, roads, walls, pyrarnids, fortiflcations and settlerneut sítcsl In alJ. we found and mapped some thirty distinct siles. \Ve took

Thc hacienda had in its possession an aerial mosaic of part of the valley whích a prívate company had made. While this mosaic scrved thc hacienda well by showing thc size and position of various fields, it was prnctícally useless for our purposcs. Thc mosaíc was too small, bcsidcs, it did not íncludc any of the adjacent desert arcas where most of the ancicnt sites are located. When we returned to Peru in 1948, we found that there were srill no satisfactory aerial photographs of the

ª'

Figs. 5 to 7 lluac.1 'l eodora can be scen in thc 111(111/(' bus hes south of xtocupe m1t dri\ es ulong thc Pan Anu-ricnu 11 ighwa) The vertical aeríal photogruph shows how centurícs of o<·c;\\Íon.11 rains and the roaming of cattle ha' e modified the original shape of this complcv structure. Servicio J.JJU: lli7b • Dr. Schaedel and Antonio Rodríguez Su) Suy were able to make an accuratc grouud plan oí tlw P> nunid after a Iíeld trip to Huaca Tr-odorn. Tlu- amount of detail, nor visible in thc ucrlal photograph but discov crcd in si/u and embodíed in the grounrl plan, emphasizes the importance of carcful field work. chocdcl-Rodriuucz S11yS11y • 011 the basis of tlw grn1111d plan. john Storck made a plaster model of the pyrnmíd. Comparison of this model with that in Fig. 4 shows that Huaca Teodora is a sophístícated form of the simple Huaca :\lig1H'lito. Evcu so, Huaca Teocloru is ximplc- in fonn whC'11 cornparcd with the main building, of El Purgatorio, in the Leche Vnllcy Storck-Kosok,

the vallcy On the no1ihem sic.le, we latrr traced the canals which oncr came from thc Lambayeque \'alley and strctchccl f or a considerable distancc into the presently desolatc cks<'rt. After mapping lhcsc canal systems, we at once s:\w clearly that the irrigatcd parts formerly spread in a wiclc fan-sliaped form in thc directi{'n of the sea, thus making this section of the valky largC?r ancl more important i11 ancient times than it is at prcscnt. An.:hacologically, the Zaña \'alley is practically un142

gro11nd photo¡zraphs and made somc surface potshercl collections which are now at the T nstitutt> in Trujillo. Whcn wc firsl ,·isited the valley in 19.J.l, we had made Hacienda ayalti the center of 011r operutio11s. Its administrntor, S<•11or Nenmann. very kill(.l)y pul trucks and horses at our disposal. Since tlw valley is 11arrow and contains roads on hoth sides, it was not difficult to locate somc of the archaeological sites and tlw comses of a numbcr of main canals.

vafü'y Consequcntly, wc had to reir on field wod.. for our information. But shortly befare we left Peru in 19-49, wh('n the Servicio madc an aerial smvey, we checked our ow11 map against thc aerial photographs. To this we acldC'd a short field trip to confirm some additioual sitcs which wc had misscd in our prc.>vious work. ln 1948 we stayccl al Hacienda Cayalti again. It was dnrin~ one of thc periods whcn we had no jeep, and we were fortuuate whcn Señor :'\eumaun again put thc

truck and horses of the hacienda at our dísposal.

This lime wc mct Ingeniero Tupac Yupanqui, who had bccn tbe Ileld surveyor of the hacienda for ma11y ycars, lle nccornpanicd us on most of our tríps, and sincc he knew practically every place in the valley, his guidancc was cxtrcmr-ly helpful i11 locutíug canals and sítes. Wc were struck by bis name which wus the same as that of one of the great lnca rulcrs. When qucstioncd about it, he proudly asserted that he was a descendant of that ruler 1 le was a most en~a~i11~ pcrson w ho showed keen interest in the life and works of his auccstors. In his home he had a small, reprcscntarive collection of water juus. rnaínly blackware, which he had found on the land of the hacienda. The whole upper pockct is cluttered with sitos that merit attcntion, Onc pyramid was built in such a way that the top could be reachcd by Iollowing a spirnl road around the pcrimctcr! Was thís its original form or a colonial or even a rnodern modiílcation? Farthcr up thc Hío de Tingucs, a branch of the Zafia, líes Nancho with its unique ccrarnics rncntioned in Chapter XII. At the lowcr cnd of thc pockct where the valley is extrcmcly narrow, wc clirnbed up part of the steep slopcs oí Cerro de Culpón, whose sides contain severa! levcls of \'C'ry long ancl oxtremely higli stone walls. Wero they part of the defensivo systcm which together with structures on Cerro xlotete just across thc vulley guarded thc cnt rance or exit to thr- Oyotún pockct? 'Ve noted with interest that at Cerro Campana, an important site in the npper valley. there is a fair-sizcd huaca cluster which might once have been thc centcr of the upper pocket, Surprísingly, onc of the huacas was built 011 the crest of Cerro Campana, a rathcr unusuul locatíon For a huaca. 'Ve also found a huaca on top of Cerro Songoy further down thc rivor

Ftg. 8. Thc ruins nf C.t•rro Corbacho form one of the rnajor anc ient '>ilt':. i11 the Z.1ña \'aller Tlwy c·on~titutf' a t~ pica! lt>rrncccl hill~idc• 'cttk•rncnt of lhc Late Chimú and fnc;1 p('rinds. Tl1b 'erfü·,11 .1crial 'icw of a scction oí thc Ct•rro clcarly: a) l.1rge n·c·ta111(11t\l Chimú-like enclosurcs oí udolx· al tht• foot of tl1e hill; \ b) ((•rral·1·d platforms of stone on thc sidc of thc hill; (e) cxtensi' e "·alls n<•ar tlw ~ummit which cn11tin11e around thc sídcs of the hill. This crnwdNI s<>ttlf'mf'nt is nn <'XC't'll<'11l cxamplc of thc aucicnl Pc:1 u l'ian ('Cl11C'('J)t of utilizing to th<' 11111.xinmm the unculth ated :10111•s foi lwbilation purposes, ~o that all culthahlf' ground ccmld he u'ed fm al(rieulture. Senicio .1.J.10: /(i8!1, J(i!lfJ.

'''°"'

Down the vallcy ncar the end of the middle sectíon

are

the rnajor ruins of the valJey, namely, the híllsíde clustcrs of Cerro Guitarras and Cerro Corbacho. Cerro Guitarras rises above the northern cdge of the present Irrigated zone just to the east of the Pan American Highway

Flg. 9. While standing in the middle of this walled road the desert north of Cayalti, we could see in the dístnnce separartng the Z."lña Irom the Lambayeque Valley The wídth of the road ( 30 yards) and the fact that it ondcd hills nromptcd us to clussify it tcntativcly as bclonging "ceremonial" type ( see Chapter Vl) Kosok.

crossíng the hills unusual at thcse to the

( Figs. l to 4) Cerro Corbacho is situatcd somewhat Iurther up thc valley in the míddle of the present irrigated región. ( Figs. 8 and 10) Both si tes, rccently survcyed by Dr. Schacdcl, probably dominated the northern part of the valley In thc lower section, we located a number of partly destroyed srnall- to medíum-sízed pyrarníds and mounds including Huaca Teodora ( see next paragraph ) Later on we locatcd by aír (see Chapter XXIV) an inlcrcsting

pyramíd-líke structure situated on a northern prornoutory of Cerro Carrizal near the sea. Unfortunatcly, we were unable to visít this promising site on foot. While many smaller sites proved to be of considerable interest, no photographs of thern are reproduccd in this report, The enlargements of the aerial photogrnphs turned out to be rather poor and the ground photogrnphs we took were unimpressíve. However, photographs of models of two pyramids are given, onc of Huaca Tcodora ( Figs. 5 to 7) just west of the Pan American JJighway and south of Mocupe, the other of an unnamcd huaca which we called Miguelito (Fig. 4) sítuated just to the east of Cerro Guitarras. One of the hydrologícally most signíficant objccts that we encountered in exploríng the vallcy was a set of parallel canals that started in the upper part of thc valley near • ueva Arica. These we followcd in and out of the hills and quebradas that flank much of the southern si<le of thc valley One of them dísappeared in the Pampa de Zaña near the old trunk road coming from jcquctcpcquo ( seo Chaptcr XIV) A braneh of the second "connccted" with the loug canal that carne Irom the [equctepcque whilc the other branches spread out beyond the Pan American Highway into the Pampa de Zaña whcrc they dísappcarcd in the regions bordering the lowcr part of the Zaña Valley This pheuomenon of parallel canals or "doublc" canals "O as wc called them occurs in a numher of valleys. Thc parallel nature comes out best when they are cut ínto the sidc of a híll where one runs at an elevation sorne distancc highcr than the other But when thcy cntcr a .flat quebrada or pampa, the distance bctwcen thcm widens untíl it may be several hundred yards or even more, thus enabling the upper ooe to irrigatc a consider:ible amount of land betwecn the two eanals. \Ve heard many explanations for this rnethod of building canals, but the one that seems most logical is the following: the lower canal was built first; latcr on when it hecamc necessary to irrigate more of the plains above the flrst

Fig. 10. Tcrraced platforn1s wcrc found nt highcr lévcb on the side uf Cc.:rro Corbacho ( scc acrial vicw, Fig. 8) Scl111cdcl.

canal, the second one was built at a highcr leve!. The most important political-hydrological system of the valley is the one that once brought water from the Lambayeque via Collique to thc Zaña (see Chapter XVI) By stuclying the acrial photographs and by making repeated fiel<l trips, we were finally ablc to disentangJe. so to speak. much of this two-valley irrigation complex. \Ve found that water was brought from the southern bank of the Lambayeque Rivcr to help irrigate the northem bank of the Zaña. As a rcsult, more of the water from the latter river was uscd to extend the irrigated

Fíg. 11. Part of thc ancicut north-south trunk road running belween the Lambaycquc nnd Zn1ia Valleys can be cleady discemed in this vertiral ncrinl ,·iew This section of thc road was tr:wi>rsed by Pizarro on his way to Cajamarca in thc Sierras whcrc he encountercd Atah11alpa, the Emperor of the incas. Following the road on foot, we founcl

áreas on its southern bank Iarther into the Pampa de Zaña.

As we carefully studicd the map of this region, wc could see that many cconomic and political ímplications had to arise out of thc naturc of this two-vallcy complex. l n exploring tho valley, we found that while there were a number of largc-sízcd canals, most of thc pyramids were of a small or medium size. Does this possibly mean that the huacas and huaca clusters are olcler and more typical of the local culture of the valley, while the large canals are products of the later empíre-building períod when Zafia was dominated from the outside? There is good reusen to assume that in earlier times the econorny of the Zaña must have had a certain independence of its own. The questíon then arises, was there a distinct local Zaña culture? Tf so, what was it like? Later on, whcn Mochica expansión took place, how <lid it affcct the Zafia culture? Since Mochica cultural and possíbly political Influonccs extended as far as Pampa Grande ( scc Chaptcr X\'I) in the Lambayeque Valley

they cerrainly must have penetrated the intcrvcning Zafia. lt is true that no Mochica potsherds from this valley have been recorded so far Thís is of course not surprising since so [ew of the Zafia sites have bccn studíed by archaeologists. We found a small potsherd in a Iormcr excavated gravcyard to the wcst of Cerro Songoy, which could well have been Mochíca, but this find was too insignificant to permit a positive conclusión. Ouring the so-called Middle Period wheu there sccms to have becn a general expansionist movement, the middle and lower Zaña rnay have come undcr the control of the probably once powerful principality of Coilique in the Lurnbayeque Valley, for this region is the most direct connectiug link between the two valleys, Thc conquest could have been led by one of the descendants of Naymlup who, according to Cabello de Valboa, becarne chíef of Collique. Was it during this period that thc canals linking the two valleys wcre built? Was it then that the canals in the southern lower side of the Zaña

\'allcy werc expanded? Could not such an expansión have occurrcd also in the reverse directiou. from thc Zaiia into thc Lambayeque? In a certain way, the Zafia Valley must have playcd íts grcatest role when the Pampa de Zaña was under complete c.:ultivation, for then the Zafia was the connecüng link bctwccn the cxpanding [equetepeque Valley and the Lumhayeque Complcx. This link exísted duriug thc Chimú and Inca Empfres, but may alreacly havi> been developed during the \liddle Period. Of c.:ourse, this position of Zaiia does not mean that the local rnler or rulers of Zafia theu playecl a dominant political role. But in this thrcc-vallcy complex it probably meant that the wishes of the Zaiia rulcrs, economicall}' strengthcned by the expandcd canal systems, must have heen respectcd hy the Incas, Chi.mús and such earlier rulers of Lamba} eque or C\ en Jequetepeque who may have attempted to estahlish "local empires'' of their ow11. 111 fact, during thc ~lid<lle Period the strategic geographic position of

Fig. 12. \\'hile hunling for ancient canals io l11e upper Zai"ia Valley, we fou11cl thb 'tretC"h of dense ,·cgelation produced by the sub-soil water~ of a 11earby modern canal. In thc foreground i~ the statinn wagon of Ilacienda Cayalti. Standing in fronl of thc ,·chicle, lefl to righl, are '.\lichael, Ingeniero Tupac Yupanqui, thc chauffour and sorne chiJdren of tlw neighborhoo<l. Kosok • Fig. 13 ( ccntcr) Stornge jars, u~ed for com, beans and chicha, found in thc lowcr Za11a \'allcy Kosok • Fig. 11 ( right) PaLns i11 tlw tlt-~(·rtl llcre we see the entrance to Otra Bande, one of the ~maller lt11cic11das in thc middle part of the Zaña Valley Komk.

a long seclion wbt·rc two canals had once becn built, each paralleling an outside wall of Lhc road. Close <'xamination of t11e photograph will show rows of mmlll' h11shes growing in tl1t.:sc t.:llnals. Thr othrr irregular clark lines also represenl 111011le huslll's, hern growing in temporary runoffs from mo<lern canals. Servicio 9930: 20.!,1¡, 2046.

is thc lcgcnd of Naymlap, a local ruler who, with his chief wífe, Ccterui, many concubines, a group of 40 officials, and many other Iollowers carne to Lambayequc "wit h a greal [leet of balsas" ( rafts), From ''el parte

s117>re111a." The meaning of the latter term has been rhe su bject of sorne rnisunderstanding, since it has hcen con[nsed with the terrn el parte alto. In Peru, el parte alto oftcn mcans south, while el parte baio means north. ConSC([ uently, it has been assumed by sorne scholars that Naymlap carne from the south. But according to Peruvians, el parle suprema cannot be equated with el parte alto, since the [ormer is a generíc term that can be applicd equally well in a physical, regional or social scnsc, However, the reference in the legend to balsa rafts would tend to place the origin of aymlap in the Guayaquil basin, since, according to the Chroníclers, only in that general región was the balsa raft a common means of transportation. Moreover, we have no representations of balsa rafts on any Peruvian ceramícs, only the small, reed caballitos are showu ( Chapter XVIII) Cabello tells us that Naymlap and his chíldren and grandchildrcn throve so well in Lambayeque that thcy became rulers of a number of the leading communities in thr- middle ancl lower regions of the Larnhayeque Complex (see Chart 2, Chaprer VUT) It may he significunt rhat while Cabello's account lists the names and duties oí many of Naymlap's royal retainers such as a conch blower, a chíef lítter bearer, a drink master, a Fig. 2 ( above ) An oblique aerial view of Chiclayo, the principal cil) of thc Lambaycque Complex. In the Ioreground i the mnin pinza, Ilauked nt the right by the Cathedral. The photograph portrays v ívidly the vast extcnt of Hat, irrigutcd :m·a~ t hnt charncterize thP lowor Part of thc muin plan in Chíclayo, Kosok • Ftg. 4 (lcft ) Frngnu-nt of an Larnbayeque Valley Senicio 0:461.9 • Fig. 3 (far left) ancient ceremonial spear made of hard, clark-hrown wood, Lnmbayeque urea. Brúning-Doering,

cook, a bathing master, a chief taílor, and an ointment and powder carrier, he does not mention any priests in hís conquering group. Could this mean that a secularmercantile power had becorne suprerne in 'ayinlap"s original home? Cabello gíves many more íntcresting detuils i11 hi~ account, of which there is a good and complete trunslation in Means ( 1931) Cabello lists the names of eleven gcncrations of the direct desct>udants of Naymlap. According to our Charl 2 in Chapter VIII, this liJ1c rulcd from about 1050 A.D. to ahout 1350 A.D., a period corresporn1i11g to Profcssor Be1111ett's Late Middle Period in archacoJogy ln othcr words, it was the perio<l of rnovemcnt of ruling groups 148

up and down the Coast. The scction clcaling with the destruction of the Naymlap line and the rise of a new line of rulers of Lambaycque during Chimt'i and Inca dornination is discussed in the latter part of this chapter Unfortunately, we havc no traditions or lists of kings covering the long period of more than two thonsand ypars lwforp Naymlap·s conquest. Thc archacological S("q11C'nC<' of most of this period is likewise unknown, or at bcst covercd by vcry tcntativc hypothcsPs. This period corresponds in time roughly with the Cupisniquc, the Sali11ar, the :\fochica and the early parl of thc Midclle P('riod i11 thc Mochc-Chicama rcgion. In 1940-41, we mapped the main canals and sorne of

the siles of the Larnhuycquc Couiplev, but wc TC'alw·d al thc time that much more field work "as JICC{";sar) lo complete the job. As mentioned in Chapter V, w hr-u we rctumcd in H.)48 we discov ered that much of 011r data uulortunately hud to lx- obtuincd by rneans of fidd lrips. They were couductcd al various times hetween Octoher 1!:)48 and April 1949 .. \fter thc acrial pbotozraphs wcrc completed b) thc Sen icio. we returned to the Lamha) eque area i11 ~la) 1949 .111d checked sorne of thc sites that we had pre' iously misscd. vlichuel aud I made our Iirst trip to thc Lamba) eque district with Dr Schacdel and his chauífeur. arriv in~ al Chiclayo. the lcading cit) oí this región, duríug thc lattcr part of October 1918. Wc stuyed at thc Hotel Hoyul which is situatcd on the maiu plaza in the ccnter o( the liíc oí the city Chiclayo is about the sanie sizc as Trujillo, but while Trujillo, the cultural ccntcr of thc [orthwest Coast, boasts of an Unicereidad, Chiclayo has only a

mo1111ds. Tlw Col111., .,.k ¡.., i.imilar in sonw "il)' to lhe Chotuna sitc but is Joc:ated farther i11la11d, abo11t four miles cast o~ Chi<.:laro. A main pyramid "ith <,ll•t•p ~ides and a second;l1) stepped pyramid with a cc11tral rnmp that cuts into tlw ílrsl two terraces arl' grouped around an irregular open spacc. Plain and whitc slip¡wd padcll<' ware, red-on-white slip ware. and a fcw incisC'd and

Colegio ( high sehool) Howev cr, thc Colegio is housed in n fine, modernistíc building, whích was constructed

•

under the superv isiou of its director,

Karl Weíss.

The splendor of the C olegio reflecta the greater w calth of Chiclayo, which auracts thc trade of the wholc Lambuyeque Complex. !11 Chiclayo, there are a uumbcr oí reusonably good eating places, among which thc Hotel Europa, operated by a Ccrman couple, is by far the bcst. Besides tasty Peruvían dishes, the Europa's mcnu contaius many Cernían specialtíes ranging from " auerhraten" to "Baurntortc." Iucidentally, a numbcr oí [riends who read this book in muuuscript objectcd to uui repeatcd rcfercnces lo good hotels and good restaurants. However. anyone who does vvtcusic c ficld work in Peru soou rcalizcs that a clean bed und a11 appetizing rnenl are basic tools in archacolcgical rcscarchl Arnong

other attractions is thc plcasuut IIcrc CH'!') evening, in the customary mauner, the youug men nnd women come for a stroll, thrChicluyo's

Plaza de Armas.

larter walk in a clock,\.iS<' dircction around th<> Mt11ilrc \\hiJe the former procc•cd in a <.:ouutcrcloch, ise dir(•ction or watch the y0tmg "omcn from the sidelines. Two E'\ eniug~ a \\.eek thc militar) band plays popular and foil..

song.... 011 our firsl clay in tlw cily, L weut to see thc local irrigatio11 officials, whilc Dr Schacdcl and \lichacl madc a survey of the ncarby ruins of Collús. Thesc• i11teresti11g ruins consist of one set of four /111acas, each of a dilll'rt'rtl t;. pe ( Figs. 5 and 6), a11d a11othcr set of four low, aclobt·

rced-marked

potslwrd~

\H'rc>

fouud her<'. On 1 lw basis

of the descriptiou a11d the potshcrd collC'ctíon. Dr chaedel tentati' <>I) a\sumed a .\fidcllc to Lah' oceupation at tbis site. In Chiclayo. \\C 'isited our friencL Scrior Jorgt· Ho11dó11. who. though a busi11c~s man. has beC'n int<•rc•stl:'d in archaeology for more lha11 lwcnty-five years. ln 19-H, he had becn mosl hclpf 111 in locating a n11mber of arcbaeological sitcs. No\\ he otfercd us ncw i11formatio11 that he had gathcrcd in tht• nwaiitime. He also ac·co111panied us on a trip to thc farno11s pyramicl grcmp of Chotuua. which

Fig. 5 ( lwlo\\) \ ''rtkal :wrial dcw of t11<.' 111¡1¡or parl oí tite ruins ol Collú,, La111ha}t'(JUt' \'¡tlJe) Sho"n ht•rt• b ll du,lo:r of 'arious t> pes of p) rnmids. Al the lcít are the modcm 1111cicr1cla buildings. The well-ali~1C'd dark spots are shn1bs and trC'f'S ¡.trowu íor commcrcial pm¡m~c' (~'''' Fig. 6) Serricio SJ.10:2118 • l"i1.1. 6 (uppcr right) A ground \il''' of lwo u( the p)ran1ic1., ot tlw niin~ of Collús (thc two pyn1111id, nl tlw upper left in Fig. 6) Tlw ~trnctnrc at the right is a two-platform pyra111id with a rnmp lt•adin).( to thc top ( compare with Fig. 4, p. 141 ) .\ chapel has bern lrnill 011 tlw top of thc main P} nunid. Sclw<!del.

lu- liad [lfl'\ iouxly 'isitcd with Proícssor Krochcr i11 W:W. Photouruphs of the structure can be Founrl on paw· 10. Uulortuuutcly , nftcr a wcek of fielcl rcconuaissunce Dr Schncdcl was suddenly forced to return to Trujillo with lh<' [e-i-p. l Iuwever, the local director of thc SCI P1\ took l\lic:ha('] ancl me in his jeep on a [ruitful trip 11¡) th« Lumhnycque Vulley as far as Chougoyapc. about tw<.•ntr fiv<• milex frorn the Coast, En route lo Chonuoy apc-, w«

stopped ut Hacienda Pátapo, where our old fri<•ncl. S<'iior Pardo y \ 1 il!m·I. aud his wifc invitcd us to un cvcclk-ut l 1111c:h. l 11 19~0-clJ we had sta yed at the haricnd« severa 1 t inu-x in ordor to study rhc rnins of thc importunt uucient 4'Íl<' o! Cinto. \ t that time. Señor Pardo hud tuken u' 011 thn-« fli~ht~ in his prívate plane O\ er the ntc•nsi' e· ruin-, oí the Larnbayeque Complex. l Iowcvcr, thi., tinw "e· couccutrutcd our dforts on mappinu lcvser know 11 (l) numds, cauals and populatíon centers in tlw middkand upp<.•r Lamhay cquc Vallcy \fter "e• had returued to Chiclayo, we mude <.:011t,1<:t of \gric1iltur<' w ílh thc rcuíonal officc ol thc Department in the 11t·1ghbori11!! tow 11 of Larnbayeque. The office wa~ 11nck1 thc- dircction of the energetic and allnhl« l 11!!t'11iern \'idor Haca, who showc-d ns the bluepriut ol un umbitious plan mude sorne clecades earlier by irrigation cuuinecrs lor a11 ('\te11!'ion of the present Tay111i Canal, llw mu in canal on thr- uorthcrn sidc of the La111baycq111· Vulk-y Th« hlucprint covered the larg<' and complicutcd regio11 wlu-r« tlw Lambuyeque and Leche \'alll') s are· [oiued. ancl includod roughly the urea bouuded by tlu: towus ol Bcsidcs C\isti11g La111ba) cquc, ~lórropc and Fcrrcñaíe. uncl proposcd canal systems. thc blucprint containC'd t hv ~it<.•s aud uamcs of numerous pyrarníds •tnd mounds, sonuol which wcrc complctcly unknowu to 11~. l1111;c•nic·ro B<1c·a obli!!ingl) lcnt us this hlueprint, und we used it on n1<1n) fi<.·ld trip\. He abo oft<'n•d us the use of the lrn<.·I..., ol which we gladly a<.:ceptecl. lwcau<;<' tlw dt>p,11tnwnt ,1t th.1t timt• "e• \\'t'H' without transportatio11 facilitic4'. Tlw t111d. d1 i\(·r~. intelligent men from the Lamba) equl' a1t·a "c·rc· ahlc to hdp u~ locatc man) unknown and out-of ti W-\\ a 1 s ites. 011t• cht) as 1 was st;rnding on top of '' P} ramid tryin~ to !!d lwarin~s on nearby pyramids and ill-ddi1wcl 11101111ds. 1 ~11ddeul1 fclt , cry ill. T rctunH'd to Chiclayo lor a11 <'\aminution aml learne<l that l had malaria. } ello" jaundi<.:l' and amot'bic dy<;cntery. a combination oF afTlictions c¡11it<' common in this re~ion. 'Vhilc• thes<' disea!'es ea11 !)(' euretl with mudern medicines. whi<.:h fort11natPly Wl'I'<' ª' ailahl<' iu Chidayo. the sid.11cs~. llt.'\ t.·rtht'kss. 1.50

prt'\ ented lll)' doing ficld work for almost six weeks. A Itcr 1 had recovered, Michael and 1 again had thc use of tllC' jeeps of Dr Schaedel and of the SCIPA, which, to~<·tlwr with the- trucks of Ingeniero Baca, enuhlcd us lo complete our ficld work in the Larnbaycque region. Sincc thc dctails of thesc trips are too cornplicated to be prcsented here, it may suffice to say that thc region of thc Lambayeque, Leche and Motupe Vallcys inv oh cd us for a nurnber of rnonths in what seemed an eudless ta\l- of locatínu ami mapping major and secondary

canals, pyramids, fortifications. walls and population sitos. The <lifficulties of ficld rcconnaíssance were accentuated here hy the fact that the work could not he carried on [rom onc or two major haciendas as it was in most of tlw other valleys. The arca is too largc and the terrain too cornplcx. Severa! largo haciendas control the best land i11 the uppcr and rníddlc parts of the Lambaycquc and Leche Valley s. Howev er, in sorne of the middle a11CI most of the wide lower parts of these two va U e) s, as well as in the cntire vlotupe Valley, much of the laud is di' idcd

:¡

Fij!. i (p. 150) .111d F1i¡. 8 (p. 151 1 \ ertir-al and obliqu« ,l\•rial photn¡.r1.1ph,, n- ...¡w<:ti\ <'I). llÍ the htllside ruins of Saltur, '111(• burlding« ol llat it•11cl.1 Saltur un- al ( C) "hile al (A) nnd ( B) .in- -unu- of tho L.lll' Period walled eompounds that were built on lt•\ clled-oíl around a plaza. Thr-se huacas ¡>rubahl~ ''ºIX'' ol tllt lull. lkt\\1'<'11 :\ l ami C) lonr '<11ian• pv nunid-, t·•111 lw w1·11 huilt ':.innwlrin1ll} date lrnm .111 t•;trlu r 1)(·t•11patio11 per iod. Betwcen thc•,t• pyrumidv and (' 1 .m· .111t'i1·11l t•1•11wlt•rit''>. Vertical photograph h> Servicio .1J.JO T" 11 'iP\\, ol a ... trrrup 'Pº"' ',., ..... ¡ of t lu- ~liddle Lambayeque lT Period. i\ '1\ JI 1.f'i1: nbliqu« phot11,.rn1ph h~ Kowk • Fig-. 9 m¡ir¡.rin'

into haciendas of small and medium size. In addition, i11 thc rnicldlc and lower parts of these valleys therc are a uumbcr of communidades and towns, such ns Motupc, [uyancu, Pacora, Illirno, Túcume, Ioclrnmí, Fcrrcñaf<'. ~fórrop<-', Etcn, :Monsefú, Reque, San Jos<'.~ ami Pirn<'nl<'l. l lere many families work their own small plots or rcnl land from hacrndados. As a maltcr oí fnct, thro11ghout Pcru the 1wcendados generally cultivate only tlw h<•sl parls of lhcir estates; the poorer lauds are rcntcd in small parccls to individual farmers. The communidades. which date bad. to a11ciC'11l times. h:n e bccn only partially successful in holdi11g thcir land'> against the encroachmcnt'i of the hacendados. \Ioreover. thc lands the) work are of a poorer quality than those of the hacendados, and their water lights are more limited. Furthermore, as a result of their position in th<' lmH•r parts of thc \'alley, the communidades obtain a proportionately smaller ammmt of water in the years whcn tlw rÍ\ ers are low The terrain in these regions is difficult to tr:wcrse e\'en "ith a jeep. 11inct> tht> numerous individual holdings art" often s111Tmmded hy houndary walls and dilelws. Tlw roads are ge11erally ü1 poor condition, indccd. in sonl<' pinces ther<' are no roads al all. Despite the man y obstaclcs wc cncounterccl, wc locatecl a11d rnappt->d over two hundred and /ifl!f sitt•s in tlw thrt'f' \'aJlpys! This large num her tk•111onst ratcs c.·011<.T<'IC' 1 ~ the ec·o11omic and cultural siguificancc of this ('nor111011~ vallPy complex. Although rnost of lhe siles nrc 11nreport<•d i11 archaeolou;ical litcratmc, only a ÍC'w interesting :md ~ig11ifkant ruins will be dcscribcd hcrc. Thc r<•st of t lw 1nnlNinl will be published in \\'afer a11d Ufe. In order to makc clear to thc reader tll<' rC'lat Í\ e posit ions of the sites described in the foJlo" in~ pa~e>s. wt' art• presenting them in the sequence in which tlwy would be 'isiled on a journcy from thc middle Lamha~ equ<' \'a lle~ up to Chon~oyape in the npper part of tlw mil<·~. 11orthwar<l across thc once cultivatcd Quebrada Chaparrí to l laciPnda Batán Grande i11 the uppcr Leche Valle). down th(' Leche Valley to the region where it rneets thc Lnrnhayt'cp1e and Motupe Valleys, ancl tlwn hoth up ami dow11 Lhe ~Iotupc Vallcy, inclnding thC' low<'r i\fot11pc•~lórrope sec:tion. Fi11ally, sorne of the siles in lhc co111plicatcd lowcr Lambayeque ValJey itself are dcscribc.>cl ( see rnap, p. 146) Ll't us start with thc two clominant population d11stcrs ill the middle part of the Lambaycque VaJlcy Loc•\I tradilion has it that these settlements are thc Colliquc and 151

•

., .

• •

....

. . ...

• -.<r..• e:'.

••

Cinto mentioued in Xerez' report of Pizarro's first trip to Cajamarca. Cabello states, In his account of the legend of Nayrnlap, that Nor, one of the latter's grandsons, becarne ruler of Cinto, whilc unothcr, unnamcd grnndson bccume chíef of Colliquc. In the volume, Lambtujequc 1\11tUl1'iO ( 1947 191), Cuutipullec is given as tbe narnc of thís ancient ruler of Collique, though the source of this iníormation ís not cited. Collique, on the south side of the valley, was possibly a collcctív e name for a numbcr of largo sites which are situatcd closc to ouc anothcr They cornprise the fortífied walled structures on and around Cerro Pachorras together with thc terraccd and fortífícd northeast slopes of the ueurby Ceno Saltur ( Figs. 7 and 8) Between the two sites, in a narrow plaín, líes the large pyramíd groupi11g ol Sipán ( Flgs. 10 and 11 ), which consists of more than two dozen huacas, sorne of stone, others of adobe. Thís grouping, which includes the huge adobe Huaca Hajada de Sipán, may have Iormcd the ceremonial focus of the v ast cornplex provided the adjucent sites comprising the complex belonged to thc same pcriod of construction. In thc adjoiníng Rinconada de Collique, whích conuects with Pampa Grande ( see below ) and the Zaña Vulley, are extensive masses of walled compounds, irrigation cauals, Iurrows of Formcr cultivatcd ureas and numerous minor structures, Unfortunately, no acríal view of thc wíde Riucouada exísts, conscqucntly, we hacl to rely cntirely on fleld work in mapping the región. At various times, the so-called Collique arca undoubtcdly controlled the south. side of the louier-middle Lambayeque Valley. lt also dominated the uarrow area, now only partly cultivnted, leadíng to the ucarby Zafia Valley, a portien of whose north side was once írrígatcd by water from the Lainbayeque River (scc Chaptcr XV) Sorne of the largest canuls carne from the upper Larnbaycque by way of thc adjuccnt, now barren Rinconada de Collique and then passed into the Zaña Valley The Huaca Rajada

de Sípán has been supcrlicially dcscríbcd, but no urchacologist has attcmptcd to study systematícally the tangle of the Collique structurcs, cvcn though il is 011e of the largest i11 Peru. Controlling the north sitie of the oallei] opposite Collíque is the almost cqunlly large complex of ruins known toda y as Pátapo, which probably was the uforementioned pre-Spanish Cinto. Thesc ruins sb·etcb for severa! kilomctcrs along the soutlwast<·rn slopes of Cerro l'átapo ( Figs. 16, 17 aod 20) Obviously represenling a vnricty of Jacal types of constrnction and more tlrnn onc pcriod o( occupatiou, they consist of walkd cornpou11ds of adobe; rectangular cnclosurcs with subdivisions of stonc; dc11sely-packed, terraccd mounds of earth, and somc adobe pyramid-;. Two parallel canals, which wc called Taymi Antigua, and whose remains wc tracc<l for many miles abovc the present large Taymi Canal, passed partly below au<l partly through thesc n1ins. Wc detcrmined, after considerable field work, that thesc lwo canals once broughl water ali thc way from La Puntilla i11 the upper Lambaycquc Valley, past Pátapo, Cerro Mirador and Lusfaquc to the extensive ruins of Cerro Purgatorio in lhc Leche Vallcy Tbus these two Htllcys or at least portio11s of thcm were linkt>d technologícally and possibly politically In ancient times, both Cinto and Colliquc lay asb·ide the strategic main north-south l11cu highway whose rcmaius we had tracetl along much of thc Northwest Coast. Dr Schaedel found considerable evidcncc of Chirnú and Inca oceupation of these illlportant sitos; proof of an earlier occ11pation will likely he estab1ished once thc sítcs are stuclil:'d more thoroughly The highway, to wbich we rcfcrrcd i11 pre,·ious chaptcrs, wf' also traced Íllto thc Leche Vallcy, farther north, whcrc t.here werc indicatfoos of lnca occupation. A numbcr of clderly informants insisted that they had seen parts of thc highway near

Fig. 1 O ( lcft) The hug<: J)) r;uni<l cluster of Sip{111, shown in this odd-looking ,·erti<:al 1wrial photograph, is situate<l l>etwee11 Cerro Saltur and Cerro Pachcrras. tt11d consists of more than t:wenty-Rve structures. At (A) cau be sccn Huaca Rajada (Torn Pyramid), which is comprist:d of thc largc rectangular pyramid and the two irregubr-shaped structurcs just below il on the photograph. At ( B) are sorne of the 11umerous smallcr pyrnmids of adobe or stonc and earth. These and rdated structure~ fonn part uf tbc Sip:m Pyramid Comple'(. ( C) marks thc location nf anciPnt cannls tbat are still u~ed for cultivatbn purposes, "hile D) iudic:atcs ancient canals u~ed at prcsent as runoffs for surplus irrig:1ticin water. At (E) is the mo<lern dirt road that c:onm'Cts the Lambaycqul' an<l Zaña \"alleys. Srrl'icfo .'J.1iJO:1387 • Fig. 11 ( uppcr right) Ohli<¡u<' aerial \iew from Señor Pardo ~ l\ligu1·l'spiune of Huaca Rajada. the largest struehtrf' oí thf' Sipán Complex (see text and Fig. 1 O) Sclwcdcl • Fig. 12 ( lo"er right) Part of a water jug \\ ilh l'Ollieal \(lont ancl bridge which we found in the Rinconada de Collique. T~ pieal high lu~trc Lambayeque blackware. 1'osok-Storck.

Apurlé and Cerro de la Vieja. both in tl1e Motup<' Vallcy farther north. A systcmatic study of the b·tmk road from thc Chao to the .Motupe Vallcy, togethcr with an archacological smvey of thc ncarby sites, shoukl throw much light on the history of thc road, incl11ding the role it played in keeping the various valleys in the control of the 1 neas, Chimús, and possibly carlicr conquerors. In crossing from the Lambayeque Valley to the Leche Valley, this road passes through an extensivo, hilly desert rcgion, and thereby a,·oids the rnai11 ccntcrs in the lower part of thc complcx. Did thc conquerors merely intend to roakc thc road as short as possiblc, or <lid they aim to avoid crossing the dense, hostile population areas of the lowcr part<; of the Yalleys? Perhaps thcy had both purposcs in mind when they constructed this vital artery

1 l.unu hb.lCl with brull1 1 kl") t1r~•nJXe ware,

P 1rt

f1t

muid Innu im ·' 1.u (in•icl1·)

Part uf f lu- mulr! tmm ( Ollh1dc)

1.5 t

Ohlí1pll' .wri.d v iew , taken in tlw ( .1·1 a111il:~ Irom Hi11l~lllad.1 <IP Collique. >-.owk-/....ciwfsky • Fi.l(. l ·l (p. 154) l~i).(. 1 ;{ 111..rgi11, p. 154) C('rro Cuitarn1~ n·gio11, loold11g 11p the micklk- 1111d upper seC'lion;, ol tl11· Lurnbayeqne and Zmia Valleys, with tlu- cloud-eovered Sierras in tlw had .. ,l.(roLtnd (s1•c• also l'ig. :!~)) The photo).(raph show« drarl) tlw i11l1-rrdatio11,l1ip ol tlu- two \alle~ .., und th« povition-, of tlw main right) ( n) A11de11t are h:wologi<:al sítcv. ( \) \ 11t•i1·11l canuls thnt 011e1· l'arri1·d water frorn tlu- L:uubay1·q111· \u lk·~ ( lt'll ln t lw Zafü1 \'all1·) 111.1i11 north-south r11<1d ( 'C'l' rig. 11. pp. 144 .uul 145) ( C) 1 hwi1·11d:1 Cuyult]. ( 1)) Zai1a llh 1•1 E) Oyotún, tlu- l't:nlc'r of thc Za1i:i "pockct." \ F) 'orthemmo~t poml oí eultivatiuu ol Z.uia li1·lcl;, today ( G) l)t'M'rt ¡111111¡1(1 w ith 1111d1·11t mna), frorn hotb the Za1ia and L;11nb:1y1•qu1• Hiv ers, \IT) Southcnunost point of cultiv.rtiun of Lnmbayequc fü·kb tuduy Tlu· rt'~i1111 lwh,c·1·11 (A), (F). (11) und (M) was lurrnerly 1·111! Í\ ated. (I) Part ol ( 'vrro altur ( Sl'<' Fil.(,. 7 .1nd 8) (J ) LarJ.(1' ¡>~ ramid complcv ol Sip(u1 "'<' Fig-. 1 O .111d l l) ( K) Cerro Pacherras. ( 1,) Lambayeque Rh cr, ( \J ) Rinconada d1· Collique. Iormorly 111lti' ated. ( ~) Rui11' oí Pampa Crandr- ( \l't' Fu~. 21 ) (O) Cho11~0) ape, 1·1•11tn ol the uppr-r Lrunhayeque "pocket." ( P) En trance lo Q1ll'hr.1cla Chaparrí and tlu- Leelu \':1l11·) to thr- norf h. C S. Army 4.!-ll-4..! • Fi¡.:. l!í ( below ) A vir-w of tite sugar rcfinr-ry, nclministrntion building», workers' quarters und Iields of l laei1·ndt1 Pátapo. un thc north ,¡de· uf t ln- Lambay equv Valk-y, a:,, secu from 01w oí tlu- 111a11y ruins that covvr tite barren hill'> nvur the hacienda. An uncicnt adobe pynunic] rht•, A part of C1•nt¡ Pachorras can h<' <1•1·11 011 the oppo-it«, so11th síde of the Lnmbayequc out of tlu- irri(('1lt•cl fit·Jd, jn<l beyond ll11: r<'fi111·r~ \ all1·), .1t the evtrenu- ll•lt in the photugruph. Acro's the cultivnu-d lo" lund from Cerro Pucherras. along the ueurest slope of the group of S1·1• Fig~. 7 and 8 for pholographs of lht•,1• ruins. Al llie foot of Cerro hill», lie the mm' ol Saltur ( not visihle i11 the photograph) Padwrra-. ancl \lrl'lt hi11g to" ard altur ¡, tlw large pyramid dn'h r o( ipán ( \l'l' Fig,. 1 O ami 11) The llllt°il'lll 11orth-soulh higll\\ ") ( not , i'ililc in this photograph) r;u1 from tllC' \111t111x- aud Leclw \'all<'}i> in the north, pa't P;'ttapo, al·ros' tht• irri.l{alt•d fü·lch of tlw L.1111ha)1•que \'alk•y, past Sip:'111 into thl' Zaiia \'alle>, ~011tl1 of Sip;Íu (M'l' Fig. 10), ,111cl from llwn• lhrough tlll' ma11) '<tll1•)' ami de-'t'rb 'lill fartlwr 'uuth Ko.mk • Fig. 16 ( 11p¡wr l('ft) 011(' oí th1' niany reda11gular str11d11n·~ of the n1in' ol P.ít;1po tt' !>ceo írom a hill abo,·c ( M'C map, p. 1411) One of tlw sto111·-wall('d hastio11~ oí tlw ruin' of Pátapo. Srlw<'dd • Fig. 18 ( up¡x•r right) tlu· ~1le. Schoedel • Fig. 17 ( upper 1:1·11t1·r) lhm·n hilb 1war l';Ítapu. A ~tonr wall 1·:111 h1· ..ee11 011 0111· of tlu· ritlgr,. Kosok.

fig. 19 (a hove) The open coclqJil plauc iJ1 wl11d1 we Bcw will1 rr mati) of thc sill'' uf tl11· Larnba)T<1u•· eiior Pardo y :\1iguel Compln. The aull1or, Sr1ior P.ndo ,rn<l hi' ad11111mlrat11r \\ 'y/cr • Fig. 20 ( 1w\l lwo pag<'') lluin' of Pal.ipu. ~crl l('Í<J ,J,J.Jll· 1518 15.!U, 154J, 1546. 1572, 1574

º'

Fíg. 20. The m:1i11 section of thc extensive hill!>ide ruins of P;ítapo (anden! Cinto?) i~ shown on thc pag1• at the rígltt. Ccramics of both Inca a11d Chimú Pcriod« h,1\ ,. lx- .. 11 found herr-, [urther exurninatiou would prohahly indicare an earlicr oocupution. Ikln\\ tlu- ruins are parts ol the fit'kl' ami h111ldi11g., of tlu- rnodr-rn Hacienda A Chimú-tv pe walled compound can Pátapo. h< »r>t'n 111 lltt- u·nkr of lltt· ¡>.1gt• ut the left. \t the ldt of the compound .1re tlw ancient Taymi Canal and the main and1•nt north-south road,

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Leaving Colliquc, W<' journcyr-d severa] miles up the south side of the valk-y to a widc quebrada where there

. is a large ancicnt site known as Pampa Grande. Like Pátapo aud Sultur, the silc consists of the remains of an extensivo settlement cm tln- lower slopes of a híll. Below it runs the largc double canal that passed through the Rinconada de Collique and coutinued to the Zaña Valley Dominatiug Pampa Crunde is a huge pyramid that is probably cxcccdcd in size 0111) by the Huaca del Sol in Moche. Nearby is a small pyramld, which, líke the larger structurc, is madc of rectangular adobes. Dr Henri Reichli11. of the Frcnch Archaeological Mis-

Fig. 21 ( lcft ) Thc ruins oí Pampa Grande 011 thc south bank of tlw Lumbuycquc River In the upper part of thc photograph is the hugc adobe pyrarnid that rauks witl1 thc Temple of tlw Sun in the ~lodl<' Valley as one of the largest adobe structures on tlw l'(•ru' inn Coa't scc Fígs. 23 and 24) Below h a srnuller pyramid of similar Al the left and ríght are the r<'nMin~ oí (''leusi' t' construction, hahitation siles. In thc lower lcft comer of the photngraph are sorne oí the buildings of Hacienda Pampa Grande. The whiu- lin« ¡, tho moderu road. Crossing it at various points is une of tlw okl irrigatiun canal« thnt [ormerly cnrried water Irom the 1111pt•r Lurnbayequc Below tlw lo t lu- Rinconada de Collique and thc Zañu Vulley unc-ír-ut canal is the modern canal with irrigated Iíclds below it. Sen-icia .J,1.10: 1509, 1510, 1566 • Fig. 22 (ubovc ) Transpluuting rice in the upper Larubaycque Valley Kosok • Fig. 23 upper míddlo ) Rear view of thc main huaca at Pampa Cnu «k- ( S('C fig~. 21 and 24) Kosok • Fig. 24 (Iower right ) Frout vicw of a scetion of t11'• 111ai11 huaca at Pampa Grande ~howiug ih huge ,¡zt• as well us the cxtensíve dnmage clone to il l1y centuries of occusional ruins ( St'C fi¡rs. 21 and 23) Schaedel.

sion, obtained a reprcscntntive snmpling of Mochica potsherds at Pampa Grande in 1948. The presenee of Mochica potsherds was also confirrncd luter by Dr Schacdcl, who was led to conclude that tbe site is the nortl1ernmost orea of Pertt fo whicl1 Mocliica ceramics llave heen fo1111d, ami that the area thus rcpresents thc point of farthest northem expansion of the ~lochica "Empire" or culture. Remains of later Inca occupation werc also located on this site. It appears that Inca c."<mtrol was usually concentrated in the upper to middlc parts of many of tbe coastal valleys. Abo,·c Pampa Grande, on the opposite side of thc valley, lies the Chongoyape "pocket,'' which at <me time was probably thc largest of its kind along the whole Coast ( sce Chaptcr IX) At present, Chongoyapc, a town of about 8000 people, is the adrninish·ative ccnter of this large pocket. In ancient times, the area undcr cultivation was consiclerably larger than it is toclay, a fact that is inclicate<l by thc Jarge nurnber of unused ancicnt canals. The numerous remains of pyramids au<l fortiAcations suggest that the pocket once supported a lurgcr population. A n11rn bcr of fortified sites are sb·atcgically located in thC' pocket, the most importaut being on Cerro Chongoyape a11<l Cerro i\fagin, on the north bank of the river, ns wcll as on smaller hills on the nearby south bank (Fig. 25) Control of the u¡1per valley had probably once bccn t''<Crcised by means of these fortifications. On the western stopes of Cerro Magin, just abovc the ruius of the ancicnt Hacarumi Canal, lies a very extensive, partinlly dcstroyecl, <!dobe pyramid grouping which probahly was the chic{ ceremonia/ center of the pocket. Although TeJJo, Reichlin, ancl othcrs have studied sorne of thc sites in the region,

thc archaeological scqucnccs ha' e not ) et becn dca11) t•stablislwd. Thc problem is complicated by the fact thnl Siena inílucnccs have bccn constantly active . ln thc Chongoyape region, we trac.;cd in detall thc coursc of the famous Racarumi Canal, one of tlie largest canals in prehistoric America. lt had its inlake some miles above the lown of Chougoyape all(] carrie<l water along the north bank of thc Lambayequc until it cntcrcd thc broacl ancl long Qut'bracla Chaparrí, which is part of the Leche Vallcy to thc north. Tbe canal thcu dividcd into severa! branchcs that completely irrigate<l both sicl1•s of the quebrada before combining with thc canals 011 the north side of thc Leche Vallcy Unfortunntcly, acrial photographs do not co\'er the entire area traverscd by thc canal. Therefore, most of our conclusions wcre bascd on field work, which was done by jeep, on horseback and on foot. The canal seem.s to havt' bee11 comprist.>cl of two difieren/ systcms, partly s11¡¡erimposed ami ª1'Jmrcntly of ltco distinc/ periods. lt is possible that oue system datc>s from the Chimú, the other from the Inca Period, or one from thc Chimú-Inca an<l the other from the pre-Chiml'.1 Pcriod. The dating cannot be established until thc basic archaeological seq\lence of this desert rt.>gion has been detcrmincd. In June 1949. wlwn we rnadc· our lasl trip tbrough this region, we were greatly surpriscd to find the whole Quebrada Chaparrí <lnd tlw snrrounding hills carpetecl with grass and blooming with many-colorcd Hower~! Thc.;

]59

lcw adobe p) ramíds were covcred with dricd gras1>, which gave thcm thc peculiar appcaruncc of having suddenly grown a good crop of light brown huir Hain so infrcquent in this región had fallen cluring the previous March, and within a short time had complctely changed the appearance of the landscape. As a rcsult, our quest for additional cauals prov cd lutilc. The Quebrada Chaparri contaius a gro11p oí p) ramids at its upper, i.c .. south, cnd at thc valley dh ide. In thc middle of thc quebrada rises thc important fortified hill. Cerro ele Arena ( Sand Ilill) \t thc foot oí the híll, we located rernains of a srnall scttlcmcnt which contained adobe walls and severa! 'ery small adobe huacas. Thc

site is referrcd to locally as Fcrrcñafc Viejo. lf this desígnation is corred, thcn it míght mean thut in colonial times, after the Hacarumi Canal stopped bringing water to thís regíou, the inhabitanls wcr« moved to the present Ferreñafe, situated on the Lumbuyeque-Lcche plain. A stu<ly of local archives may clear up this problcm. Near the loicer, i.e .. north, eud of the quebrada, we found severa! small pyramíds and a small Iortified híll with associatcd structures. whíle 011 the hills to thc cast

we saw other unexplored structures, which we later located on the Sen icio aerial photographs. \\'hile evploring Quebrada Chaparrí. we wcre astoníshed to find a long stone wall which cxtends from Río Camellón, a hranch of the Lambayeque River, through Quebrada Chaparri, 011 thc uppcr east sidc of the Racarumi Canal, into the Leche Valley The wall then crosses thc laucr '<lile'~, and seems to disappear in thc hills on thr- northcru

sídc,

Lts lcugth wc estímatcd as

abour thirty rniles, thus makíng it the longest wall on the

't'

Coas/ o/ Pcru, outstdc of the Santa all discooered by the Ship¡>ee-Jo/111so11 exncduion. At the places where we inspcctcd it, the wall ranged Irorn 6 to 10 feet in hcight .

Whether wherhcr

it wus a def<'nsh t' or a boundary wall, and prc-Spunísh or colonial, could not be

it was

determined. On leavin)I; tll(' wide Quebrada Chaparrí, wc entered the nppr-r Leche Valky, wliid1 is clominated today by fl aciC'nda Bat;\n Crand<' ( LargC' ~,'lilling Stone) aucl thc suhsicliar) l ladc11da ~layascón. As in 1940-41, we madc Hacienda Batán Gra11clc' our ceuter of opcrations. Thc estate is owncd h) the Aurich brothers, who, with their mothcr, Señora Aurich. greeted us warmly on our anival and oílcrC'd us the full hospilality of their home which we gladl~ ;1eccptC'd. \Ve remaincd for about a wcek and rcturnecl latt'r for a !>hortcr 'isít. During our stay, we locat'-'d a consid<•rable number of hithcrto archaeologically unkno\\'n small pyramids. mou11cls. forti6cd sitcs and canals that are 1>catterc<l throue;bout thc upper part of the L<'dw \'allc·~. ami which "'ere probab]~ rclatcd lo so111c• of thc !>ilc1> iu thc adjoining Quebrada Chapan·í

( scc abo' e)

•

Fig. :ló ( up¡>t•r il·Íl) ll illtop, surrounded by l:1rg1• c•o11c•1•11trk wall'>, nt•ar l ladcmla 1 luaca Blanca buildings on the south bank of tlw L:1111hayt•quc Hhc:r upposilc: Chongoyape. _ole lhe large trailing off to lhc top of thc photograph. A small i.ub-di,idcd rectnngk. p.1r1ly c·mPr<'d h~ 'egctation. ca11 be sccJl at lhe upper lefl. Ser1 il'io .1.1.10: ,U.'if • Fig. 26 (lowcr lcft) Tbc faitllful burro, slill a tnmmon nwam of transport ing goods in the roadlcs> rcgious of Pl't U Koso/.; • Fig. 27 ( lower center) Owing to thc light hul 'º"H'" ltat fn.quenl rain.-. in the uppt'r Lamhayl'<¡UI' \'allt'y, larg(' cad1 lil..c tlw>l .tn· t'()mmon. Kosok • Fig. 28 (abme) A ~cene in thc upper L1mbaycque \'alle) Kosok.

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inll'I · ami arcluu olog1c:ally u11!..11ow11 '>ilt• ,1l tlu- fonl of Tambo fü·al ( Ho~ al Road Statiou llill) 011 the The :o.ile cousists oí re sid<• of t hc Leche- \·alle~ nf huhitatiou struetures ancla gro11p of adobe pyrumids, p;11 ls ol w hich are cov cred w ith rough !>lom· fnt'ing:-.. \ complev and<'nl canal system ruus through part of tlw 01w da~ I\\ o of tln- Aurich brotln-r- .. too!.. us toan

t•\tí11g (;p11 o south mninx

sitc, whilc

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is a scctiou o] thc north-south

truuk

0111 ntteutiou "as uttracted to tlie muin pyrahigl1way 111id, wh ich is bu ilt i 11 t he f orm of a '"U'". wi th t he open cnd towurd tlw lowt•r northcru cntrancc of thc ruin. 01w

of the brothers took us insidc thc .. U" and show cd us tlurernains o] sonu- low uclobe rclicf work in the Ioriu ol a st•ri:·s of a11g11la1 xpir.ils 011 onc nf thr- walls. 011 .1 lnter reconnuissuuce D1 Schuedel [ound that th-: lril /.(' had in tlw 11wa11ti11w h<'<'n destruvcd. Potsherds collected in the aren indicute thut the sitt· ma~ he one of the earlit.·'>l yet Iound in lh<· Lc-clu- \ alk~ In the middle part ol ll1t• l .eclu- Vallej , the descendi11g ri' er "div id(.., .. into w hat uppear to he a number oí that .irc 'í'r~ "ide and, in place • natural "dia1111<•)<;" have cut ahout tw<•11t~ to thirt~ Í('t•t deep into the soil, Llo« t'\ er, alter discuvsim; tll<' nuuter with írriaation eugi-

neers. we coneluded th.it the'<' "cluumels" had probably orieinolh¡ bceu irriuutiou cnuuls, lmilt in uncicnt times . . \pparP11tly owi11g to tlu- rapicl drop in terrain and tlw

Fi!(. 29 ( leít ) A11 oblique .u-rtnl \ ÍP\\ oí tlu- L;11uha)l'<¡m' Valley ~l11d1 ni tl1;• -:11m· n·gion a~ thut in and part of llw Zafia Valll') Fig. 14 can lil' H'e11 lu-n-. l lmH'\ "' thi, pl1otograph, taken ueur tlw Larn1,)10"' Chongoyupe, in the uppr-r l,a111haH·q111• \'allí'\ hayeque aud Za ria Hi\C•r' fl¡"' i11.J.( "1•'t" :tnl 111lo tltl· l'adfi<: Ül'l'.m. B) :\lod1·nr rnad lo Clio11~0~.1pe. ( C l (A) Lambayl'C(llf' Hh ;·r. ediono uf the ande11t H.1m1111111 ( .111al. ( 1)) ()1ll'hr.1d.1 Ch.1pam. E) Rui11~ of Pampa Gr.111d1· ( F) Pamp.1 dl Burro,. ( C:) Ruin' of P:1tapo. ( 11 \ Lowt'r L.unhaH•qm· \ .ill1 >. i11 lht· n•gio11 of Chit.J.iyo. ( 1) Hinl~mad.1 di· Colliqut• ( J) H1111.- of Sip.111. ( 1\. { S \m11¡ lil-R-.!'I • Ct:rro Guitarr::is ( L) L1m1•r Zaña \ .tllt·\ belo" \ 01w of th1 ni.111~ pdrogh ph' tli.11 l'ª" l1t fo1111d Fig. J.:.mol.. 1111 Ct'rm \lulato nt·ar Chonf.to\ apt

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soítness of the soil, the canals had dug dcep troughs that now appear to be natural ehannels. This thcory was latcr when we studied two othcr lnrgc ancient strcngthcned cannls on the north side of the Leche Valley that run to

Apurlé ( see below ) and which for a short distance had produced similar deep cuts. Four of thc channcl-like canals in the middle purt of the Leche Valley carry water in a west-northwcst dircc-

tion. They pass below the Pan merican (lighwa} und finally enter the small Morupc Ríver, which comes [rom the north. This system. built in ancient times ami still in use, incrcascs thc cultivated urea of thc Motupe Vallcy und combines the two valleys into a hydrologk-al unil. Another channel-like canal carrics water of thc Leche Hiver north of the huge ancient site of Cerro Purgatorio ( s1•c· helow ) in a southwestcrly dircct íon, rncshin~ with brunches of the "rnoderu" Taymi Canal, whilr- a dr~ si;..tl1 hranch n111s south of the sitc. Thc extcnsions of this dry branch at one time undoubtedly COlll1CC(C'cJ with SOllH' of the cauals of thc loicer Lambayeque fü, er thnt clrt-vv water from that river In ancicnt timr-s, Cerro Pun~ato1 io wu-, also scrv iccd hy the "modern" Ta~ 111i (:anal a11d tlunow uuused Taymi Antigua, both cormng from th« Lum buyeque Vallcy, and hence must have 011<'<' occupied a powerful and strategio position. 1 t should be addcd thu; thc two above-mentíoned channel-like cana Is may ha' 1· bccn thc original beds of the lower Leche Rh c1 Thc land between several of the channcl-like canulv ol thc Leche Vulley is not cultivated 110\\', Ior it is nhout twenty-flve feet above the water in thc eanals, hut due lo uuderground seepage it has a dense growth oí a11 algarroba forest, a kind of "dcscrt jungle," as .\lichacl culled it. 011 this "high" land, we Found sections of othe-r a11cieut cana Is indicating that thís area was once cultiv utcd. Hising out of thís dense algarroba Forest, which grnw\ 011 fonncrly cultivated land, are somc of thc largest antl most dramatic-looki11g pyramids in norJ/iem Peru, callcd the Huacas of Batán Grande, since they are siluakd on the lands of Ifacicncla Batán Grande. Brií11ing clnims that the ancient name for this sitc was Sidn. Tlw individual pyramids are La Hodillona (Tlw Kn<•t•I-

Fisr. 31 ( uppcr ldt} Andent canal, part of tllC' Tap11i Antigua. i11 the midclle Lamb,1ycquc Valle~ Ko.~ok • Fi~. 32 ( ldt) Tlw dc·<•pt·~l t·ut m"clt' by thc ancicnt Racarumi Canal :1' il p;h\t'' from t lw L.1mh:1yec¡11e \'alley thmugh t11P 'ullc~ dh idl' to Qudm1<ht Chap:trrí. in th(• Lrdw \'alley K11~ok.

in~ Woman), which is thc lurgesl; El Oro (Tlw Gold Onc). where gokl treasures arf' pnrported to ha Vl' bccn fo11ncl, La Ycntana (Tl1e \\'indow). wlwrc Dr Tello reportecl fincling a sPc¡uencc' of coastal cultmal pcriods; El llomo ( The o,·cn. or Thc Colorcd Ünl'), a11cl Santillo On tlw south ha11J.. of tlw rh C'f', l wo ( Littlc• Saint) pyramid~ knowu respectiH•I) us La ~ krcC'cl p.terc) ) .mcl La Cruz (The Cross) complete• th(' principal dustcr To tlie ea:.l is an extemi' e, possibly olcfor, badl) clamrq~cd l.!roup of <;rnallcr huacas. the most i111porla11t of "hich is J..no" 11 locall~ as Huaca de lo!> In~cnit•ro!> ( Thc EngiThe name is deri\(•d froin the T111aca's m·ers· Huaca) n'ie as a triangubtion monument in rt'C<'nl tim('S (Fil!. :35) T.iJ..e man~ others on thc Coa-;t ol P<•rn, !lit·~<' nanw~ an'

ri~. :~:_¡ ( .1hm t' J\o.wk • Fi~. a4

Bullock bdow

in tlw up¡x r l.amlia~ l'<JIH' \'all1·~ llnu"·' 1H·;tr Chm11!n).11w. J...ow1k

l':Ut

Spanish, the original nomcnclature having been forgotten. However, Señor Zevallos Quiñones has shown that thc original narnes can oftcn be found by studying ancient land titles in local governmental, church and hacienda archives. More difficult is the task of connecting these ancíent narnes with the actual huacas. The main huaca group obviously was onc of the powerful centers that at one time controlled an important part of thc Larnbayeque-Leche-Motupe Complex. Although at least Iour investigators (Brüning, Tello, Bennett, Kroebcr) havo mentioned these pyramids, nonc has given a plan or sketch of their positions. Therefore, we include in this rcport an aerial photograph and sorne grouncl photographs of the ruins ( Figs. 38, 39, 42, 44 and 47) Although we had no time to make surface collcctions, Dr Schaedcl, in a subsequent reconnaissance, found interesting potshcrd material that indicates a relatívely early períod of occupation of the cornplex, Drawings of severa] of thc potsherds are reproduced herc (Fig. 46) On hís reconnaissance, Dr Schaedel also saw and photographcd fragmcnts of a polychrome fríeze on Huaca del Oro. Subsequently, Señor Mario Florian, an inspector of ruins, completely cleared this fricze, which is illustratcd in bis report pu blished in 1951 ( Fig. 42) The ruins of Cerro Purgatorio, rnentioned above, are sítuated near Túcume ( Figs. 49, 52, 54 to 57), where, according to Cabello, Cala, eme of Nayrnlap's sons, madc himself the ruler These ruins, consisting of many steep adobe pyramids and walled compounds constructed on the sidcs of a lone hill arising out of the plains of the Leche Valley, represent the most impressice architectural group of pyramids in the Lambayeque Complex. The site has been sketchecl by Professor Kroeber, but Dr Schaedcl and hís staff have produccd thc füst authcntic ground plan for the site as a whole, This plan was printed in the August 1951 íssue of the ScienUfic American. The huacas are áU very steep, and sorne have narrow terracc lcdges. The approaches are long ramps, although sorne of tbe pyramids have the circumferential form of approach found at Chotuna and Collús. Dr Schaedel statcs Severa! of the clevatcd cornpounds present a new

and apparently local urban unit. lt shares the principie of numerous room divisions with the ChanChan compound, but in place of the hígh circumferential walls as thc delímiting and defending elerncnt, the Purgatorio compound is elevated sorne filty fcet with a sheer drop to the ground level, and has no exterior wall. As in the ChanChan compound thc cntrances are few Its potsberds and its general layout indicate that the síte was occupíed in the Late Chírnú Period. fo fact, it may well have been one of tbe leading Chirnú strongholds in this valley, if not the leading one. Professor Bennett, who excavated a number of gra,·es at the site, also found sorne Inca material, whicb indicates Inca occupation at one time. \Ve located a smaller ruin across the canal a short dístance northeast of Cerro Purgatorio. This site, which is called Túcume Viejo, is comprised of very dilapidated mounds and other adobe structures, and it seems to be an archaeological mystery Was it the ancient site of the prcsent town of Túcurnc? Or was it an antecedcnt of the Cerro Purgatorio site? Cabello relates that when Pizarro reached the general area of Túcume he found that jayanca, situated to the north, had just concluded a war with Túcume, which, at thc time, was an ally of the Chimús farther south! Tho Túcume mentioned by Cabello may well have been the site we know as Purgatorio. The local confüct indicates clearly that the Incas at that time exercised either very limited control or no control whatsoever over this coastal area, which they had conquered only sorne fifty to sixty years earlíer In additíon to tbe six channel-líke canals described above, we located, on the north side of the Leche Valley, two other large ancient canals that were no longer in use. They once carried water Ior a great distance, turning north through the ruins of La Viña and adjacent open plains and terminating in the very large ancíent center of Apurlé, near the i\[otupe River Thus, while the Racarumi Canal carried water from the north side of the Lambayeque Valley to the south side of the Leche Valley, these canals and the othcrs mentioned abovc, carricd water

Fig. 35 ( upper right) Desert flelds wilh remains of an ancient canal as scen from Señor Pardo y }.liguel"s plane. Kosok • Fig. 36 ( right center) A scction of thc ancicnt fü1carumi Canal near Tinajones, west of Chongoyape. The interior of the canal is so largc tbat it is now used as an automobile road. Kosok • Fig. 37 (lowcr right) \Vorkcrsº dwellings on oue of the Lambaycquc haciendas. Kosok.

from the Leche Valley still fartber north and west into the Motupe Valley Becausc of the strategically important position of the Leche Valley, both of thc huge pyramid sites of Cerro Purgatorio and Batán Grande probably played a political and economic role far beyond that warranted by the small size of the Leche H.iver. We visited the ancient scttlement of La Viña ( Figs. 61 and 62), which is comprised of regular, well-aligned rectangular structures indicating a Late Period urban center Extensive rcconnaissance could not be made because a large part of tlie site had becn converted into fenced-in pastures where bulls were being raised for the Lima bullfights. However, we were able to see enough of the ruin to realize that it was considerably desb·oyed and

Fig. 38 ( lcft) Tlus group of ruins, situated amídst .ru algarroba "Iorcst'' on the Leche River, is kuowu as the Huacas of Batán J'l:1·ar the center of thc photograph, Cr.mdr- ( see text, pp, 162-163) an open plaza can lw -ccn. faccd on !'at'h of thrce sidos hy a largc /111nrt1. At the lrft is El Oro; at the right ¡, La Ventana: ar the top i., El l loruo. The arrangcmcut of these huacas around au open area is ximilur to the 1-lochka pyramid groupings nnd in thi\ seuing has u curious Mayoid cnst. Although occupied as late a~ Chimú times, thi-, group pro babi y had il!> greatest de·' clopment s11111c·li111e befo re 1000 A.D. In the upper left of the photograph b La Rodillona, whilc 111 the lower part are the remains of La Merced aud La Cruz. J\t thc right are a nurnlx-r of semi-devtroyed pyramids. of which Los Ingenieros is the most importunt. Servicio S.1.'J():751 • Fig. 3!) Cround photograph of l tunea del Oro. On un Inncr ( right) wall oí thc upper purt of rhe adolx- pyrarnid, a pnlnted friczc wa~ Iound hy Dr. Schaede] in }!)48 ( '''<' Fig. 42) The Ioreground is part of the plan bounded 011 two other vides by l luaca Ventana and l luaea del l lomo (sec Fig. 38) Schacdel • Fig. 40 (p. 164, margin ) Gold Chimú vase fouud at Batán Grande. Guillen • Fil(. 4 l ( below ) An íutricatcly-wrought Chimú gold kuife f rom the ruins of Batún Crande. G11ill<•11 • Fig. 42 ( ri!(hl ccntrr ) Drawíug of the painted frieze on Huaca del Oro. The frieze is about two yards high; the colors are red, yellow :11Hl durk bluc. 1\ similar Frieze was divcovercd 20 years ago in tlw Huaca Pintada. near Túcume, but it ha~ bccn d<'\ITO)t·<I. Florian.

that much labor would be rcquired in order lo explore it systematically The modcrn road and the ancíent trunk road cut through the heart of thc settlement. The only refcrence to La Vifia in archaeological litera-

ture is ruado by Brüning, who suggests that the sito may have been the ancicnl [ayanca mcntioned by Cabello, since it lay on the main 1 nea Road, Cabello states that Llapchíllulli, one of Nayrnlap's man) grandsons, assumed thc chieftainshíp here and that one of hís deseendunts stíll ruled [ayanca at the time of the Spanish conqucsts, O\ cr 400 ycars la ter The present J ayanca lies sorne distance farther wcsl, on the Pan merican Highway Thc Spaniards, it appears, moved some of thc old settlemeuts to a sccondary, more we!>tern, north-south, pre-colonial or colonial road that ran from fotupe through Chiclayo to the Zafia and Jcquetepeque Vallcys, and that ha!> uow bccome, with some mocli6cation, part of the Pan American Highway It is possible that JayancaLa Viíia was one of lhcsc towns, but archiva} investigations will be necessary to scttle thc qucstion. Apurlé excitcd om curiosily, for there seemed to he no reason why tLis large centcr should have developc<l in tbe small ~lotupc Yalley The site consists of a spaciously planned urban complcx with thc high adobe walls built at thc foot of thc small Cerro Apurlé, a lone hill i11 a large plain. Smrounding thc complcx are several dozcn adobe pyramicls and mouncls, of small to medium sizc, that sectn to be in a kind of regular alignmcnt (scc frontispiccc ancl Fig. 58) The complex canal system, together wilh thousands oí furrows, can still be clearly

traccd in the broad plain surrounding Apudé, as well as within thc sitc itself. Limilcd surface collections and thc general nature of the ground plan of thc silo indicate a \fidclle to Late' Period of occupation.

Apurlé is situatecl near thc srnall Motupc Rivcr, from which it recci\ ccl water Howcvcr, sincc thc Motupe contains water during only part of the year, thc two la1·ge canals that passecl lhrough La Viría were e\tC'ndcd as far as Apurlé and thus brought a great amount of addi-

165 1

centers with orle another This leads to further speculation concerning possible relationships of thcse centers with El Purgatorio, since these four leading sites were dependent upon thc watcrs of the relatively small Leche Ríver Archaeological knowledge is at present much too limited even to attempt to answer thcse speculatíve questions. Ali that stands out clearly in this case is the necessity for studying the close interrelationship of political-military power and the control of large-scale irrigation systems, Although Apurlé is one of the largest sites in Peru, it has been practicaJly ignored by professional archacologists; Brüníng and Rossell alone mentíon Apurlé, but they say Iittle about it. In 1941, my assístant, Vcroe Grant, visited the site and made a rough but accurate ground plan of ít; in 1948-49, Dr Schaedel, .\lichael and I visitcd ít twice. Let us hope that in the near future sorne enterprising archaeologíst will solve the mystery of this lone site. While trying to work out the complex system of irrigation canals on the great plain east of Apurlé, wc "cruised .. in our jeep as far as Salas. This small settlement, which is situated on tho "river" of the sarne name, boasts of severa] srnall but interestíng ruins, More intriguing, however, is the fact that Salas in the past was known as one of the leading centers of witchcraft ( bruiería¡ ! Here, the ancient witch doctors gathered and by meaos of magic and medicine drove out devils and cured people of sicknesses and mental complexes. Even more amazing is the fact that this knowlcdge has been passed clown from geoeratioo to geueration, so that today sorne of the descendants of the ancíent witch doctors still practice their magic arts, In fact, Salas has a kínd of witchcraft "school" to which "students" from

Puddle ware desígn.

U nflred el ay por

{ runction

unknown)

tional wa ter all the way from the upper part of the Leche River, a dístance of almost twenty-Iíve miles! This would indicare that Apurlé, when it was built, must have exercised control over the north side of the Leche Valleyl Incleed, the loss of this control may have been an importaut factor leading to the downfall of Apurlé. Since the two large oanals that once fed Apurlé first passed through La Viña ( Figs. 58, 61 and 62). some cooperatioo must have developed between these two centers, provided both existed at the same time. The large center of Batán Grande could likewise have controlled the two canals mentioned above, thus giving rise to interesting speculations concerning the possible interrelations of these three 166

Fig. 43 ( upper left) Fig. 44. (left) Huaca of this large pyra.mid. next page) Ceramics

various parts of the Northwest Coast go for study and to which persons affiicted with physical and mental aílments go for a cure. Since the government considers people engaged in witchcraft to be illcgal medica! practítioners, ali practices and teaching are carried on in secrecy Therefore, it is difficult to obtaín ínformatíon about the present day ideas and practices of bruieria. Gillin, however, in his interesting sociological study on Moche ( 1945), has collected sorne fascinating material on the subject. Salas is vísited not merely by the ignorant, but also by the educated. In one instance that carne to our ootice, a lawyer had developed a high state of nervous tensión because he felt that his own failures and the successes of one of bis coJleagues were caused by the fact that the latter had put the "evil eye" on hím. In desperatíon, he finally yielded to the urging of fríends and went to Salas for treatrnent. This apparently included such standard practices as casting out the devíl, destroying doll images of bis hated rival, and drinkíng magíc potíons. After participating for some time in tbese coremoníes, the lawyer eveotually felt assured that his rival could never harm him again, and he returned to his home full of confidcnce in hís own abilities. Beíore one smiles at tbis story, one must rcmembcr tbat in sorne regíons of our own eountry people belíeve tbat they have been "hexed" while others in their ncrvous conditions wander off to psycboanalysts to be "unhexed." Salas and Apurlé <lid not become the northernmost points of our reconnaissance, for we decíded to follow the loli.1pc Valley farther north to see what we could find. ·we set out from Chiclayo one day and, after checking on various minor sites aloog the road, we anived late in the evening at the town of Motupe. We scouted around

Señor Portugal, Dr. Schaedel and the author in front of the SCIPA jeep amidst sorne of tJ1e "desert jungle." Vivas • Ventana, of the Batán Grande pyramid group ( see Fig. 38) The algarroba forest in the forcground couceals most Sclwedel • Fig. 45 ( left margin) Ceramics from Huaca Ventana. Sclwedel-Cacho • Fig. 46 ( below and bottom of from Huaca de los Ingenieros. Sc11aedel-Cac110.

Circular base, white slip ware.

Paddle ware, triangle a nd b.~r desiu;n.

Puma head, thick oraoge ware.

Lei: ol tri¡)()(] or tetropod.

Part ol the inside of a oorn grater.

Polisbed Chimú blackware.

for foo<l and lodging, but all wc could obtain was a miserable supper and a miserable room in a miserable hotel. ercamc our misery that night by drinking Wc partly a bottle of pisco ( an cxccllent and chcap Peruvian form

º'

of coguac) Early thc next moruing, we lcft fotupc and drove up thc small Chochopc Valley, a branch of the Iotupe Valley

The Pcruvian Army map indicated that thcrc wcrc ruins in this vallcy, aud a number of pcople in Lambayeque agreed. No one, however, seerned to know what thc ruins were likc, and this aroused our curiosity \Ve arrivcd at about nine o'clock in the morníng at the pleasant little village of Chochope. Ilere. in one of the largc huts built of algarroba posts and covered with matting, the pleasant

Fig. ·17 ( lx-low, h·ft) A sidc· , Í<'W ol I luuca Rodillona. The extensivo damagc done lo the adobe -trueturc by periodic ruinx b slril..ingl) obv ious in this 'i('\' Emilio Conzález. oue of the anthropology studonts al thc Invtitutc, is ut thc summít. Scliaedel • Fig. 48 ( below, centcr ) Ccrumics from 11 nuca Rodillona. Schaedel-Cacho,

Small unfired clay pot ( functiml unkncwn}

!\lodt'lt'd red ware, unpolished,

Small unflred clay pot ( function

Orange ware potsbcrd with relícf of Iace

Orungo \\llr(1 1)(11\lwrd with lnd<<'d cksl,l(ns.

Oran¡¡e wnre potsherd with re lid of face.

Oranze ware noteherd with incised cle,igns.

l.\mh••rrque polished hl.tl•l..w.1r~.

un kuowu}.

enflred clay paddle. ~howinl(four de~il(ru, o~ed for makinq in11ne~~ion' on ¡)Oh.

and hospitable wife of the owner prepared us a fine break[ast, Cheered by the meal and the friendly atmosphere, we set off to hunt For ruins. Our first díscovcry includcd a large stone wall, severa) miles long, ancl sevcrul structures on nearby hills. More ímportant, howcvcr, wcrc a nurnber of adobe huacas and other ruins at Cerro de la Virgen, in the region where the Chochope Valley cnlers the Motupe, This weather-beaten site may once have been the ceremonial center of the iohote :\fot11pe-Chocllopc orea. It yíelde<l sorne interesting local ceramics, sorne of which may have belonged to the Middle Pcriod. Considerably farther clown the Motupe Valley, on the north bank of the river, we Inv estigated anothcr íntercsting sítc, Listed on the Army map under the picturesque namc of Huacas de la Bandera ( The Banncr), it had long posed a tantalizing question for us. Tt was in a zonc bcyond .tbe limit of vegetatiou of thc ~lotup<' Vallt>y, 011 thc southern edge of the large Scclmra D<'st•rt. What could it be? Was it really a ruin or a series of natural hills? In colloquial language, tlw word lt11aca m<'ans not only pyramid, or artificial mound, but also natural mound. This usage is unclerstandabl<• hC'causc• tlH' word h11aca meant "sacrecl" to thc ancienls. It appcars that cntain natural hills were considcrc<l sacred, h11t thc fact that nattu·al hills were rare in the eoastal plai11s led the ancieHts to huild artificial mounds or pyramids. This confusion of terminology sent us on many a wild goosc chase. ~lore than once did wc check on a reportcd lt11aca grande, only to find it to be a natural mound. On thc othcr hand, we were sometimes told that a ccrtain small "hill .. was 011ly a natt1ral mound, but upon invcstigalion we disco' ered that the structure was a man-mad(• huaca. \:Ve visited La Bandera aided by a guide from Pacora who accompauied us on an arduous two-hour rid(• ovC'r hardcned furrows and canals. Finally, a series of ruins loomcd upon the horizon in a completely desert zone. There were three adobe pyramids, of average dimcnsions, which formed an extended complex containing a network of canals and subsic.liary enclosnre walls linking th<' pyramids with lesser structurcs. An abundance of potshcrds, witlt a great vadel)r of motifs, littered thc extcnsivc site nnd gave a reddish hue to the soil. The potsherds consiste<l alrnost exclusively of paclclle warc. ( Figs. 65 and 67) \Ve Jater heard reports of additional ruins still farther clown the :\fotupe Valley in the direction of the SC'a. One of thcse reports carne to us at the Lambayequc Office of the Agricultura! Department. A man from tlw town of 167

vlórrope.

au ancicní scttlcmcnt

cm Ihr- \lúno1w

Hh cr.

one of the lowcr channels of the víotupe Hh er and sorne siv miles from the occan. tole! us of a l luaca C11c11fa1w not far from his home town. Since Wl' had ne' cr heard of this ruin ami ucithcr had anyrnH' C'b<' in th« uílic« -. wc dccidcd to go to Mórrope at once to in\'('sti~at('. \V<' arriv cd at the town during thr- early al tr-rnoon al ter <\ strcnuous trip over the descrt in the SCI PA j('<'P· The scttlcmcut scemcd unusually [orlorn aud remoto Irom modcrn [orrns of lif c. Howcver, we Iound thnt it contain<'cl an intercsting colonial church, 111 Iact. u manuscript written by Padre Huhiños ( 1782) ami publivhcd in l ~)3() hy Carlos Homero iudicatcs thut al onc time thc town had been of sorne irnportance. \ V C' drove along the streets qucstiou i11\! pcopk-, but no one had heard of Huaca C11c11fan('. Final!). an t'lderl} man udmitted he kuew about the P) ramid. h11t lw c:l<1imcd that a frieml of his who ¡¡, ed '><>1111• disl<UIC:t' outsidc tlw tcl\\ n was the only 1wr!>m1 familiar "ilh tlw t·o111pli-

Fil(. 4!1 ( ,1 hm t )

n unusua lly comprehensiv e ohlique aerlal pltnlogr,1ph ,¡,O\dng a numlx-r of important 'ite' ari>iug out ol tlw cu lti' .1t1·d

lield;, of thc> l.rchc>-T.amha)C'<¡uc rr-gíon. [11 the Ioreground ¡., tlw ,¡JJa¡.:1· (JI T1'1c1111w; im1111'cliat1·l~ hehiud it .111d to tlw ri¡.:ht ¡, tl11• l.tr¡?t' ll 11al'a Pur-blo de Túcume ( see Fígs, 50 a11d 51 ) , w ] iill• fartl11·r lx-hind it ,111d to the neht ¡, the northern part ot tlw importunt 'ítt• ol Purgatorio. ,\ t tlw lclt rear i~ tite isolau-d hill, S¡1pa111r, '' lwH' m.my' uncient ¡.tí<\\ t'' ha' e bcen found: directlv bchind it ¡, l li1.11 .. 1 Hodillo11a ol tlw B.tt:'m Crnndc gronp: to tite right of Rodillona, the ;,11111111ib of tlll' ollwr huacas of the Batán Grande cluster an ban-lv '¡,ihlc. S1·11•idrJ 11: I ot; I • F'ig. 50 ( upper right ) 11 uuca Pueblo Tucumc ª' \l't 11 lrnm tlu- air l -cc Fig-; 49 aud 51 l Sert:kio .J.J.JO. l Ofl!I • Fíit. 51 ( lm\('r ri¡.:ht) Crouud de" of Il uaca Pueblo Tucumc hn· Fíg, 19 md 60) Ko'°k

Fig. 52 ( abov e) Oblique aerial 'ie\\ of the north eud of the ruins of Purgatorio. Thi: cluster of P) ramids and plazas b densely packed around the sidr-s of one of the fe" hilb in the Lambaycque pluin and commands an ex(·(•ll(•nl v iew of the enrire countryside. The photograph rcvculs, in a slril..ing manner, how the ancients uttlízed the hills Cor their adminivtrañ« !' (>t•nkn., both Ior economy (non-cultivable arcas) and for strall•(!.ic ( grenter height) reasons, The villnge of .\locliuml is visible in the ha(·l..ground. Note the encroaching Ienees of the present ugrioulturalivt« in tht· lcl\\er left. Serricio O: IO!i!I • Fig. 5a ( lower rnargin) J;1gunr. ch l\('d and voldered gold, Iound in Lambay eque regiun. Maymrk-Dorrit1(!..

cated route to the sitc. Our elderly informant took us to his home for a good meal and then accompanicd us to the home of his Friend, who after sorne persuasión, both spiritual and financial. finally joined our "safarl." Dirccted by our guide, we drove for several miles into thc dcscrt uutil we suddenly carne upon our huaca drarnaticnlly sílhouetted by the sl'tting sunl

Thcre is a possibility that this huaca, a srnall, intensively excavated adobe structure with wallcd cnclosures, was a roorned temple like Huaca el Dragón in the Moche Valley in other words not a pyramid. But whatever Cucufanc's structure rnay have becn, its gcographical position is unique, for it appears to havc bcen the last outpost of thut part of the lower Larnbayeque Cornplex

that exteuds iuto the extensivo Scchura Desert to the north. Aftcr returning to Mórrope, we were told that local countcrfcltcrs of "antique" water jugs oftcn bury their wares in this huaca [or a year or so in order to rnake them look genui1w before sellíng them in Chiclayo. Perhaps that is why pcople were rcluctant to dircct us outsiders to the ruin! Incídentally, while the production of "antique" water jugs is a minor industry in .\lórrope, it is a major one in Catacaos in the Piura Valley, forther north, The tríp to Mórrope produced many othcr important results. On our long trip to thc town, W<' had passed through arcas thut appeare<l utterly dcsolatc. though hcrc and thcrc thc ground borc traces of past habitation. This aroused om interest, an<l we decided to invcstigate thcsc remains. \VhiJe makiug severa! trips lo this region and after ha, ing studied enlargements of r ntcrnational Petrolcum Compan) photographs of this ex.tensive area, we werc nstounded to fin<l the remains of 1mll1) srnall pyramicls and fonnlcss mounds. As wc crawlecl over sorne of thc lattcr, we discovered that thcy werc covered with what sccmccl to be millions oí potsherds all entele ware! But, more important to our stu<ly, wc ('ncoimtered many largc ancie11t canals whose extcot and direction indicated that the waters of the Lambayequc had once been caniecl a considerable <listaucc north of the Chotuna-Chornaucap area. l ndeed, we even fouud 'cstigcs of canals tbat had formerly carrie<l water still farther north and west to regions helow the town of ~lórropc. ThiJ. was indccd a flnd, forno 011e with whom we had clisc11ssed this desolate region had mentioned tbe cxistcncc of thcse canals. \Ve also locatcd a long, high stone wall, running from north to south a11d cutting across thc canals. lt may date from late .1 n<lhm or early colonial times. \Ve also tried to unravel the mystcry of thc complex of canals in the less desolate eastcrn part of this zone which borders on the present day irrigatcd arca. Individual canals wcre diffic:ult to trace for any distance in this region. evcn by means of tbe photographs, for here. more than twcnty-6' e ycars ago, Ingeniero Carlos Sutton bad huílt a large number of modern canals across the remaius of old canals lhat wcrc to bavc bcen part of an extensive irrigation project. \iVatcr from thc Ama:1.0n si<le of the Andes was to havc been tunneled through thc mountains ancJ spreacl ov<'r thc entire Olmos-Motupe-Leche-Lambaycquc rcgion. However, following a change of government, the projcct was dropped. 1 t has becn under discussion º' er since. but nothing has he<'n done about 169

it. '\<'' erthelex«, the modern canals rema in in tlu- midst of tlw old, and since the t" o systems often cross nnd intertwine lh<'~ wer« difficult to untanulc, Fort1111a1<•!). í1111;e11it'ro Suttou. belore hís death, had giH•n us sorne iudicntion of thr- nuture and direction of his canals. \\'e· wcr« final!)

nble to determine that the ancicnt canalv

cvtended cousiderablj farther wcst into the desert t han did thc modcrn ones. B) integratina our findin!!;~ in thi-. 1.onc• with those in the .wne ncarcr thc sea, we wc·rc ahlc• to l'Slablish thc fnct that the limits of ancicnt c11 lti\'atio11 in this ,·asl a11d unc•\plored area hacl !)('en 1m1<:h rnon· t'\tcnsive than we had originally ass11med. \Ve likcwisc carricd on intensi,-e rec:o1111absa11cc in tht' region between ~lórrope, Tt'1cnnw, F<•rrcilaf<> and thc town of Lamhayequc•. Hen' we locatcd a11tl rnap¡wd many previously unknown pyramicls and macl<• smfat·c·

Tlu- ,¡tt of Purg.uorío 011 the Leche Rh e-r \\ <h part l;if.(. 5·1 ( ldt) ol tlw Lamh.1> eq111· cultun that Hourished duríng the vliddhPeriod, although it l~Hllint11•d to be occupied until the time ol th« Sp:u1i,]1 Cmupw'l. The old ceremonial center out of whích it .1ppan·11tly !(n•\\ ¡, '¡,¡f,11• 011 tlll' uorth aud northwest sidl•\ of ti\(' oí pyrarnids on the north 1·nd wu-, hill, The lar¡.(<' l'Olll'<·ntration b11ill duri11g tlu- ;>.(iddlc Pcriod und continucd into Chirnú tinwv. S('nido .J.J.fO:!li!JO • Fig. 55 ubove ) .\ view of oue uf the larger P> nunids 011 tlu- nortl. sidt• of Purgatorio showing tlre luyer» of lo!(~ und 111atli11g u~1·d to kt•t•p the successív l' levcls of tl1t• adobe plutfonn~ rq~11l.1r Sclwcdd • Fig. 56 ( right ) Ohliquc acrial 'iC'W ni tlw ruin~ oí Cerro Purgatorio. This vicw shows many of tlw struet1m·~ 'l't'll in Fil(. fi4. Th« sif.(nifkanc.:<' oí both vertical and obliqurphoto¡:traph~ i~ d(•arly indicatod when the two are brought into The la1gc 111:\in structurc in the Ioregrouncl is apju\l,1pmitio11 Iuur liundred vards long and is an .. elevated" lype oí p1mi111,1ll·h urb.ru 1·0111po1111d. It ha~ a -.iugle eutrance, v isihle al Ll1t• [ront. Scr« ido 11: 105.1 • Fi:,:. 57 ( lx-low ) Ross Christeuveu, a 'orth \nwrka11 'lud1·11I .111d 111<•111lwr of llw Tmjillo Iuxtitutr- group, 011 Ji¡, wa~ to tlu- top oí 0111• oí tlu- largc• pyrarnids 011 C1·rr11 1'11rgat1.rio. '>11((• tlw rc-m.rins 111 part of the írce rump approaching tlw h11111·11 nnd l~11tt111111ug alnng the ,¡ele nf it. Schoedel,

<:ollt•llio11~ lrom some of tlwm. Of tlie rnall) int1·1cstin~ s1tc•s loC'ated, tlw small huaca sitc C<\llctl .\rhuslo ( Bu~h). jusl wc~t of lhc Jlan American íli11;hway a11d abo11t four miles 11orth of Lamhayeqne, can be rnc11tioned. Tlwre, so111c unusual piecc:s of orangC'·011-whitt- c:ernmks wt•rc• fou11cl h) our SCTP .\ mechanic, St•íH>r Porlug;1 l. Ther "<.·re di'><.'O\ erc•d in sorne adohC' matNi.11 thal hacl bc•t•n du11; out of the botlom of tlw huaca b) lht· p1 t"•L'lll º'' 11er. "ho li.1d be1..'n C\C:1\ ati11g for gold. This dis<:OH'I~ points to ,1 local Sl) le of Lamhayeque cerarnic:s. al. 'l'l un'>tudi<.'d ami possibl) <\S old as the \fochica or CH'll old<'r \t l htd<.·nda Sasap<'. in this !!,e11ernl art•a. wt• canw upo11 <.'' idt•nc·<.· o[ an intcresting cultural plw11onw11on. Tlw obli~i11~ hacC'ndado showed us some firw pil'Ct'' of blad. C:himú sfyle C'era1nics he had du~ up. \\'hill· naminin~ tlil·111. "t' notiC'ecl that 011e of thun had a distinctl) '¡>.ln-

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hl.(. il!< ( both ¡1<11.(<"'· ubove ) Vertical .wri:1l \it'\\ of thc rumv of Apurll'.· (lcfl !>ic.lt• uf this page ) shown in relationship to tite t·a11aJ, 1h,1l rn1c1· hrouuht water lo tlw ~it<• lrom the Leche Hhc•r ( bcyoud th1• ri!(hl uf thl· photogruph on lhc ncxt pagc) Thcsc t:<Hl:d~ :i1'o pa,wd thrn11¡.d1 L.1 \ iu.r, "l11d1 h on thc lower vlope-, oí one of tlu- d<•,t·rt hill' (lmH'l c·pnt(•r of thc next pagc ) Xote U1c ancieut funow' thut ~lill ,.,¡,t 1w.11 \purlc. Tlit• w lute line cutting through lhe -ite ¡, tlu Pau Anwrk.111 l ligh"ªY For an enlurgcd vícw of Apurlé 'l't' the photo).(r:1plt oppo,itt• Fíelds, formcrly cultivutcd. bvtwceu La \'iiia und tlw titlt· ¡>.11.!t of tl1i~ volurne. Scrdci<l lfi..!fi·.!1.l.'i.21.n, 2/./!I 2141 • F'ig. ii!l (left) • Fig. (iO {oppovií« p.1ge. lower left) Riding through one of llll' largt· cauuls thut \purlt•. ln tlu Iorcuround 1' the Pan \merit-;111 lliuh"·'' ont't hrou{(ht water to Apurlé. Kol(Jk • Fig. liJ (oppo,ih' p.ti.(t•, l"'n r míddle ) \ ertícal aerial photograph of a part of the lullskk- 'l'tlk111l'lll nf L.1 \ ·¡¡¡,¡ '>hO\\ in{( sorne of the canals and b11ild111g, ancl the .111t·i1•11t uorrh-soutl, highway Xote the rectangular f'ndo"ir<•s. Co111J)arc tlns \JI'" n[ L.1 \'ifü1 with that presented in Fig>.;;' aud li:?. '>cnido .i.1.lfl.lil\, /j,jfl • Fig. 62 (opposite page, lowcr right ] Th« d.irk li111•, in lhb 11lihq111 .u-rial photn((raph are canals that hrc)ll!d1t " 1lt·r te \purl~ ,1ml ll<l''t•cl thrnugh aucient La \'iii.1 the rem.tin' uf \\ hirh 1 .111 lw '1'1 11 011 tlw l1m1•r .,.c1,., of tlu- hill we Fig, ;)>, .111d lll l kowk • Fil!. 1;;J (mari.:in') Cerunuc-, Irom Apurle. Schacdcl-Carho

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ish medallion type of dcsignl Further examination seemed to indicatc that thc vcssel was not a forgery but mcrcly an early colonial product. After the Spanish conquest, as pointed out beforc, Indian artísans continucd for sorne time to make their products in the same way they had prevíously done, utilizing new designs that appealed to them. Thus, it is sometimes dífíicult to determine whether certain archaeologícal material is of late Indian or early Spanish times. The rest of the lower Larnbayeque region, from Ferreñafe to the coast of Pimentel, and to the soutbwest as far as Eten and ~ Ionsefú, we likewise covered by truck and jeep until, bit by bit, each known and unknown sitc that we encountered had been mapped. The soutbwestern section of the Lambayeque area is oftcn consídered the "oldcst," because there, especially In the two old. towns of Eteu and Monsefú, the ancicnt Mochica language hcld out longest against the overwhclming tide of Spanish. lo Chapter VII, we discussed this problem and descnbed our interview in Trujillo with Señora Manuela Millones de Carillo from Etcn. The Mochica words we obtained from her are given in the Appendix. After we had left Peru, we were informed by Señor Hodríguez SuySuy that an old man in Monsefú was said to have a list of more than a hundred Mochica words that he had collected. At our request, Señor Rodríguez wcnt to Monsefú where, after sorne difficulties, he obtaíned the list and sent a copy of it to us. This list, with the original Spanish translation, as well as an English translalion mado by Dr Schaedel, is given in the Appendix, Señor Rodríguez also wrote us that the only man in Monsefú who supposedly could still speak Mochíca Iluently had died tbree years previously. However, the local padre infonned our friend that if he carne to tbe next big local fiesta and joined in thc general borrachera ( drinking bout), he would hear the tongues of sorne of the people bcgin to loosen and use Mochica words still currentl

The Lambayeque region contains still other verbal vestiges from thc ancicnt past, for many folk legends come to us from the early colonial as well as the precolonial past. The myths, of which a representative sample has been choseo and translated Irom the volume of A. Léon Barandiarán entítled Mytos leyendas y tradiciones lambaqecanas, are interesting for severa} reasons. Besídes their intrinsic líterary merit, they preserve the Ilavor of North Coast tradítions which, despite anachronísms and the reernbroidery of four centuries of retelling, rc.B.ect the outlook and values of the virtually unrecorded Chirnú culture which antedated that of the much better-known Incas. Among other ítems, one notices the sacred references to the adobe pyramids (huacas) and the reverence for moon worship and for the characterístíc desert animals. Finally, the myths are important in that they preserve, however imperfectly, the proper names and place narnes of the Chimús and theír conternporaríes of the North Coast, providing (as in the example cited here of the Huaca Pintada and Pacatnamu ) ímportant clues relating to the function of these known archaeological sites. THE MUMMY OF THE CACIQUE ( CHlEFT AIN) A century before the Spanish arríved on our coasts, Inca Huyna Capac was already terminating thc cooquest and subjugation of the Yungas and Mochicas, a task which his forefathers had begun. With 40,000 men of an army which he personally commanded, this Inca and his brother Cussi Hualpa defeated the Penachis, a fierce warrior tribe whose principal city was the actual hamlet Penachí, and this was the only tríbc which resistcd losing its independencc. When he made his first attempt of advancing towards the highlands, hefore defeatiog the Penachis, General Cussi Hualpa, owing to the rísing of the rivers, was not able to continue his advance and retumed to where he had started from. He established his headquarters in

Fig. 64 ( opposite pagc, npper lefl) Vertical aerial view of a group of ruins known as Jhiacas de la Bandera. Lying bcyond the limit o( modl·m cultivatio11, thc: min~ ha' e rcmained fairly well preserved. They consist of a number of medium-sizcd adobe pyramids with associated walls. Sorne of thc forrows, as well as the system of canals that once brought water to this arid region, can still be dctcctcd. The dark spots are monte bushc'!. At thc bottom of thc photograph can be seen a run-oH which may at one time have been a major canal. l.P.C Seroicío 1626 2815, 2316 • Fig. 65 ( opposite pagc, bottom). Cera mies, from Huacas de la Bandera, ali with paddle ware dcsigns, excepting the one farthest lcft, which is a black, Chimú style, sculptured puma head, and the one farthest right, which is prcssed warc. SchaedelCacho • Fig. 66 (oppositc pagc·, lowcr lcft) Dcscrt with a11cie11t structures. Kosok • Fig. 67 (upper right) Adclitional ceramics from Huacas de la Bandera. Kosok-WnJrlll • Fig. 68 (Juwer right) Onc of t11e pyramids of thc B:1ndera group, ;\lotupe Valley Standing on the strm.:turc are members of our group. Kosok.

Jayanca whcre be married the daughtcr of the chieftain of this villag<' called Falloshu)j, a dircct descenclant of Llapchillulli founder and first governor of said village. As things turned out, FaJloshuli was involved in the resistance which the Peoachis had offered to the Incas; and once the total subjection of the Penachis had been accomplished, his transfer to Cuzco from )ayanca was ordered and he was sent there as a prisoner for sorne years until, through the in6uence of his own daughter, the wife of Cussi Ilualpa, he obtained his liberty and the corresponding authorization to retmn to his people. He left from Cuzco with a large group of attendants, constituting among othcrs Puinconsoli, Fontam, Chumbi, Manallulli, Pillacup and Monlotum who wcre his distinguished servants and principal chieftains ancl who also had suffered imprisonment in t11e capital of thc empire since the time they, together with theír chief, had fallen prisooers of the Incas. Old age, dcfeat, prison, sadness and humiliation had undermined the hcalth of tbe old chieftain who died in the sanctuary of Pácatnamu wheo he was returning to his people. His scrvants made a solemn pyre and mummified

thc cadáver of their chícf. Entering into their own lands, they buried the corpse on the slopes oí thc hill which is found to the east of the actual hacienda house of the La Viña estate ncar which the prehístoríc town of Jayanca was located. Before he had beguu his adventure of resísting the Inca's forces, this chieftain had consulted with the "ichuris" or professional divíners who, after having practiced their accustomed rites such as sacríficing a rarn of brown color to make studies of the víscera, said ( symbolizing the future things that were to take place), "You chieftain will leave on your own fcet and you will return on those of others." Falloshuli. misinterprcting these words to mean he would go to war and retum victorlous in a royal litter, decíded to embrace opcnly the project of rebellion and suflered the consequent defeat. And the predictiou was Iulfillcd because the rebel chieftain of jayanca did indeed return to his village, albcit as a corpse, borne by bis retainers. And there lies his murnmified body awaiting his ancient servauts and subjects that they rnay rcturn his powers and bis lost lands, THE LEGK D OF THE PAI TED TE~1PLE OF ILLI\10

Fig. 69 ( abov e) The llshíng v illage of San José. The complete isolation of the villagc from the agricultura! life of the Lambayeque Val ley is gruphícally e' ídeut in this oblique aerial photograph. The oval mound at the right is an ancicnt huaca w hich is uow used as the v illage grav eyard. Thc othcr mouncls. in the Ioreground, are upparently also the remains of ancient huacas. Villages like San José havo existed along the west const of outh Amcrjca sincc thr- e-arliest pre-ceramic lime>. Compared with the evolutíon of the agricultura! eommunities, they ha' e always been of slow developmcnt. and cvcn tocia y, except where lhe~ ha' e been converted into modero ports. retain a primitivo aud conserv atíve cast that reilects their time-honored role. The lasl vestiges of the old eoastal lndian populatíons are coucentrated for thc most part in an José aud v illages of the same general type. ercicio O: 1022

176

The Huaca Pintada or the painted temple which is found at about a kilometcr south of the village of Tllimo was oríginally a sanctuary or religious temple dedicated to the worship of thc rnoon, the riverx, the rains, the lízards and spiders. lt was constructed totally of large adobes without a single decoration or painti11g on the inside or out. Prior to the government of Inca Pachacutcc, that is, when the conquest of the Yungas had still not been accomplished by the Incas, the priest who dfrected thP activities of that sanctuary and whosc name was Anto Tunpa dreamt that the sun had come close to him, totally burning the sanctuary, and that he had had left impressed upon bis face the aspcct and the color oí that celestial body as though to remind him that he was obligecl to render tribute to its cult. But the old priest rcfusing to heed the warning continued offering sacrifices, libations, prayers and vows to the moon, the waters, and the animals disdaining the premonition. But, whcn in the carly morning he awoke and was making preparations to cook maize for tbe sacred chicha with which he was accustome<l to propitiate his gods, he found that the sanctuary was totally colored with red on the out~ide and on the inside that the walls were decorated in three colors red ( the suu), bluc ( the sky), and yellow ( gold) And he fclt in his face that

astatinu liH• ol the ~u11 w hich was burning into him thc nighl lwfon· und lu- soon foil dead, but still showing on bis lace a sig11 ol the power of the celestial hody, a mask of gold. The puintcd temple of l llimo was dccorated by the suu itself Ami thr- mnsk of golcl Iouud in thc temple al the lwgi11ning ol the presont cr-ntnry was that of Auto Tunua, punishcd thux h) tlu- celestial body becausc of his reíusal to worship thc sun since he did not want to establish the cult of tht- Incas in the villagcs. And also it was a sure "arniug of the Iortlrcoming triurnph of the conquerors [rom ll zco, Of coursc tlu-r« b 110 of verifying thc truth of any o! thcsc lcucnd-, '' hich IH1' e come clown to us during a period of 1110H' than [our centuries. Xevcrthelcss, collectiv el) lh<') gÍ\ e us an insiaht into the social structurc of ancieut Peruv ian society and serve as rccords of a

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vnluuhle but rapidly disappeariug relics of the past, nol 011ly in tlw Lambnycque Complex but also in othcr rC'gions of Pcru. Thr-y are exuctly the uiaterials ncccssary Ior c·o111wcti11g old Spuuish rccords with sorne of thc disco' crics of modern nrchueologists! \Vlwn we liad "finislu-d" our work in the Lambayeque Cornplcx at k-ust to the extcnt wc Found necessary Ior tlH.'SC

our study . "e• hcav cd a collcctiv e sigh oí relieí! At the sume time, whil« 11\11<¡i11g ovcr sorne of our flndings, w« arrivcd ut a tentativ e answer to a questíon that had purus throughout our work: Was th« Larnbayeque Complcx C'H'r politicallv uniíied from within? \\'e con;;11<'d

F1i.t. 71 11i.tht) TI,.. Iow cr La111hayt•q11t• Valley and the !>ltore!> of tlw l';IC'rÍll' Oc·c ;m Charac·tni,til' of th1s art'a are Llw 111a11y '>lll<lll lic·lds \l\11 d1ar.1cfrristk h tl1c• nnn-cultirntio11 of tlt<' lancl 1w.ir tlll' Sl'<I. Tlm 1' d1H· lo " 1111mhe1 oí fac:tor~. chi!'Í nf which is tlw lad, of s11ffiu1·11t wall'I Thc' nrau~ thin black lines are phmh grow111g iu lht• 11111-olh thal t arry ;,urplu;, irrigalion water to llll' ~l'a. Thb 1(1·11(•r;ll nn1clitio11 ah.o l''ish in tht• lo\\'er Chicama V<tlle~ Tlw many \\'hitt· spnh in tlw photogrnph are small mounds, hoth 11.1tural ancl ,1rtificial, \\'hich an• abn\'I' tlw IP\'el of cnlti\'ation. At A i;, tlw Low11 oí L:11nbayN¡111·. At the left of tht" town is the road th,1L rnn~ to C:hidayo. Al B i~ tlw port of Pimt?1Hel ( Sf'(' Fig. 7~ At C ¡, tl11· fi,lii11g \ilhrn;e ni San José (see Fig. 69) U.S 1\1 m11 "1-L-.!fl

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cluded that it probably was not. A number of large-scale, regional key areas had been organized around important adrninistrative and population centers, sorne of which had even entered the stage of urbanization, lt appears that some centers were dominant during certain pcriods, some during other periods. However, íf they exísted contemporancously they probably formcd tcmporary alliances or carríed on wars of conquest against one another But, whatever the sítuation may have been, none of thesc regional key ureas apparently ever becarne strong enough to achieve a centralized. control over the whole Lambaqeque Cotnplexl A kind of cultural. unity of the whole complex exísted, developing, however, probably diverse

regional forms. Bnt politically there was probably niore diversity than un<ityl Even the prcsenco of unusually long canal systems in these vallcys did not necessarily mean that the valleys were united politically, for a largo canal system could have been used by politically distinct but geographically adjacent groups that had formed sorne kind of economic agreement concemíng the dístributíon of the water in

178

the canal system. The group controlling the toma ( intake) of the canal water generally would have possessed greater power over the water than the other groups. As a result, the Formcr would have been tempted to transform its ecooomic powcr into political power and control over the othcrs. Of course, the reverse may have taken place. The posscssors of thc intake may have been conquered by the other groups! But each unífled canal "governmcnt" serviced only onc large sectíon of a valley and probably one or two large centers at a time. Even though complete intra.valley political control may not have been achieved, sorne form of intervalley political control must have ariseu in connection with the growth of iniercallei] canal systems. For example, the Taymi Canal carried water from the Lambaycque to the lowcr Leche. Even more important, the Racarumí Canal brought water from the uppcr Lambayeque to the upper and middle Leche, with its important sitcs of Batán Crande and Purgatorio, whíle several canals brougbt water from the Leche to La Viña ancl Apurlé in the Motupe Valley But there was no unifying canal system for the whole Lambayeque Cornplex whose upkeep would have rcquircd a single political control center! Furthermore, as alrcady stated, there are no indications that any of the key economic centers was a ble to conquer the entire Lambayeque Complex. There are likewise no legcnds or tradítions that would indicate the Iormer existence of an indepenclent, politically unified state cmbracing the whole Lambayeque Complex. On the contrary, the existing legends indicate a divcrsity of centers. The Nayrnlap legend refers at best only to a kind of kínshíp-dominated "Iederatíon" of local "states" over parts of the middle and lower Larnbayeque Complex in which the local ruler of Lambayeque was looked upon as a kind of senior partner or leadíng chief. The accounts of early Chroniclers and the legends colJected by Señor León Barandíarán givc us the samc general impressíon. To summarize: This area, because of its size ancl geographical-topographical complexity, gave rise to many conflicting elemcnts, Consequently, in terms of the general lecel of the existing productioe forces, social relatíonshíps could not evolve that were sufficiently developed to have produced a centralized política) state of the kind the Chimús created in the Moche Valley (see Chapter VIII) Only when the Lambayeque Complex was conquered in the latter part of its prehistoric period by the Chimús, and later by thc Incas, was some kind of administrative

Fig. 72 (margins) Huacos of the Middle Lambaycq\1c II Period. AMNTI • Fig. 73 (upper left) Figure of a Peruvian bcar from a ' jar found at 1 luaca Arbusto, near thc town of Lambayequc. Plain orange warc. Kosok • Fig. 7 4 ( above) Thc pyrarnid of Chornancap in the monte of thc lower Larnbayeque Vallcy With Chotuna, it is linked by legend with tbe founding of the Naymlap dynasty in Lambayeque. Chotnna (the temple of Chot) was allcgc<l]y built by Naymlap, while his v.ife, Ciurn::mcacum, is said to havc ha<l Chornancap erected for her grealer glory ote the remaíns of a ramp on thc front side of thc huaca, which so far has been uureported by archacologists. Servicio .'1880-868 • Fig. 75 ( lower left) Cuisive-Like dccoration on light btlckground from tbe interior of a bowl found at Huaca Arbusto. This dcsign is suggestive of a preChimú pottery style in the Lambayequc zonc (as yet unreported) The dark ring was causcd by a stain that partly destroyed the design. Kosok-Storck • Fig. 76 (below) and Fig. 77 (lower left, opposile page) Polishcd blackware found by tbe :n1thor i11 the Lambayeque area. Kosofsky.

But it was a mecbonical 1111if!J, enjorced [rom the outside. lt was not clesigned to satisfy thc nccds of the people livíng within the area but to provide more loot and tribute Ior the foreign conquerorsl Little is kuown of the Chimú conquest of this región. According to Cabello. a Chimú govemor by the namc of Pongmassa was seut to rule over Lambayeque, ancl he was succecdcd by two other Chimú governors, Undouhtr-dly, thc Chimús estahlished sorne kincl of mílitary-administrative control of this arca, but how ccntralized it was and how cffcctive it was, we do not know We can only g11ess that a Srm, centralizcd administrative control over such a large ancl cornplex area must have beeu impossible to estahlish, especially since it was onc that was antagonístíc to the iuterests of the peoplc of the arca. Of the Inca conquest of Larnbayeque, wc know evcn lcss, in foct, Cabello <loes not even mcntion it. From the change in the name forms of the later rulers oí Larnbayeque, we can deduce that possibly a local ru ling housc was put in control, undoubtedly under an Inca "Cauleiter " Archaeological rcmains so far indicate Inca control oí only a Icw focal points. But rhe nnture and extent of the administrativo control of the Incas is still a rnoot questiou. It is significant thar in Xerez' account of Pizurro's murch throngh northern Peru Irom Tumbes through Larnbayoque to Zafia, tliere is 110 mcntion of contact with anu Inca troous or even Inca officials. Thc contact scems to havo becn rnade solely with local rulcrsl 011ly when Pizarro marched into the highlands towards Cajarnarca did he rnake direct contact with thc Incas. The fact that Pizarro did not encounter Inca officials and troops until he entercd thc highlauds may he explained by the coincidencc of the civil war hetween Ata~wlpa and hís half hrother. Huascar; ncvcrtheless. it throws light on thc "uuity" uchieved.

Fig. 78 ( above ) The town of Pirncntel, one of the harbors of the Lambaycque rcgion. Note the stcel pier that juts out into the ocean. Frdght is carrie<l by railmad cars to thc> t'nd of thf' pier whc>re it is loaded on barges and h·ansferred to the ocean-going ,·essels anchorecl some distance from the short'. lkt·ansc> of its sandy shore. Pimt>ntt>l is ust'd as a s11mmf'r resort by p1-ople from Chi<:layo. In tlw foH•ground of the photograph are a number of rc·ed caballitos drying in the sun. As mcntioned befare, these boats that can hold one or two men ha\"I• het-n used for fi~hing purposes ~ince ;111denl tinws. Nnte the arid reg "" behind Pinwnlr·l. ln the far distance, the cnltivatt'd fields of Lamb;1ycqne can be seen. Tbe irregular da k lint' i;, 'egelalion growing in one of the man y run-oITs used fur irrigation water ( see Fig. 71 and map. p. 146) SNvicio O: 4613

/ .o -'900H

11,600 FT

.o llt,200FT.

511rllllltA

THE REGION OF UNDEVELOPED WATER POTE NTIALITI ES

•1tUIN$

The Southern Zone of the Chimú Empire

RAINFALL MOUNTAIN

9•

AGRICULTURE WITH SOME IRRIGATION

....

RIO SA

10,000 FT.

... ~,- .. _.., DESERT MOUNTAINS

3000 fT

""9•"º'

RIO

/ /

12,800 Fl:

DESERT MOUNTAINS

• ..# ..

',,~~. '~ LACR-'MARCll

't,500FT.

•

tenuous nature of Inca control over this whole coastal region. Some of the first Chroníclers do mention previous punitive expeditíons by Inca troops that had annihílated rebellious coastal settlements in order to maintain Inca "control" of the Coast, but this morcly conflrms our prevíous staternent that the Inca Empíre had a weak hold on an important part of the Coast . The decentralízed nature of the Lambayeque Cornplex throughout its bistory did not necessarily prevent sorne of the key economic and politícal centers of this amorphous region from expandíng culturally and perhaps even polítícally towards the Zaña and jequetepeque Valleys to tbe south and to sorne of thc valleys farthcr north. In fact, it would be surprising if such expansions had not taken place. But, as yet, we have no proofs supporting such a hypothesis. While discussing interrelations, another important question arises. A great dcal of Chimú type blackware has been found in the Lambayeque region; this would tend to indicare a longer period of Chimú cultural occupation of this region than the short period of Chimú political control over Lambayeque would logically porrnit. Moreover, since the Anonymous Trujillano states that Taycanarnu, the founder of tbe Chímú Empire, carne from the north, it is possible to assume that he could hace come from. the Lambaqeque region. Can we, thercfore, look for sorne of the roots of the Chirnú Empire, cspccially its culture, not only in the local Moche-Chicarna area and in the so-called Coastal Tiahuanaco inHuences, but also in Lambaqeque itself? As pointed out previously, the Chimú Ernpíre had extensions north of the Lambayeque Valley which included the Piura, Chira and Tumbes Valleys and perhaps even part of coastal Ecuador However, this Northem Extension of the Chimú Empire was undoubtedly of very short duration, consequently, Chimú culture had exercísed only a superficial influence in this region. Therefore, only cursory reference to it is made in Chapter XXIV of this report, J f, however, these. valleys are to be studied as a unit, attention must be paíd not only to the Chimús and Incas, but also to the neighboring Sierra peoples and, most important, to the peoples of the adjacent Guayaquil Bay Cornplex with theír unusual social structures and cultural forms. For the far northern region of Peru was a transition zone where various forces coming from south, east and north intermingled with the indigenous cultures that had evolved during .several thousands of years.

Section E: Chaptcn¡ ~ \'11- XXl TllE ~Ot..TITER~ ZO~E OF TITE CIIDIC EMPIRE

XVII

The VirÚ and Chao Valle~s: Small lsolates

N oua STUDY of the various parts of thc Chimú Empire, we first described the Moche-Chicama Valley Complcv, thc core of the earlier Mochíca culture and also of the later Chimú Empire. We next considered the problems of the Northern Zone. Here, we noted that thc jcquetcpeque Valley apparently was a crossroads of various ndjaccnt cultures and "empircs." According to thc tradítíon presented by the Anonymous Trujillano, this valley rnust have been conqucrcd by the third Chimú ruler, Ñan9enpinco, possíbly around 1300 A.D. We then showed how this valley was once linked wíth the largP Zafia-Lambayec111c-Lcche-Motupc Complex which carne under the control of thc Chimús, presumably at the beginning of the fifteenth ccntury The rule of the Chimús ended thcre during thc latter part of the century whcu thc focas took ov er Probably soon aftcr the eonquest of the Lambaycque región. thc Chirnús extended their power Iurther north to thc Píura. Chíra and Tumbes Rivers. Possibly. C\ en part of the Guayaquil arca, as far as the present Puerto Viejo in Ecuador, was ternporarily conquered by the Chimús.

Ftg. 1. The nature of tlw Chao Valley is shown in this unusual oblique acrinl photogrnph. Note the small amount of irrigated land, the large regions covcred with monte bushes produced by grouud water und short anuual íloods, and the vast stretches of desert soil bordcring both sidcs of thc valley In the background are loma clouds hovcríug over thc coast Iinc and thc nearby Pacific Occuu. U S. 1\rmy J 90-L-9G • Fig. 2 ( right margin ) Negativc und modr-lod potsherds from thc Virú Valley Slmng und Eva11s • NOT": Lino cut nbove. Part of a molded jar. Virú Valley

¡ \Vhen wc turn to the southern limits of the Chimú Empire, the information becomes eveu more vague. Thc Auonymous Trujillano informs us that the sarne - auccupinco, who conquered the urea as far north as thc [cquctcpeque, also extended his power as far south as the Santa. Aftcr that, we are left in the dark until wc hcar Irom the same author that Minchaucamau, the last inclcpcnclent ruler who controllcd thc arca as far as Tumbes to the north, also had extended his domain as far south as Carabayllo, the present Chillón Valley, just to the north of the Rimac, This southeru extensión is coníirmed by Calaucha ( 1638· Bk. III, Cha p. 4), who states that the Chimús, after having won three battles at Carahayllo (Chillón), were finally dcícatcd by the army of the ruler of the Rimac Confederatíon. Wc do not know how far back to thc north the Chimús were then chiven, nor do we know how strong was their control, whilc it lasted, in the southcrn cxtension

of the Empíre. \Ve merely know that whcn thc lncas conquered this rcgion, the Rimac Confcdcracy, consisting of the Chillón, Himac and Lurín Valleys, probably had sorne kind of fcdcration with at least the Chancay Valley, while the Chimús held Paramonga in the Pativilca Complex Iarther north (Garcilaso)

Thc Anony~nous Trujillano says that, at the time of thc Inca oonquest, Churnuncaur, a son of the last iudependent Chimú ruler, Minchaucaman. was staying with bis mother, a ruler ( señora'¡ of the Huaura Valley, which is sítuatod betweeu the abovc-mcntioned Chancay ValJey und the Pativílcu Cornplex. Pcrhaps it was by such marríages with women rulers or wíth fema le relatives of local rulers that the Chimús trícd lo rnaíntuin their power over thc distant parts of the realm. It appcars that the Chimús may even have madc tcmporary conquests and raíds below the Rimac area. Thus, Garcilaso, in his Royal Commcntaries (Bk. VI, Cha p. XXXll), states that in the war of the Incas against thc Chimús, among the most bittcr cnemics of thc latter wcrc the rulers of Pachacamac und Runahuánac ( thc uppcr Cañete) both south of thc Rímac because in a prcvious period the Chírnús had wagcd a cruel war agaínst thcm an<l ha<l enslaved many oí their people. The Quipucamayocs state that Chimú conquests extended even as far as azcal This complicated región south of thc Moche can be dividcd roughly into se,·eral scctions (1) the Southem Zone of the Chimú Empire consisting of the southern

part of the orthwest Coast numing from south of tbe ~loche to the Pativilca Complcx; (2) the Southern Extcnsions of the Chimú Empire consisting of the Central Coast mnning from thc Pativilca Complex to thc Rimac b'l·oup, a11d of the South Coast (more corrcctly South Cc11trnJ Coast) runníng from below the H.imac group to the Nazca arca, (3) thc rcgion below azca wbich, as yct, has nol bcen linked in any way with the Chimú Empire. Thc Southcrn Zonc of thc Chimú Empire consists of a numbcr of small and even diminutive va11eys, each separatcd by a fairly widc stretch of desert. From north to soulh, they are as follows the quite small Virú, the diminu livc Chao, the small (in ancient times almost mcdiumsized) Santa, the small l\'epeña, the small Casma and thc diminutive Culebra and IIuarmcy Because of the small sizc of the rivers (except the Santa) ancl the large distanc('s ancl natural barriers betwccu thcm, no multi-valley inigation complexes were ever establishe<l in this region. As a rc·s1ilt of these factors, it musl nol ha,·c been difficult for the Chimt'1 Empire, once it was organízed, to take over this zo1w rapidly, valley b) valley a fact in part conflrmed hy the Anonymous Trujillano. Just below the Moche, but separated from it hy a large

desert. is the Virú, Both river and valley are smaller than the .\loche, and the ancient peoples of this region never playcd a dominan! role in the history of the Coast. Ncvertheless, this valley has received more attention Irorn ar-

chacologists in the past two decadcs than any other valley in Peru, There are several reasons for this. In thc flrst place, previous findíngs índícatcd the existence in this valley of all the major pcriods of thc past. Secondly, the valley is small enough to permít a group of scientists to CO\ er all its essential parts in a reasonable time and thus obtain an over-all picturc of its development. Its nearness to the largcr kcy Moche Valley woulcl also help to throw light upon the developrnent of the latter As a result, the Virú Expcditíon sponsored by various organizations spent 1946 and 1947 excavating and mappíng the Virú Valley intcnsivcly The Expedition consisted of the following North American Peruvianísts Duncan Strong, Wendell Bennett, Cordón Willey, Junius Bírd, James Ford, Donald Collier, Cliílord Evans, Allan Ilolmberg, and Webster ~fcfiryde. Sorne of their tentative results wcre presented in 1948 in the previously mentioned Reappraisal of Peruoian Archaeology. Dctailed accounts of their work have beeu publíshed by Ford ( 1949,

with a map by ~lcBryde), Bennett (1950), Strong and Evans (1952), and Willey (1953) Other studies are in the process of publícatíou. In 1940-41 we covered most of the valley, mapping its major canals and siles. In 1948-49 we spent little lime in this valley inasrnuch as the findings of the Virú Expedítion would yíeld far more detaíled resnlts than wcrc necessary for our own study \Ve therefore conccntrated our efforts on somc unsolved canal problems. The aerial photographs of the Servicio showed what appeared to be un impossibilíty · namely, a large canal, beyond the present border of cultivation of thc lower part of thc southem bank, which appcared to run, at its eastern end, up the síde of Cerro Bitínl Professor Gordon Willcy had prevíously mentioncd this problem to me. It is olear, sincc water cannot run uphill, and since Cerro Bitín is much too low a hill to have been the recipient of rainfall, that thc answer had to be found in another direction. During the latter part of our stay in Peru, Señor Emilio Conzález, one of Dr Schaedel's archaeology students at the Trujillo Institute, made a two-day trip on horseback following the canal. He carne to the conclusión that there had been no canal. The apparently elevated bordcrs of the "canal"

had been a double wall! The structure was produced by digging a wi<le trench and throwing dirt and sand on both sides, thus producing two walk The winds of the eenturies had covered parts of the struclure with sand and dirt in such a way that it looked like a canal on the photograph. The walls were probahly hnilt to ward off raids from the Stwta ValJcy to the south and seem similar to the db.t and sand walls just north of thc latter valley \Ve also claríficd onc other canal problem. In 1941 we had heen informed that thc large canal which runs at quite an clevation along the hills of the upper southcrn side of the Vin'1 Valley had once carried water over the small divido into the Chao Valley just to the soutb. \Ve were able, on our last tdp, to determine that the elevation of thc divide is too high for this canal to have done so. This fact wonld prove that thc two valleys had never been a hydrological unit, as we had tentatively supposed as the result of our füst visit. Thc aerial photographs of this vallcy turned out far less impressive than those of other valleys. \Ve therefore reproduce only two of them (Figs. 3 and 6) ~Iany of the sites, moreover, are bcing reproduced as ground plans by the members of the Virl1 E:qleclition.

Fig. 3. The hilly region l")('tween Tomaval and Niño, silualed on the north side of the Virú Valley, is shown in this ~harply focused vertical aerial photograph. The density of thc ruins is illuslrnled by the many white spots, which are the Boors of rooms, aud by the many habitation tC'rra<..-es. Kote the stone walls along the hills. The dark area al the bollom of the photograph represents modem irrigated ficlds. Servicio 104: 1215 and 1227 Fíg. 4 ( left margin) One of thc rarc bearded men of ~fochica times portrayed in thc fom1 of a ceremonial water jug. \'ir\1 Valley. 1\MNll • Fig. 5 (right margin) ~fochica style 6gurine, Huaca de la Cnn:, Virú Valley

AMNTT

hills on the \Vest side of Quebrada Chaparrí connecting the Lambayeque and Leche Valleys, bears have been shot in rccent times. In fact, on our last visit at thc Hacienda Batán Grande in the Leche Valley, the owncrs showed us a livc black bcar cub they had caught in the region. In ] 941, while traversing the flat semi-monte area just below the Cupisnique Valley plains, not ten miles from the sea, our truck driver suddenly cspied a foxl lle shouted at once, "Lct's go Iox huntíngl" He raced the truck hack and forth over the desert and around monte bushes until in less than fifteen minutes he had winded the fox so much that he was able to nm over him and kili him. He threw the dead animal into the back of the truck and cxclaímed joyfully, "A nice fur for my wifel" In valleys like the Chao, whích havo a short water period, it is custornary to build many long, wide canals so as to be able to use the sudden rush of water for a few months, followiug the height of the raíny season in the Sierras, and distribute it over as much land as possible to assure a large crop. In rivers where there is water for the grcatcr part or all of the ycar such a procedure is unneeessary Here, to one's surprisc, the major canals are

Fíg. 6. Ruins of Hunncaco, situated on top of a hill on the southem side of the lower Virú Valley. The black spots at the top are monte bushes. Servicio 104: BSB • Fig. 7 (left) Negntive type of ceram-

ics of unusuul shapes; place of origin unknown. Kosok-Reio • Typical \'irú modeled ceramics. AM~ll-Rein. fig. 8 (right)

Just south of thc Virú lies the Chao Valley (Fig. 1). For about threc months each year it contains water which rushes clown and oftcn Hoods the wide flat banks, producing an extcnsivc and hcavy monte of bushos and even small dcscrt treos. This monte-covered valley is probably a good examplc of what many valleys looked like in their natural state when, in early times, they were traversed by small bands oí huntcrs who sought rabbíts, foxes, <leer, pumas and bcars. Even today such animals are oecasíonally found and huntcd in parts of the coastal vallcysl When we were in the míddle Casma, we encountered a man who was hunting <leer whích had calen sorne of his crops. In the Chongoyape pocket in the upper part of the Lambaycquc Valley, pumas occasionally come down from nearby mountains to attack calves and colts. In the 184

, ••

,,,......

·-.

oftcn relatively smaller, since enough water is available during the major part of thc year In aocient times, this may havo lcd, in favorable arcas, to two corn crops a year (a crop can be raised in Iour months on the Coast) In all valleys, during the period of high waters, much of rho water rushes unused into the ocean. This wastc of water has led to various prívate proposals for building concrete dams across side quebradas to store up water for the dry season. But the expense has so far proved too great. Whether the ancients built dírt dams for such purposes is doubtful, At least we found none in our wanderings along the Coast. Only small ones built of rocks and sod were encountered in our travcls in thc Sierras. The ancíent dam in the Nepeña Valley which Squier mentions had probably been a mampuesto (aqueduct) lcading watcl.' over a dry quebrada. Buena Vista is the on]y large hacienda in this vallcy today lt has a swirnming pool and, ironically, grows water-consuming rice for commercial purposes. \Ve had visited this valley in 1941 and mapped the remains of a canal on the north side. During thc 1949 trip, with the aid of aerial photograpbs and a jeep, we were able to make

~·.

,_._

... ,

Fig. 9. The remains of ancient stone terraocs lhat cover onc sido of C(·rro de la Cruz can be disccrncd Tlw stn1ctur('s consist of many small rooms. Kosok.

in this grouncl photograph (see Fig. 10)

Fig. 10 ( right) The nature of the extcn'Í\ e ruins of Cerro de fa Cruz, the largest hillside site in t.he tiny Chao Valle), is clearly shown in this vertical aerial photograph. The main structure~ seem to be ioside the natural ~emicircula:r basin that is part of thc hill. Xote that half of the outer ~i<lc of the hill is <.'Omplelely co' ered by terracc<l stone unill. (~ce Fig. 9) Farthcr do" o are conccntric stone defense walh, while on the plain below are remains of ancient <:anal~. :--!ot far from t.his ~ite i~ Hacienda B'uena \'ista, the only /u1rkndn in the valley Scn;irio W4: 1170 • Fig. 11 (right margiu) \lin'1 negatin.• ami modcle<l ware. Stmn¡.: and lfoans.

a rnuch more ~omprchcosivc survey As a result, an additional series of canals was founcl on the north sido. in Whether this meant that more land was cultivated ancient times than at present or that the urea of cultívation was mcrcly shifted in modern times is difficult to decide.

Probably both explanations are partir correct. Xo major old canals were found on the south side. Surprísingly enough, this small valley contaíns two major ruins, onc on Cerro de la Cruz ( Hill of thc Cross), near the present day hacienda building ( Figs. 9 and 10), uud tbe othcr near Huasaquíto ( Fig. 13) on thc southeru bank, We had visited both sites in 1941, in 1949 we revísitcd them and took additional notes. After rcturning to Trujillo, wc met Señor Enrique [acobs, a long-time resident of this city and an expert in ancíent ceramics and burial sitcs oí the neighboring valJcys. He had assumed the management of a srnall

hacienda in the hilly middle part of thc Chao Valle) nnd had explored thís región. As a result, he was ablc lo enter on my map a number of siles in thc uppcr part of the valley which we had not been able to vísit. He also confirmed the results wc had obtaíucd in our own work on the lower part of the valley The Virú and Chao Valleys=as well as thc anta [nst to the south have yieldcd cxtcnsivc Mochíca remains indícating that they were once a long-lived part of the Mochica culture complex and empire, if oue existcd. The Anonymous Trujillano notes that the conquest of these three valleys bad been accomplished by San~enpinco, the third of the Chimú rulers, Thís would indicate that the vallcys were under Chimú rule and cultural iníluence for almost two centuríes. Once control of the Moche-Chícama Complex was established, conquest of the valleys directly to the south was easy to achieve,

Fíg. 12. ~lochica portrait huaco, supposedly Iound in the Vin1 Valley i\M'Jll • Fig. l 3. Huasaquíto is the second major hillsi<lc ruin in the Chao Valley. This vertical acrial view indicntes thnt, líkc the ruin of Cerro de la Cruz, it consists of closely packed stone structures in coneentric rows, The site is on the south side of the valley, somcwhat furthcr up than Cerro de la Cruz. Servicio 101¡: 1!256.

XVIII

A Potentíal Gíant: The Santa Ríoer

THE

SA1''TA is ature's big tragedy 011 the Coast of Peru. It is by far the largest coasta1 rivcr, but only a very small portion of its water has ever been used to írrígatc thc land, owing to the narrowness of the valley. which is hcmmcd in by the Andean foothills that cxtcnd alrnost clown to the sea. Thus it was in ancíent times, and thus it is today Thcso topographical limitatíons were overcome by the uncient lndians to thc Iullest extent possible at their level of techuologlcal-social dcvelopmcnt, On the north bank, cauuls carrtcd thc water around thc Ioothílls of thc Andes ncar thc sea and distributed it as far north as possible 011 to the pampa, outside the valley proper On the south bank, thc water was carried ovcr thc low ridge, Cambio Puente, by a very long canal that continued Ior many miles in a southerly directiou over the imrnensc windswcpt ¡¡a 111 pa, stretching between the Santa and the 'epeña. Thcsc two canal systems increased thc arca of cultivation of thc Santa Valley and he1ped to make it in ancíent times the largest cultívated unit bctwceo the ~lodw Vulley to the north and the Pativilca system to the south. But, despite theír most intensive cfforts, the ancient Iudiaus could never utilizo more than a mere fraction of the water of the Santa. Today, irouically, cvcn less land is cultivated than formerly Indecd, the Santa is used to irrigate only slightly more land than the Nepeña, south of it, even though thc Santa contains about sixty times as much water! Old canals líe disruptcd, old fields abandoned. Why? Conllicting property and water rights, as well as lack of capital, províde the answerl 13ut the real problern is not restoration of thc Iímitcd

cultivated áreas of the past, it is rather thc utilization of the complete water potentialities of the Santa! Modern engineering techniques can readily overcomc thc natural handicaps and use all the water in the Santa to produce a contínuous irrigated area from the Chícarna in the north to the Ncpcña Vallcy in the south. Such a unit, comprising six valleys, would rival and even surpass the ancient fü e-vnlley Lumbayeque-jeqnetepeque Complexl The late Ingeniero Carlos Sutton actually worked out in detail a project of this type. He proposed to cut an irrigation tuuncl through the hills on the north bank of the Santa, in order to carry water by canals and river underpasses to thc dry arcas of the valleys of Chao, Vírú, Moche and even Chícama, thereby putting 75,000 additional acres u11dN cultivation and improving another 150,000 acresl proposed that the newly irrigated 1and be sold in small plots to prospective small fanners. But a lack of Iuuds has cuused the project to rernain in the drawing board stagc, Oppositíon from largc hacendados to sorne of the ~ocial implicatious im oh,ed in Señor Sutton's plan!> has also ariscn. Th(' \allcy toda) contains only onc small villagc, also namcd Santa, possibly a continuation of an old lndian 11<'ttlernent. The village líes near the sea, just east of the Pan American TJighway Two other population centers nre the largc Hacienda Tambo Real (Royal Road Statio11) a11Cl the smaller Hacienda Santa Clara. Both haciendas furnishcd us with txansportation and guidcs. Thc main ccntcr for thc vallcy, howcvcr, is thc port of Chimbotc just south of the valley proper This town liC's on a partially t>nclosed bay and possesses one of tlw best natura] harbors found a]ong the whole Coast of

Fig. l. ~fochica huaco, probably representing a lljma aud ridcr crossing a river. To líghten the weight the rider líes on a bag of infülled skins. The use of this method of crossing lhe Santa Rivcr has bce11 dt•,cribed by Spanish Chroniclers. AMNJ-1 • Fig. 2 (margin) Mochica animal huaco. Clticlín-Kosok.

187

Fig. !l. This v iew shows clearly the coastal bilis extendíng directly into the Pacífic Ocean. In the foreground can he seen a small part oí thc lower unta Vallcy, erosscd by the Pan American J Iighwny In the background are the town ancl hay of Chimbote. Sen;lrlo U: 1168 • Fig. 4. Físh desígns from Mochíca huacos. 'otc the rcmarknble utteulion paid to speci6c characteristics. Larco Hoyle.

J88

Peru, It was at this town of Chimbotc thut we muele our headquarters in 1948-49. There are severa} passable hotels besides the excellent Hotel Chimú owned by the Peruvian Govcrnment. The town also has sorne Chincse restaurants which serve delícíous meals. For the ancient Indíans, the sígníílcanco of the Chímbote región probably lay in the fact that it was as it still is a fishing center of sorne importancc. Ruins of a large number of írrigatíon canals, pyrarnids, and othcr sites in the vícíníty would indícate that, even in ancient times, an important populatíon centcr had cxistcd hcre. Just south of Chimbote lies a fairly largo group of apparently small regular-shaped mounds covered with green shrubs. Dr Schaedcl suggcstcd that the mounds may havc constituted the ancient Chirnbotc. \Ve spcnt an afternooo examiníng this windswept regíon by the sea, but failed to locate any artificial structures. Thc mounds and their regular forms seem to havo been produced by the actíon of the rathcr strong occan wind, which blows continually over the loose soil. But our conclusions do not obvíate the possibility that excavatíons here may yield posítive results. ln 1941 while following one of the long branches of tbc rnain southern canal, we had encountered several ínterestíng adobe pyramids on the hills just cast of Chimbote. During our 1948 trip, Señores Garrido and Bodríguez SuySuy, who accompanied us, made a more detailed survey of these interesting pyramids. A surface potsherd collection indicares that they had been occupied during the Mochica period. Until recently they were relativcly unscathed, protected by hígh-piled sand. In recent years, thc boom-town enterprises of Chirnbote clairned them, aud several are in the process of being disrnantled. It is a shamc tbat these pyramids, which have survived relath el) undamaged for a thousand years or more, should face such a fatel North of Chimbote and just west of the Pan American Híghway, one is greeted by a peculiar archaeologícal landmark. It is a large cat-demoo head made of rocks embedded in the side of an isolated hill. The site is near thc end of a series of long canals, whích can be seen winding around thc hílls that encírcle thc plains of Chimbote. Most Iíkely, this cat-demon head was used in a ceremonial cu1t of the ancients. Although the cat-dernon is a common figure in Peru, the particular form found ncar Chimbote is unique. The valley of the Santa itself contains an unusual numbcr of ruins, Yet this is not surprising if we consider the

nature of the valley Since the river always had an overabundance of water available throughout the year, it possibly even a permitted a maximum annual harvest seeond crop. Thís situation enoouragcd a máximum population ou the limite<l amount of land, which in turn made necessary the cultívation of every bit of land in the limited terrain. As a result, many populatíon siles and

ceremonial eenters were apparently pushed into the adjoining desert quebradas and hills situated ata level above the highest irrigation canals. Since, in módem times, cultivation has not been extended to these quebradas and hills, the ruins of these siles continue to litter both sides of the valley Each hilly outcropping wíthín thc írrigated plain is likewíse eovered with ruins of sorne type. In all, we were able to locate and map about forty sites. Although a Iew of the sites were mentioned by Míddendorf more thau fifty years ago, practically none has been studied by modern archaeologists. In 1947, however, Dr James Ford made surface ceramíc oollections from numerous sites and buríal grounds. Unfortunatcly, he has not yet publishcd the results of hís findings. When we studied the aerial photographs of this valley, we díscovered that we had succeeded, by rneans of our ground surveys of 1940-41, in mapping most of the ímportant canals and archaeological sites. However, the aerial photographs did show sorne addítional ruins, which we had míssed. These iocludcd a number of fort-like sites with accompanying structures on the top or the sicles of the hills that bordered the valley from Hacienda Tanguche to Hacienda Tablones. The existence of a series of seoondary canals in this región was also definitely establíshed by means of aerial photographs. In this volume we do not have the space to describe the many intercsting sites we found in the Santa Valley However, we reproduce photographs of sorne of the typical sites of the valley in this chapter But it may not be amiss

to draw attention to the ruins of Alto Peru and nearby Cantagallo, which we visited in the company of Señores José Garrido and Rodríguez SuySuy, who later presented a report of thei.r .6ndings to the Institute at Trujillo. Alto Peru consists of a series of partly dcstroyed small pyramids and walled structures built on a slight elevation of ground in the central part of the vallcy Señor Rodríguez SuySuy made a ground plan of one of the better preserved groups. \Ve also collected sorne potsherds; a Few examples are reproduced here ( Flgs. 13 and 13a} High walls apparently connected this site with nearby Cantagallo (The Cock Crows}, which is likcwíse built upon a natural elevation and is compriscd of a series of walled adobe enclosures with a pyramid-likc adobe structurc at the summit. The sito is known also as Huaca Panteón, since a present day cemetery has been built ioto part of the adobe structure, At the bottom, Middendorf ( 1894:329) found a rectangular structure with 54 pillars of adobe on each sídc, cach pillar about two and a baH mctcrs from the othr-rl Ancl pillars are raro on the Coast. \Ve had hoped to obtain more informatíon about the famous Santa wall found by Shippee and [ohnson duríng one of their many flights. They had assumcd that it continued along or near the crest of the hills east of the Santa Valley as far as the upper Sierras. In 1934 C. v S. Roosevclt followed it for a short distance on foot. In studying the Servicio photographs. we found that they oovered only the lower part of the valley, whcrc sections of tbe wall oould be seen. United States Army photographs include the whole area oovered by the Shippeejohnson Expeditíon, but sincc they wcrc taken at great heights, only sections of rhe wall could be discorncd, and thcsc were in the lower valley Becausc of these results and because the Shippe<'-Johnson Expedition was not ablc

cloud formations ínterto follow the wall continuously fcred we suspcctcd that this supposcdly long aud continuous wall migbt consist of a series of disconnected local walls. The lower scction, from which thc irrigated arcas of the Santa Valley could be defended, would be the most important part. and it is the scction which Roosevcll cxamined. We questioncd people tru:oughout the valley, but no one seemed to know much about the wall. Thc only way to establish the nature aod tcrmi.nus of tbe wall

would be to fly over it on a cloudless day and then follow tbis by a field trip on muleback. We had neither thc facilities nor the time to do either and therefore had to content ourselves with speculations. The waU was probably built as protection against raids or invasions from thc 11orth by the Chimús or possibly cven the 11ochicas. \Ve also wondered whether the wall playcd a role in the gallant defense against thc Inca by the Chin1ús ancl their Santa allies so eloquently clcscribcd by Garcilaso. This heroic stand of the Santa peoples is

Fig. 5. An unusual, wind-blown sand dunc on the desert CO:tSt:\I plains north of the Santa Valley Thc hugc sizc of the dune becomes apparent wh('n we rralizo that the thin, vertical lines in front of il are telephone polcs. Kosok • Fig. 6 ( abovc) Drawings uf un aquatic scene on a Mochica huaco. Baessler • Figs. 6a to 6c (margin) High quality '.\lochica animal huacos. Animals and plant~ wcrc favoritc ~,1bjects of Mochica arfots. Cliiclí11-Kosok.

1 9

Fig. 7 The cxtcnsive ruins of Buena Vista, on the south stde of the middle Santa Valle>, have not boen studied archaeologically Dcfcnviv« m><·<.b as well as population pressure made necessary thc building of evtensive habitation terraces. The main t't'lltl r uf thc community was at the base of the hill, below whlch ran nn ancíent canal,

Whilc riding and climbing

OH~r

the site, we noticed that

was still Iaírly well preserved. Shiuoee-Iohnson.

Fig. 8 (below) View of lhe main northern Santa canal as it win<ls ulong the hills of the coastal pampa, north of tlu- Santa Valley Knsok • Fig. 9 (Ieít margin) Two Mochíca huacos, one showing a corn god, the other showing a victirn awaiting scntr-ncc hy a jndge or priest. Baessler • Fig. 10 (lower right, pp. 190 aud 191) Details from a huaco of an ancient fishing sccne shuwing, right, a special ceremonial reed caballito ( sce Chupter IX) Baessler

also mentioned by Cieza (J: Chap. LXX) The latter incídentally refers to thc almost depopulated coudition oí the Santa Valley and the ruined sites on the sídes of the hills. Cieza mentions this depopulatíon in numerous othcr valleys. Was this the rcsult only of the Spanish conquest, or did thc previous inca conquest initiate thís decline? In addítion to mapping sites, we uscd our aeríal photographs and field trips to extend our knowledge of the main ancient canal systems. In 1941, we had traced and mapped the two principal canals already mentioncd abovc, The largo canal on the northern bank, which rnns through the ímportant Santa Clara ruíns ( Fíg. 11), was traccd in 1941, as far as the narrow coastal plain, where it contínued in a northerly direction ( Fig. 8) as far as tho small modern salt works, Cuadalupíto, near the ond of the great Santa Wall. Ilcrc thc canal seemed to disappear On our recent trip, we rcvisitcd Guadalupito to look for a possible continuation of the canal further north. After reaching these salt works, we were fortunatc in meeting the íntelligcnt and well-ínformed manager of this enterpríse, He showed us what appeared to be ruins of a vcry small settlement bielden behínd an adjacent hillock, whcre rcmains of underground rooms were found. Both the site and the position of tho rooms may have been chosen to avoid the powcrful coastal winds that blow over this desolate region cvcry afternoon. Unfortunately, the salty naturc of the soil had so destroyed the potsherds that cultural idcnt:iflcation was impossible. Thc manager ínforrned us that the main canal did contintre in a northerly direction along the side of thc ncarby hills. He claimed to have seen traces of it wherc it crossed thc Pan American Ilighway at sorne distance to the north. \Ve fo11nd the canal and followed it for severa! miles; tl1en jt secmcd to disappear in the desert. \Ve cruised around for scveral hours in our jeep, but we could not pick up any forther b·aces of thc canal On another trip, wc tricd lo obtain additional data

about canals and ruins ou the central northern bank, in the región of Tanguche, The only way we could approach this area was by meaos of a primitive road that left the Pan American Highway just south of the Chao Valley Thís road, which lcd into the Río Seco (Dry Biver ), took us through one of the most desolate regíons of thc whole Coas t. vVe arrived at Hacienda Tanguche Fairly early in the

morning. There the very hospitable daughter of the owner of this isolatecl estate prepared an excellent breakfast, which included a bottle of wine ancl half a dozen bottles of icc-cold Coca-Cola that were proudly produced from a modero, recently acquired electric refrigerator Our hostess ca11ed in the well-ínformcd manager of thc estate, who possessed a small collection of water jugs he had found mostly Mochica style. He went over our map,

Fig. 11 (bclow) Ruins of Santa Clara, Santa Valley This photograph, taken by the author from a Faucett plane in 1941, shows the largest min on the north hank of the Santa Ríver. i\lr. Veme Grant and the author visited the site in 1941 and Followed tite large wall, upper part of photograph, to its end on top of a nearby mountain. To the right of the central hill, partly cove-red by habitation tcrraces, are two smaller hiJls. Actually, they are pyrarnids built of stone and rubble. A long walled corridor may be secn lending from the pyramid on the left to the smaller pyrumid. Small house founclalions are densely clustered at the buso of the central hill in the Foreground. A complk-uted network of long walls and canals crosses behind the two pyramids. Kosok • Fíg. 12 ( right) The author riding up the bleak dcsert quebrada above thc ruins of Santa Clara in scarch of part of the main wall that runs to the north of these ruins (scc Fig, 11) Row11.

carefully explaíníng details of the canals and ruins of this entire regíon. Finally, he joined us in our jeep and we visited sorne of thcsc sitcs, which we then eutered on our rnap. Unfortunately, the road Iarther up the valley was flooded, preventing field survey of that región. 'Neverthcless, we were able to conflrrn, through conversatíons with the admínistrator, what our aeríal photographs had indicated the existcnce of a sequence of relatively smallcr ancient canals ancl relatcd ruins in thís part of the valley. The manager suggested that we rctum to the Pan American Highway by way of the Quebrada Palo Rcclon<lo ( Round Stick) This "short cut" went througb oven more desólate regious tlian those we hacl pac;sccl in the Río Seco area. In some cases, the road was almost non-existent, and only aftcr cruising for many hours through this no-man's

191

laud did we finally rcach the Pan American Ilighway agaín. Luckily, the jeep broke clown only once! On (he larg<-'r, upper southern sido of the valley, we determíned that the remaius of the ancicnt irrigution systcm nmuing from Vinzos to Hacienda Tablones, the upper limit of cultivation in thc valley, díd uot cousíst of just oue long canal, as most people of the neighborhood had tokl us. On the contrary, it "resolved ilsclf" .inlo a number of independent shorter canals, each cultlvating a limited area, The "breaking up" of a so-callcd "vcry long" canal into a series of shorter oues was obscrvcd in a numbcr of othcr valleys.

The main canal on the southcrn sídc, starting bclow Vinzos, required little new field work, \Ve had Iollowed it in 1941 as far as Cambio Puente, up lo which poiut it is still i11 use. From thcrc, we had trnced it for many miles into the exteusive wiudswcpt desert plaius bctwccn the Santa and Nepcña Valleys to a point about two-thirds of the distance to tbe lattcr valley and just cast of thc Pan American Híghway 1 ear this place we had also found a short strctch of a walled road, whicb did not secm to relate lo the scctions of the main ancient road locatcd in the Santa ancl Nepeña Valleys, On our present trip, we returned to this place hopíng

F'ig. 1:.1. Thc ruins uf Alto Peru, Each unit contuins a [ew room» with adjoining courtyards and the site is probubly un claborate component of a more extcusívc settlement, The walls lo the leít h·acl to the nearby ruins of Cantagallo • Fig. 13a. Potxherds fmm Druwing oí a Alto Pvru. Rodriuuez S11ySuy • Fíg. 14 (bclow) /11wc11 shuwiug tl11· deeapitated victim after the sacrifice. Bacsslcr

192

Fig. 15. An oblíquc acrial view of an important section of tlw unoxplored muze of ruins that stretches along the south bank of the Santa Hh er. This is probably the most extensiv e síte on this bank of the rh er. Compare with the vertical aerial photograph, Fi~. 1 G. ThE' (A). ( B) ami ( C) in both photographs will serve as guídes. Shipl)c('-jo/111.wn.

that we might find further extensions of the canal. But we had practically no success, for ali traces of the canal soon disappearcd in a rocky pampa. Though disappointcd,

we concluded that, in view of the nature of the terrain, the canal could not have gone much further Furthermore, we established the fact that the lcvel of thc terrain between the "end" of the canal and the nearby Nepeña Valley, which is only sorne five to six miles distant, is too hígh to have permitted the canal to have been contiuued by the Indians into the latter valley Thus it had been impossible to construct a bi-valley írrigation nnit of the Santa and Nepeña Valleys. Witb modern en-

ginccring methods, however, .the problem of bríngíng water to the Nepeña Valley can easily be solved. We havo only two referenccs concerning the relatíonship of the Santa Valley to the Chirnú Empirc. The Anonymous Trujillano informs us that the thírd Chímú ruler ( according to our chart, shortly aftcr 1300 A.D.) conquered the valleys as far south as the Santa. This would mean that thc Chimú rule here had lasted more than 150 yearsl We can assume that the Chimús must have had a finn foothold here and a strong allíance with the local Santa rulers in arder to have staged a conquest of the valleys to the south. Far it woulcl have been impossíble

Fig. 17 Two parallel contour canals, above Vinzos, built of adobe and "cemented" against the sídes of the hills. Kosok,

Fig. 16. A more exteusive vertical aerial photogrnph of the site shown in Fig, 15. Al the right, in the photograph, may be seen what appears to he a híllside site surrounded by many hahitation terraces. Note the numerous dcfr·nsive walls that run over hills and across quebradas. At the left are thc rcmains of an ancient irrigation system that once brought water to this región. These are possihly thc mins mr-ntioned by Squier. Apparcntly he díd what nther investigators, including ourselves. hnve since done; bcing ovcrwhelmed by the a1'nount of rernuins, he decidcd to lcnvc their study lo other. scientists, Servicio 172 .'l.'J

·'

Ior the Chimús to havc maintained a footbold in the Pativilca Cornplex witbout safeguardíng their very narrow "lifeline" by means of a secure control of the stronuest interrnediate point, the Santa! That they hnd suc cccdcd in Formíng such an alliance is indicated hy Carcílaso's uccount of the bravery with which the Santa ullies Iought alongside thc Chimús against the Incas. Considerable amounts of Early Chimú ( Mochica ) ce-

ra mies. havo bcen [ound in the Santa Valley, índícating strong ancl cxtcnsíve dornínation by thc Mochica culture coming from the Moche-Chicama area further north. \Vhat wenr 011 in the ~1 iclclle Period is not olear Likcwisc. the existcnce of a Very Early Coastal Chuvín Period has not heen clearly establíshed. Again. an intriguing valley without archaeological excavations and archiva! rcscarchl

Fig. 18 ( mnrgin} Sleeping man. Mochica st) le huaco from Tanguchc l Incícnda. Kosok-Rein • Fig. 19 (up¡x·r right) An interesung, bul archaeologically unknown, site on the north bunk of tlw Santa Rh er, south of Tanguche and opposite Vínzos. The ruin is ccutcrcd ubout two main groups, each w ith <1 sunkcn plaza. Around thcm are what uppear to be the rernains of stone houscs. The hillsídc« hnve been made habitable hy the constrnctton of numerous terreces. Serricio 172: 211 • Fig. 20 ( lower right) An ohlique aerial photograph of a portion of the ruin shown in thc v erucnl photograph, Fig. l!l. The advautage of ha' i11g both verlku 1 aud nhliqur- photographs is clearly dernonstrated here. In tlw v erticul vicw tlu- grouud plan beeomes clear ut once, while in the horizontal vit•\\"\tlu· throe-dímensional n-latíons of thc· clifft•n·nt part~ of the ruins are dramutically prcsented. Shi11pee-Jol111Ml/1.

194

El Through Canyons and Fíelds ín the Upper Santa

In this regíon, thc Santa Hiver has created a long, relatively narrow valley basin, the so-called Callejón de Huaylas, runuing Irorn south to north and dropping from 12,000 to 6000 Feet in elevatíon. It is surrounded on both sídes by hlgh mountain rangcs, of which the castcrn, thc Cordillera Blanca, is covercd with perpetual snow and ice. Thís rango coutaíns thc highcst mountaín of Pcru, thc Huascarán, whích towcrs to a hcight of more than 22,000 f ect. At the uorthern end of the Callejón, the Santa Hiver brcaks through towering mountain masses, creating spectacular chasms in its ceaseless rush to the Coast. \Ve hoped to take a Chrístmas holiday in the Callejón, but Christmas Eve found ~Iichael sick in the hospital at Chímhote. However, the fine treatment he received in that modern institution made it possible for us to leave by Ncw Ycar's Eve, Wc lcft early in thc morning on a quaint and crowded little train, As the train chugged slowly up tho vallcy ít passcd ncar a series of ruins on the cdge of thc cultivatcd arcas. Its slow pace and frcqucnt stops made it possible Ior us to check sorne of the notes we had made during our prevíous trips up the valley by jeep and truck. The train route, incidentally, is the one that Míddendorf descríbed some fifty ycars ago. At Hacienda Tablones, sorne thirty-fíve miles up thc valley from Chímbote. the cultívated zone ends, Here Fig. l. A view of thc uppcr middle section of the coastal zone of thc Santa Hiver, The Sierras are in the far background. At the lower center is a part of tite fomous Santa Wall, which - like the Crear Wall of China - runs ovcr hílls and valleys, Shippee-Iohnson. • "-OTE: Drawing al upper lcft is a Chavín stone head. ]01111 '~'ise.

At Chuquicara, almost fifteen miles up the canyon from Tablones, there is a slight pocket where the Chuquícara (Tablachaca ) River enters the Santa. Thís branch and its tributaríes reaoh as far north as Santiago de Chuco and Cachicadán, described in Chapter X, and thus act as an important link between this región and the Callejón. Chuquícara is also a railroad junction point, for a spur of the main line runs up part of the Chuquíoara Valley As we stood in the streets of this town an<l looked up the steep semí-arid mountainsides to the south, we could distinguish small objects moving slowly clown the .narrow, dízzy mountain path. As we watched íntently, we discovered that they wcre pack mules carrying goods to our junction point, During the short stop here, we bought a box of the grapes that were being shipped in large quautíties both to the Sierras and to the Coast. The grapes looked and tasted so delícíous that we ate them without observing our standard rule of not eating unwashed fruit. The train slowly continued íts dramatic journey up the

Fig. 2 (margin) Recuay style huacos frorn thc Callejón de Huaylas. Be1111ett i Handbook, 11) • Fig. 3 (Iower left) Part of an automobile road that winds in a series of hairpin turns up the mountaínside. Kosok • Fig. 4 (below ) Cold figurine from Cha vín de Huantar. ]ohn \Vise • Fig. 5 (above, left) Looking into the narrow Cañón del Pato, with its precipitous walls rising above the foaming Santa River. Note the autornobile road at the left. Servicio 0:8580 • Fig. 6 ( above, right) Bus stop in a mountain town. Kosok • Fig. 7 (p. 197) A vícw across the Cañón showing houses of cngineers and workers who were building a hydroelectric plant in the area. Kosok,

the train entered the long, narrow and precípitous gorge of the Santa, which continucs, almost without ínterruption, as far as the relatively wider Callejón de Huaylas. Thc valley floor itsclf is so narrow that in some places the bed of the railroad had to be cut di..rectly into the rocky walls of the chasm before the tracks could be laid.

narrow gorge, providing an ever-changing vista of overhangíng clíífs, thcn suddenly the train came to a dead stop. \i\le wonclered why, for we could see no scttlcment. The conductor finally carne along to inform us that the train could go no further because the large bridge that had to be crosscd was bcing repaired and could not sup-

port the weight of tbe train. So wc took our suitcases and, together with the other passengers, walked across the bridge. A Ileet of trucks was waiting on the other side to take us to Huallanca. the terrninus of the raílroad. At HualJanca, a typical small mountain town, we and some of our fellow travelers soon found a restaurant. Here we ordered double portions of churrasco con arroz (beefsteak with rice), a common dish, which always tasted good to us. Our appetites satisfied, we wandered through the strcets looking at the displays of merchandise in the varíous shops. In one of these shops, we bought sorne dried coca leavcs, the source of the drug cocaine. The lndians chew these leaves continually, since the bodily nurnhness produced by thc drug counteracts the fatigue caused by working and climbing in high rnountain altitudes. To extract the cocaine completely, the Indíans add small bits of lime as they chew the leaves. The use of these leaves dates back to very early times; indeed, the Inca rulers tried to establish a monopoly in them. We chewcd our leaves here as we had done in other

Sierra places. The numbness, which is created fust in the mouth and then to a lesser extent in the body, givcs one a feeling of relaxaríon and ereates a rather pleasant mood. Since there is no narcotics squad in Peru, the leaves are sold everywhere and are very cheap. A handful could be bought for the equívalent of about one cent in American money! Nonetheless, we <lid not become addicts. At Huallanca, numerous trucks were standing ready to take passengers and goods to various parts of the still higher Callejón de Huaylas. After hunting and bargaining, we found an open truck which would take us to our destínatíon, the town of Carás in the lower part of the Ca1lej6n. Two of the passengers were fortunate enough to obtain the two seats next to the driver; the rest of us had to sit on top of the accumulated baggage and freight that filled the greater part of thc open truck. While this method of travelíng transmits all tbe bumps in the road to the passengers, it nevertheless has one definíte advantage, it aííords a contínuous, comprehensive and unobstructed view of thc beautiful and ever-changing mountaín landscape. Leaving the town, the loaded truck began to crawl up the ascending road witb its innumerable sharp, hairpin turns cut into the steep sídes of the mountains. While the landscape was becoming increasingly impressive we. in turn, were becoming increasingly dizzy as the truck went higher and higher along the narrow road that nowhere had any guard rails. Indeed, guard rails are unknown in the Sierras! \Vhen the road leveled off somewhat, we entered tbe so-called Cañón del Pato ( Duck Canyon) Tbe rocky walls here rise precipitously above both sides of the Santa. producing the narrowest and steepest canyon of the Andes ( Figs. 5 and 7) Sorne time ago, a roadbed for the raílroad had been cut into one side of the sheer walls of the chasm, necessitating the constructíon of dozens of sliort tunnels. As a result of a lack of funds, the railroad was never completed and the surfaced roadbed is now used instcad by cars and trucks. We had 'probahly tbe rnost thrilling and unusual expericoce of our entire stay in Pcru riding along this road, in and out of tunnels, with the foaming Santa River a few thousand feet below, and the steep clíffs towering far abovel \Vhile ascending this road, we discovered that cables had been recently strung at a number of places across the deep, narrow canyon. By meaos of attached pulleys and baskets, supplies and workers were being shipped to thc otber sidc of tbe canyon to be used for the

•

Fig. 8. A group of Sierra musicians playing sorne of their native music whíle riding wíth us on a truck to l Iuarás. Today many Serranos wear modem clothes ínstead of the traditional cosrumes. Kosok • Fig. 9. Snow-cox ere-d Huascaráu, with temperate and subtropic vegetation in the forcground. Sercicio O ·8556

197

and bracing in contrast to the hot and often dust-laden atmosphcre that wc had lcft bchind on the Coast, Evening had already descended when we arrived in Carás, a quaint 1ittle Sierra town. Its white houses, with their Spanish red-tiled roofs, which Aank the straight but hilly streets, give it an atmosphere quite at variance from the drabness of many coastal towns, The Plaza de Armas in the center of town was especially handsome with its abundance of multicolored flowers and beautiful trees. And everywhere were the stolid but friendly Indians moving along in the pursuit of their daily tasks. Off the maín squarc, we Found a small, olean hotel with good food. We lay clown on cornfortable beds and talked about our wonder-filled trip, a trip that had cost us less than fivc dollars! \Veeks later, after our return to the Coast, we learned that a very dangerous Iever, called oerruga, is prevalent in the Carás regíon. Thís mysterious disease exists only in a few valleys on the Coast and only within certaín ranges of elevation. Moreover, it seems to strike the victim only when he stays overnight in these areas, Most disconcerting is the fact that the fever is often fatal. Having Juckily escaped this disease, we took another camián. ( truck) further up the Callejón as far as Huarás, the chief city in the Callejón and the capital of the Department of Ancash. Among the passengers was a group of ludian musicians ( Fig. 8) who entertained us the first part of the way with a repertoire of Andean songs and dances. But during the early afternoon rain set in and we put on our ludian ponchos. Since the rain kept up, we were forced to squat under the huge tarpaulin whích the driver fínally pulled over the top of the truck. Thus we rode for hours in the serni-dark enclosure, occasion-

Fig. 10. A small section of the Callejón de Huaylas showing the town of Carás with its surroundiug fields. The wínding bed of the Santa River and the road that leads to other tO\\'OS in the Callejón are clearly visible. Seri;icio o. 1952 • Fig. 11 (margins) Sculptured stone heads

from the Callejón de Huaylas. Tello • Fig. 12 (right)

The main plaza in Carás. Kosok,

construction of a nwnber of hydroelectric plants that were to fumísh electricity to a considerable part of the Santa Valley One of these places remained partícularly memorable to us, While holding tight to the sídes of our truck to overcorne our own dízziness, we saw a lone worker sitting on a single plank attached to a pulley, his

198

legs dangling in míd-air as he was being pulled across the abyss by a ropel Our fellow passengers mostly Indians seemed, however, unímpressed. As we left the Cañón del Pato, the valley widened and the truck entered a refreshing countryside of grass, cactus plants and trees. The mountain air felt wonderfully cool

ally pecking out at thc rain-soaked and dismal landscapc, The Callejón, as already pointed out, is flankecl on the cast by thc extcnsive and majestic ranges of snow- and Blanca called the Cordillera mouutains, icc-capped ( Whítc Rangc), contniníng the highest mountain of It has been scaled only once. DurPcru, thc Huascaráu. ing our 1941 tour, we madc a threc-day horscback tríp

around tho base of this huge massif, during whích wc encountcred the most gloríous sccnery we had seen in ali of South América, wiíh vcgctation ranging from subtropic to arctic (Fígs. 13 and 16) The mountaíns on thc western sidc of the upper Santa

are consíderably lower and since they are not covered by ice and snow are called the Cordillera Negra ( Hlack Rangc) Thc western sides of the latter Cordillera furnish thc rathcr Iirnited headwaters of thc small coastal rivcrs of the Nepcña. Casma, Culebra and Huarrney (see Chaptcrs XX and XXI) It is very probable that these vallcys wcre crlginally populated by peoples from the Callejón who cntered thcm by crossing the passes of thc Cordillera. In Iact, the late Dr Jubo Tello was able to ftncl, in the lower coastal section of the Ncpcña and Casma Valleys, extensive ruíns which he could definitely relate to the very early site of Chavín de Iluantar just

across the eastcrn divide of the Callejón ele Huaylas. The bottom and lower sides of the Callejón contain a sufficient amount of cultívated land to support a moderate-sízed population. Apparently, there is sufficient rainfall to permit agriculture wíthout irrigation. Nevertheless, irrigation canals exist to supplemcnt the ruínfall by bringiug water to the land duríng the dry scason. The upper, southern part of the Callejón has thc charaeteristics of thc treeless puna of the southern altiplano oí Peru. Since this area is above the rnaize lino, thc main crops are similar to those of the puna. In ancient times, llamas grazed here; today they have disappcared.

Fig. 13. The mighty l Iuascarán. thc loftiest peak in the Peruvian Andes, as v iewed bcfurc sunsct from a pass more than 17 ,000 Icet iu hclght. The peak itscl] reaches an altitude of more than 22,000 ff'et. Kosnk,

Fig. 17 (above ) At the foot of the Huascarán. Primitive methods for extracting the syrup from sugar caoe. Kosok • Fig. 18 ( below)

Subtropíc landscape amongst snow-capped mountaíns. Kosok.

Fig. 14 ( margin) Recuay style stone statucs of the Early Period. Bennett and Bini • Fig. J5 (far lcft) At the base of the Huascarán. Kosok • Fig. 16 ( left) On our trip around the Huascarán we had to procecd through a pass more than 17,000 feet high. The horses and the guide can be scen on thc path, wh.ich is cut into the rock. The outlínes of the Huascarán can be seen faíntly in the background. Kosok.

Huarás, the geographic, cconomic and administratíve center of tbe Callejón, is a larger but less attractive town than Carás, Since our stopover there in 1941 a tragedy had befallen the town. A glacial lake had overflowed suddcnly, causíng a huge flood, which rushed clown the mountainside and destroyed part of the town, killing many of its inhabitants.

We arrived toward eveníng in a drizzling rain and, after having eaten a hot meal, looked for a "movie" We wandered around for a whilc, finally yielding ourselves to Torzan, in whích Johnny Weissmuller and his fellow actors babbled their nonsense in Spanísh to a partly amused and partly bored audience. The towu possesses a local museum, which houses a rcpresentative archaeologícal collection. The museum is under the able direction of Dr Augusto Soriano Infante, who, for many years, has made trips all over the Callejón, often on foot, collecting valuable material ( Fig. 2:3) U nfortunately, little of hís work has been published. In 1941 Dr Soriano Infante had shown us hís unusual collection and had also taken us on an interestíng field trip. Professor Wendell Bennett has also conducted pioneer excavations in this region, the results of which were published in 1944. The ancient peoplcs of the Callejón had produced a type of realistic ccrarnícs, which, though rather crude, is quite dístinctive and easily recognizable (Figs. 2 and 19) Dr Schacdel's characterization of it as "Mickey Mouse" cerarnics is rather appropriate. Thanks to Professor Bennett's investígatíons, a contínuous culture sequence has bccn established for the earliest times up to the so-called Middle Períod (Tiahuanacoid) However, what líttle is known of thc Late Period, which corresponds in time to the Late Chírnú-Inca Period on the Coast, and the Inca in the Sierras, is insufficient to give an idea of settlement size and distributíon of population centers. \Ve were, ourselves, unable to Bnd anythíng to indicate whether a unified political fedcration had once existed throughout the length of the valley or whether local tribal rule predominated until the conquest by the Incas. The local archives are most Iikely to yíeld sorne infonnation on this and related matters. J ust recently, Dr Augusto Soriano Infante discovered in an archive a list of names of local rulers of the Inca Period. We returned to the Coast by means of a road that led over the Cordillera Negra down the Casma Va1Jey This "short cut" to the Coast is about sixty miles long, but because of the mountaínous terrain through which the road passes, almost a whole day is required for the tripl lt was Sunday when we decided to go. The regular trucks were not operating and the only transportation we could flnd was a dilapidated old truck. Contrary to our better judgment, we took passage on thís vehicle and, to our grief, about every half hour we bad to stop because the motor, the brakes, or the clutch refused to function.

Our chauffeur, a cheerful soul, insisted that only its four wheels and "Faith" kept the truck running! The long, serpentine road up to the crest of the Cordillera Negra aífords a series of increasingly comprehcnsive and inspiring views of the vast, snow- and icecovered Cordillera Blanca on the opposite side of the valley, Indeed it is impossible to go anywhere in the Callejón without being surrounded by the majesty and beauty of the landscapc. lt compares favorably with the finest in the world. But it is practically unknown to tourists, even though there is a direct bus from Lima that takes only one dayl

Fig. 19 (top, left) Recuay style pottery oí soldier with llama. AMNI-1 • Fig. 20 (top, right) Cold plaque of a highly stylized god bead e¡qJressing terror and vengeance, typical of the Very Early, priest-dominated Chavín de Huantar culture. The rectangular plaque ( helow) is of the same character and pcriod • Fig. 21 ( above, left) Stone wall of part of an ancient site, showing oonstruction detaíls. Kosok • Fíg. 22 ( above, right) Ancient stone earvings from Aija of once venerated gocls or rulers, now degraded into fence postsl Soriano Infante • Fig. 23 (bclow, left) Part of a huge ancient stone wall. At the base of the wall is Padre Soriano lnfante, Director of the Huarás Archaeological Museum. Kosok,

The ride down the Casma Valley was a fitting end to our exciting trip. In many places, the dirt road is so narrow that, when two vehicles try to pass each other, one of them must back up to a slightly wíder spot to enable the other to squeeze by. The real thrill in this procedure comes from the fact that, in many cases, the road is cut into the side of the mountain and, at times, hangs several thousand feet above the floor of the valley! To make matters more dangerous for us, a slight but steady

drízzle set in, with the result that the narrow, tortuous road soon became slipperyl aturally, there were no guard rails! Add to this the fact that the truck had to stop evcry so ofteo to have its brakes acljusted or the clutch tightened and it can be easily undcrstood why, to us, this trip was the most nerve-wracking and best-remembered one in Peru. We still had about three or four hours to drive when darkness carne; and it comes rapídly in these latitudes. Since we could see nothing and hacl no lights lo read by, Michael began to recite from memory the names of all the chemícal elements in the order of theír atomic 1111mbers. Then he decided that bis father, a college professor, should know at least as rnuch as hís son. So he forced me to partícipate in this mernory drill. By thc time thc trip ended, we both could recite the table, backwards as well as forwards, and sepárate thc clcmcnts by períods and groups! Wc rcachcd the coastal town of Casma late that night in a state of complete exhaustion. \Ve went to hed at once at the Hotel Royal. for we wcre expceung our driver to arrive with the jeep early next moming to take us on a canal-hunting trip to the uearby r cpcña Valley Before falling asleep, we reviewed the day's experiences, feeling thankful for havíng survivcd thc hazardous trip, which is just an everyday experience For thc pcoplc who live in this region.

Fig. 24. Flying over the snow-cappcd Andes. U S. Armu 112-H-89.

I~ The Nepeña Valley: Southern Límit of Mochíca Culture

1rn NEP&~A fu:vEn and the Casrna, Culebra, and Huarrney Rivers farther south havc a cornmon characteristic- their headwaters are in the rain-scarce Cordillera Negra instead of in the wetter Continental Divide. These rivers, therefore, suffer from annual water shortages. Ncvcrtheless, the small Nepeña insures the cultivation of nearly as mueh land as the large Santa because almost evory drop of íts water is utilized. A largo parí of this long narrow valley, which lacks a Ian-shaped coastal plain, is controlled by the sugar-growing Hacienda San Jacinto, which is owned and operated by English interests. The port of Samanco, thc village of Huambacho in the lower, thc town of Nepeña in the middle, as well as Moro and Quimbe in the upper, pocket scction of the valley, are the only communities of ancicnt times that have survived to the present day

\Vhilc workíng in this valley, we wcrc able to establish our hcadquarters at San Jacinto Hacienda as we had done in 1940-41. At that time we made severa! trips through the valley, and a former assistant of mine, ~Ir Veme Grant, preved of great help. On our first tríp ínto the valley in 1949, we were startled by peculiar rurnblings ali around ns; but we were too tired to be concerned. When wc reached the hacienda buildings everyone was talki11g exeitedly And no wonderl Tbe rumblings we had heard had come from a slight earthquakc tremer fclt throughout the whole valley At the hacienda, we were cordíally received by thc new administrator, Mr Maexlillan, who put bis house at our disposal. Whon we reached our quarters wc were grcatly dclighted to discover a huge English bathtub full of hot water thc 6rst hot bath we had encountered

Figs. 1 and 2. A nurnbcr of ground plaus of ruins publíshed in 1877 by the American scholar Squier are presented in the following pages, alongside rcccnt vertical aeríal photogruphs of the corresponding sites. The comparison shows the aecuracy oí most of Squier's work. Compare the photograph ( Fig. 1) of the stoue structure of Quisque built on the sidc oí a hill with Squíer's drawíng (Fig. 2) The resl oí the photograph shows additional structures on the siclP of the hill which Squicr did not ínvestigate and which still rernuin to be studied. At the top of the photogruph is part of the dry riv er bed ( white) partly covered with monte bushes ( black ) For a better view of tbe whole síte, turn thc photngraph upvide down. Sen;ici<> 174:224. The openíng line cut is part

oí the Pañamarca frieze, Figs. 10a and lOb.

• 203

Fig. 3. This rectangular stone structure is the ( B) in Fig. 6. Thc round crater-like structure inside the lower part of the compound appears to be an exeavated small pyramid or "palace." Schaedel,

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J •

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Fig. 4. Squier's ground plan of Alpaeote. This is the structure bclow ( D) in Fig. 6 and shows details not visible in the aerial photograph. Possibly it was a way station for llama trains en route to aud from the Sierras. To this <lay pack trains pass through Alpucotc on theír way to the Callejón de Huaylas. Squicr Fig. 5 ( below) Here we see how ríver eobblestones and earth were uved to build the walls of Alpacote; the ( D) in Fig. 6 is the northern boundary of the series of room divisions described and drawn by Squíer. The wall is ubout flvc feet high. Scliaedel.

in a long time. The following morning another bath was rcady, the samc cvcning, a third. At that point Michael "What's the idea, thrce baths within 24 hours. rebelled. That's unhcard of! I'd rather be a Chimú!" To his dismay, he soon discovcrcd that thc Chimús, like other peoplcs, had thcir baños.

In thc coursc of thc dinncr conversation we werc plcascd to learn that, although Mr MacMillan had been in chargc of thís hacienda for less thau a year, he was wcll acquainted with most of the ruins of the valley He was even able to give us iuformation about sorne sites we had only recently discovered ou our aerial photographs, \Ve startcd off early the next morning to check the character of sorne of thc ancient canals and sites prevíously entered on our maps and to locate new ones. By thc time 011r work in the valley was completed wc had found sorne Jifty distinct sites, Owing to the nature of the lcrrain, thc location oí the canals presented somo diílicultíes. However, once we had located the canals, wc rcalízed that in ancient times the amount of irrigatecl land had not been rnuch greuter than at present. In our survey of the vallcy wc revísited all but one of the ruius dcscríbed by Ephraim George Squier, thc American survcyor, archacologist, diplomat and traveler, who had visitcd a largo part of Peru and in 1877 had publishcd hís Ilndíngs in a volume entitled Peru, Incidents of Traoel and Exploratioii in the Land. of the

Fig. G ( left) A vertical aerial photograph of a region studded with numerous ruinv, appan-utly clating from dilferent periods. The most important onc- are the cxtcnsivc hillsido structures of Pierna Calzón (Trousered Leg ), on the northern side of the Nepcña Vulley ~oh• in Pierna Calzón: the large irrigation canal (A) cutting thmugh 1 he ruin; the rectangular stone compound ( B S(-'C also Fig. 3) and the terraced earth and stone habitution platforms abovc and below the stone compound. At rhe upper left of the photograph, a series of walls contlnue Cor sorne distance around part of the hill. The dark narrow arca cutting diagonally across tbe photograph represcnts a stretch of Irrigated Ilelds, Below these fields are two small pyramide ami a luri:w pyrarnid ( C) Below (D) is the Al paco te of Squtcr, u rectangular structurc with many suhdivisions, now partially overgrown with scrub vegctation ( seo Figs. 4 unrl 5) Seroiclo 17 J:!tl}, • Fig. 7 ( above and below) Potshcrds from Pierna Calzón. The color rangcs from browu to orange. Schacdel-Cocho.

I neas. fo this work he ga ve more attention to thc \al-

lC'y of Nepeüa thau to sorne of its larger neighbors. To this day, his study is valucd for thc carcfnl descriptions <\n<l accurale ground plans of the ruins. The striking correspondence betweeu Squicr's ground plans of thcse Nepcña ruins and the acrial photograpbs of them can be seen in plates on the adjoining pagcs ( Figs. l to ] 3) The one basic error in Squier's plans lies in his assumption that a<ljacent walls of rcctangular-like structurcs wcre built at pcrfcct right angles to each other Actually they generally fonned slightly oblique angles. This was true C\ en of thc large walled compounds of Cha11Cha11. The <;ites of which he drcw ground plans were thosc of a part of Pierna Calzón and Alpacote, of Siete Huacas, IIuacatambo, El Padrejón and Quisque. We clid not visit the fortress of Quisque which is perched on the si<lc of a stecp mountain since it had no special signilicancc for our study Squier also visited Pañamarca, but thc struchires ,. wcre too complicatcd to permit the clrawing of a grouncl plan in the short time he had at his disposal. llowevcr he <lid proviclc a pictUie of the site. The ruins of Pierna Calzón (The Trousere<l Lcg), consist of the extensive remains of an ancíent walled settkmcnt on thc c-astern slopes of the biU Pierna Calzón. Thc area here is also called "Máquina Vieja," namcd aftcr an old machine, once located nearbyl The site indudcs a numbcr of tcrrnccd earth mounds at the base of thc

Fig,. 8 and 9 A comparison of thc vertical acrial photographs ol thc niins of Sit'te fluacas, situated on a small plateau, '' ith Sc¡uit·r·~ grouncl plan of the site, which he calls Stone \Vorl.s of !\lora, ~how~ that Sc¡u..icr succeeded in establishing the importan! !('atures of the slru('tun·. ITis 1·rror of failing to realizc that thc apparc11t rcclanglcs compusing thc structure were not tnie rectangl<'s was made by many otlier scientists; aerial photography quickly <·xpos1·d tlll' ('rror. Th1.• whitc linc at thc top of tl1c photograph is thc road from thc Scroicin 17,'/:,'J!J.i villagt' of !\loro ( spelled Mora by Squier)

~:&\l -;;-,..-,,

híll, a series of stone-líned tcrraced mounds Iurthcr up, and a well-defined rectangular stone ediflce with many ínter-connectíng rooms, The mounds at the base werc oríginally of adobe constmction and Iater were covered with carth, The stonc cdifices appear to represent a latcr occupatíon of the site, although no evídence [rorn potsherds so far coufinns this supposition. At the bottom of the híll, below the terraced earth mounds, is a sccond unit composcd of one rather steep,

oval-shaped adobe pyramid, two small rectangular pyra-

~(f~j.-: ~ rnids, anda stonc edifice divided into cubicles. Thís edí-

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fice Squicr investigated (Fig. 5) and assígncd the narne of Alpacote to it, Like thc upper parts of the ruin, the ..__.~ · ~) s~ction at the base prcsents "'. archaeological probl~m t-smce both adobe and stonc rums, of apparently quite - S/ ....<\

Ll;i ~ Fig, 10 . .\loc.:hica polychrome mural paintin¡.( ut Pañarnnrca. This thirty-foot-Iong [rieze of warriors and priests, lin(•<, the inner wall of the central plaza. The smaU figures are valets or attendants helping thcir ma>tt>r~ enrobe, The figures with "knec-plates" appear to be warriors: the central figure probably is that of a priest. Schaedel-Axabache • Fig . lOa and lOb (margins) Line euts of parts of another panel

distinct tradítíons, are in juxtaposition ( Figs. 3 to 6) Frorn Pierna Calzón we were able to trace, fnrther than Squíer had done, thc largo ancient canal which runs through the sitc, Thc canal continues north of this ruin, up to the large Quebrada Solivín. east of the buildings of San Jacinto. In this quebrada the occasional wnshes of past centuríes destroycd the old canal. but traces of it reappear on thc other side of the quebrada where it breaks into two branches. One branch continues into the present day eemetery behind the hacienda building, whilc

Figs, l l nnd 12. Thc modern photograph ( left) of Pañamurcn, the largest and most ímposing pyrarnid site of the Nepeña Valley, was taken by Schaedel from the plaee w herc Squier made his drawing ( right) For a description and pl.rn of thh important Mochica <'<'llkr seo Archaeologij,'S». 3, 1951 • Fig. 12a ( above ) Petrogl} phs al Pañamarca, probably from a pre-Mochíca period. Bcdrawn lrom Schoedei • Fig. 13 (p. 207, lower lcfl) In 'iewing the top parl of thc inain pyramid of Paiia111arc.:a fro111 an clcvate<l lcvd to tlu: south of thc pyramid, onc noticcs that thc core of thc structurc consists of a rectangular U-shaped ceremonial ch:unher. This "open" form is characteristic of a numher of ¡1yramids that \\'C located in other vallcys. Kosok.

206

the other branch ends at the rear of the building itsclf. We next paid a visit to Cerro de Siete If uacas (Hill of Seven Mouncls) Although the site contains many ruins, we could not cstablish the reason for thc 11sc of the number "seve11." To reach this place, which líes farther up thc vallcy, wc had to go by way of tlw town of i\loro. This is tbc ccnter of an agricultura! pocket similar to pockets found in .\loche, Zai1a and Lambaycquc. Even today, this pockct has its owo local officials including an agcnt of the Irrigation Department. \\'e soon be-

.. at fust meaninglcss and very time-consuming, But in a pre-industrial society where little happcns, any incident is sufficient excuse to "celebrate" and thus escape thc boredom of cveryday life. Like other Ioreigners who come to Peru to do a job as rapídly as possible wc were at first somewhat disturbed by the amount of time we had to devote to such social activitics. But after wc had lived among the people long enough to absorb sorne of their mode of working and living we really welcomed such celebrations, for they enablcd us to observe many focets of the Peruvian way of life which are so oftcn lost to the self-centered traveler and scicntist. The following <lay wc went down the valley lo check other sitcs. \Ve revisíted Pañamarca, the largcst pyramid site in the valley, in which the main pyramid consists of

of polychrome mural paíntíng at Pañarnnrca. Note in lcft margin that the plume contains three "feathcrs" growíng oul of anothcr plume of thirteen "feathers," i.e, thc sanie three-thirtcen caleudricai rclatioosldp meutioned in Chaptcrs V 1 uud XXI. In the figure in tho right margin note the 11l11e Feathers, the 11i11e ( or eleve11) lO('S and the "bu lbs" nt the top of the head, See Chaptcr VI. Schaedel-ésoboclie.

carne acquainted with these officíals as well as the local schoolmaster, a man wcll-informed on the archaeological sítes of this región. A Itcr lunch, four of thcsc gentlemen decided to join our party, thereby turniug it, according to local custom, into an "expedítíon." The officials Jocked up their respective offices and the schoolmastcr locked up his school. All piled into the jeep which, with thc chauffeur, Michael nnd myself, now containcd scvcn persons. Good sturdy old jeep! At our amigos' suggestion, we drove ovor to

Cerro de Siete Huacas which most of them had not seen. The site is unusual in that it is situated on a srnall flat platean rising severa} hundrcd fecl above the vallcy It consísts of Fairly wcll preserved ruins of a large stonewalled compound with numerous subdivisions (Figs. 8 and 9) On onc side of this compound are man y excavatíons made by huaqueros, where we found only crude ware which unfortunately told ns nothing of the probable cultural affiliations of thc builders. North of this platean líes another one, líkewise covcred with ruíns, Unfortunately, we were unable to visit them. More important for us was our ability to localize a small but íutrícate irrigation system which ran alongside of these plateaus and the neighboring hills, and whose existence had been indicated by the aeríal photographs. We then rcturned to Moro to "celebrare" the results of our "expedítion" wíth sorne becr Later, wc packed ourselvcs into the jeep again and went off on a shorter trip, this time to visit Squicr's El Padrejón and also to clarify the nature of a number of mínor ruins in the neighborhood of Moro which had appeared on the aerial photographs merely as small white spotsl Afterwards we again "celebrated" and thcn returned to the Hacienda San Jacinto For a good suppcr and yet anorher "cclcbration." To an urbane North American these various "celebrations," in which we partícipated in many places, may seem

an open U-shaped structnre ( Fígs. 11 to 13) T n one of the many adjoioing courts we found parts of two polychrome paintings on the walls one of them covered over by another wall. Mochica type warriors seemcd to be represented on one of them. When later on we infonned Dr Schacdel about our find, he investigated the area more thoroughly and unc<>vered two additfonal and much larger painted friczes (Figs. 10, lOa, lOb) One of the friezcs was the largest and best prcscrved Mochica wall paintiog found so far Dr Schaedel had tbese friezes

Fig. 14. The nncicnt road which we followed from the epeiia Valley northwards is slill used m part today The horizontal clark l'ine is an ancient wall. Farlher in lht- rear is the Nepeit::1 Vallt'\'

by Señor zabache, an artist from Moche. These fríezes, as well as certain architcctural charactcrislics, identify this as a Mochica site, though thcre are definite indicaticns of later occupaticn. What is important is not only the size of thr- Pañarnarca structuro but thc fact that it appears to have been the southern outpost o/ Mochica poioer or influe11cel We decided lo visit aoother ruin still further clown the valley on tbe north bank of the river Our attention had been drawn to it by its peculiar appearance on the aerial photograph. Jt seemed to consist of a largo number of white rectangles, of various sizes and shapes, surrounded hy walls. Tt lookcd like a kind of primitíve salt works in copicd. life síze and in color,

Fig. l 5 ( upper left) Part of Huaca Cerro Blanco, located in the centcr of the Nepeña Valley The colors of the design on the huaca are grccnish-yellow a11J brick-red. TIH' excavation of this site wus murk- by Dr. Tello, who found proof of the cxivtcncc of a Very Earlr Chavín culture on the Coast. Tcllo • Fig. 16 ( above ) The ruin of Punkuri Alto, oear the Coastal Cha' ín site, Punkurí Bajo, studied h} Tello, h that of a palace-like t•difit·<' with man} courtyards, rooms und eorridors. Sclwedel • Fig. 17 ( lcft margín, top) J .ow re lid ware, Punkurí Alto; ( bottom) Incised ware, Punkurí Alto. Scboedcl • Fig. 18 (Iower center ). Excavations made at Punkurí Bajo by Dr Tello lcd tu the discovcry of this jaguar figure, mude of hardened clay and covercd with paint. Thc style is charactr-ristic of the Very Early or Consta! Chavín culture. Te/In • Fig. 1 H. Mochica dcsigns of bírds and snnkcs, Larca Iloule.

208

which thc white áreas were saltl But this was ímpossíble, since there are no known salt deposite; in the neíghborhood. The ruin, which is called Caylán by the nearby inhnbitunts, appeared to us at first to he merely thc rcmains of un old "settlernent" consisting of innumerable stone walls and containing severa! small stone pyramíds. The walls surrounded enclosures within. whích wc found a whitish soil the white spots we had seen on the photographs! The ruin was much smaller but similar in ccrtain ways lo Pueblo Mojeque in Casma ( sce Chapter XXI) But thcre were no streets! 'Vere these enclosures habitatíon sites, likc others we had seen, whcre the former inha bitants walked along thc tops of the walls? Or were

Fig, 20. Sorne of the stone-líned "basins" of Caylán can b<• secn in thc forcground (see Fíg. 21) The hilhide terraccs, uscd for dwelli11g sitcs, are harely vi~ible 011 part of Pan de Azucar ( uppcr lefL of photogmph) Schaedel • Fig. 2 L (p. 209) A dramalic and unsolved riddJe of thc past! Caylán, on the north side of tlw Ncpeila V11llcy coru.ists of a complc'< of stone-lined cubid<'s ( lcft síde of photograph) Possíbl}' the) wcre habitation sitl'S, possibl> garden plots. ~ote sewral 'er> small stone moun<ls inside the ruins. The lar~e dark lines crossing tl1e sitc are 'tone boundary wafü of lakr origin. To the right is Cerro Pa11 de A7Ucar ( Sugar Loaf Hill) with its terraces and fortíficntion walls; while the light squarcs, harPly visible to the right uf the Cerro, are adobe pyramids called Huacas Carbonem. Thc dark spols ol tlu: bottum of the picture arr algarroha buslw~ growing in fomierly irri!{atcd areas. Servicío 173 ·145.

the enclosures possibly gardens associated with the pyramids? So far the ruin is a rnystery ( Figs. 20 and 21). Ono sitc we had planned to vísit, especially after we had seen the aerial photograph, is called Huambacho Viejo. Although it is idcntified locally as a colonial ruin, on the photograph it lookecl like a small but typícal Chimú compound. But wc had no time to examine the place. Later we founc.l tbat Dr Augusto Soriano Infante ( 1941 :267) rcfers to a documcnt indicating that it was once a provincial Chimú center (señorío) l Situated on the old north-south highway it may have beco the control center for the Chimú Empire in the lower Nepeña Valley J ust rcccntly Dr Schaedel informed us that he investí-

gated the hiJlside site of Agua de Onda, near the sea and just to the west of the Pan American Híghway On the basis of the aeríal photograph which we had ordered Ior him, he Found, as he had anticípated, a Middle Period site analogous to Calinda in the Moche Valley, though on a srnaller scale, We also visited the site of Cerro Blanco in the center of the valley Dr Tello, as a result of bis previous excavatíons, concluded that this site belongecl to the Very Early or Coastal Chavín Period. This, together with similar discoveries of his in the Casrna Valley to the south, gave de6nite proof to his theory that the ancient Chavín culture of the Sierra had spread at an early períod to the Coast.

After having completed our work in the Nepeña Vallcy (we visited it three times in 1948-49), we tried to pick up addítional traces of the ancient road which was supposed to havc run from the village of Nepeña to the Santa Vallcy (seo Chapter XVIII) In 1941, we had Found a small scction of an old road with adobe walls, in the Santa Valley near Cambio Puente, already referred to by 1iddcndorf, as well as another small strip líued with stoncs, leavíng the Nepeña Valley The latter road headed in a northerly dírection, índicatíng that il might havc connected with thc Santa section, During the 1949 trip we followed the road in our jeep for a nurnber of miles from Xepeña to the north, where

the road is flanked by the modern telegraph line (Fig. 14) But alas, after several more miles the walls of the road became completely lost in the desert sands! We cruised around for sorne additíonal miles alongsíde the present tclegraph line, in the general dírection of the road, but we were unable to píck up any traces again. Evcntually, the ruggedness of the terrain made it ímpossible for us to continué any further, even with the jeep. We were thus unable to determine whether this ancient road actually continued directly to Cambio Puente in the Santa Valley or whethcr it turned west in the direction of the Pacífic and then north up to Chímbote, sornewhat in the manner of the present day road. Rut even íf thc aucient road had taken the latter dírection, it is probable that sorne kind of path with wooden guide posts had existed in ancient times, paralleling more or less the telegraph line. For such a path would have been the shortest uialking distance between the most importara irrigated. areas of the Nepeña and Santa Valleys. Indecd, the Peruvían Army maps show such a path, but we were informed that it is no longer in use. Our knowledge of the relatíonshíp of the Nepeña Valley to the Chirnú Empire is almost nil. We do not know when it was conquered or how it was ruled. Huambacho Viejo may well have been the seat of a Chímú "Cauleiter " Garcilaso refers to the Valley of Guambacho as one of the valleys wherc the Chimús fought rear guard battles against

ífü ~ .

ological sites are mainly those of the Very Early Coastal Chavín, the Mochíca an<l the Middle Period. What we need is a unified story of this attractive little valley!

210

I~ Puzzlín9 Ruíns of the Casma Valley

Lrn

CAS~IA VALLEY, like the Xepeña, suffers from a perennial water 'shortage, However, the water contcnt of the Casma Bívér is greater than that of the NepeñaRivcr and irrigates'more land, The Casma also has a largo brand), 'the. Sechín, which emptics into it a short dístancc ttb<!}.'c the town of Casma. But this branch manilcsts treméndous Huctuatíons in its annual water díschargcs, as a· result, only in "wct" years is there a good harvest in the Sechín and in the lowcr Casma. The Casrna is a relatívely isolated valley Although it is only sorne fifteen miles frorn the Nepeña to the north it is about cíghty-flve miles from the Pativilca Complcx to thc south, a con<lition which must have afíected its prehistoric development. But of this we know practícally nothing. Nono of thc Chroniclers, with the exceptíon of Cíeza, oven mentions the valley, and he merely makes a bricf rcference to its good port (I, Chap. IV) Since we 1"11ow that the Chimú Empíre once extended south beyond the Casma we must assume that this valley

Fíg. 1 (lcft) fo the lonesome desert rcgion between the Casma River and the Pan American Highway lies the intriguing ruin of Chancaylllo, known also as El Castillo or Calaveras. Thís ruin, and thal of the tbirteen "moon steps" to the left, have cxcitcd rnueh spcculutíon concerniug their original Iunction ( see text ) Kosok • Fig. 2 ( right) Squier's ground plan of Chaneayíllo, from hís volume on Peru, Illustrates the complex nature of this stone construction. Note tite Hve entrences in the outcr wall, an unusual feature for a "Iortress" ( sce Fig. l and text ) Squier • Fíg. 3 ( margins) Figures cut in stone monoliths, Cerro Sechín, Casma Valley Tello.

was once part of the Empire. But that is all we can say for the time being. Carcílaso in his dcscription of the Inca coastal campaign northwards against the Chímús discusses thc fighling in thc very small Huarrncy Vallcy to the south, and in the Nepeña and Santa Valleys to the north, but <loes not even mention the Casma Valley Was it of no signíficance at that time? Or <lid he and others confuse the Huarmey wíth the Casma? Archaeologícally, likewise, little is known of the Casrna. So far no Mochica ceramics have been reported here, thus leadíng to the tentative conclusión that Mochíca influcnce never reached this valley The most significant work has been done by Dr Tello, who made ímportant discoveries at Cerro Sechín and Huaca Mojeque indicating the cxistence of a very early Coastal Chavín culture. Howcver, Middendorf, at a rnuch earlier date ( 1894 307 ), had already pointed out the probable relationship of sorne of the Casma ruins to those of Chavín de Huantar in the Sierras. But no complete cultural sequence has yet been established for the valley In 1941 we made only a cursory survey of the Casma Vallcy One of the sites we encountered was the unic¡ue ruin named Chancayillo (little Chancay) or El Castillo sltuatcd on thc south side of tbe Casma not far from tbe Pan American Highway It has been visited by numcrous archaeologists who have, however, been w1ablc to cstabJish its archaeological date. This site ( Figs. 1 aud 2), has generally been called a "fort" becausc thrcc sturdy concentric outer stone walls, oval in form, comprisc thc main part of tbe structure. But if it had been built primarily as a fort, its size and form are rather unusual for 211

sucb a structure on the Coast of Peru. On tbe Coast outside of the later Chímú walled compounds the common type of fortificatioo was a hill with a series of parallel stone walls encircling it at various levels. We found such a fortified bill, called locally El Castillo, on tbe north side of the Casma just east of the Pan American Híghway But what is most peculiar about Chancayillo is that the outer wall contains five entrances. (In bis plan, Squier shows five, but in bis description he says there are four!) In addition the second, inncr wall shows [our entrancesl This large number is most unusual, for forts are generally built with one well-protected entrance, Could this "fort" have been built orígínally as a ceremonial structure? We can best understand the nature of Chancayillo by fust studying the thirteen stone structures in the forro of "steps" which were built on a small nearby rídge. Míddendorf ( 1894:310) mistakenly counted only twelve steps but carne to the partially correct conclusíon that the number of steps referred to the number of months in the year Kroeber ( 1944:52 ), who also visited tbe ruin, counted the number of steps correctly, but incorrectly concluded that this ruin could therefore have no reference to the number of months in the year But as has already been pointed out in Chapter VI, thirteen was a common calendrical number throughout the uiorld. in early times. The number refers to the thirteenth lunar month that was ínterpolated every third solar year, thereby producing the common thirty-seven montb lunar-solar cyclel This interpolation brought the lunar and solar count into approximately correct relatíonship, sínce there are 121;3 lunar months in a solar year The fact that the "fort" contains thsee walls may have reference to the tbree solar years of this cycle. Within the ínner thírd wall are the remains of two towers, each with two sets of concentric stone walls which fonn the highest part of the whole structure. Next to one of these towers is a rectangular structure of seven rooms. The num ber seven likewise often had calendrical-astronomical significance. These rooms may have been the

place where astronomer priests had once lived and carried on theír activities. We might add that if Tello can throw doubt upon the generally accepted "Iortress" nature of Paramonga in the Pativilca Complex further south and suggest that it had really becn a "temple", we can, with more reason, conjecture that Chancayillo may not have been built originally as a fort, but rather for use in an astronomical-calendrical cult. This function, however, <lid not prevent its massivc walls from being used at various times for defensive purposes. In 1949 we tried to make a complete survey of the rest of the ruins as well as of the canals of the Casma and Sechín Valleys. But here we at once ran into difBculty, for the Casma is tbe only valley on tbe Northwest Coast of which the Servicio had taken no aeríal photographs. Only sorne photographs made by tbe United States Army Air FOI"ce during World War Il were available. As a result of the great height at which they were taken, they showcd insufficient details to be useful for our work. However, one unusual print ( Fig. 4) shows the position of sorne of the main ruins in relationship to the valley The remains of old canal systems and the various archaeologícal sítes, consequently, had to be determined and mapped almost entirely by ground reconnaissance. In ali, we Jocated severa} main canals and more than filteen archaeological sites, some of major importance. During our 1948-49 trip, we visíted the valley twice. Arriving from Trujillo, we settled clown in the town of Casma at the Hotel Royal, which apparently had not changed sínce 1941. We visited the Chíef Engineer of the Irrigation Office who gave us detailed information about currcnt agrícultural and irrigation conditions in Casrna and in two very srnall valleys southward, the Culebra and the Huarmey He also introduced us to Señor Luna, who was one of the most relíable and well-inforrned guídes we met in ali of Peru. With Señor Luna's help, we were able to find and map, with a faír amount of detail, most of the major ancíent canals in both the Sechín and

Fig. 4 (lcft) The Casma Valley dramatically illustrates the contras! between the extensíve desert foothills of the Andes and the limited vallcy arcas irrigated by man. In thís oblíque aerial photograph the Casma Valley is dírectly in front, with the Sechín branch at the right. Farther right ( not visible in the photograph) líes the town of Casma, beyond which stretches the Pacillc Ocean. The region shown here includes sorne of the major ruins of the valley The group of pyramids known as Huacas Pampa Grande can be seen at (A) To the left of (B) is Huaca Pampa Llama; above (C) is Pueblo Mojeque, while belween them are extensive remains of walls, roads, and canak On tho opposite side of the valley lie the ruins of Chancayillo which, in this photograph, cannot be <listínguíshcd from the dcsert background. In the irrigaled area, to the lefl of ( D), is Huaca Mojeque, a ruin studícd by man y archacologists in the past. U S. Army 121-R-20.

Casma Valleys. We discovered that even in tbese two narrow valleys, the amount of land under cultivation in ancient times had been greater than it is today Señor Luna also helped us locate a number of major ruins, so far not described by archaeologists. He directed us first along the north bank of the Casma River to the ioteresting dirt and stone pyramid, Huaca Pampa Llama, with a large rectangular sunken "tank" in front of it. This may bave been either a "pool", a sunken garden, ora ceremonial meeting place; or it may have served a combination of functions (see B in Fig. 4) Then Señor Luna guided our jeep toward the wellpreserved remains of an ancient town, the largest one of the valley This urban site, about seven miles from the town of Casma, we named "Pueblo Mojeque", to distinguish it from Huaca Mojeque ( see D in Fig. 4), a few miles away, which had previously been visited and studied by Middendorf and Tello. Later on we found that our site is sometimes called El Purgatorio, though most people had no name for it. Bordered by the maÜl ancient canal we had located, Pueblo Mojeque is situated on a small pampa at the foot of one of the hilJs that juts out into the plain. It is a large, well-planned urbati settlement. The buildings are smalJ and grouped in compounds and clusters, separated by streets, plazas, courts and canals. Sorne rectangular walled enclosures are made of stone, others of adobe, and the settlement stretches about onehalf mile in each direction. Unusual for such a site are

Figs. 5 :md 6. Hanging-type huacos which have cbaracteristic decoratíve desígns of the Coastal Tialrnanaco Periocl. AMNl:l; Kosok.

íts numerous arabesques or niche-líke friezes. In our short survey we fouud oue small stoue huaca situatcd at the western end, bclow which was a largo stonc-líncd "tank" divldcd iuto three compartments. In general the laijout reminded. us of a miniature Chanüha»: It is one of the most perfectly preserved settlements in Peru, with many wooden posts still standing a top the buildings ( seo Fig. 10, also C in Fig. 4) Whilc wanclering around these hitherto unknown remains of a dead past, we assembled a surface collection of potsherds consisting mainly of local reed-punched and inciscd warc. Later, Dr Schaedel spent a <lay at this ruin making a more detaíled survey and a plan of onc of the building clusters. Since writing this manuscripl we leamed that Dr Donald Collier, Jr had also explored the general region that encompassed the sites mentioned above and had made a rough ground plan of it. As yet thc rcsults of thcse two surveys have not bcen published. One <lay, late in the afternoon, Señor Luna insiste<l upon showing us "una huaca muy grande" Although fatígued, we obeyed thc call of duty and followed him to a site known locally as Las Huacas de 'Monte Crande, just off the main road iu the Sechín Valley and sorne five miles

Fig, 7 (a hove) The ruins of Mancha], on the southern edge of the Casma Valley, can be scen in this oblique aerial view taken by the author frorn a Faucett plane in 1941. Since the Servicio has so Iar made no aeríal survey of the valley, this photograph is probably the only one of the site in cxistcnee. It was taken bcfore the building of thc Pan American Highway, which now cuts through the site (see Ftg. 8) Kasok • Fig. 8 (Ieft ) Cround view of a part of Manchal ns seen Irom the main adobe strueture on a small hill. The lower part of the site consists of a series of rectangular stonc-líncd enclosurcs situatccl on dcsccnding Icvels. Thcsc cnclosures may have been the terraced gardens below the resídence of the rulcr. The black line running across the middlo of the picture just beyond the telephone pole is the Pan American Highway as it cuts across the ruins. In the background are the ransackcd cometerles where we collected many potsherds ( see Fig. 7) Schaedel • Fig. 9 ( rlght ) Sonu- o( the ceramics that we found at Mnnchal. This ruin is sometimes calk-d Mnueluin. Schnedel-Carho.

Low rdi,•f bl.ickwárc "íth bird d<',í¡:n.

from the town of Casma,

We approached what, at fust, appeared to be a huge natural mound of stones and dirt, But alter clímbíng to the top, we found it to be a fairly well-preserve<l artificial moundl It had a semi-amphitheatre typc of arrangement within the top, which was partly hollowed out on one síde, We had found pyrarnids of this type in other valleys, but were astonishcd to fincl so largo a mound in such a small valley Directly south of it was a similar mound, but in a poorer state of prescrvation. As we werc about to lcave, Señor Luna pointed to an enormous adjaccnt mass of stones and dirt and said, "But, Señor, this is the main huaca." At fust we refused to beIíeve him for it seemed incredible that so huge a hill could be man-madel Our curíosity again aroused, we dragged ourselves up the mound in a rather skeptical and tired frame of mind. But after climbing up and clown its rnany platforms constructed on different levels, we .finally became convínced that Señor Luna uttered an understatcmeut when he said, "una huaca rnuy grande". Thís pyramíd is one of the largest and most complicated mounds on the entire Coast; in fact, it is the largest stone and dirt pyramid we ever encounteredl According to local estimates, it covers a ground area exceeding one fanegada (71/.i acres) 1 This is about thc same base area as that of rbo Huaca del Sol in the Moche Valley, which is generally assumed to be the largest pyramid in Peru. And what is most astounding is that such a huge structurc should havo been built in one of the smaller valleys of the Coast. What social and política! drívíng forces could have led lo thc building of such a gargantuan structure? Originally, its corc míght have been a natural mouod, but its sídcs have been so completely faced with well buílt stooe walls from top to bottom, its top so remodelled with fifteen to twenty stonc platforms at various levels, that, Ior ali practica) purposes, it may be considered to

Part oí cookini;: pot decorated with punch mark\ and incirjon"i.

Incised w ..ut!. crenm colorcd.

be an artificial mound. Only the boring of a tunnel through its base would definitely settle the íssue. In a wíde cut in onc of the main platforms, we discovered a curiosity- a part of a structure faced with exceptionallsj large contcal adobes. Conical adobes are typicul of an early pcriod. But there were no other índícatíons that the pyramíd bclonged to such a period. 1 o potsherds were found on tbc mound or in the ploughed fields which surrounded it; thercfore approximate dating was irnpossible. Whilc standing on this huge mound, we could see, clearly stretched out bcfore us to thc west, three much srnaller but better preserved mounds, each of which seems to have the semi-amphitheatre forro of coostruction. \Ve could not examine them, for darkness was setting in rapidly (A in Fig. 4 shows the whole group of huacas) Sorne months latcr we rcturncd to Casma with the SCIPA jeep. This time Dr Schaedel was with us, Though he was tircd from a day's ficld trip, we wanted to get bis reaction to thcsc ruins. In spite of bis vocíferous protests we dragged him up to the top of the hugc mound and ovcr its many terraces until he was exhaustccl. He too srood aghast at the size of this monstrosity At first he could not place it archacologícally; after sorne deliberation, he fclt that it probably belonged not to the Early, but rather to the Míddle or Late Period. That eveuing we returncd to Casma town and in a local Chinese restaurant "celebratecl" with beer and a Peruvian version of American chop suey The third large "unknown" site wbich we deci<led to invcstigate was the extensive and imprcssivc ruin of Mauchal (Figs. 7 to 9) "Unknown" is a poor word for this interesting ruin because it straddles the Pan American Highway alongside the vegetation zone just south of the Casma .füver! For some inexplicable reason, this ruin has ncver been explored. Indeed, it has rarely been mentioned by archaeologists despite the Fact that one

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prt·\~·d wnre.

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cannot miss seeing it as one ri<les along the highway Located on a slight elevation between two natural hills, the Mancha) ruios eonsist of a major edi6ce of adob6nes, below which is spread, at a slightly lower level, an intricate network of rectangular stone-linetl terraces, which probably once servecl as gardens. Thc remains of the canal that once brought water to this site from thc uearby Casma River can clearly be seen passing through the main structme and continuing along the hills to Lhc south. Ali of these structures are of oue occupation pcriod and probably were the seat of a local ruler Or could tbcy have bccn the seat of a provil1cial Chimú administrator whose control extended ehieíly over the lower valley? Nortbwcst of the site is a very small. partially-dcslroyed mound of rectangular adobes. The naturc of its sh·ueture and the fact that its walls were painted a brownish-re<l would indicate that it was of a different and possibly earlier period than the main ruin. Furthcr west are extensive burial arcas and ref use lwaps from which we made a large surfacc collcction of cernmies. Aecording to Dr Schaedel, the potsherds date back to various pe1iods on tlrn Northwest Coast, from Coastal Chavín to Chimú, and contain a grcal dcal of what was apparently local monochrnme ware whose chronological position in the generally accepte<l sequence of coastal cultures is, as yet, undetenninetl. ln addition to these tlu·ee large sites, we visited ali the smallcr ones of whose cxistcncc we had heard a11<l entered their positions oo our map. Wc also invcstigatcd thc rcmaios of an ancient road which we had seen in 1941. The road leaves the valley near the old airport and extends in a u01tberly dircctíon towards N'epeña. \Ve followed it, hut, as in the case of the Nepeiia-Santa road. it just faded out aftcr a fcw miles. \Ve i11qufred about any possible remains of an ancknt

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Section F: Chapters XXII - XXIII THE SOUTHERN EXTENSIONS OF THE CHIMU EMPffiE

(

XXII

The Patíoílca Complex and rhe Unknown Sítes ín rhe Míddle Supe Valley ·~

"~\V/

~-':::JI;¿. E HAVE NOW OOM PLETEJ) our account of the valleys of the Northwest Coast the main area of the Chimú Empíre. Ali that rcmains to be presented is a short survey of sorne of our findings in the valleys of the North Central Coast, into which thc Chímús, at least temporaríly, extended their empire ( see Chapter XVII) The valleys of the North Central Coast, running from north to south, are as follows the Fortaleza-Pativílca-Supe Complox, the nearby Huaura, the ísolated Chancay, the Chillón (Carabaylloi-Rimac Complex containing the prescnt day capital, Lima, aod the nearby Lurín, with the great ancient religious shríne of Pachacamac, Chimú raids apparently extended oven into the South Central valleys, possibly as far as 1 azca. It appears that of ali the Centra] Coast valleys only the Fortaleza-Pativilca-Supe Complex may have been under more than transitory control of the Chirnús. Here, on the northern edge of the Fortaleza Valley, stands the so-called Fortress of Paramonga, built, or at least held, by the Chímús, Garcilaso gives a description of the fierce defensive battle of the Chimús against the Incas and their coastal allies whích took place here, Villar Córdova ( 193.5: 250) refers to a similar present day local legend coocerning this battle at Paramonga, a legend whích adds that the nearby mountains to the east were defended as flercely as Paramonga itself. In Fact, Pararnonga, together wíth the nearby structures at La Horca ( the Gallows) and a former settlernent situated between thern, which existed when Estete visited the site in 1537, probably Formed the southern bastión of the Chimú Empíre, By posscssioo of thís bastion, the Chimús could not only prevent raids into the northern valleys but

Fíg. l. This natural pattern is known as a dendrític ( tree-Iikc} Iormation. The dark "branches" were formed when, in the course of thousands of years, rivulets of water, resulting from the rare coastal rains, washcd away the whitish topsoil inside the many srnall quebradas. Thc photograph was taken from a Faucett plane as it approacbed the Fortaleza Valley (upper right of photograph) Kosok.

charge of the arder of thc Chícama and [cquctcpcque. The river nms due wcst through a long narrow vallcy until it reaches a narrow coastal plain, Northward líes thc much srnaller Fortaleza Rivcr, which courscs its way clown from the mountaíns in a southwestcrly direction untíl it reaches the same coastal plain about síx miles to the north of the Pativilca. To the south oí the Pativilca is the Supe River, whích is also very small and runs northwesterly Irom the mountains to thc sarne coastal plain, approximately ten miles south of thc Pativilca. The Fortaleza and the Supe have water for only a few months each year, but the Pativilca has so rnuch water that it can completely írrigate the joint coastal plain of these three rivers throughout most of thc ycar Thus, the Pativilca is the hydrological corc oí this arca, as it was in pre-Columbían times. In 1940-41, wc spcnt some time in this rcgion and madc our headquarters at Paramonga Hacienda. Owncd by \V R. Grace and Company, this haciendo has grudually absorbed the best lands of this valley complex and has bccome one of the largest sugar plantations ou the entire Coast. Wíth the aid of guides from the hacienda, we located throc rnajor ancient canals in the Pativilca región. During our 1948-49 tríp, we carefully exarnined all the acríal photographs of much of thc Patívílca Valley and, to our surprise, found no indications of major ruins exccpt the canals rnentioned above. Only a fcw minor SÍl('S were located. We went over the photogruphs severa! times but cach time with the same results, \Vhy were there no large sites in the valley of thr- largo Pativilca Rivcr?

could also control thc Patívilca Cornplex, and with that the northcm cntrance to the remaining Central Coast vallcys. The discovery of a Fair amount of Chimú potsherds as well as at San. Nicolás in tho nearby at Paramonga, indicalowcr Supe Vallcy, provides sorne archaeological tions of extended Chimú control or influcncc in this valley cornplex. But as alrcady poínted out, such archaeologi-

218

cal evídence does not necessaríly mean poliucal control. J n this particular case, howcver, Chimú poli ti cal control is confirrned by the accounts of severa! Chroníclers. The Patívilca Vallcy Complex consists gcographically oí a narrow strip of coastal land watercd jointly by three rivers. The ccnter ríver, and by far the largest of the three, is the Pativílca, which has an annual water dis-

Aerial view of thc Fortress of Paramonga, with Fig. 2 (left) the Pan American Highway alongside it. As the highwuy conunues, it crosses the Iields of sugar canc that cm cr the coa~tal plain of the Fortaleza \'alley Note that the nearhy hilh urc abo occup1ed by buildings that, together ''ith the fortrcs~ and othcr structures near tl1c sea, probably formed a single largc ccntc.:r in tlllcienl time:.. Pnnununga is said lo have onc<' ht•1•n in the possession of the Chimús, who consequently were ahlc to control lhc northern cntrancc to the Central Coast. Lat<'r, afh'r a hitterly-conte~ted battle, tlw Incas captured the fortress. Servicio O: 899 • Fig. 3 ( p. 219, lcft) Cround view of Paramongu takc11 from lhe nc()rby sugar cane fields. Kosok • Fig. 4 (p. 219, right) This fortiflcd hill i~ situah'd on thc coastal pbin of thc S11p<' Valley betwc<>n 11 a<'Íc>nd'1 Su11 'icolás nnd the town of Supe. Thc site is mcnlioncd by Cardlaso, who slated that thc hill had tluee sets of wa lis, which can be clcarly seen on the vertical acrial photograph. Seroício 125:28.J

Finally the answer became clcar to us. As with the Santa and Chíra Rivcrs, the nearby hills prevented the formation of wide vallcy plains. The narrow valley could not, as a result, sustain a population of any sígníficant size and therefore 110 important pcpulatíon centers developed

here. Minor sítes probably existed. If so, their rernains were destroyed by the machines of the módem sugar economy SigniGcant siles might be fouod on those hilltops and in those quebradas that are sorne distance from the rivcr, in arcas not covered by photographs. But to fincl such sites, we would have had to make extensivo ficlcl survcys, a task beyond the scope of our own project. Aeríal photographs of the Fortaleza Valley indicated thc cxistence of only relatively minor ruins. Field work may cstablish the presence of larger sites. However, when we began to study the aerial photographs of the míddle scction of thc Supe Valley we Found a wealth of ruius, This was all thc more astounding because this míddlc section of the valley had not been considcred of importancc archaeologically And no wondcr. No proíessíonal archaeologíst had ever visited it! One <lay whilc wc were working in Lima on the aerial

photographs of this part of the valley, Michael excitcdly ran over to my table, pushed a print before me and exclaimed: "Look at the peculiar rulns I've found." Yes, thc forrns of thcse ruins wcre certainly peculiar! They bore no resemblance to any of the hundreds of other archaeologícal structures that had bcen localízed by means of aerial photographs. On a desert quebrada, adjoining the irrigated southern part of the vaJley, we could make out a nurnber of peculiar dark rectangular mounds that appeared to be man-rnade. Most importaut, each of two mounds hada circular structurc attachcd to it, thereby producing a form we had uev cr encouutcred in any of the coastal valleysl Howcvcr, this was not all that aroused our interest, Stretching for miles aloog thc desert edges of the valley to the cast and west of these peculiar structures were many walls, cornpounds, and other structures. Ilcrc was certainly an unexpected 6ndl One of the photographic tcchnícians in the office suggcstcd that the round structures might be colonial ruíns, while others contented themsclvcs with the noncommíttal observation that they were just "nuu], muy antigua, seguro" ( surcly vcry, very old)

Later, whcn we showed these photographs to Dr Schaedel, bis curiosity was likewise aroused. When we located the extensive site on our map, wc saw that it was sorne filteeo miles up thc south síde of the valley, near a place called Hacienda Chupa Cigarro Grande. Thís uame, freely translatcd, would be "Large Cigar Sucker's Hacienda." Latcr on, It was suggcsted to us that the narne Chupa Cigarro míght be a corruption of the Quechua word Chuquicara. However, after rcadjng the section in Calancha ( 1638:627-632) that deals with witchcraft in the lower Supe Valley, it appeared to us that Chupa Cigarro might be a corruption of sorne aucíent coastal names, Iucidcntally, Calancha relates an additíonal number of interesting details about the

219

DESERT MOUNTA1 NS

Fig. 5.

Guest house al Hacienda Paramonga.

Kosok

• .Fig. 5a

( below ) Blackencd gourd bowl inlaid wíth slicll~ nnd mulaehitegreen stones. Probnbly from Early Period, Paramonga arca. Doering.

Central Coast tbat so far have not been utilized by scientists. But we had not Hnished, By further study of aerial photographs of adjacent áreas, we found extensíve ruins, though not as striking, in another wide quebrada on the north side of the valley just across the ríver Irorn our circular structures, At once we surrnised that these two sites once musí havo been the "capital" of the central part of the valley Wc could trace on our photographs additional minor ruins all thc way from Hacienda Llama

220

Huaca lo Hacienda Peñica, a dístancc of about ten miles. Thus, as a rcsult of less than an hour's study of aerial photographs, we had "discovered" the most extensive set of ruins of the whole Pativilca Complex with the possible exception of the Paramonga area. And, surprísíngly, no archaeologist had apparently heard of them! Our curíosity became so great that we decíded to visit Chupa Cigarro, even though our time was lirníted. We wcre able to use the SCIPA jeep, which Mr John Neale kindly put at our disposal. The party consisted of Ingeniero Vivas, the mechanic Señor Portugal, both of tho SCIPA, Dr Schaedcl and mysclf. Michael in the meautime had been sent ou a trip into the Sierras to gather necessary ínformatíon from local agricultura] and irrigation engineers. Excitedly, we drove up the Supe Valley, hoping to spend severa} hours examíníng thc rnajor ruins. Ilowever, the road turned out to be a poor one, and it was late afternoon whcn we arrived at Hacienda Llama Huaca, the most important hacienda in the general neíghborhood of the ruins. The manager and his wif e told us that we could not get to the ruins, on the other side of the river, before dark. When they saw our consternatíon, they generously invitcd our party to stay ovcrnight. \Ve gladly accepted. Following an excellent suppcr, the manager told us interesting tales about the many ruins that clnttered up this middlc part of the valley lle rcvealcd, among other things, that the owner of Hacienda Peñíca, farther up the rivcr, was supposed to have dug over four million soles worth of gold and silver ornarncnts out of the ruins on bis own estate, a sum equivalent lo scvcral hundred thousand <lollars in U S. money He also told us where we could locate sorne of the ancicnt burial sites in the neíghborhood of bis own hacienda. Local inhabitants were constantly digging into these sites in order to secure old pots and other artifacts. When he saw how kcen our intcrest was, he sent us, although It was ncar midnight, with one of his servants, to a site 011 a nearby hill. Thcrc, under the faint glímmer of the stars, and aided by our weak flashlights, wc sturnblcd in and out of ancient graves, which had been freshly dug up, until each of us had collected an armload of pots and potsherds. A rnacabre sight we must have becnl Latcr on, when we examined the ceramics in our quarters, we saw that all of them wcrc of a utilitarian typc wilh intcr<'sting prcssed desigus. The next morning we rose carly Wc fordcd the river

RIO FORTALEZA DESERT MOUNTAI NS

RIO PATIVILCA

A .. 300 Ft

RIO SUPE A

7'tOO~.

THE NORTH CENTRAL COAST Part of the Southern Extenslon of the Chimú Empire.

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DESERT MOUNTA1NS A 7600 fT.

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in the jeep and crossed over to the south sidc of the valley, where we hopcd to fiad thc site we had discovered on the photographs. But bcforc arriving at that place, we stumbled upon a hugc ancient cemetery at the nearby Hacienda Chupa Cigarro Chico. It had been extcnsívely

cxcavatcd by the prescnt day inhabitants of the area for thc sako of obtaining crude cooking pots (ollas) for use in their homes. Literally thousands of potsherds, íncluding man y vessels that wcrc almost intact, covered the ground. ,\ great number of bones and skulls also líttcrcd thc surfacc ( Fígs, 6 and 7) A gruesome sight, but a joy for any archaeologistl Thc abundance and high quality of the ceramics offcred amplc indication that few commercial f,trave diggers and probahly uo archaeologist had visited this site. In addition to the great mass of pressed utility ware, a considerable arnount of ceramics of thc Coastal Tiahuanaco typc, characteristic of the Middle Period, was in evidence. We rernaíned long enough to .611 half thc jeep wíth a represcntatívc collection of potteryl Then we proceeded, not without regrets, to the main object of our trip ( Figs. 8 to 13) A mile or so Iurthcr 11p thc rivcr, we crossed sorne much-Ieveled ancicnl adobe wallcd structures until we reached the curious ruins we had seen in the aerial photographs, Thc main group consisted of a nurnber of manmadc rnounds Iacíng what might have bccn a plaza. The two largest mounds were high square structures, built of rough stoncs in a sandy mortar, with rctaining walls of largc, alígncd stoncs. Thcy wcre situatcd at the west end of thc plaza. Two smallcr mounds, which were at the eastern end, were of similar form and construction. StHI srnaller mounds wcre located uearby Two complcx cdificcs, one largcr than thc other, bounded the plaza on the north and south sídes, The larger of the two, situatcd on the northern side, consísted of a hígh square stone and dirt mound with two lower wings, one on each sidc. A dcsígu of small stones could be faintly discemed on top of the mound. It seerned to be a "stone drawing" of an animal, possibly a bírd. On the west platform wíng lay two largo broken grindíng stones, ooc with three boles in it, both apparcntly tcstirnony to sorne ancient agricultural ceremony ( Fíg. 10) But most important, just bclow us and dircctly in Iront of the edifice, we suddcnly espied the unique circular structure that we had spotted on the photograph! \Ve climbed clown to thc sh·uctmc and cxamined it cru·efully Finally we decide<l that it probably had been an amphithcatre, perhaps used by the priests for ceremonial pur-

poses. A row of large monoliths and the remaius of a narrow road sepnratc<l the amphitheatre from thc main mound ( Fig. 9) The photographic mystery had been solvcd. But the archaeologieal mystery had only beco glimpsedl The smaller edi6C<! situated on the southem side of the plaza also contained a similar circular amphitheatre. Three consccutivc rows of stones lined the inside of this amphitheatrc al rising levels and may l1avc scrvcd the dual function of rctaining walls and of scats for an audi-

encc. A largc monolith for phallic worship? had been set up near the center On the south end of the amphitheatre, a series of ascending tenaces le<l to two adjoining rooms, which crowncd the edifice. Thc acrial photographs índicatc<l that, at sorne distancc to the northwest of this sitc, there was a third amphitheatre, but it appcarcd to he almost completcly huried in the suud, and since we had no time to visit it, we left the investigation of it to other scientists. The imprc!>sion givcn by thc ruins was that they had

Fig. 6 (below, right) At lhe large aocient gra' eyard of llacicnda Chupa Cigarro Chico. wc found thousancls of potsherds and hundre<ls of elabomtcly <lccorutcd but partly broken cooking jars (ollas) Thcsc ccr,1mics had beeo left on thc surfa(.'e hy the local people who excavatc thc graves of their anccstors in ordc·r to ohtain unbroken jars for prcscnt day cooking purpose~. 1 Ten·, and later in Allpacoto, we found mainly this kincl of local W•U'C ( period uncletermincd) anti M í<ldle Period ( Tiahuanacoid) warE'. No Late Chímtí potsherds were cli.scoi;ered. Scliaedel • Fig. 7 Cernmics from Chupa Cigarro Chico, Supe Valley (a) tn (el) Orange pressed ware. (a) and (b) Kosok-Wry1111, (e), (d) and (e) Kosok-Storck.

(a) Exterior of on <11/11.

(e) E'tt('rior of an open bowl.

(d) lnterior of bowl (e), whilc nnd red on

oral)j?e, showing Jowcr part of n fa<.~.

----...... ...........

'-../

(e) Design ( ílattcncd out) on the exterior of an o[M'n howl, hl<1ck, white aod red style.

(b) Exl('rior of nn O[M'n lx¡wl.

View of the Late Period structurcs al the right of thc older main ceremonial group shown in Fig. 13. _ ore the Fig. 8 ( above, left) boundary wnll of stone in the Ioreground and the irrigated fields of the Supe Valley in the background. Schaedel • Fig. 9 ( above, right) One of the circular structures as vicwed from the main pyramid. Sinee the desert soil has oovered part of the construction, and since the photograph was none too clear, the top of the circular stmcture has been darkened in the photograph. Schaedel.

Fig. 10 ( left) Tho author, seated upon a ceremonial grluding stonc found on the right wíug of thc main pyramicl. In the stonc, now broken, were thrcc boles, in one of which was Found a pestle, índícatíng that probably sorne seed-grinding eeremony once took place here. The two sand-eovered stone mounds to the lcft are man-rnade and forro part of the ceremonial cornplcx. Schocdcl • Fig. 11 (abo' t•) Potsherd from Chupa Cigarro Chico, whitc slip wnre. Kosok-Okun • Fig. 12 ( rigbt) DctaiJ of onc of the principal dark, stone-covercd mounds seen from atop the main P} ramid, Beíore thc mound are a number of pits excavated a long time ago, with poor results, to judge by the few undeeoratcd potsherds that we Iound in the area. Schaedel.

Fig. 13. Wlule viewing tho vertical aerial photographs of the middle Supe Valley, wc suddcnly carne upou this maze of unknown ruins sítuatcd in a wíde quebrada, 011 thc south side of the valley, just eost of Hacienda Chupa Cigarro Grande. A v isit Lo this site convinced us that the ruins could be separated ínto two construction periods. Those belonging to the Early or Middle Periods aro in the oenter of the photograph. They form a "ceremonial complex," bounded both on thc north ( main pyrnmid ) and un thc south by a rectangular structure, each with a circular amphítheatrc attachcd, and bounded on the wesl by one largo dark square mound and on thc cast by a similar lurge mound aud two smaller ones ( sec text) The two sets of ruins lo the right are of the ~fiddlc-Late Period. Other ruins (extreme right nnd lcít of the photograph ) we left for future explorers. Thc dark arcas are the modem irriguted lields. Servicio 125:.'16 • Fig. 14 (right ) Pressed orange ware from Chupa Cigarro Chico. Note the glyph-líke dots and lines rernínisccnt of Maya counting devíces. Kosok-Storck.

once been a complex ceremonial ccntcr, though díílerent, both in form and arrangernent, from other such ccntcrs on the Peruviau Coast. The virtual absence of potsherds at this site made any accurate calculations as to its rolative age impossible ( Fig. 13) Howcver, we could make sorne tentativo assumptions on the basis of other indirect evidence. Across thc castcm rnound ran a rather well-preserved boundary wall, madc of adobe, rhat conneeted with a group of adob6n constructions Iurther of] ( Fíg. 8) Adoh6nes, as pointcd out bcforc, are large blocks of adobe mud, typical of Ccn-

tral Coast constructíons. Potsherds picked up arnong these constructions appeared to belong partly to the Middle but mostly to thc Late Period. This would índícate that the main ccntcr belonged to at least the M íddlc or possibly the Early Pcriod, Lcavíng our jeep behind, we tramped furthcr up the vallcy toan adjoiníng síte, whcre we Iound another set of adobán ruins - though bettcr preserved. On the basis of surface collections, this site also appears to date back to the Míddle to Late Periods. By this time, we had become exceedingly hungry For-

Fig. 15 ( left) Part of a cooking jar (olla) found in the cemetery of Allpacolo, Supe Valley Pressed orange ware wíth mythological, puma-like flgures. Kosok-Okun • Fig. 16 ( above ) Sunken rectangle, one of the many constrnctions at Allpncoto. Schaedel.

: ~:~~:':~·~: fi~. ~-~:' ~ .....

Fíg. 17 Ceramics from Allpacoto, Supe Vullcy

1...-ft to right: Part of a jug, hlack on red ou white. Kosok-Srorck • Outside of small bowl, blnck on white, Chancay style. Kosok-Okun. • Pnrt of goblet-shaped cup, black, red and white cm orange, Coastal Tiahuauaco ~tyle. Kosok-Okun.

tunatcly, whcn we arríved at the ruins carlicr in the day, we found a family living nearby who agreed to prepare lunch for us. When we returned, a tasty mea! of chickcn with rice, which was served with sorne goocl chicha, was ready As we sat cating our meal under the shady rrecs in front of thc house, near which Howed the refreshing waters of an acequia, the thought carne to us that. although the four of us had spcnt less than a day in this

224

area, we had definitely established the existence of a hitherto unknown ancient valley culture, togethcr with sorne rough estirnates of period sequences. In view of thc many archaeologícally unexplored vallcys in Pcru, rapid results can undoubtedly also be attained in sorne of these valleys by rneans of similarly lírnitcd but planncd explorations. Aftcr lunch, we jumped into our jeep in ordcr to rcturn

to the northern síde of the valley and vísit thc other largo sito indicated on our photographs, On thc way, we Iound, west of the ruins we had just examined, another group oí similar rectangular stonc and dirt mounds though, as far as we could determine, without circular nmphitheatres. At the site, we encountered an alignmcnt of stone monoliths ( Figs. 18 and 19) A re-examination of the aerial photographs after our

coverecl in the rniddle Supe Valley a hitherto unknown culture distinct from that of the lower Supe Valley On the basís of the aerial photographs and our lirnited ground survey, it appeared to us that, while the middle Supe Valley culture extended from the region of Hacienda Llama Huaca to that beyond Hacienda Peñica, it was probably centered mainly in the Chupa Cigarro-Allpacoto region. There may have been a good reason for thís. Here, the irrígated part of the valley is somewhat wider tban in the regions above or below, and, therefore, has greater econornic significance. Moreover, the large size and flat nature of the two opposite desert quebradas in this region provided an exceptionally large area for developing extensive ceremonial and living ccnters. While the polítical and ceremonial center of the middle Supe Valley, during the Middle Period at least, may have been located in this región, the lower part of the valley near the sea may have led íts own independent existence. But the whole valley will have to be explored before this hypothesis can be accepted. We were studying our maps when wc were struck by a thought concerning the "foreígn relations" of the middle part of the Supe Valley Thís part probably had closer ties with the Huaura Va11ey to the south than with the Pativilca to the north or even with the lower part of the Supe itself. The distance between the Supe and the Pativilca Rivers at this point is about sixteen miles, and thc region between them consists of high mountains without any ímportant paths connecting the two valleys, On the other hand, the distance from the Supe to the Huaura River is less than ten miles. Furthermore, the low terrain between them permits easy cornrnunication and transportation ( see map, p. 220) At present, thís latter desert region contains two patns and one road connecting the two valleys. One of these paths leaves the Supe Valley near the ruin site of Chupa Cigarro and runs to the lower Huaura Valley, another one runs from a point somewhat farther up the Supe to a different part of the lower Huaura, the road leads from Hacienda Peñica, with its many unvisited ruins, and reaches the Huaura Valley near the large ruins of Vilcahuaura discussed in Chapter XXIII. If these three short connecting links originated in pre-Spanísh times - which is not unlíkely=- it would reinforce our hypothesis of the c1ose relationship of the middle Supe and lower Huaura Valleys in ancient times. A joint survey of these two valleys and theír connecting Iinks should, therefore, yield significant results, 226

{f '~ 1

XXIII

Addítíonal Monuments of the Past. The Huaura and the Valleys to the South

ANoTI:iF.R VALLEY that has not been studied archacologically is the Huaura. Villar Córdova ( 1935:248) mentions a few sites in this valley but gives no details about them. Through the examination of aerial photographs, we were able to discover the existcncc of more than twenty-five sites, whích we cntered on the Peruvian Army map ( see p. 220) The aerial photographs índicated no major ancient canals that are now in disusc, This hardly surprísed us sin ce the U u aura River is a fair-sízed one and the cotton cconomy that domiuates most of thc valleys from the .Huaura to Nazca in the south requires as little water pcr acre as that of the corn economy of the ancient Indians. Consequently, in these valleys, practícally all fields and canals of the ancients have been put back into use. In Iact, as the result of recent government irrigation projects, there is probably more land under cultivation at present than there was in pre-Spanish times. Something unique, nonetheless, attraeted our attention on the aerial photographs. We noted a series of ground markíngs similar to the "Iines" we had found covering the deserts of thc Nazca area far to thc south. Thcsc wcre found on print 1008:)0 and were localízed on our map as being in a wide quebrada on the south bank of the

river, about fifteen miles from the sea. The main markings appeared as sets of parallel lines, which rather disturbed us, sincc no such phcnomenon had been encountered anywhere else in Peru, Although pressed for time, we decided to visit this síte and make a ground survey of the "lines." But even with our aerial photographs in hand we had difficulty in localiziug the site. And no wonder The quebrada that contained the "lines" had, to our great disappointment, been put under cultivatíon and ali our "línes" destroyedl A greater scientific disappointment, however, awaited us when one of the older inhabitants who had often seen these lines explained their nature and origin. For cotton growing, the long furrows are drawn as straight as possible. fo fact, there are "specialists" in each valley who pride themselves on the straightness with whích they can plow these Iurrows with thcir oxen. What had happened was that sorne decades ago this flat quebrada had been uscd as a "practice" ground, possibly in a competítíon, for drawing straight furrows. The doublc nature of these lines resulted from the fact that after the initial line hacl becn made going up the quebrada, anothcr adjacent, parallel line had been ploughed on the retum trip. This explanation scemcd íncrcdiblc, but after ques-

tioning other persons in the neighborhood, who confirmed it, we had to accept this statement. It was one of the few times that our aerial photographs had steered us completely wrongl But our experience did emphasize the need of a ground survey to confirm aerial observation. Returuing to the Coast, we found that we hatl a fe·w hours left bcfore dark. W e decided to visit an extensive

Fig. 1 (left) Drawing of part of a blue and white textile which we Found at Vilcahuaura Antigua. Kosok-Okun • Fig. 2. One of the rare and hitherto nnreported - examples of a fortified hill site with walls containing salient and recessive angles. This fort is situated on top of Cerro Centinela near the Huaura Ríver at thE' point where it enters the sea. The two best known examples of this type of walled construction are Paramonga on the Coast and Sacsahuamán, near Cuzco, in the Sierras. Servicio 1008:22.

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and archaeologically unknown ruin near the presenl Hacienda Vílcahuaura in the lower part of thc valley, abont eleven miles from the sea. To reach thc sito, wc crossed the large Pampa Afuera, just theo bcing prcparcd for cultivation under a govemment irrigation project. The ruin, a large one, coosisted of a series of con-

uecte<l buildings situated on a slight natural outcropping. The buildings and the surrounding walls were constructed of huge blocks of adobánes. The principal cdilice consisted of a courtyard and platforms connected by a ramp and was suggestive of a Chimú palace structure. On the basis of the extensive surface collection of ce-

rumies that we gathered, Dr Schaedel cstablishcd analogies between the material from this site and the ceramic styles of the Central Pcruvian Coast (Chanca y and Ancón) of the Middle and Late Pcríods ( Coastal Tiahuanaco through Inca). Possibly Vilcahuaura Antigua, as we called this place, had been a local polítlcal capí-

Fig. :l. Valley of IIuaura. This aerial photograph shows parl of the ~ilc of Vilcahuaura Antigua, which is descríbcd in thc text, Especially strikíng is the well-alígned nature of the rectangular structurcs; sorne were apparently large residences; others probably scrved as courts and places of assembly Formíng tbc core of tho largo n-ctangle i~ the main pyrarnid, right, which can be identi6ed only by the three terraces in Iront (see Fig. 8 and map on p. 220) The dark áreas at tho top of the pbotograph are the present cultivated lands, Sercicio 1008:/G • Fíg. 4 (left) Potsherds from Vilcahuaura Antigua. Central Coast 'tYI(•, of the Middle and Late Period are represented. Drawn after Schaedel.

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tal or center during part of this time. Was it perhaps at one time the Chimú control eenter in the lower part of the valley? Was it perhaps even thc "palace" of Chanquirguanguan, one of the wives of Minchancaman, the Jast independent Chimú ruler? It was her son, Chumuncaur, who was placed by the Incas on the Chirnú throne after his father had been deposed and taken as a hostage to Cuzco ( Figs. 3 to 10) \Ve bad no time to visit the other sites in this valley that wc had discovercd on the Servicio photographs. However, there are so many sites and they look so impressive, that we hope archaeologists will be induced

to explore them and then make a report on their findings. Between the Huaura and the Chillón-Rímac Vallcy Complex, and sorne distance frorn both of them, líes thc relatively isolated valley of Chancay Unlike the Huaura, at least sorne of the sites of the lower parts of this vallcy have been studied archaeologically and reported upon by several archaeologists (Willey, Uhle) We had visitcd a few of the sitcs in 1941 while tracing the remains of an old canal on the south side of this valley A careful study of the aeríal photographs in 1949 disclosed no additional canals in this valley We were, however, able to locate nine archacological sites - sorne

Fig. 5 ( upper left) Part of a walled compound ncxt to the pyramíd at Vilcahuaura Antigua (set' Fíg. 3) Schaedcl • Fig. 6 ( left eentcr ) Black-on-orange plate, Vilcahuaura or A llpacoto. KosokStorck • Fig, 7 ( lowcr left) Part of a well-preserved wall of odobán blocks in one of the many rectangular structures at Vilcahuaura (see Fig. 3) Schaedel • Fig. 8 ( above ) A frontal ground view of the "step" pyrnrnid at Vilcahuaura Antigua. Three Je, eh are clearly visible despite the heavy dcstruction this site has suffcrcd recently, Schaedcl • Fig. 9 ( upper right). Design on exterior of bowl. Pressed ware with white slip, Vilcahuaura Antigua. Kosok-Okun. • Fig. 10 (lowcr right) Blnck-on-red design on a fragmcnt of a jug, Vilcahuaura Antigua. Kosok-Koso].sky.

not yet explored by scientists. Although we were unable to visít any of the sites on our last trip, we are reproducing photographs of sorne of them because of their sclenti6c interest (Fígs. 11, 12, 13, 19 and 20) In addition, wc counted approximately a dozen "spots" on the prints which may provc to be minor sites. The ruios of the Rimac-Chillón Valley Complex and of the Lurín Valley bave already been discussed in Chapters IV and V lt may not be amiss to repeat that, asíde from thc few well-known sitcs, many of thesc ruins appear exceedingly interesting and beg far archaeologlcal exploration. Mr Stumer and Dr Schaedel have com229

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Fig. 11. A well-aligncd site, hitherto unreported, on the south sidc of the Chancay Valle)', near La Huaca Hacienda and also near the site shown in Fig. 20. Sercicio 1002:89 Fig. 12 ( below )

Another unexplored and wcll-preserved town of t lw Chancay Valley, near Hacienda Cuyo approximately nineteen miles from the sea. SeroĂcio 1002-111

Fig. 13. A heavily populuted, prehistoric center on the south bank of the Chancay River near Cerro Cristóbal, about thirteen miles from the sea. The main walls of the buíld.ngs are of adobe, ulthough stone fonndations can be seen at the right. '\/otc the large exeavated area of ancient graves at the rear of the settlement, Serdcio 1002:96 • Fig. 14 (upper right) Typical Chancay ware. AMN/l • Fig. 15 (lower right ) An unusual landíng method uscd at various ports on thc Coast of Peru, Passengers are transported from the steamer, which is anchored outside of the shallow harbor, to thc síde of the dock b) motorboat; then they climb on a platform in the motorboat which is lifted by a crane onto thc dock. While this method of landíng might appear to he dangerous, actually it is quite safe, Kosok.

mcnced explorations hcrc that have already yielded sorne significant rcsults (New York Times, Jan. 20, 1953). We also studied the lirnited nnmber of aerial photographs of the valleys south of the Lurín. We locatcd two sites in the Chilca, three in the Asia, nine in the Chincha. and one each in the Mala and Síhuas Vallcys. No aerial photographs were available for the important vallcys of Cañete aud Pisco. Thc sitcs we found on the aerial photo-

graphs could not be mapped accurately since no Army maps for the southern rcgíon were available. The road maps of this reglón published by the :\finisterio de Fomento, whilc serving their purpose cxccllcntly, axe on a small scale (1:500,000) and contaín no contour lincs. They were, therefore, of little help to us. Ali we were able to do was to rnakc a Iist of the sites, togethcr with their calculated dístauces from the Pacífic ( see Appendix)

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Fig. 16 (lcft) Loadíug couon for export from thc Chancay Valley Kosok • Fig. 17 (below, left ) Typical Chancav ware. AM.\'H • Fig. 18 (below, right) A piccc of bluek-on-red interlocking ware, whích we found in a largc ancient garbuge mound cut by thc Pan American Highway as it ptt-\Sl'!> ncur the ruins of Cerro Trinidad in thc Chanca) Valle) KosokOktm • Fig. 19 ( above ) Photograph of the ruíns oí Cerro Trinidad, situated alongsíde thc Pan American Highway This síte was excavated around the tum of thc century by ~In.' Uble, who found wall paintings of a very early (inlerlocking) period (see Fig. 22) The site was cxcavatcd more recently by Professor Cordoo Willey Scn;icio J24:46, J,8.

Another purpose in presenting the ímprcssivo aerial views of sorne of the large sítes in the Central Coast valleys of Huaura, Chancay and the Chillón-Rímac-Lurín Cornplex, is to indicate the existence of an interestiug phcuomenon heretofore unnoticed. Thesc photographs revea! tbat large urban settlements were built in these Central Coast valleys! Ou the basis of what is known of

Fig. 20. Chancay Valley, south sid«. A settlement os } el uncxplored, with walls that are unusually wcll de6ned and apparently in a good state of preservatíon, This sitc is about ninc Typical Chancay ware. AMNil-Rein • miles from tlw 'l'll, near La Huaca Hacienda and thc sitc shown in Fig. 11. Burial sítes are nearby Scn;icio 1002:408 • Fig. 21 (Iower right) Fig. 22 ( margins ) Segmenls of a conv cotionalized interlocking fish design fonnd on adobe walls at Cerro Trinidad by Max Uhle.

similar settlernents on the orthwest Coast, we shouJd assume that they represent Late Period. deoelopments. Without detracting from the significance of the Northwest Coast trends toward urbanizatíon, it appears that the Central Coast was undergoing a somewhat similar process. That pcriod is past in Peruvian archaeology when origins loorned as the maior problem. We hope now that

the period of interpretation of the social significance of archacologícal material is imminent and that the híghly signiflcant role that thc Central Coast played in Late prehistoric times will be investigated. What new clues will these towns of thc Central Coast rcveal? Like veiled statucs, the ruins in these photographs arouse our intense curiosity The archaeologíst must rernove the veill

Section G: Chapters XXIV - XXV THE RETURN HOME

XXIV

A Last Look at Peru

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BEFORE RETUR1''ING to the United States, I dccided to attend the Second Intcrnatiooal Congress of Indigenísts which, after severa) postpooements, was fioally held in Cuzco, thc ancicnt capital of thc Incas. When I vísited Cuzco in 1939, the overland trip from Lima took six days Iour by bus and car, and two on horseback. Now, howevcr, ten years later, 1 made the trip by means of a Faucctt plano in about two and a half hoursl Whilc thc ovcrland trip provídcd an intimate insight into the lifc of thc pcoplcs of thc Sienas, the plane trip, on which wc rcachcd hcights up to 18,000 feet, oflercd a view of the majesty and complcxity of the Sierras thcmselves. Purtícularly inspiring was the view of the enormous massif, composed of dozens of snow- and íce-capped mountains, that spreads to the north and east of Cuzco. Ou the way, the plane flew somewhat south of its regular coursc, passing rathcr low over the lakes of Choclococha that dot the grassy, windswept and mountainous plateau (puna) locatcd about halfway bctween Cuzco and the Pacific Occan. While carefully scanning the landscape below us, I suddenly saw the extensive remains of a huge, aud apparently ancient, irrigation canal meandering northward frorn sorne of these lakes towards severa! narrow, inhabited valleys. T had never encountered any reference to this canal, unless it is assumed to be part of onc of the lwo supposedly giant canals which Garcilaso

mentions. But for reasons to be explained in our study,

Water and T...iie, this assumption can hardly hold. The pilot, who had ílown this trip many times, could not enlightcn me about the extent or the antiquity of this canal. Michael met me at thc Cuzco airport. He had cornpletecl a two-week trip through the Sierras, collecting inforrnation on raínfall, írrígatíon and crops from local agcnts of the SCIPA and the Department of Agricultun:, ínformatíon which had not been availablc at Lima. Wc settlecl clown in an old-fashioned hotel in Cuzco aud immediatcly bogan sorne sightseeing. We greatly cnjoyed our stay in this Iasoinating ancient mountain capital of the Incas, cspecially after having lived for months on the hot, dry, dusty Coast, vVe attended the various mcctings of thc Congress. At one of these meetings I rcad a paper on the ancient road systcms of coastal Peru, as wcll as a paper by faria Reiche in which she descríbcd sorne of her Nazca díscoveries. The Congress over, 1 rcturned by plane to Lima, and Michael mude his way there by train and bus via Puno, Arequípa and the southern Coast of Peru. Along the way he obtaincd additional local hydrological information. Our stay in Peru ended, as it had started, with the study of aerial photographs in the officcs of the Servicio. Duríng the last few weeks we completed our study of the photographs of those vallcys of the Central and South

Fíg, L ( left) Iu a "sea" of majestic Andean mountain tops lies the ancienr slte of Machu Pícchu, aecessíble only by rneans of the serpentíne puth from the valk-y below Servicio, unnumbered. series • Fíg. 2 ( right) A descendant of the Incas. Kosok.

235

Fig. 3. Part uf an old Inca stone structure with post-conquest mortar Iormutíon above it. 1 ole the ancient two-serpent motif on the lintel above thc cntranco, Thc two women e.\chnuging thc lates! gossip are probubly descendants of the ancicut buílders of this stone structure, Kosok.

Figs. 4 nnd 4a. Pcople of the Andes. Kosok • Fig. 6 ( right) View of Huayna Picchu with Machu Picchu in the foreground. Kosok.

236

Coast that had been surveyed, listing ali visible ruins which we hoped someone would sorne day explore. We bought souvenirs, packed our trunks, said goodbye to our fríends, and lcft Lima not by plane or boat but by a night bus to Trujillo. Arriving at Trujillo soon after dawn, wc met the Schacdels, who served ns a large and tasty breakfast. Señor Carrido soon joined us, an<l we spent part of the morning exarnining a new set of acrial photographs whích I had brought from Lima. Tben we rushed off to the aírport, where we barely made tbe plane for Tumbes ncar the Ecuadorían border Saying farewell to the Schaedels was a somewhat sad affair Duríng thc níne rnonths we had worked together we had becomc close professíonal and personal Friends. As the Faucctt plane left thc ground und flew over parts of ChanChan, our thoughts reverted to the rnany Indíans of the past who had slaved to build this metropolis, the largest ancl richest of the Americas, humans who now were gone and forgottcn except whcre sorne curious huaquero or archaeologist rnight excavare theír remaíns in ordcr to sell their trinkets, mcasure their skulls, or present their bcloved water jugs to museums, Today, the descendants of these ancient Indians are still working the same fiekls and living under conditions not too differeut from thosc which existed under former Chimú and Inca mnsters.

The plane winged its way north along the Coast ovcr the many fields and the very ruins which we had studíed on thc ground. As the plane flew ovcr thc northern edges of the Chícama Valley, near thc present port of Malabrígo, wc were able to see clearly the largo extcnt of the unknown and unexplorcd ruin, Malabrigo Viejo, with its rnauy pyramids and related structures ( see Chaptcr Xl) Passíng over the [equetcpcque Valley, we cast onc last look at the extensivo and impressive ruins of Pacatnamú, spread ou a plateau alongsidc the Pacífic Ocean. When we approached tbe Zaña Valley, we were on the lookout for a ruin about which a Faucett pilot had told us, and which I vaguely recallcd from one of my Aights in 1941. Sucldcoly it appeared below us. It seemed to consist of a medium-sized flat-top¡wcl pyramid either snrroun<lc<l hy a rectangular wall or nesting on thc base of a broad platform, set cleal"ly on a promontory along thc north si<le o( Cerro Carrizal. I triec to photograph it, but the elaborate ventilating gadget in tbe rniddlc of each window pane of the Faucctt DC-3 airplanes made it impossible to do so. l mailed my infonnation to Dr Schaedel, who sent one of his assistants there; but thc assistant bccame ill on the way and never rcachcd his dcstination. Wc stopped at Chiclayo for a few minutes thc city whích bad been our headquartcrs during our months of work in the Lambayeq11c rcgion. Then off to Piura farther north. We eagerly anticipated thc first part of this trip, since thc plane was to pass º' cr a whole series of ruins which wc had recently ,;sited by jeep. But clouds su<ldenly surroundcd us, and the ground rcmained invisible until wc cntcrcd the extensive but archaeologically empty Sechura Desert. Soon we approached the narrow green band of vcgetation watered by the small Piura Hiver that forms the northcm e<lge of thc Scchura Desert. The Piura Valley,

A close-up oí ancicnt Mnchu Picchu showing thc Fig. 6 ( right) hubitlltion sites in the foreground nnd cullivation tcrraccs in the centcr and background. Ou the right is onc of the heavily furcsted slopes on which Machu Picchu was built; on the left are the bluck shatlows that covcr the tleep vulley that drops down from this itlyllic site. Seri:icio, unnuml>ercd series • Fig. 6a ( above) Drawings of llamas. Mead.

the Chira Valley just to thc north of it, and the Tumbes Valley near thc Ecuadorian border, were conquered, according to tradition, by thc Chimús. These valleys thus were once thc far northern outpost of the Chimú Empire. In fact, thc Chírnús, as mentíoned in Chaptcr XVI, are supposed to have extended their conquests as far north as the prescnt Puerto Viejo in Ecuador But thís conquest took place only a short time before the Chimús thcrnselves were conquered by the Incas. We had explored the Piura Valley fairly thoroughly in 1940-41, and no Iurthcr invcstigations seemed necessary for our írrigation study Furthcrrnore, examination of the aeríal photographs of the International Petroleum Company showcd no important archaeologícal sitcs not prcviously encountered by us on the ground, A few minutes out of the Piura Valley, our plane approached the nearby Chira Valley Thcre, also, we had completed our hydrological ground work in 1940-4 J. At

Fig. 7 ( above ) This ruin is on a high mountaiu above the village of Pixuc, not far from Cuzco, former capital of the Inca Empire, Il represents one of thr- finest stone remaíns of any ancicnt Andeau civilization. The stones are evenly cul and polished, No ccmcnt was used to hold them togethcr, but sorne of the blocks fit so tightly that it is impossible lo insert a piecc of paper between thern. Kosok • Fig. 8 ( below) Part of a stonc wall of a Cuzco house built in Inca times. Thc Incas, who had no irun tools, quarríed these blocks by using tools foshioncd from harder types of stone. Dcspite thís dilficulty, ali joints 6t perfcctly and contain no mortar. Ncverthcless, the attempt to achíeve regulurity in the thíckncss of ího lnycrs of cut stones was only partly successful here, in contrast to the structure shown i11 Fig. 7 Kosok.

2:38

that time we bad also examined the rambling ruins east of thc present town of Amotape on the lower north bank of the Chira River These are apparently rcmaíns of the ancicnt town of Amotape mentíoned by thc Spanish Chroniclcrs. In 1949, after study of thc aerial photographs of the International Petroleum Cornpany, we were ahle to obtain a photograph of this site whioh is reproduced here (Fig. 14) The extonsíve Hat platean stretehing between the Chira and Piura Rívers represente; another ímportant region of undcveloped agrícultural potentialíties. The Chira is the second largcst river on the Coast and thus might have produced one of the major irrigated arcas in the past. But as in the case of the Santa, only a very srnall portion of the annual water discharge could be uscd for in;gation purposes. The Chira runs through a relativf'ly deep ehasm, as a result, the ancicnt lnclians of tltis region, with their limited produetivc forces, could not lead the water

Fig. 9. Acrial .,,¡C'\\ of the ancient Inca íortress of Sacsahuamá11, which defendC'd tlw Inca capital of Cuzco (see uppcr right t.'Orner of photograph as well as Fig. 1 O) Thc fortress, the largest and mo~t powerful in ancient Pcru, was built on a steep hill above Cuzt.'O. To make the fortress impregnable 011 the e:-.'Poscd sidc ( left in photograph), thn,-e tiers uf dcfonsive walls with salie11t and recessive angles were constructed. Thc wnlls are built of cnom1orn, cut stones; it has been estimatcd thal the heavicst wcighs more U1an one hundred and 6fty tonsl These stoncs supposcdly carne from a pit aliout four miles away and wcre probnbly pulled ovcr rolkrs to the fort site by large numbcrs of men hamcssc<l togctlicr wilh fiber ropC'. Tht• purpose of the circular struc:turc withiu the fort is unknown. The present restoration of the ruins was madc by Dr. \lalcárcel of Lima. Thc small dots on the left side of tl1c picture are people visiting thc fortress. Sercício 0.1425 • Fig. 10 (rigl1t) Cu:zt.'O, thc la1gest cit) in thc SiC'rras today, nesLling among thc rolling hills of the southC'm Andes. Sen;icio, t11mt1111bered series.

the nearby town of Zorrítos, whorn we had first met in 19-H while we were surveying the canals and ruins of Tumbes. Zorritos, thc seat of thc govcrument-owned Peruvian Oil Company, had nndergone a trcmcndous change in eight ycars the streets and sidewalks were pavcd, trees, 1lowering bushes and Howcrs were evcrywhere. At night electric strcct lamps illuminated the strcets. It presented quite a contrast to dreary Talara. Dr Petersen took us to hís home where witb his " ifc and fourteen-year-old son wc soon sat down to a Cerrnan supper which includcd Rinderbraten, Kartoffelsalat 111ul Bierl After snpper, while Michael aud our host's son went to see a western Iilm, Dr Petersen showed me his manuscripts and his archaeclogical finds. This last night in Peru turncd out to be one of the most plcasant and instructive 1 had spent in tbat country Dr Petersen, a German geologist, has workcd many ycars for thc Pcruvian Governmcnt Pet1·oleum Company When we met him in 1941, be was spcnding bis free time making archaeological surveys of the Tumbes region. He had kept up his field work, and by the time we retw·ncd in 1949 he had collected a great mass of material. He had mapped the whole Tumbes arca, madc an excellent ground plan of what now rcmains of tbe core of the ancient scttlement of Tumbes, found more than a hundred archacological sites in thc Tumbes Valley, and meticulously kcpt and catalogued a collcction of arcbaeological artifacls

of thc Chíra onto the very extensive plateau bctween the Chira and Piura Rivers by meaos of canals. Modern techniques could solve the problem without difllculty, but lack of fun<ls as well as confücting property rights, until recently, have preventcd any f urther exploitation of the

waters of thc Chíra River Limited projects are un<ler way which are dcsigncd to utilíze, at least in the Quiroz area, sorne of tbe waters of the Chira that have been flowing unuscd into thc Pacific since ancient times. This entire northern región, including tbe Sechura Desert and even parts of the Lambayeque Vallcy Complex as far south as the Leche, receives a Iirnited amount of rain in those rare years when thc warm equatoríal current, the Niño, is especíally strong and reaches Iarther south than usual. Whcn this happens, there is sometímes sufficient rain to grow a scant cotton or corn crop in the

Chira-Piura area. And then, too, the dormant ]ife in the Sechura Dcsert blossoms forth. When I Ilew over this arca in 1940-41 a wet year I could scc tho immense desert, covcrcd with a carpet of soft green grasses and Howers of many huesl Frorn thc Chira Valley tbe plane Ilow to Talara, oil port of the Internatíonal Petroleum Company, which is owned by Canadían and United States interests. Here the landscape is covercd by a maze of oil derricks and interconnecting oil pipes. No agriculture is carried on, and ali water has to be irnported or drawn From artesian wells. Thc whole scene is extremely deprcssing, The final stretch of the trip in Peru brought us to the town of Tumbes situated on the rivcr of the samc name, thc last important rivcr on the northern Coast of Peru. There we were greetcd by an old friend, Dr Petersen of

Fig. 11. A lypicnl suspension bridge of thc Andes. Kosok • Fig. 12 (n1urgin) Pisac lndinn with an exceptionally fine poncho. Kosok • Fig. 12a ( margins) Clyph-like figures, Tiahuanaco area. Mead.

labeled with their places of origin. He had also made a ground plan of the ruins of Los Organos, a settlement of some hundred and thirty houses located in one of the quebradas betwecn Tumbes and Talara. There, among other things, he had found interesting gold trinkets. Dr Petersen had also written a manuscript of more than four hundred pages dealing with his finds. The uníqueness and high calibre of all of Dr Petersen's work make it imperative that sorne archaeological institute take cognizance of his remarkable accomplishments and publish his manuscripts, The following day wc left Peru, having stayed there a ycar less one day ·we took the bus to Zarumílla ou the Ecuadorian border, where, after lengtby personal and baggagc inspection, we wcre permitted to enter Ecuador Here we boarded a gaudíly painted bus which by late afternoon brought us as far as the town of Santa Rosa. lt was fascinating to see how in the course of the day the landscape changed. At Tumbes, we had left a tropical clesert Iandscape, though with sufficient raínfall to produce cacti and mesquite bushes and trees, but as the bus rolled on, the effects of a greater annual rainfall became evídent. The cacti became larger, gradually grasses and trees appeared, untíl finally, as we approached Santa Rosa itseH, we were traveling through thick tropical jungle that contained large banyan trees! Part of the folíage in this jungle región was dead, since it was the dry season of the year At Santa Rosa, we boarded a typical small river boat for Guayaquil, one which carried both passengers and freight. Soon the boat pushed off and wound its way slowly clown the narrow river, its top and sides often scraped by the overhangíng branches of trees. We might well have been floating clown sorne tributary of the tropical Amazon on the other side of the Andes! As the

Fig. 13 (left) A group of workers engagcd in cleaníng out one of the huge ancíent canals used today by Hacienda Pabur, situated in the upper Piura Valley The laborious method, by which each worker throws a shovelful of earth to the worker above him, probably dates back to ancíent times. Annual canal-cleaning then was an important form of social activity and was accompanied by processions and ceremonies. Allan Holmberg found that in the Virú Valley, as late as 35 years ago, similar canalcleaning processions were still popular. Indced, according to our infonnants in Ferreñafe in the Lambayeque región, canal-cleaning processions and ceremonies - now clirected by the local Catholic priest - are practiced in the town to this day Kosok.

240

Fig. 14. 'l'his photograph shows the largest aucienl site in the Chira Valley Loeated on the north bank of the river next to the modem Lo" u of Amotape, it eouvists of two parts. Just to the lcft of the town are a number of considerably dísíntcgratcd adobe mounds, datíug back possíbly to the Middle, or cven the Early Period. In the center aud ju~l ldl of ccnter are two better-preserved clusters of pyramids and wallcd cnclosures suggesting a Late Períod construction. Thc sito, whlch we visited in Hl41, is mentíoued by the curlicst Chroníclers. l nternationai Petroleuni Company • Ftg. 15 (left) Fields south of Pabur in the upper part of the Piura Valley which, in rnauy years, gct suillcicnt rain for growing stock fced. The slight elevatlons at thc right are remains of small ancient iuounds. Kosok • Fig. 16 ( left center) Thís drarnatíc method is usc<l to warn drivers to be careful in the hilly section of the Pan American Highway north of the Chira Valley The legend reads: "Rotary Club of Piura, Go slowly aud you will go far" Kosok • Fig, 17 ( lower left ) Street in the v íllage uf Catacaos, Piura Valley. known among other things for its production of "ancicnt" huacos. Kosok • Fig. 18 ( right margin) Peruvian hoy Kosok.

boat nosed lts way clown the river, dolphins appeared and began to play around the vesse1. The river gradually widened and we witnessed a beautiful sunset as thc boat approached the harbor of Puerto Bolívar The latter is the port for the town of Macbála and is at the end oí two short raílroad lines that connect wíth the towns in thc hinterland. Our boat stopped at this settlement For an hour to take on more passcngcrs aud Ireight. While sauntr-ring along the piers, we werc attracted to sorne of the small eating stands where vendors were selling huge fried shrimp, the largest wc had ever seen. They tasted so delícíous that we ate ali our stomachs could hold.

After the boat left for the tríp to Guayaquil, wc found that the slccping accommodatíons consisted mainly of hammocks strung in rows along the covered deck. For a while we sat with some of the passengcrs chatting, drinking and playing cards, but by midnight most of the ship was a slccping, snoring mass of humanity The next morning found us approaching Guayaquil, largest and richest city of Ecuador Situated on the Bay of Guayaquil, it is a modero international trading port, the main center for exporting bananas and other products of both the tropics and the Sierras, and for the importing of industrial products. The whole Guayaquil bay and river system probably always has been the center of sorne kind of b·ading economy even in ancient times. '\iVe have no detailed descripLion of the cconomy or society of those times, but wc havc various references which indicate that trade had once played an important role here (see John Murra in Handbook, Vol. U). It was ooly here that large balsa rafts wt>re built in pre-Spanish times. They were made of lan~e logs of the very light balsa wood which grows in this region. The logs were lashed together with 6bcr ropc, and they had rudders, oars, sails and even a "cabin" ( see Fig. 25) Heyerdahl's raft of recent fame was built in imitation of these ancient craft. Sorne of thcm wcre even large enough, according to early Spanish rccords, to carry horses and roen. The rafts sailed thc intrica.te network of rivers that How into the Gulf of Guayaquil. They also sailed to the nearby Coast of Peru, to Tumbes, to Payta and, on rare occasions, evcn furthcr south. We are not informed about the extent of their operations along the coast of Ecuador, but it is not im-

possiblc that they went up along the ~lanabí Coast. Thc extreme geographical limits of their voyages are, however, of secondary importance to us; basic are the social and material conditions that produccd such large unils of transportation and the speci.fic functions the lattcr playcd in the society of this region. From the limitcd information we havc of the ancient balsas, we gather that thcy probably were not merely used for .fishing purposcs or for plcasurc trips by rulers, but were also used to a·ansport goods and roen from one part of this marjtimc comp.lcx to another Sinoe we ha.ve no inclications that therc cxistcd in the Guayaquil Complex a large agrarian cmpire which, like the Inca, had transformed tradc into transportation of b·ibute, we may in fer with a ccrtain degrcc of assurance that sorne kind of free commerce had existed which was managed by a special group of tradcrs. This would mean that in certain respects n qualitatively different type of society from that of Pern had devcloped here. No ccntraJized agricultura] empire had emerged, but rather a decenh·alized society, held togethcr by rclativcly independent trading groups. In a certain sensc it might be considered similar to thc gcrmiual forms of early castern ~lediterranean semi-trading civilizations. Thc Spanish conquerors, unfo1tunately, paid littlc attcntion to the social sb:ucture of the lndians living in the Guayaquil river system. However, an archaeological and historical reconsb:uction of this whole area, including the Tumbes region in Peru, should throw light on the trne nature of their society Such a stu<ly may also help connect thís region more closcly with the original home of the lcgcndary aymlap who is supposed to have conquered thc Lambayeque area

241

Fig, HJ ( right) Thc dcsert "draínngc" pattern shown herc is typical of the region betwecn the Chira and Tumbes Valleys see ulso Chapler 111, Ftg. 6). The winding, dark band near the top of the photograph is the Chira Valley Above it is the Piura Valley U S. Army 81-1,-V-13 • Fig. 20 (margin) Peruvian boy Kosok,

in Peru, possibly around 1100 A.D., and establisbed an

ímportant dynasty there. If he carne with balsas from "de la parte suprema," as the legend goes, he is most likely to have come from the Guayaquil region, for it is only hcrc that balsa rafts were built and used. Our main purpose fo comíng to Guayaquil, however, was to acquaint ourselves a little more with the nature of thc climatic conditions in the región between Guayaquil and the Pacífic Ocean. According to the meterologícal reports of the Ecuadorían govemment, there are places here with as low an annual rainfall as that of the Iorthwest Coast of Peru just across the Bay of Guayaquil. Our aím was, if possible, to find the limits of this "dry" regíon in Ecuador and to see if there wcre any indícations here of írrígation in ancíent times. After visiting a nurnber of government offices, we were fortunate in obtaining a fine, largc map of the area, as well as a letter of introduction to offlcials in Santa Elena, a town situated in the center of the area in question, near the coast of Ecuador Early the next morning, Míchael and 1 left for Santa Elena by means of an autovag6n. As we progressed from Guayaquil the vegetation gradually became sparser and sparser until after about an hour's riele it took on a semidesert character \Ve knew we had now entered the so-called "dry" zone. At Santa Elena we met the mayor of the town. This intelligent, energetíc man called in his assistants and all the members of the regional councíl that he could locate. Then with our map spread on the large council table, we presented our problem. The Mayor asked each one present whether his village was in a "dry" or a "wet" zone, As the answers were given, we checked off each village on the map. About sorne viJJages we obtained contradictory answers. Further ínquíry revealed that these villages were in thc transition zone, during sorne years there was enough rain fer agriculture, duríng other years there was an insufficient amount. Within an hour we had the necessary answers and were able to draw a line across the map separatíng the two zones! To minimize errors, 242

Fig. 21. Crossíng thc Chira River. Kosok • Fig. 22 ( ríght ) Mouth of the Tumbes River as it empties into the Guayaquil Bay region.

The dark area is a mango swamp, while the striped area at the left was produced by strong wínds sweepíng over the earth and sand, the white strípes being bare soil and thc dark stripes bushes thríving on subsoil water. Servicio 220.46.

we carefully repeated the whole questioníng process, This was the fastest and, in many ways, the most reliable method we had come upon for making a detailed hydrologícal survey of a critica! area. At present there is no irrigation in the dry area, only a little animal husbandry is carríed on there. The greater part of the population works for a pctrolcum company which has clrilled oil wells on the southern coastal part of the dry terrain. But there are indications that sorne of this arca was probably cu ltivatccl in ancient times. At varíons places across the beds of the srnall strcams that are dry most of the year, rcmains of small dams have been found and, in a number of cases, pottcry finds have been associated with them. Accordíng to the current general explanatíon, these dams were once used to impound sorne of thc water during the short rainy season when the swollen "rívers" rushed clown the dry strearn beds from the ncarby hills The amount of water thus ímpounded, togcther with the limited amount of rain that fell annually, was generally sufficient to Furnísh a limited crop of maíze for small populatíon clusters. After our return to Cuayaquíl by bus, we obtained reli-

243

able information indicating that on the largo ísland of Puna, which líes in the Gulf of Guayaquil bctwcen Ecuador aud Pcru, a western dry zone and nn eastern wet Piecing togcthcr this inf orrnazoue can be <listinguished. lion with that which we had obtaíned for Peru, we were

a ble to establish a continuous line [roui Ecuador to southem Peru scparating the dry area from the uiet 011e. The linc runs across thc lower tip of Ecuador, across thc island of Puna, touches the mainlancl [ust beyond Zarumílla, thcn goes up the Andes to a height of about 9000 fcct in the neighborhood of the upper Lambayeque Valley Then it rises slowly until it reaches 11,000 to 12,000 Ieet near the southern border of Peru.

Our work in South Ameríca was done! At mídnight, we left Guayaquil on a Panagra plano that was cquippcd with many luxury gadgets. I settled down in my extrernely comfortable seat and dozcd off. After what seemed like a few minutes, I woke up. Thc plane was bouncíng up and down and 1 heard thc stcwardess say· "Put on your safety beltsl" Pccring quickly out of the window, I was surprísed to see the bright lights of Panama City sparklíng below us. lt was not long hef ore the plaoe approached the runway and gently deposited us at this attractive metropolís, just as the dawn of the new day was líghtíng up the skies. The flrst part of our journey home was overl

Fig. 23 ( upper left) Loading bananas onto a steamer by means of a combination of hand labor and machincry Kosok • Fig. 24 (left center) \\'ornen and children workers sorting coffcc beans on the streets of Guayaquil Kosok • Fig. 25 (lower left) A balsa raft of thc seventeenth century, similar to the rafts used whcn the Spanísh arrivcd. According to the Chroníclers, one raft was encountered carrying 30 tons of native cargo, plus 20 men; another, uscd by thc Spanlards, carried 50 rncn and 3 horses (see also Heyerdahl, 1962) Juan and Ulloa, 17 48 • Fig. 26 (below) The Bay of Guayaquil, with solitary Cerro Masvale in the background. Tho dark spots in the Ioreground and thc dark line parallel to the shore are small "islands'' of soíl and grass thut move up and clown the hay with each chungo of the ti<lc. Kosok,

Medítatíons on Ancíent Begínníngs

ÜuR WOllK in Peru was done! we had completecl mappiag as far as we knew ali still exísting but unused canal systems and irrigated áreas of the Northwest Coast of Peru, the largcst and most important section of desert Peru. \Ve furtber had indicated on our largo maps the present day irrigated areas. Since in almost all cases the latter areas wcre also irrigated in ancicnt times, a glance at thc maps shows us the total irrigated áreas of the past at thc máximum stuges of development. Sorne 300 ruin sites had also bcen entered on the maps, siles which we had founcl as the rcsult of thorough field work and systematic study of thousands of aerial photographs. To make these entries more intelligible we had prepared a "key" of each of the sites, which gíves the namc and a short description and in such cases as is possible, a reference to arcbeologícal literature. In sorne cases, we were able to relate major ruin sites to rnajor canal systems. Finally, we completed most of the second draft of thc manuscript of "Water and Lífc in Ancient Peru" which describes the irrigation systems of each of thc thirtccn valleys from the Tumbes in the north, near the Ecuadorían border, to the Casrna further south. \Ve also surveyed ali the valleys south of the Casma as far as - azca. But, with sorne exceptions, most of the ancient irrigation systcms here are still, or again, in use. To givc some social impact to thís sornewhat technical volume, wc addcd chapters which attempted to ínterpret the various aspects of thc irrigation cconomy of the whole of Peru. Our work in Peru thus had resultcd in giving us a more concrete foundatiou for undcrstandíng the changíng eco-

nomic, social and political structure of ancient coastal Peru. But cach question that was answcred obviously produced new questions and problems that rcquired new answers and solutions. In such a way ali scícnce progresses. And these new questions and problerns dealt not only with thc irrigation societies of coastal Pcru, but also with the relationshíp of the coastal to the ancestral Sierra societies, aud comparisons and contrasts to similar societies in other parts of the world, Returníng by plane to the United States, wc stopped over at thc well known Maya centers at Copán in Honduras and at Chichén Itzá and Uxmál in Yuca tan, Mexico. Since I had not scen these sites beforc, I was intcrested in cornparíng and contrastíng them in situ with similar sites I had found in Pcru. 'Ve Hew Iirst from Panamá to Tegucigalpa, the capital of Honduras. The latter part of the trip preved especially interesting to us since sorne of the vegetation of the bilis and mountains as we approached Tegucigalpa was of a semí-arid naturel lt seemecl as though wc were in sorne parts of the hills and rnountains of coastal Peru. A detailed. investigation of the still largcly unknown dimatology of this country, as well as that of neíghboríng Guatemala and Yucatan, should provide a new and more detailed insight into the relationship of the various vegetation zones of this area to the rise, development, and spread of the early ~laya and related civilizations. Unfortunately, the meteorologícal data of this whole zone is still very spotty and limited in area, and, as was already stated in the case of the Peruvian Sierras, unless clctailed data exists, not merely from valley to vallcy, but wíthin each calle y, no worthwhile con el usions can be

drawn. Howcvcr, from the facts so far gathered, by zoologists and botanists, it can be stated hcre that therc are tremendous varieties of flora and fauna, within the small area of this Central American region. This fact in itself indicatcs considerable differentíations of climate within the area and must have a!Iected the nature aud growth of thc economy and society of the regions inhabited by the Maya and related peoplcs. This may be the key approach in attempting to explain the many complex problems which haunt the scholar of Maya history and culture. It may indicatc that the proto-Maya cultw·es evolvcd in the moderate rainfall arcas. Later ex-pansions <lid not go to non-existent dcscrt areas, as was the case on thc coast of Peru. Instead thc cxpansions became, so to speak, intrusions into thc richer jungle arcas where, latcr on, the highest forros of ~laya culture evolved. From Tegucigalpa, a charming mountain town, quite distinct from the capítals of the other Central American states, we visitcd thc Maya ruin of Copán. This famous site dates back to the Early Period, more or less contemporaocous with the same period in Peru. Thc flight was a fascinating one over hilly co~1ntry which at places also showed thc samc semi-arid vegetation we bad scen south of Tegucigalpa. After a two hour b·ip over the mountain tops, our plane descended into a small valley and aftcr some cruising, landed successfully on the small grass covcrcd afrficlcl situated bctwecn the present village of Copán ancl the ancient ruins of thc samc name. The ruins, which have been largcly deared of jungle growth and are fairly well restored, wcrc our first sight of a major \faya niin. It was this ruin, which its dis-

245

bought who also wrote about Peru coverer Stevenson Ior Ilfty clollarsl Its discovery and the significancc of the whole area intrigued Lewis H. Morgan, the American sufficiently to write a letter to Washingunthropologist, ton, D. C., nrging the United States government to spend $10,000 For the purchase of an extensive strip in Honduras hefore treasure hunters would carry off or destroy

much of its most síguificant archaelogical treasure. As we clírnbed ovcr the various pyramids and structures we soon realízed that thís did not represcnt the remaius of an urban site, but rather thosc of a larue ceremonial center containing pyramids and assocíated structurcs built around severa] plazas, undonhtedly controlled by the local priesthood possibly in conjunction with thc secular chief who held secondary powers, Our irnpression was that ancient Copán probably had the sarne general architectural layout, and the associated populatiou had evolved a similar type of social structure, as had been characteristic of at least part of the Mochica period in ancient Peru. Both societíes consisted of local habitatíon units clustered around a priestly-controlled ceremonial sitc. No urban centers, no real political states, no .. empires" existed. At best, ternporary fcdcrations of theocratic units could have prevailed. The houses of the habitation uníts probably werc buílt largely of mud walls with tharchcd roofs, like those still being ereetcd today Thc pyramids themselves, built of stone-Iaced rubble and now recoustructed by archaeologísts, are in many ways more impressive than the partly destroyed adobe pyramids of the coast of Peru. This Impressiveness is íncreascd by the fact that while the bases of the Mayan pyramids are not larger, and are, in many instances, smaller than thosc of the larger pyramids of Peru, the naturc of the stone building material permítted the Maya pyramid to be much steeper On thc other hand, U1e naturc of adobe bricks used in most of the Peruvian pyramids, does not permit the beights of pyrarnids to excecd one third the width of the base, a limitation which does not apply to stone struetures. Morcover, thc accompanying stonc buildings, walls ancl stellae of the Maya that still stand io place or have been reconstructcd in part, gíve one a much more concrete picture of the rolationship in ancient times of all thé parts to tbe whole than is generally possible in the case of Pcru. Thcrc thc perishable adobe walls and other secondary structures have often been destroyed by ccnturies of stcady winds, as well as by modero farming methods, with their bulldozers and other mechanical equipment.

246

Alter having completed our visit to Copán we Hcw to Yucatan. \Ve had ~forley's archacological map wilh us and tried to imagine this country as it onee had bcen at tbe hcight of its development. This proved to be cxtrcmely <lifficult since much of the country is now, as ít had bccn in carlier times, covcred by dense vcgctation. But it was this very densencss of vegctation which tended to confirm our opinion of the role of naturc in hclping to maintain the decentralizcd form of Maya sociC'ty As we approached the town of ~rerida, we uoticed that sorne of the vcgetation became scantier Ilcre thc rainfall is somewhat less than in the central and southcrn regions. .\lorcover, the subsoil consists of porous limestone rock. which still further lowcrs the effective11css of rainfall. This is another aspect which must be takcn into considcration in evaluating not only the nature of thc later ~laya period but also its developmcnt in this particular rcgion. Our time was running sbort and so we confincd our excursions to the ruins of Chichén Itzá and Uxmál. These .\raya ruins, which date from the latcr period of Maya cultme, have bcen described many times and in great detail and are by now a typical tourist attraction. Snffice to say tlrnt an inspection of both places confirmed the impressions we had obtainccl at Copán of thc local nature and the ceremonial function of the ruins ancl thc thcocratic or theocratically-colorecl typc of dccenh·alizcd socicty that procluccd them. The only "ccntralization" wc hear of in the Late Period is the Leaguc of ~fayapan, apparcntly a very loose fedcration that )asted a short time, and which had only traces of secularization in its social and political struchire. In ~Iexico proper, which l covered on three separate visits, beforc and after this Peru trip, the carly developments indicate similar "demon-infested, priest-clominated" societiPs. Only the later Aztec Empire indicated the evolution of a secuJar state and society, though this Empire neYer quite reached thc leve! of sccularization of the Chimli and Inca empires in Peru. Further archaeological and archiva! research will undoubtedly bring out more clearly the characteristics mentioned. At the same time unlmown aspects and specific "variations" will begin to revea! themselves in the theocratic b·ansition form from late tribal societies to emly secular class socicties. 1 sent my son, Michael, to \ifexico proper, which he had not yet visited, and I flew on to New Orleans a11<l then returned to New York by train. While traveling through parts oí the South, I thought about what I had rcad of

its pre-bistory It became clearer to me than it ever had been before that the many earth mounds and mound clusters, so far discovered in the Mississippi Valley unclonhtedly represented early fonns of the same type of pyramids and pyramid clusters we had locatcd in Pern and had just seen in Yucatan. In tcnns of construction, they probably are a product of a social structurc similar to that of the very Early Cupisnique Period i11 Peru, while the group of sorne 25 Cahokia mounds, near St. Louis. may even parallel the Salinar and Gallinazo pcriods. It must be remcrnbcred that thc largesl of thc pyramids of the Cahokia group is comparable in YOlume to the largest ones in Peru and ~lexico and thesc in tmn to the large ooes in Egypt and China. If we can reconstruct more clearly the society of thc ancient .\Iississippi Valley ~lound Buildcr cultures which apparcntly had existed until a f<'w ccnturics bcforC' tllc Spanish conquest, and whosc pyramids were not enlargcd or clestroyed by an additional two thousand yean of development, as was the case in Coastal Peru, we can get a bctter understanding of thc still somewhat nebulous character of the Cupisnique and Salinar cultures of J>eru and parallcl cultures of Mexico. Thus, as was pointed out in Cbaptcr T, while the most advanccd dcvclopments of Peruvian Coastal societies uodoubtedly can help clarify ccrtain aspects of the early forms of Afrasian irrigation socicties, in turn ccrtain basic aspects of the Mississippi Valley cultures though can he used to hclp not based on an inigation economy us better understand the Very Early Coastal Chavín ( Cupisnique) culture and pcrhaps some of its antccedents in the Sierras. \Ve can, of course, go evcn íurthC'r and study tl1e early stage of the ~Iississippi ~lound .Builders in terms of such semi-agricultural, semi-food-gathering and hunting socicties that existed when the Europeans flrst carne hcrc ancl in turn study thc early stages of tl1e latter societies in terms of the completely pre-agricultural hunting and food-collccting societies. ( Specifically flshing socicties we omit here for, while they date back to the very carly times of man's existence, they develop a special evolutionary aspect of a sedentary and often stagnant socicty with special forms of social relationship whicb are cli1ferent frorn both the hunting and the agricultural societies.) Thus, by studying a series of interlocking cultures with overlapping cbaracteristics from different parts of the world, wc can reconsb·uct a continuous story of the development of man in the New \Vorl<l. Of eourse, corre-

sponding early developments in Afrasia and Europe must be consídered. But, as pointecl out in Chapter I, the transformation frorn a hunting and food-collectíng societies to early agricultural societíes, and from these to the rise of early civilizations in Afrasia is more difficult to trace than it is on the American continent where the transformation came sorne four to five thousand years later and where the remains of this period have not been so destroyed or covered up as in the Eastem Hemisphere. Comparative archaeology is necessary, but not only on an American scale, which has already been carried on by a nurnber of scholars, It is even more necessary on a world-wide scale, not merely in terms of cultural [orms or in terrns of prehistoric sequences, but in terms of similarity of social structures. Then an examination of the írrigatíon coastal cultures of Peru can harclly be considered complete if carcíul comparisons are not made with cultures of similar early irrigation societies of Egypt, the Indus Valley, and that of the early Ycllow Rivcr in China. In our present stage of knowledge, ancient Babylonia seems most promising in yíelding results. ot to be forgotten must be such an írrigatíon culture as that of ancíent Khorezrn, south of the Aral Sea, excavated by Professor S. P Tolstov Drawings of the rectangular walled compounds found there are very reminiscent of a great number of thc late Chímú compounds. But broader aspects rnust also be studiecl in such a

cornparative world archaeology Thus the Peruvian Sierra and the Coastal cultures, while distínct in many ways, were neverthcless uuerrelated in many othcrs. Indecd, one can assume for the present that the füst maize agrículture and with ít the establishment of a basically agrícultural economy, as distinct from the much earlier fishing cultures with some subsidiary bcan and other plant proto-agriculture, came mainly from the Sierras wíth small priest-dorninated clans of the Chavín or preChavín Period. The Serranos undoubtedly brought límíted Jrrigation techniqucs with thern which they had evolved in "dry" years, Many reasons may have brought thern to thc coast, íncludíng milítary clefeat by their more successful rívals who remaíned in the rainfall and semí-rainfall agriculture areas of the Sierras. Moreover, once established on the Coast, the coastal peoples and those of the Sierras undoubtedly developed trade in one another of rnutually necessary natural products ancl manufactured goods. Thís development of an agrícultural irrígation economy from a semi-irrigation economy in the Sierra, and tbe latter from a rainfall econorny where the original grains .first grew and were .first domesticated, <loes not appear to be peculiar to the Peruvian Sierra-Coastal complex. Perhaps ít also developecl in the Mexíco-Mesoamerica complex where, however, this ínterrelationship appears to have been on a smaller scale and more complex in íts

fonns. Most important, a similar mountain-desert valley comp1ex seems to have exísted in the rcgíon consisting of desert Babylonia and the neighboríng mountains of Persia and Asia Minor, in the Egypt-Ethiopia complex, in the complex of the Indus valley and the mountains of 1 orthwest India and Baluchistan, and possibly in the Míddle Yellow River and nearby mountain areas, In other words, comparative world arcbaeology and corresponding world pre- and proto-history become important integrative factors that show that below the diversity of cultural forrns there exist important topographic-climatic anc.1 social-economic similarities. It is relatively easy to discover differences. It requires, however, a greatcr knowlcdge and a deeper and more mature insight into the problems conccrned to sce common basic characteristics and processes of development. Therefore, it becomes imperative for us to find among the multitude of concrete forms and processes, those basic factors and processes which have been common to all peoples of the world as they cvolved from primitive tribal societies thrnugh the transitional priest-domiuated socicties into the agriculturally-rootcd early class societies with their state apparatuses and their "empire" building potentialities. All studies of the complex and often "exotic" aspects of the past must always bring to the forefront the basic unity of mankind!

Epílogue Kosm<'s untimely cleath (October 1959) cut short a plan of publications of a lifetime of fruitful research in various fields, ranging frorn the history of science to Peruvian irrigation and music. In this volume some of his erudition in these severa! Belds is revealed. He was working on the final touches of this volume when he died, and half of the volume was already printed. Those of us who collaborated with him as researchers and editors experiencc great satisfaction in seeing this volume at last emcrging in the light of day, and we look forward to the forthcoming publication of the remainder of his manuscripts. The oft-referred-to title of 1tVater ancl Ufe in Ancient Pertt was to be the sequel to this book. Since its title is so similar to the one this volume bears, we shou)d like it known that while plans still exist for publishing Kosok's detailed study on Peruvian irrigation, the title of that work wiJJ be altered to avoid confusion. Professor Kosok hacl fully intendecl that this book be cleclicated to the memory of his close associate and friend the late Tristram Walker Metcalfe, Presidcnt of Long Islancl Univcrsity from 1931 thrnugh 1951. It was he who rnacle the expeditions to Peru possible and encouraged publication of the finclings in their present form. Yet, subsequent important help from. Chancellor John H. G. Pell has been essential to the completion of trus cffort. The cooperation of Chanccllor R. Gorclon Hoxie has rnade the issuance of the volume at this time possible. PROFESSOR PAUL

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LIST 1 OF MOCHICA WORDS AND PHRASES These words and phrases were copied hy Señor Antonio Rodríguez SuySuy in July 1951, from a list nf Seiior Simón Quezquen in thc village of Eten. The list was originally taken from "sorne papers which his [Señor Quezquen's] granclparents left and which he copied becausc thcse papers were already deteriorating ancl as a result now no longer exíst." In copying the list Señor Rodríguez SuySuy had the following to say: "As he was díctating to me, 1 copicd clown everything with great carc and exactness, but, I notíced that thcrc are sorne letters which do not represent the actual pronuncíations. For Eng/islt

Mocltlco

Sponish

Mochlco

example, there are words like NE HJC which, as Señor Quezquen pronounced it, I put clown erroneously • EQUIC, but on hearing him pronounce it ugaín, I noted that his pronunciation was smoother. Thís prouunciation I cannot write, but I can pronounee it. For this reasou I proeeeded to eopy thcm Ithe words] justas the) were fon the original list] and they are alJ that l um sending." Accordíng to Señor Rodríguez SuySuyºs report, Señor Quezqucn said that "in Eten there remain but very Iew persons who speak or remernber three or Iour words, but within thís lisl are ali these words now spokcn."

English

Sponlslt

Mocltico

English

WORDS l. achecone

2. auy 3. carente cojpan consiche costape cuchis 8. cunri 9. chafen 10.chanc 11. chuypi 12. héjcmcr 13. chcrnércquc 14. chichi 15. chichny 16. Chijnpc 17 chumay 18. chupetes 19. Etin 20. foc 21. facch 22. fonun ( or yanun ) 2.'3. fellum 21. Ione 25. greli 26. hem 27 hemoyac 28. her 29. hot 30. hu)' 31. ja 32. [acse 33. jarmensap 34. [ax pulem 35. jechis 36. [édeñet 37 [elu ( see Íi>llum) 38.jiac 4. 5. 6. 7

l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7

agreeable

listcnl Icmalc sex organ black cold pubic hair Trujíllo S. tiecl 9. dirty 10. wet 11. Chtclayo 12. drunk 13. earrings 14. pants 15. meat 16. dry 17 chícha 18. highlander 19. Eten 20. bull 21. brushwood 22.dog 23. duck 24. nose 25. coneealmg 26. rupid 27 girdlc. bancl 28. rueca 29.eyc 30. to falJ down :]l. water 32.head 33. liar 34. braggart 35. hinding clay 36. duck dung 37 duck 38. lish

l. agradable 2.oye 3. naturaleza <le mujer 4. negro 5. frío 6. pendejos (bellos) 7 Trujillo 8. atado 9. sucio 10. mojado J l. Chíclayo 12. borracho 13. aretes 14. pantalón 15. carne 16. seco 17 chicha 18. serrano 19. Eten 20. toro 21. leiia 22. peno 23. pato 24. nariz 25. disimulando 26. ligero 27 faja 28. yuca 29. ojo 30. caerse 31. agua 32. cabeza 33. mentiroso 34. palangana 35. barro lígoso 36. excremento de pato 37 pato 38. pescado

39. to sleep 39. jiad 40. sun 40.jiam 41. hairy 41. jiamud 42. money 42. [iay 43. joc ( or iocce ) 43. foot 44. tableclotl1 44. jujuna 45. take ( eat) 45. man 46. manes postap 46. dry 47 woman 47 mcchcrque 48. mellús 48. eggs 49. inetse 49. hand 50. rnish ( or mis) 50. cat 51. rno 51. that 52. mob 52. caehema (a fish) 53. murmp 53. iguana 54. ne hec 54. mantle ( wrapped up) 55. nt:is 55. night 56. ni1iecosque 56. Lambaycquc 57 hen 57 - ancaipe 58. husband 58. iíaiie 59. child 59. imu 60. liar 60. iicss CH. liquor 61. iictasapcc ? 62. 62. fiicd1 63. youth ( young man) 63. fioven 64. sweet potato 64. ope11c 65. disappearecl 65. puchcquc 66. old 66. quismique 67 Reque 67 Rccpa11eque 68. crazy 68. romctcc 69. Monsefú 69. Siúrrepe 70. male sex organ? 70. tcb 71. salt 71. up 72. pepper 72. UMIP 73. small fann 73. u:.cnic 74. drink container 74. 'cllus 75. yémeque ( or Uéméc) 75. stew 76. one 76. zápcte 77 rings 77 zarcülas 78. three 78. zúpete

39. dormir 40. sol 41. peludo 42. dinero 43. pió 44. mantel 45. tomar 46. sccco 47 mujer 48. huev os 49. mano 50. gato 51. ese 52. eacherna ( pescado) 53. iguana 54. manto ( env uelto) 55. noche 56. Lambayeque Sí gallina 58. marido 59. criatura 60. mentiroso 61. licor ? 62. 63. j6vcn 64. camote 65. clcsva11ecido 66. viejo 67 Rcquc 68. loco 69. ~fonscfú 70. organo masculino? 71. sal 72. ají 73. chacra 74. poto 75. espesado 76. uno 77 sortija~ 78. tres

PHRASES J. aean mo mish 2. acan mo ñess 3. aean 1110 ñetesapéc 4. acan mo rornctec 5. ajpe fone 6. ajpe pott 7 arnoch fénun 8. amoch miquer 9. amoch jiacl 10. ap pesen 11. ayena moyi 12. coss tap tote cap 13. chanquc de c-ap 14. 15. 16. L7 18. 19. 20. 2 L. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

chep chep chipe de mot chuchepe fone chucho rometec eches suy emes unarn ( or un anche) fenequit hecha guara hich icltcs tem ich teme jay kicbe

27 manan tut coch 28. manan tut llemec 29. 30. 31. 32.

mesjepeque m('tantate tut e-aten midam cap misanchimo

l. look at that cat! 2. look at lhat child! 3. look at that nut! (crazy man) 4. look at thal liar! 5. big nose ( porson) 6. beautiful 7 let's eal 8. let's go soon 9. let's go lo slecp 10. big ncck ( person) 11. fine, thanks! L2. "bottoms up!" 13. th<' weaving is going bad 14. ashamed 15. corn husk 16. ffattt>nt>d nosc 17 crazy boy 18. I haw sen C'd myself 19. how did you gel up? 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

last chilcl it"s clcgnnt what <loes it ha"e? what do<you want? who is that? take anotlwr child on back

27 take your chicha 28. lrnv(' a littk• Stl·W 29. 30. 31. 32.

pray to God lend me your rear stingy he is a thief

1. wa ese gato! 2. H'a l'Se criatura! 3. vea ese loco! 4. "ea ese mentiroso 5. uarigon 6. hermosa 7 vamos a comer R. vamos pronto 9. \amos a dormir 10. pescuezón 1 l. bien gmcias 12. boca abajo 13. tejido va malv L4. avergon7.ado 15. hollejo <l<'I maiz 16. nariz iiata li muchacho loco L8. nw hl' servido 19. t'Ómo has amanc<:ido?

20. niiio ultimo 21. est<I elegante 22. ¿ (Jué tiene? 23. ¿qul' t'• lo que quil'fl''? 24. ¿(Juicn co eso? ,/ 2.3. loma otro 26. niño a la espalda ( or cargado el niño) 27 ton1a tu chicha 28. come lm poco de espesado (de choclo 29. implorar ti Díos 30. préstame tu culo 31. caranganoso !32. t'SIP t'' ladró11

248

Mochico

English

33. mitan ( or minan) cuchis 34. móymene 35. ñespe toe 36. peinas nenh 37 peinas nerrern 38. peinas nerrcm séqucrnoi 39. peinas unan séquemoi

Sponish

33. my chicha

3.3. mi chicha

34. 35. 36. 37 38.

just like you ugly face crazy-head good afternoon good afternoon, sir

igual a tí fea cara cabeza loco buenos tardes buenos tardes.Señor

Mochico

40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

pelam chemoy pomete cauchímo réquepot ro] pepot sappí jappi see secfanc

46. taschep 39. good day, sir

39. buenos días, Señor

English

turnanacupu

40. sít down, sir 41. this one is crazy 42. raised rump 43. nude rump 44. long bearded man 45. pregnant ( or irritable) 46. they will say that we are drunk

Sponish

40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

síentese, Señor este está loco trasero levantado trasero desnudo barbón embarazada ( or colérico) 46. dirán que estamos borrachos

Mochico

Sponish

English

47 tates tu cuchís 48. tep tep 49. tillipe

47 take your chicha 48. bad taste 49. defecating without feeling ( it) 50. cup upside down 51. get out! (jea lous one) 52. shut upl 53. who is that?

50. lote cape 51. tu cap 52. yarnanloc 53. ych teme

47 toma tu chicha 48. mal gusto 49. defecando sin sentir 50. copa volteada 51. véte celoso 52. cállate la boca 53. ¿quien es eso?

LIST 2 OF MOCHICA WORDS AND PHRASES These words and phroses were obtained 1948 in Trujillo by Señor Antonio Rodríguez SuySuy and the author, from Señora Manuela Millones de Carillo, resident o( Etén (see Chapter LX) The English translation of both word lists was done by Dr. Schaedel. Mochico

English

Sponish

WO ROS l.acan! 2. aipe 3. amoch 4. apútc 5. ayenl 6. catenique

7 conch 8.cucho

9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17 18. 19. 20.

cujo perney cuyupe

eigmeche épen ers fano fone já jech jía jiak jíme

l. lookl 2. large, bíg 3. let's go 4. two 5. goodl 6. Iemale sex organ 7 meat 8. chicha, a mild drink made of [crmented corn 9. male sex organ 10. colored, red 11. flve 12. a strong pepper 13. yucca, sweet manioc 14.dog 15. nose 16. water 17 head 18. sleep 19. flsh 20. spoon

l. vea! 2. grande 3. vamos 4. dos 5. bien! 6. naturaleza de mujer 7 carne 8. chicha

9. naturaleza de hombre 10. colorado. 11. cinco 12. aji 13. yuca 14. perro 15.nariz 16. agua 17 cabeza 18. dormir 19. pescado 20. cuchara

Mochico

21. joch 22. jocke 23. jujuna 24. man 25. mecherka 26. rueden 27 nópete 28.ñan 29. ñíeshon 30. ñíest 31. onek 32.6peno 33.palJa 34. sai 35. sape 36. secúye 37 sech 38. sópete 39. terco 40.upe 41. usa 42. velloso 43. yemeke

English

21. eyes 22. foot 23. tablecloth 24. eat 25. woman 26. ear 27 four 28. husband 29.yourson 30. small cbil<l 31. one 32. sweet potato 3:3. cooking pot 34. cooked com 35. mouth 36. wbite 37 ten 38. three 39. lazy 40. salt 41. stick for spinning 42. gourd, pot 43. a sort of coro goulash

Sponish

21. ojos 22.pié 23. mantel 24. comer 25. mujer 26. oreja 27 quatro 28. marido 29. su hijo 30. criatura 31. uno 32. camote 33.olla 34. mote ( maíz cocido) 35.boca 36. blanco 37 diez 38. tres 39. ocioso 40. sal 41. palo para hilar 42. poto 43. pepían de choclo (mazamorra de maiz)

Mochico

Sponish

English

PHRASES l. 2. 3. 4.

acan ñieshon ajpefome ajpe jech ajpe joch 5. ajpe jocken 6. ajpe meden 7 ajpe sapa 8. amísinam 9. amoch jia 1 O. arnoch manan 11. amoch micar 12. emesenama 13. fac pepotes 14. [armen sape 15. manan 16. manang ñícte 17 ñiete sape 18. ñasanchi 19. tastem conch 20. tastem man 21. terco fano

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7

look at your son! bíg nose ( person) big head ( person) big oyes ( person) big foot ( person ) bíg ear ( person ) big mouth ( person) 8. how díd you get up? 9. let's go to sleep 10. let's eat 11. let's go soon 12. good day! ]3. black bottom 14. loudmouth ( gossiper ) 15. that ( you) are eating 16. likenothing (at all)! 17 liar 18. is it good? 19. to make a present of a piece of 20. (he) wants to eat meat 21. lazy as a dog

l. vea a su hijo! 2. narigón 3. cabezón 4. ojón 5. patón 6. orejón 7 bocón 8. ¿como ha amanecido? 9. vamos a dormir 10. vamos a comer 11. vamos pronto 12. buenos días! 13. poto negro 14. hablador 15. que come 16. como nada! 17 mentiroso 18. ¿esta rico? ( food) 19. regalar un pedazo de 20. quiere comer carne 21. ocioso como un perro

249

Glossary

huaca

irrigntio» canal

acequia

acequio madre ( mother canal) - main feeder cunnl of an irrigatícn systern

largc hlocks of pressed earth made from a rnold.

tulahoncs

adobe

sun-bakcd

0Jwordie11te

brick

a strong alcoholíc

be' erage mnde from grain

altiplano

literall) high platean. In Pern, thc plateau in the southern part wher« the Ancles wíden out.

comi<ín carro

truck

car

cerro

hill or mountain

costa

lhe t·oa~tul region, a clesert

[ortaleza

Iortress

hacienda - pl.mtution haciendado plnntation owner

gl'lll'ral tcrrn. uny structure or buriul grouncl considered to have been built in ancient ( prehistoric) times. specifie term, a ceremonial or burial mound or pyrarnid. huaco an ancient water jug' of high quality lomas - clouds that settlc along the coust during thc winter that produce 110 rain but mcrcly an oecasional cold 111bt. Where rhcy "rest" 1111 the sidc of the mountain, they condense into moisturc that produces sorne vegetation. mo11tmia thc junglc, bcyond the Andes, arpa of heavy rainfall a natural growth of grasses, shruhs, bushes and even small 111r111te trees growing in the desert near the rivers or irrigated ureas. These plants gel the necessary moistur« from subsoíl seepage and occnsionnl rains. In sorne places, this growth is quite heav y and diffkult to penetrare, and becomes u kind of "desert jungle" plain on thc eoast: ít has a desert /}(1111/XI - Peruvian usage character potsherds - broken pieces of pottery

¡Ju11a - ílut cold highlands of thc Peruv ian Sierra

uuehrada

a small drv vulley, gcncrally leading to a "wet" va lle) with a riv er in it. Also surnctimes a "wash"

cords of different size and color 1)) which the foca kept stutistícal rccords of Rocks, supplies, populuancl histion, taxes, and possibly ulso of astronomical-calendrical torical data. Still used by sorne of the Peruvían-Bolivian shepherd-, rio-seco - dry river, similar to que/mida slierds - broken pieces oí pottery sierra the mountains, i.e., the Andes, modérate hut Huetuuting rains, 1¡11i1w - A series of kuottcd

sol

Peruv ian dollar - lts vulue has dropped consíderably during the post wur ycurs. Tn the year of our stay it Buctuated from fh l' to se' en American cents per sol. .\low ( 1964) its exchang<:' ratt> is aho11t 30 soles to one U.S. dollar. taml>o - anci<'nt roadhouse temporales - dry valll'ys, or purts of them, which in occasional years ha\'e water in tlw riwrs, and whic:h are then culti\'atecl temporarily by people from the rnain ''alle> during tbat year

Engl ish Translation of the Key to the 1793 map made by J oséf Juan of Pachacamac ( SC'C page 40) Ht)rizontal Skl'tC'h of the Pachacamac Ruin~ found at the so11themn1ost tip of a sand ~trip two and one lrnlf lcabrucs long called thE' Tablada de Lurio. to tlw north of the ri' er of this name and near the coa~t. l. Ruim of a castle or, accorcling to the Indi:rns, of the Temple of tlw Cn·at Pachacamac. whcrein tl1e pagans worshipped the creator of tlw ~un. h is composed of four walJs makíng it a recUmgle, some built on top nf others in thc form of largl' staircases, e:ich 15 ft. thick a11CI with lurger bases than surnnúts, so thnt tlwy form equal clown grndt·~ and quite sufficient for tl1eir Eirmness. On the soutllwest side, it lni. two pillars 2, 3, i.J1 thc form of fonr otht>r staircases: it is macle of mud-wall brick and is ali bulk filled with eartl1, sand ancl portiurn, of the 'ery bricks from its walls and minE'd ouler walls: at the 'er} top om• finds Lhe ditch 4 which crosse. it, but not ,·ef)' cleeply, .md al its ~id!'~ there are various mud-walls as though they

250

C'ame out of foundations, indicating ~ome clh isions, and thc wholc of this building is located to thc southwcst on a hill of stonc and sorne !'arth, and the rest is coverc'Cl with sand. This hill dominatcs lhe resl of the terrain included in this sk1'tch. 5. Ruins of anothcr building just as solicl but not so high ancl small('r than the previous onc, whosc• wall is circular and uf stom· with rnund columns. 6. Mucl-walls or portions of adobe walls of two, thrce and more feet thick provide the outlines of very slraight ~ln'cts, divisions of city block:., patios and re,·eal the existence of smallcr rooms with numerou~ 11icl1c;,, or sq11ar1> recesses as little ns two p11lrn lcngths high and wide and onc palm length deep that ha~e ol~o hecn complctely consen ed in thc outlined walls and done in squnrcs :"Ls though they had been mude to-da)' Hea~ y mud-walJ whose clirection rmcl thickness indicatc it 7 wu' th<' dcfense or place of rt"fuge for the inhabitants of the village.

Sa11d hills which slopt> the same as buildi11gs 1 and 5. 8. 6. gently dow11 towards tlw l'oastal bcach, covering tt portion of thr ruins, since the walls inclicak by their direction that they continur towards the big wall.

1 O. Places whcrc there ar!' parts of bones ancl skulls of human beings. 11. Sand hilJs. sorne carth and 'tone, at thc bottom of which begins the l~autiful Lurin valll'}' 12. Four stooe slahs macle recentl)' ln ~upport a draw-bridge. 13. Lurin Rh·er and its q11lc)'

14. Rough road along the Tablada.

1.5. to go to Lurin. 16. A ra11C'h house or hut inlmhited lw an Indian. Writtcn by joscf Juan, year 1793.

Bíblío9raphy

Adachi,

Cháan

Kíroku

( 1933)

Shieek¡ no Kenkyit ( Study of Historical

Rcrnains

Ch'ang-an }, Tokyo Oriental Lihr.iry, 1933. Anonymous Trujillano ( ms. I (:i14) Two pagr-s publíshed by Hubén Vargas Ugarte in .. La feche de la fundación de Trujillo" See: Vargas Ugarte, below Bnessler. Arthur (1902)

A11cie11t Perui;itm art; contributlons to the archaeology of tlw 1•111pire of the Incas, from his eollections, by Arthur Bucsslcr: tr h~ Berlín, A. Asher & Co.: Ne«: York, Dodd, \f!'ad A. 11. Keane t.- Co., 1902-1903. 4 vols. Baudelíer, Adolph Francis Alphonse ( ms. maps ) American ~luseum of Natural History Archives.

Bennett, Wendell Clark ( H)38) Archoeologi) o/ tite uartli roas! o/ Peru; an account o/ explora/Í/111 and excacntunv i11 Vil"rÍ 011d Lamhaqeque calleus. ( Anthro~ew York, The American l\lupologicnl papers. v 37, pt, 1) seum of 1 atura! History, 1939. 153 p. Bcnnett, \\'endcll Clurk ( 1944)

The north higlilonds of Peru; rxcarntions in the Callejón de lluaylos aru! ot Chacin. de /1111í11tar ( Anthropologicol papers. \' 39,

pt. 1) ~ew York, The Amerieuu \111sc•11111 of Natural 1 fütor), 1914. 114 p. Bcnnett, \Vcnclcll Clark ( W50) Tlte Gallinazo group, Virtí Va/ley. Peru. ( Yalc University Publications in Anthropology. No. 43.) Ncw Huven, Publishcd for the Dr-partment of Anthropology, Ynlc University, by the Yak Univorsity Press, rnso. 127 p. Br-nnctt, Wcndcll Clark und Bird, [unius Bouton ( 1949) t\11dean culture hlstanj. ( Ilundbook series, no. 15) Xt•\\ Yorl... American Muscum of Nuturul Hivtory, 1949. 319 p. Bird, Junius Bouton (1948) "Preccmmic Cultures in Chicama and Virú" (In: A Rcaµpm/$al Clf Penic:ian Arclweulogy) Memoirs of the Socicty fur American Archaeology, Supplcmcnt to American A11tiq11ity. April, Hl48. v 13, No. 4, Part 2. pp. 21-28. Bird, J11ni11s Bouton ( H>51) In: Mernoirs ot the So"South American ltndiocurbon Dates" American A11tiq11ily, Jul)•, ciery for American Archneology) 1951. V 17, No. J, Part 2, pp. 37-49. Bri111i11g, Enriqué ( 1923) lambaucuue Reglamentncion de las A~1ws del Taimi. (Estudios monograficos del Departamento de Lambayeque. Fascículo l and

IV ) Chiclayo, Pcru, IJionisio Mendoza, Librería y Ca~o Editoria. No. 165, Parque Principal. 1922, 1923. 36, 44 p. Buck, Fritz ( 1937)

F.l Calendario Mayll en el Cultura de Tial111011ac11. La Pa7, Bolh ia, Lit. e. imp. Unidas, 193í 210 p.

Cabello de Valbo« ( or Balboa), Father Miguel l ms. 15 61 ( 1951) stiscelánea antártiro y oriiien de los ltulios u de los incas del Ms. in thc New Yor], Pubhc Perú (ms. 1586 lpublislwd 19511) Library Calancha, Father Antonio de la ( 1638) Coronica moralizada del Orden de Stm Aug11sti11 e11 el Perú, con Compuesta por el muy sucesos ege11¡1larcs en esta morwrquis Dire' erendo padre maestro fray Antonio de la Caluncha vídese este primer tomo en quatro libros; lleva tablas de capítulos. Barcelona, P Lacavallería, i lugares de la Sagrada Escritura 1638. 922 p. v olume of thi> work was printecl al Lima in 1653 ''A secon<l for 16541 Carrera. Fernando de la L 1644J ( 193:3) Arte de la 11!11/!.llO y1mga ( lí:i44) Reedición con introducción y notas por Hado me~ A. Ahicd. ( UniYersidad nacional de Tueumá11 Publicación no. 256. Departamento de investigaciones rel no. 3] gionales. Publkaciones espPcialrs del Instituto de T11emnán: lJJstituto de antropología, 1939. XX\ i. 117 p. Casa Vilca, Alberto ( 1939) "La Ciudad Muerta ele Cajamarquilla," Boletí11 de la Sociedad Geográfica de Lima. ' 56, 100-J 10. 1939. Th(• abow refers to on e'(pedition to Cajamarquilla led b>• Albert Ciesecke. Cieza de León. Pedro de 11553] ( 1924) 15.53) Lima. Publica de Urtcaga. Lo Cronica General del Pc>m 1924. Cieza de León, Pedro de ( 1554) Parle primer<i de lo Cltm1lica del Pem, que tracto la clem11rrncim1 de sus 71rv11i11ci11s, lo desrripc-ion dellas, los furufocíones de lo.s nueuvas ciud(ldes. los ritos y costumbres de los Tndios, u (lfr(I~ Anwr~. En cas.1 dt• l. cosas estraños dig11as de SC'f sllbidas Steelsio. 15.51 IS1·vi!lt., 1553] Collier, Donald, Jr ( 19.'55) Culturol cliro110/of!.y and clw11ge as reflected i11 thc ceramic9 of the Vim Vallcy. Per1.1. ICl1ieagol Chicago Natural HislOT)' X!u~eum, 1955. 226 p.

Cn1z, Padre de la 1 ms .. ca. 15-15J This manuscript may still be in existence ( S1•t•: Chapt<•r \'lll o{ this \•ol11me) Dee'e~, Edward S., Jr. ( 1952) ~Radio<:arbon l)ating" Scientific America11. \' J.86, Feb .. 1952, pp. 24-28. Doering, lleinrich U ( 1952) Tlie orto/ a11cie11l Penr. New York, Frederkk A. Prn<'gPr f 19521 240 p. Estete, Miguel de l 1533- l5521 ( 1918) El desc11Úri111e11/11 y la conquisto del Peru; L 111~. of J.533 to 15521 relacion incdita de ~liguel de Estete; la puhlka c:o11 una introduccion y nota~ Carlos '.\f. Larrea. Quito, Ee1iador. Impr. de la Unh·cn;idad Central. l918. 51 p. E' ans, Clifford. Sc>c>: Strong, \Villiam Duncan Fe>ióo de So~a, ~lig\lel ( 1763) Relacion descriptivo de la ci11d(1d y proci11cia clr 'fruxillo del Escrita por del Peru, con notica~ cMctas de su estado político Madrid, Jmpr d!'I fü'ill. y supremo doctor don :\ligue! Fcyjóo consejo de las lndíns, 1763. 164 p. Flori;111, X1ario ( 1951) U11 ico1111 11111ra1 ra Batan Cra11de. Lima, Impr. Amanta. 1951. Ford, James Alfrcd ancl Willcy, Cordon Randolph ( l 91!)) S11rface Survey of the VirlÍ Valley, Pem. l. \'irú \'alll'y: h:wkground an<l problt>ms l by] James Alfred Ford ami Cordon R. Willey 2. Culrurnl dating of prehistoric silt's in \"iri1 \'all1·y. Peru [by] jamt>~ Alfrcd Ford. (A11tliro¡K1logical ¡x1pe1Y. \' .iJ, pt. l) .New York, Thc American :\luseurn of Natural 1 li~to~, 19-19. 89 p. Garcilaso dt> la Vl'gt1, t'I Inca [1601) ( 1918-1920) 1.AJs co111e11lorios reafc., de los Incas por Gorclla~o de lo Vega f ms. 1601 l Anotadont•s y coucordoncias con la, Cr6nicas de Indias, por 1 loracio 11. Urteaga. Elogia del Inca (;;1rcilaso, por el doctor José de· la íliva Agüera. Lima, lmp. )' Librería Sanmarti y ca., 1018-20. 6 v Giesecke, Albertn ( 1939) "Las íluinas ele Paramonga" Boletí11 de la Sodcdad Ceografica de l.ima, \' .'56, i'\n. 2, 1939. pp. 116-123. Cilliu, john Phillip ( 19.15) (Smithsonian lnslilution. Moche," Pen11•í(m coa.<otol can1111m1ity. lnstitute uf Soda! Anthropology P11hlieatio11 110. 3) \\'ashington, U S. Cmc·mme11t Printing Offit•t• [19451 166 p. Hagar, Stan~b11ry ( 1909) F.lement.v of tlw Maya and Mexican zodiac1. \.Vicn, A. l\h1rtleben, 1909.

251

ll andbook of South American lndians. ( 19-16-1950) Edited by Julian Haynes Steward. ( Smithsonian lnstitution. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 143) Washington, U S. Covernment Printing Office, 1946-50. 6 v Heycrdahl, Thor ( 1952) Americau Indtans in the Pacl/ic; tire thecnj hehind tlie Kon-Tiki expedition. London, Allcn. 1952. S\', 821 p. Holstein, Otto ( 1927) "Chan-Chan: Capital of the great Chimu" Ceogranñica! Redew, jan., 1927 V 17, pp. 36-61". Horkheimer, Hans ( 1943) Historia del Peru: época prehispánica. Trujillo, Impr. Gamarra. 1943. 193 p. JTorkheimer, Hans ( 1944) Vistas arqueologicas del noroeste del Perú. Trujillo, Librería e imprenta Moreno, 1944. 83 p. llorkheimer, Hans ( 1947) "Breve bihliograña sobre d Peru prehispánico" Revista de la Biblioteca Nacional de Uma. No. 5, 1947 pp. (200) -282. Horkheimcr, Hans ( 1947) "Las plazoletas, rayas y figuras prehíspáuicas en las pampas y crestas de la hoya del Río Grande" Becista de la Unicersidad Nocional de Truiillo. época JI, no. l. 1947 pp. 45-63. llorkheimer, Jlaus ( 1950) El Perú prehispánico: intento de un ma1111al. Lima. Editorial Cultura Antártica, 1950. 1 Iumboldt, Alexander von ( 1814) Researches ccncerning the i11stitutions and monuments of the ancient inhabuants of 1\merica London, Longman, 1814. 2 v ( See: Vol. 1, p. 379 Cor Mexican calendar; Vol. II, p. 130 Ior calendar of the Chíbchas ) Humboldt. Alexander von ( 1877) Sitios de las Cordilleras y Monumentos de los pueblos indígenas de América. Traduccion de Bernardo Cinex, Madrid. Imprenta y Liberia de Caspar, 1878. viii, 439 p. Jijón y Caamaño, Jacinto ( 1949) Maranga, contribución al conocimíe11to de los aborigines del Valle del Rimac, Perú. Quito, Ecuador, "La Prensa Católica", 1949. 511 p. Johnson, George R. ( 1930) Peru from the air with text and notes by Raye R. Platt. (American Ceographical Society Special Publication No. 12) .ew York, American Ceographical Society 1930. 159 p. Juan, Joséf ( 1793) Ms. map of Pachacamac, 1793. ( See: Chapter V) Kosok, Paul ( 1940) "The Role of Irrigatiou in Ancicnt Pero" (In: Eighth American Scientiiic Congress Proceedings. Vol. U: Anthropological Sciences. pp. 169-178 map, Washington, D. C., 1940) Washington, U S. Departrnent uf State, 1940. Kosok, Paul ( 194 7) "Desert Puzzle of Peru" Science Illustrated. Sept., 1947. V 2, No. 9, pp. 60-61. 92. Kosok, Paul ( 1947) "Pre-Inca Markings in Peru" Life, [uly 28. 1947 ,. 23. pp. 75-76.

252

Kosok. Paul and Rciche, ~!aria 1947) "The ~lysterious ~larkings of Nazca·· Satura[ Histonj. May, 1947 v 56, ~o. 5, pp. 200-207, 2:3í-238. Kosok, Paul and Reiche, ~(aria ( 1949) "Ancient Drawings on the Desert of Peru" Archaeologu, Dec., 1949, v 2. ::-.¡º· 4, pp. 206-215. Kroeber, Alfred Louis ( 1926) Archaeological explorations in Peru. Pt. ll: The Norther» Coast. ( Anthropologieal ~lemoirs, Field Museum of Natural History \' 2. Xo. 4) Chieago, Field Museum of :\'atura] History, 1926. Kroeber, Alfred Louis ( 1944) Periwian Archneologs] in 19-12. ( \'iking Fund Publications in Anthropology, 1\o. 4) ~ew York, The Viking Fund, 1944. 151 p. Lambaueque Anuario. ( 1947) published in Chiclayo [?) Peru, Larco Hoylc, Rafael ( 1938) Los Mocl1icas. Lima, 1938-39. 2 v Larco Hoyle, Rafael ( 1941) Los Cupisniques. Trabajo presentada al Congreso internacional de americanistas de Lima, XXVII sesion. Lima. Casa editoria "La Crónica" y "Variedades", s.a. ltda .. 1941. 259 p. Larco Iloylc, Rafad ( 1948) Cronologia arqueologica del norte del Peru, Trujillo, 1948. Léon-Barandiarán, Augusto D. (1934) A golpe de arpa; [olk-lore lambayecano de humorismo y costumbres, por Augusto D. Léon-Barandiarán y Rómulo Paredes Lima, 1934. 397 p. Léon-Barandiaráu. Augusto D. ( 1938) Mitos leyendas y tradiciones lambaijecanas [¡>or] Augusto D. Léon-Barandiarán. [Lima? 1938?] 312 p. Locke, Leslíe Leland ( 1923) The ancient quipu or Penwian knot record. New York., The American Museum of ~atura! History 1923. 84 p. Lockyer. Sir Joseph Nonnan ( 1906) Stonehenge and other British stone numuments astro11omically considered. London, .\lacmillan and Co., 1906. 340 p. .\lartínez Compañón, Baltasar Jaime. archbishop Tm¡illo del Perú a fines del siglo XVIJI, díbu;os y ac11arelas que mandó hacer el obispo d. Baltasar Jaime Martínez ComJ)(liión; edición prologo de Jesús Domínquez Bordona. ~ladrid. 1936. 22 p.

\leneses, Padre ( ms., ca. 1545) ~rs. may stiU be in esistence. ( See: Chapter VIII ~fiddendorf, E. \V ( 1892) Das M11chik oder die Chimu-Sprache ~lit einer einleitung iiber die culttm·olkf'r. die gleicht.eitig mit den Tnkas und Aimarás in Südamerika lebten, und einem anhang über die Chibchasprache. Leipzig, F A. Brockhaus, 1892. 222 p. ~liddendorf, E. \V ( 1893-1895) Peru: beobachtw1gen und studieri über dos land 1111d seírre beu;olmer 1ciihre11d eínes 25 iiihrigen aufentlwlts. Berlín, R. Oppenheim (C. Schmidt), 1893-1895. 3 ,. .\fodesto de Rubifios. Justo ( 1936) '·un manuscrito interesante: sucesión cronol6gica de los curas de ~lorropc y Pacora·· Recísta histórica. Lima. 1936. Tomo 10. pp. 289-363. \fontesinos, Femando de (ms. 16441 ( 1920) Memori<is antigu(ls historiales del Peru. Translated and edited by Plúlip Ainsworth ~leans, with an introduction by the late Sir Clements R. ~farkbam. London, Printed for the Hakluyt Society. 1920. 132 p. ~lorley, Sylrnnus Criswold ( 1915) An introductiori to the study of Maya hieroglyphs. ( Smithsnnian Institution. Bureau of American Ethnology, 13ulletin 57) \Vashington, U S. Govemment Printing Olfk-e, 1915. 284 p. ~lueUe, Jorge C. ( 1943) "Conceming the núddle Chirnu style" American Arclweology and Et1inology. Vol. 39, no. 3, 1943. pp. 203-16. \forra, John ( 1946) 'ºThe Historie Tribes of Ecuador" (In: Handbook of Sout/1 American India11S. Smithsonian Tnstitution. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 143. Vol. U, pp. 78.5-807) Washington, U S. Govenunent Prinling Office, 1946. .'.'Jordenskiold, Erland ( 1925) ··calculations with years and months in the Peruvian quipus Comparatíve Etlrnograpliícal Studies. V 6, pt. 2. New York, Oxford University Press, 192.5. 36 p. • ordenskiold, Erland ( 1925) "Secret of the Pemvian quipus" Comparative /i.thnographical Studies, v 6, pt. l. ~ew York, Oxford University Press, l 925. 38p.

~read, Charles Williams ( 1916) Co11ve11tio11aliz.ed figures in ancient Perudan 11rt. X Y., Tlw Trustees [Americ-.m ~luscum of Natural J-listoryJ 1916. p. 193217 (Anthropologic.-al Papers of the American museum of natural history Vol. XII, pt. V ) .\[eans, PhiHp A.insworth ( 1931) Ancient civilizations of the Andes. . ew York, Scribner, 1931. 586 p. Me;ns, Philip Ainsworth { 1932) Fall of the Inca empire and tl1e Spanish rule in Peru; 1530-1780. ~ew York, Scribner, 1932. 351 p.

Pacheco, Julio Victor ( 1922) "Historia de los Valles de Chieama, Virú y Santa: La Tr11l11slria, Tn1jiUo, Peru, .\larch 8 and 25, 1922.

~lejía Xesspe, ~l. T 'ºAcueductos y caminos antiquos de la hoya del Rio Grande de Xasca" Actos y Trobaies Cienti/ie<>s. pp. 559-570. 27th lnternational Conference of Americanists. Lima, 1938. Vol. l.

Pacheoo, Julio Víctor ( 1926) "Los Yu11gas, Prehistoria y Origen de Jos Primeros Pobladores de las Costas del Pen1" Ciudad y Campo, Trujillo, Peru, Jan .. 1926.

Nuttall, ~lrs. Zelia ( 1901) The furulamental /Jrinciples of Old and New world civilizatfrm.v: a comporatii;e resea.rc11 based on a study of the ancie11/ Mexican relígious, sociologica/ and calendrical systemp. By Zelia Nuttall Cambridge, Mass., Peabody Museum of America11 archaeology and etlmology, 1901. 602 p. (Archaeolngical a11d ethnological papers of the Peabody museum, Harvard Uuiversity, Vol. U)

de Hacienda y Commercio, Direc( 1944) Censo Nacional de Pohlaciot: y Ocupacicrn, 19./0. Lima, 1944. Posnansky, Arthur ( 19-!5) Tihuanacu, the Cradle of American 1\/(111. New York, J J Augustin (19451 Quipucamayocs (ca. 1541-1544) Discurso sobre la descencia y gobiemo de los Incas. Editcd by Drs. llorado H. Urteaga and Carlos A. Romero. A Reappraisa! of Perui>ian Arclweo/ogy ( 1948) Memuirs of the Soeicty for American Archaeologj Supplcment to American Antiquitlj, published jointly by the Socicty for American Archneology and rhe Institutr- of Andcan Research. April, 1948. V 13. 1 o. 4, part 2. Reiche, Maria ( 1949) Myste1y 011 the de ert; a study of the 1111ci1ml figures 11nd stnuu;e delineated surjaces seen [roni the oír near Nazca, Peru, Wíth 25 aeríal photos from the archives of the Peruvian Air Ministry ami 34 ground víews by the author. Lima. 19-!9. 66 p. ( Also publishc<l in Spanish ) Reíchlen, Henry anti Paule ( 1949) "Recherches Archaeologiques <lans les Andes de Cajamnrca" lournal ele la Société eles Américunistes, n.s., \" 38, pp. 137-17-1. 1949. Heíss, Wilhelm und Stiibel, Alfons ( 1880) The necropolis ol Aneen in Petu; a eontributiou to our knowledge of the culture and industries of the ernpire of the Incas; beíng the results of excavations made on thc spot by W Rcíss and A. Stübcl, tr. by Professor A. H. Keane with the aid oí the general udministrntion of the Royal museums of Berlín Berlín, A. Asher & Co., 188()...87 3 v

Schuedel, Richard Paul ( 1951)

Roosevclt, Cornelius Van S. ( 1935) "Ancicnt Civilízatlons of thc Santa Vnlley .an<l Chavin," Ce11granlucal Review, XXV, 1935. pp. 21-42. Rowe. John Howland ( 1945) "Absolute Chronology in the Andean arca" Americ<m A11tir111ity, Jan., H)45. V 10, pp. 265-84. Rowe, John llowland ( 1948) "On Absoluto Duting and North Coast History" ( In: A reanpraisal o] Peruoian Arclweo/ogy) Memoirs of the Socicty for Amerícnn Archucology Supplernent to American Anti<111ity. April, 11)48. V 13, No. 4, Part 2, pp. 51-52. Rowe. john Howland ( 1948) "The Kíngdorn of Chimor", Act a Americana ( Ínter-American Society uf Anthropology, Washington, D. C.) V 6, No. 1-2. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1948. Sarmiento de Gamboa, Pedro l ms. 15711 ( 1907) Historij vi the Incas, by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa. an<l the execution of the Inca Tupae Amaru by Captain Baltasar de Ocarnpo, translated and edited, with notes and introductíon, by Sir Clcments Mnrkhurn. Cambridge, Printed for the llakluyt Society. I 907 395 p. ( Original manuscript in the University oí Cottingcn Líbrary)

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Schaedel, Richard Paul ( 1949) "Uncovering a Frieze on the Peruvian Coast" Archaeologu, )une, 1949. V 2, No. 2, pp. 73-7.5.

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Scientific Amuiclln, August. 1951.

Schaedel, Hkhard Paul ( 1951) ··:-.1ochica ~lurals at Panamarca·· \' 4. pp. 145-154.

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1951.

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Pach(lccmwc, report vi the 'Villiam Pepper

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( 1953)

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C(lxamnrca hasta Ja11/ll ( Sei;illn /.534 escrito ¡)()r Francisco ele Xerez y Miguel de Este, edición preparda por A11to11io R. Rodrí¡z,11ez Mvfiirw con facimiles. Badajoz, Arqueros, 1929, 202 p. Xnl':.-, Francisco de [ms .. 1533] ( 1917) Las relocíones ele la co11411i~tu del Perú por Froncisco ele ]ere;:, y Pee/ro S1111clw, secretarios officiales de Don Francisco Piwrm ( 15.12-1.533) Nota biogr:Hicas y concordancias con las cronicas de lndias, por Iloracio 11. Urteaga Biogrnfüis de Jerez }' Sancho, por Carlos A. Romero Lima. Saumarti y ca .. 1917 224 p. Yasser. joseph ( 1932) A tlieory ol evofoing to11nlity. ~lu~kology, 1932. 381 p.

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Zen1llos Quiiiones, Jorge ( 1944) Tn¡umim'Ía

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Lima, 1944. Zcvallos Quiñones, Jorge ( 1947) ''Un Diceionaria Castellano-Yung:i" Estudios Yungas ll. Sohrf'tiru de la Rei;ista del /l.foseo Nacional. Toma, XV, pp. 163-188. 1947 Ze' allos Qwño11l.'S, jorge ( 1948) "Lo~ Gramaticos de la Langua Yunga" Estudio Yungas III. Cuadernos de Estudio. Instituto de Investigaciones Hbtoricas. Poutifica Uniq~rsida<l Catolica del Peru, \' 3, :Xo. 6, pp. 40-67 1948.

253

lndex will be of use to both tlie scholar and the general reader Bejcrences to photoeraph« hace [elt that they u:ere essential, or ichere the subiect matter was 110l mentioned in tlie text of the book,

The index has been prepared. so that it

been included only uihere it

W{lS

A A banca y. \'l.50 absoluto chronology, VIJT,73;79 absolute dating, VIII,75 acequia madre - main canal. XV,141,cup.Fig.2 adobe conicul adobes, XI,109,cap. Fig.31 houses, lV,31 mounds. X\'l,149 pyramids, Xl,107 ruins. Xll,122,Fig.9 adoboues, XXI,215; XXII,223; XXIIT,228 Adachi Kíroku, l ,J 2,Caplions administrative officials of the Incas. VT,59 xrv, acriul photographs, II,19; V,39-48; Xl,108; Xll,L23,126,128; XVIll,189, 135,138; XV,142,144; XVl.149,160; XVII,183,184; XX.205,207; XXl.213; XXTf,218,219,220,221,225,226; 190,191, ll.227 ,229.231 XT,107; XV,142 mosuics Afora, XII,123 Afrasia, 11,15; XXV,247 Afravian irrigution societiev, XX\'.246 Afuera, Pampa, XXlll,228 Agriculture, Dept. of, Peruvian, lV,33,34; XVI,150,169; XXTV,235 Agriculture, IV.31, land cultivation, 33,34,36; VI,54,59; VJTJ,72,75; XJI.119 agricultura! ere-le; Xll,131; XIV,137 mnximum extensíon; XXI,213; XXV,247 maize agricultural economy, XXV,247 agrlculturally-rooled early class societies, XXV.247 Agua de Onda, XX,209 aguardiente ~trong drink, XIl,131 algarroba bushes, XTl,115,Fig.l ,127,Fig.20 Iorest, XVI,162 posts, X\'l,167 128 treos, IX,96; Allpaeoto (Supe Valley ), XXJl,224,Fíg.16; 225 Alomía Robles, Daniel, l\',28 Alpacote ruins, XX,204,l"ig.4-6,205,206 altiplano, XIX, 199 Alto Peru, X\'111,189 ruinv, 19:2,Fig.1:3

xxi

xu,

2.54

Arnatope, XXIV,238 Amazon, Vll,63,64; X\'l,171 American continent, X,'\V,247 American Ceographical Society. 11.19 American Museum of Natural Ll istory, V.39; XII,] 17 American Oriental Soeíety, 11,15 "Arnfortus" of tJ11~ Andes, XJI,134 Ancash, I\'.26 Dcpartment of; 1 lu:iras-capital city, XIX,198 Ancón, VII,64,Fig.5;65,cap. Fig.8; XXIl,228 folk musíc;l31 Andean music, Xlll,.132;13.'l musiciun, 131,Fig.8 songs uud dances, XIX,198 Andcrson, JV,31 10; Andes, P.2,Fig.4 and cap.Fig.S: 1,7 and Fig.J 1;8;9.cap.Fig.19: lll,21 and cap.Fig.2,23 (Continental Div ide): l\'.36: \'ll.0-1: xvr, XITT,129;130;131; XII,118,Fig.10;119; X,100-Chacras; XXTV,244 171; XVlll,187; XIX,197;202,Fig.24; auimals in coastal valleys. X\'11,184 annual water dischargo, XI,102 IX,89; Xll.116; XVI, Anonyrnous Trujillano, VIII,74;79;80;84;85; 180; XVII,181;] 82; 186; XVI ll.193 pan pipe, Xll,132 and Fig.ll;lS.~.Fig.13 1111tl1ra Anthropological Institute of the University of Trujillo Dr Richard P Schnedel, Director see: Institute, IV,38; V,47 Anto Tunpa, XVI,176; 177 Apurlé, X\'l,l53; 162:163;165-167.172,Fi)!.58;178 uqueduct, XIV,137 Arboleda, Captain, X,97 Arbusto huaca sitc ( Hush }, XVI,171; 178,Fij!.72 IX.89: XI,109,cap.Fig.31, coastal; 110, architccture, 1,12,cap.fig.34; Late Chimú; Xlll,130, Spnnlsh, Inca; XYl,163 archivev, IV,27;28; VIIT,84;86; Xlll,130; XVI,165; XIX,201 Arena, Cerro de ( Sancl Hill ), X\11.160 Arequipa, IV,26;27; \'1..50; XXlV.2.35 Armas, Plaza de Curás, XlX,198 Chicluyo, XVl,149 Lima, lV,26,Fig.2 Armutamho, ruíns, lV.32 Army topographícal maps (Peruvian ), XIV,138; XXlll.227 Aral Sl'.t, XX\',247

Art, XI,112 Artistic levels, 1, 13 Arts aud handicrafts,

l,13

Aseope

uqueduct, XI.106,Fig.22 communidude, Xl,103 Axin, X.Xlll.231 A;,ia ~linor, XX\'.247 Astorpilco, XTII,130 XXI.213 astronomor-príosts, VI,52;54;55;61; astronomicul-calcndrlcal ceremoniulivm in Nazca, VT,58 cult, X,'\J,213 cult, ceremonial eenters, Vl,55 data, recordcd in quipu«, VT,.59 data, on huacos. VI,60 lines, \'l,.57 markings, VI,52-58;60; XXIII,227 recording devices, rnarkiugs in uzca descrt, VJ,60 rituals, VI ,.54 textiles, X l, 113,cap. Fig.44 IX,94 ustronomy, Vl,49-62:49,cap.Fig.1; Arahualpn, XII,ll8; XLII,130; XV,144,cap.Fig. l l; XVI,179 Auric:h brothers and Señora Aurich ( mother ), XVI,160;161 motor car with ílangcd wheels used on railroad tracks, a11tocagó11 XIII,129 Ayacucho, VT,50 Aymara, IV,26 Azabache, Sr .. X,'\..208 uzimuths of pyramids, Vl,53 of lines, Vl ,56 Aztec

Empire, XXV,246 society, TV,31; X,98 Aztecs, Vl,6:2

B Babylonía, lll,23; VI,61; XXV,247 Baca, Ingeniero Víctor, X\11,150; 1.51 ballet, IV,28 balsa rafts, LX,96, Guayaquil B.1y regíon, Ecuador: XXlV.241:2·12; 244,Fig.25

babas, X\'l.148 Baluchistau. XX\',247 Bandelier, 1\',33,Fig.23; V,40,cap.Fig.3 Bandera, J luucu-, cll' la (The Banner), XVl,L67:168:174.l"ig.{i1;17.5, Fig.68 bañas - baths, XX,205 "Baños de los Incas", XIII,130 plutenu, XII,121,cap.Fig.6 barranca Barranco. suburh of Lima, V,39 hasíc 1111ity of mankínd. XX\',247 basurales ancient garhage dumpv, Vll,68 Batan Grande ( Large :\1illi11g Stonc ) Hacienda, X\11,147 ;151;160 Hacienda (Leche Valley), XVJI, 184 Huacas, X\'l, 162;163;165,Fig . .'38;166 ;111d Fig.4.5;168,Fig.50;178 bean and other plant proto-agriculture, XXV,247 bean markings. Vl,60,Figs.29-30 .. Beí mir bíst du Schoen", Xlll,13-1 Belén, Colegio de, Xlll,131,Fig.7 XVIT.183 Bennett, Prof. Wendell, \llll,72;75; XVT,147;148:163; (1950); XlX,201; XXI,216(1938) Bírd, Dr. junius, V,39; VII1,75; VJJ,183 Bitín, Cerro, XVII,183 blackware. sce. Ceramics Chimú hluckwnre Blanco. Huaca Cerro, XX,208,Fig.15;209 boats. L'<,95:96 Bocanegra, Señor, \~,55 Bolívar, Puerto. XXIV,241 Bolívar, Sírnon, Vl,64 Bolivia, IV,36; Vl,64 borrachera - drinking bout, XVl,175 bruieria - witchcraft, XVI,166 Brüning, Enríqué, XVI,162;163:165:166 Buchwald, i», lV,28 Buck, Fritz, \'l,60 Buena Vista, 1 laeienda, XVH,184 ruins, XV1ll,190,Fig.7 "hu lbs" desert druwings, \11,52,cap.Fig.8 hullfights, XV1, 16.'5 burial customv, \ 'l ,61, buried treasun-, IX,89 Burro Corral, X 'I,216 Burros, Pampa de, XVI,161,Fig.29

vu.ss

e caballitos ( liule horses ) - reed bouts, IX,95.Figs.26-27 ;96; Xv'I, 148; 179,Fig.78 totora reeds, IX,95,cap.Fig.26 XIT, 80;81;83;84; Cabello de Valboa, Vlll,79 (md586fl9511); 116:119; XV,145; XVI,147;148:153;163:165:179 Cabras, Cerro ( Coat HiU ), lX,90.Fig.10 Cachicadan, X,97-100; XIX,196 Cacho, José Manuel, Vl,65 Cahokia mouuds, XXV,246 Cajamarca, Xfll,129-134; town, XIJI,130,Fig.3;131.Fig~.5-6: XV,146: XVI.I53;179 Xll.118:119;126;

Caj.uuurquilla, IV ,29;36,Fig.27 Cala, 0111' of Naymlap's ~011s, XVl,163 JOO; XIT,118 Calmu-ha, VHI.79; IX,88;95: X,99 (BK.111.Chap.H); XVII,182 (1638); 119,( 1948,II,Chap.Ul) 121;123;126,cap.l"ig.18; XXIJ,219 (16.'.38:627-32) ( BK.Tll,Chap.IV); and Fig.32:62; IX,90; XXI.213 calendar, \ll,5<1;58,cap.Fig.26,('S0;61 oalcndricnl numbers, XXl.213 calculntions, Vl,52;57 calcndrical observations Nazca markings, Vl,52 cnlendrícnl systems, Vl,60;61;62 Muya, 1.4 calendrtcnl textile, Vl,62,fi¡.:.34 Ctillao, IV,28;30 Callejón de Huaylas (Santa Vallcy), Peruvian Andes, X,98; XIX. 19.5;196;197;198 and Fig.10;199 and Fig.13;200;201 Cambio Puente, XVUI.192: XX,209;210 Camellón, Río, A.'Vl,160 Campano, Cerro, XV.143 La Campanilla, huaca group, XT,107;111,Fig.40 & 17, 10.5; 106,Fig.23:107. cauals, H.16; IX,94;95: XI,104,Figs.14 XIIl,130;135-138: Xll.110.cap.Fig.36;116-119;128; Fig.27;114; XVI, 148; 150; 151.153: 154,Fig.13:159XlV,138; XV,141;142:144; XIX. XVlll,187-193: 178; XVll,183-186; 163:166: 168;169;171; 199: XX,205;206; XXI,213; XXll,218; XXlV,235;239 Cañete, V,44; lX,88; XXHI,231 Cuñoncíllo, Cerro, XII,115,cap. F'ig. l Cantugullo (The Cock Crows ), XVIIl,189 Cao, Magdalena de, XI,103 Cuo. Santiago de, XJ,103; 107 Carabayllo (Chillón Vallt>y). XVII,182 Carás, XIX.197;198 and Fig.10;200 Carbón )4 mcnsurements, dating, and probable error, VI,53; VIII,7.5 Carbonera, Huacas, XX,208,f'ig.21 Cnribbcan, III,21 Carrero, Fernando de la, Pcruviau pricst. Mochica grammar (164-1), VII,69;70 Carrión, Dr Rebeca, IV.28 Carnzal, Cerro, XXIV.236 Cartagena, IIJ,21 Cartavio, Hacienda (Chicama Valley}, owned by \V R. Grace & c«, XI,l 02;103,Fig.12;105,Fig.1R;107 Casa Grande Hacienda ( Chicama Vallcy ), XI,102; 103,Figs.8 & 12: XII, 121 108,t?ig.32;109,cap.Fig.31; Castro, Sr. Julian, IX,94 Casma Valley, river, aud town, V,44; lX,87, XVIII,182;184; XIX, XXl,211-216;212, 199;201;202( town ); XX,203( rin·r);208;209; Fig.4;215( town) Catacaos, XVI,169; XXIV,240,Fig.17

cat-dernon figure, dcsert drawings, V.1,.54,c::ip.Fig. 13; Vll,68; head, XVIII,188 cathcdrals, Xl,112 cattlc-grnztng, XIII,131 XVl,t.54,F'ig.14 Cayalti, Hacienda, :\.'V,139;142;145,cap.Fig.12: Cayl~m. XX,208 and Fig.20;209,Fig.21 Censos of 1940, Peruvian, IV,25;27 Centinela, Cerro, XXIII.227 ,Fig.2

Central Arnericu, XXV,245 Central Coast, 11, l 6; lV,30;34, land cultivntion and populution: .X)(Jl,217 :218:220:223; XXIII,228:232:2:33 Central Highwuy, VIT.63;0.1 c~·ntral Ilailwuy, Vll,0.'.3,Fig.3 Central Sierras. IV,26 centralizatíon, I.X,88; XXV ,246 cera mies T,5 Mochica and 'ozca; 7 ;13, artistic lcvcls III.23 \'TT,68 changes in cultural Iorms rellected i11 chauges in pottery style~ Chimú blackwure Mochica molds, Cupisnique limes Nazca aren

paddle ware painting, negative and positive pornographicu portrait huacos, also: Xl,110;111;113,Fi~.4 potter's wheel unknown pottery, index Ior relaí ing datin_g pressed relief modelíug "spankíng" stírrup spoul water j11g> types found on Coasl utility ware water jugs for ceremonial and burial purposes VITl,71; IX,89;90;91,Fig.13;94 bírd huXl,101, Chíclin ~1useum;l02, Mochicu;IOR,Fig.29;110, llCM,Fig.35; l ll,Fig.39, potato-shaped human figures;l08;113 Inca:l26. cursive Xll,118, collections Irorn Jequetepcquc;l23;127, XTTT,131, Cajnmnrcn U period; also Nazca type and Mochica: Xl\.,137, black Chirnú ware;l38, Pampa de Zmia; .X.'V,142, blacl.ware;l43 X\'l, 148; 149: 153,Fig.12, Lambaycquc blackware; 154,Fig.13; 159, and Fig.49;168, paddle ware; 169,cO\lll· :-.tochica;l66,Fig.40;1-17 180. tcrfeil anliques;l 75 and Figs.65 and 67 ;l 78;Figs.72,76,77, Chimú blackwurc XVII,181,Fig.2, Virú negative and modeled potsherds;l83,Fig.4: ~lochica;l86,Fig.12. Virú modeled,185,Fig.12, 184,Fig.7,Fig.8, portrait huaco X\'lll.189. ~lochica;191, .l\lochica;l91 XlX,196.Fig.2, Recuay st~·le;201,Fig.19;201, '':\fickey ~louse." XXI.211;2L4;2l.5, :-.tonochrome wari> XXIl,221, Coastal Tiahuanaco;224,225; XXIII,228 ceremonial ::md pilgrim:ige centers, 1\1,30, Puchacamac; XI,107; X\II,L67; XXI,213; XXV,246 ceremonial cult, XVlll,188 ceremonial water jugs, XI,101 Cctemi. Wife of :\'aymlap, XVI,148 Chachic, IX,91,cap.Fig.12 Chacchita, Río, IX,91,cap.Fig.12 Chacma, IX,88 chacras - small cultivat<·d plots of land, X,100,cnp.Fig.10 XlV,1:38; XV,146.map Chamán River, Río Chamfo, XIl,119,Fig.2;

255

Chanca y aerial photographs, V,44 valley, XVll,182 VI,65,cap.Fig.8; lX,88; XXll,217; XXllI,228;229;232 Chancayillo ( Little Cbancay) ( Casma Valley), also known as El Castillo and Calaveras, XXI,210,Fig.1;2ll and Fig.2;212.Fig.4: 213 CbanChan. IV,33,cap.Fig.23;34,cap.Fig.25; V,47, VI,67,cap.Fig. l 4; 64; Vll,70,cap.Fig.24; VIII,71,Fig.l,76-77;Fig.4;78,Fig.6:79,Fig. 7 ;80,Fig.8;81 ;83-85; Fig.19; IX,88-91;93;95,cap.Fig.37;96; XI, 103;105;106;110; XII,116;121,cap.Fig.6;123; XVI,163; XX,205; XXIV,236 Chanquin Cuanguan, XXIIJ,229 Chao, V,44; IX,87-89; X.98; XII,117, XVI,153; XVU.181-186;181. Fig.l; XVIII,187;192 Chaparri, Quebrada, XVI,151;154,Fig.14;159;160;161 and Fig.29; XVII,184 Charts I and TI, cultural sequences, VIIl,72 Chavin, VIII,72; XXV,247 Chavín Period, Vcry Early Coastal, VII,68; XI,111; XVIII,194; XX,209;210; XXl,211;215 Chavín de l Iuantur, XIX,196,cap.Fig.4;199; XXl,211 Chepén, XII,116,Fig.2;ll 7 ,Fig.2;121 Chérrepe, Antiqua, XJV,136,Fig.3;137,Fig.5 Calete, XV,146 Calita, XJV,138 Cerro, XJV,)38 Port of, XV,146 Chibchas of Colombia ceremonial calendar, Vl,54;60 Chicama, V,44; VIII,75;86; XI,101-114 Chicarna-Moche Canal, Xl,105;114 XIl,116;117;118;126; XVI,147;148; XVlll,187; XXII,218; XXlV,236 Mochíca culture, XT,101 Pueblo, XI,103;107 Hiver, IV,33 annual water díscharges, lV,29,Figs.10-12; VII,69.cap.Fig.20; IX,87-89;93;94 chicha drink, XIII,131 Chíchén Itzá, XXV,245;246 Chiclayo, VII,64; XV,146; XIJ,126; XVl,148,Figs.2-3;149;150;165; 167,169 Chiclin, XXIV,236 Hacienda, XI,102;103 Museum, VI,60; VII,65;69,Fig.22; XI,101;109; XIll,133 Chilca, V,44 Chilco, XXllI,231 Chile, Ill,22;23; IV,36; VIT,63; IX,95 Chilete, XII,128; XIII,129 Chillón ( Carabayllo ) Valley, IV,28; V,44; Vl,57, XVIl,182 Chillón-Rimac-Lurín Complex, map, III,24; IX,88; XXII,217; XXIIl,229 ;232 Chimhote (Santa Valley ) fishing center, XII,121; XVlll,187,188 and Fig.3; XIX,195; XX,210 Chímo, Valle del (Moche), VH,70,cap.Fig.24 Chimor (Moche), VII,64 Chimú, Hotel, Chimbote, XVIII,188

256

Chimú culture, Vlll,72 Chimú Empire, po,~sim, JJ,16;18;19; VIJI,79; XVI,178;180; XVIII, 181;186; XXV,246 agriculture, XIV,137 Dcfeat of Rirnac Foderation arrny, X\lll,182 domination of Lambayeque, XVI,148;153;179 extent-llrníts, XVll,182 orthem Zone of Chimú Empire VII,64; VIII,79; IX,87;88;90; X,99;100; Xll,115-18; XIV,137, XV,145 period, XVI,159;163 populatíon, IV,34 rulers, VTJI,79;80; XI,96; XJI,l 19; XIII,132 Santa allies, XVITI,189

Chímús

ceramics-blackware VI,60; VII,68; VIII,71;73;74;77;79;81;83;86; IX,94;96;88; xr, 103; Xll,118;119;123; XIV,J37;L38; XV,145; XVI,171,180; A'VIJJ,194; XTX,201; XX,205;209;210; XXI,211 ;215; XXII,217, 218;225; XXIII,228;229; XXJV,236;238 Early {Mochíea ) ceramícs, VIII,171; XVIII,194 "Cauleiter," XX,210 Grand Chirnú, IX,88; XII,121,Fig.6 Late - Inca Period, XT,110;114; XIX,201; XV,143,cap.Fig.8 China, 11,15; XXV,247 Chincha, V,44; XXIII,231 Chinese, VI,61; XII,126;128 haciendas, XII,126-128 merchants, IV,27 Chino ( Chimú ), VJI,70,cap.Fig.24 Chinos, Huaca de Jos, IX,92,Figs.14-16 Chiquita Yap, Vlll,86; Xl,110,cap.Fig.37 Chiquitoy Hacienda, XI,llO,cap.Fig.37;102;]03;]07 Viejo, Vlll,86; )(I,103;105;110,Fig.37 Chiquítory, hacienda, XT,107 Ch ira IV,33; V,44; IX,87; XVI,180; XXU,217; XXIV,239;241,Fig.14; River, lll,23,Fig.6; XVJl,181; XXIV,238;243,Fig.21 Cboclococha, XXIV,235 Chocope Communidade, XI,103 Valley, XVI,167 village, XVI,167 Chongoyape ( Lambayeque Valley ) IX,95; XVl,147;150;151;154,Fig.14;159 Cerro, XVl,159 "poeket," XVI,159; XVIJ,184 Chornancap pyramid, XVI,178,Fig.74 Chotuna, lX,91; XVI,163;178,Fig.74 Huaca, XVI,147 Pyrarnid group, XVI,149 Chotuna-Choroncap, X\11,169 Christian communities, IX,91 Chroníclers, 1,4; ll,19; VI,52;53;59; VIII,75;81 ;84;85; IX,88; X,98; 99; XII,119; XIV,137; XVI,148;178;180; XXI,211;216; XXII,218; XXIV,238 Chronology, VIII,72;73

Chumhi, XVl,175 Chumuncaur, XVII,182 Caur, XXTIJ,229 Chungál, XIT,128 Chuppa Cigarro Grande, Hacienda ( Largo Cigar Sucker's ), also ( Chuquicarra ), XXII,219;220;221;225;226 Chuppa Cigarra Chico, XXII,225 Chuquicara Valley, X,98; XTX,196 River (Tablachaca ) , XTX,196 Town, XIX,196 Church, medieval, Xl,111 churrasco con arroz - beefsteak with rice, XIX,197 Cieza de León, Pedro, IV,30 (l,Chap.LXXII); VI,52;53 (l,Chap. LXXV); VIII,79 (1553):83; X,99 (I,Chap.LXVIU); XII,119 (l,Chap.LXVIII),121 (1548); XVIII,190 (l,Chap.LXX); Xc"'\I, 211 ( I,Chap.lV) Cinto, XVI,150;153 Ciurnancacum, w.Fe of Naymlap, XVI,178,Fig.74 Clan totems, VI,56 Class society evolution of, I,13 Climatology, IV,36; XXV,245 Coast, Peruvian Ill,23,Fig.6; IV,27;30;32;38; VI,55;57; VIl,63;64; VIII,71;72;73; 75;81; IX,87;88;95; X,97;98;99; Xl,102;105; XII,118;119;126; XIIl,129; XVIl,183;184; XVIII,187; XIX,195;196;198;201; XcX, 209; XXl,213;215;216; XXIV,235;238; XXV,246;247 Central, VIII,7.5;81; IX,88; XVII,182; XXI,216 crops, XVII,184 irrigation, V,39 North Central, VI,55; VIII,75 Northwest, VI,51;59; VII,64; IX,87 South, VIII,75 South Central, VI,50; VIII,75; XVII,182 Southern, VI,49 white population, IV,26 Coastal Chavin, VIII,72 Coastal cultures, XXV,247 Coastal trunk road, Xll,122-123 cocaine coca leaves, XIX,197 Colea, VI,50 Colegio - high school, Chiclayo, XVl,149 Collier, Donald Jr., XVIl,183; XXl,214 ( 1955) Collique, XV ,144; L45; XVI,J 51;153;159 Collique culture, see. Lambayeque Collus (Lambayeque Valley ), XVl,149 and Figs.5-6;163 Colombia, Ill,21; Vll,64 Color line, IV,27 Colorado, Huaca (Míddle Pcriod), Xl,105;107,cap.Fig.27;110.Fig.36 Cerro, XIII, 135,Fig.1 Colorado, Tambo (Pisco Valley), IV,33,cap.Fig.23 Commerce, XV,146 exports and imports communidades, XI,103; XVI,151 cornparative archaeology, XXV,247 cornpounds, XVI,163; XXl,213 Chirnú-type, XU,123 Late Chimú, XJ,108,Fig.28;110, architecture; XXV,247

XX,205;20í; XXll,219; walled, X\'l,153; X1,107:110,c.1p.Fig.37; XX\'.24í Conuecting roads, Xl,107 Conquest Incas bv Spaniards, IX,96 Con>t ruction adobe, Marauga, !V,34,cap. Fig.24 Contirtl'ntnl Divide, IIT.23: VlT,64; X,97,98; XIII,129.130,134; XX.203 Copán, Honduras, XXV,24.5 Copper. <ih er & gold, X,99 Cop(X'T mines, X,97,98 Corbacho, Cerro, XV ,J.13,Fig.8; U 4 and Fig.10 Cordillera XX,203 Blanea ( White Range ), XIX,195;199;201; '<·gra ( Black Range), XlX,J 99;201; XX,203 eorn hasic dict, lX,95 cconorny, XXUI,227 entton, VI,55 cottou eloth. XíT,ll9 Cropv 11,16; maize, beuns, cotton, sugar, rice IV,33; )iekb XJ,102 >..1T,l 19; commercial: sugur uud rice XVll,184; rice, corn XIX,199 XXIV,239 La Cruz (The Cross) pyramid, XVI,162 Cruz, Cerro de la, XVII,184,Fig.9;185,Fig.10;186 Cruz, Pudn- de la, VIII,84 ( ms.,c.J 545) Cucufane, l luaca, XVI,169 Culebra Valley, IX,87, XVIl,182; XlX,199; X,X,203 (River); XXl,213;216 Culpón. Cerro. XV,139;143 cultivation, XIl,115 cultiv ation zone, XX,203; XXl,213; nrea, XVlll,187 end oí, in Santa Vallcy. XIX,195 limits of, XIV,137; XVI,171; XVIII,192 cultural forros, XXV,247 cultural renaissancc, XIII,134 XIII,131 cultural sequences, VIII,71; culture Chimú, XVI,180 cultural aspects of populution problems, IV,26 cultural Iorms, XVI,180; XXV,247 sequeuce, VUI,71; XIX,201; X,XI,211 transformatíon of coastal, lV,27 cultures, l,3;13; Ill,23; VI ,51; VllI,71 Cajamarca (Sierra), Xll,l 18; XIII,131 Chavin (Sierra), I,14; VII,68; Vlll,72; Xl,101:104,Figs.15-!0; l ll; XX,208,caps.Figs. l 5 und J 8;209;210; XXI,211 Coastal Tiahuanaco, Tiahuanacoid (Míddle Period), l,J4; V,39; Xl,101;105;109.cap.Fig.34; \11,60; VII,68; VIIl,75; IX,89;91;94; Xll,123; XIV,138; XV,139;145; X\11,166:167; 110;111:113;114; XXll,221:223; 180; XVUI.194; XJX,201; XXl,213,Figs.5-6;215: XXlll.228

crossroads of, Xll.118 Cupisnique (Coastal Chav in ) (Very Early), Vll,68; Vlll,72;75; Xll,118; XVI,148; Xl,101; 107 and cap.Fig.25; 109,cap.Fig.31,110; XXV,246 Fishíng ( Bird ), Ch. X; XXV,247 Gallinazo ( Trausitlonal ), VIII,72; Xl,101;107,110 "hothouse" on Const, 1,13 Inca, see: Inca, Incas interrelationship of, I,7 XII,118 Larnbayeque (North}, XV,139,cap.Fig.1; \"l,51; Vll,68; \'Ill.71: IX,9-1; XI, Late Chimú, l,14; l\'.31;:36; XIX, XVl,163;166: Xll,119; XV,139;143,cap.Fig.8; 110:111;114: 201; XXl,215; X.\'.II,223; XXlll,233 Late ~liddJe Period ( Bennett }, XVl,148 Maya culture, \111,68; XT, I J J Míddle Chirnú, XIl,117 Mochica (Early Chimú), I,5;14; II,16,Fig.2; 18,Figs ..5-8; 19,Fig.10; IX,89;92,cap.Fig.J 7 ;94: Xl,101; Vl.51 ;60; Vll,68;69,F'ig.20;72; XIIl,131;133; 114; XII,117;118;123;126; 103;107;110;111;113; X,'C,210; X,"(11,223; XX V, X\11,148; XVIII, l88; 194,cap.Fig.18: 246 Nazca (South). VI,50;.'51; VII,68 Paracas, Ch. VI Salmar ( Trausitionul ), XI,101 :107 and Fig.25,110: XVI.148: XXV,246 seats of ancient, \ll,50 Spanish. see: Spnnish culture Tiahuanaco (Sierro), VIII, 71 Cumbemayo, XIIl,130 La Cumbre, XJ,105;106,Fig.24 Cuntipullec, XVI,153 Cupisníque Vulley, Vllf,72; Xll,117:118. mule trains: XVII,184; dry Cupisnique Rlver, Xll.117 Early Period, XXV,246 Very Early Coastal Chnvín, XXV,246 Cussí Haulpa, XVl,175 Cuzco, JV,27; \11,50; X.98; XVI,175; XXIIl,229; XXIV,235;239, Fig.10

D darns, XVIl,184 dance, lV,28 daring, VII,66; XI,107 astronomical, Vl,53 vn ,75 radio-carbón, De Clemente, August, VI,60;61,Fig.32;62 Deevey, Edward S., Jr., \IIIl,75 ( "Badiocarbon Dating", Scientific American Feb., 1952) demon-ínfested culturev, VII ,68 demou-ínfested, prk-st-dominatcd societíes, X,XV,246 demon rnasks, Xl.111 dendritic formatlon, XXII.21.7,Fig.l desert, rn.ss. X,97; Xl,105; Xll,116;123; XIV,138; XV,142; XVU,183 deser], Babylonía, XXV,247 desert coast, Vll I, 72 desert drawíngs, Vl,pa~sim

"desert jungle", XVI ,162 diet, IX,95 Dirección de Aguas y Irrigación, ll,16; lV.31; Xll.130 Dirección de Catastro (Record Oíliee ), l V .34 díversity of cultural forros, X>..'V,247 Docriug, XIT,123 (1952) Dorninican archives, VJII.84 Dorninican Order, Trujillo, \1111.84 Domingo, Pedro de la Asunción de Santo Tot11{1~. VJll.84 ( m.s.ica.] 545) Dos Cabezos. Huaca de los (Two Heuds), Xll,123 Vll,6-1; lX,87.Fig~. Dragón, Hu,1c;1 el (Moche Valle)'), ll.15.Fig.l; XVI,169 1-2:88.Figs.4-5:90;91; drama, IV,2 Drcsden Codex, Vl,61,cap.Fig.33 "dry Nile", JX,96 "dry yeur-,", XXV,247 dupk- meter, XIII,) 34

E car lobe plugs, p.Lcap.Fíg.z Early Chimú ( Mochica ), Vlll.72 Early Cupb11ique Períod, XXV,246 carly Iorm-, XXV ,246 Early Poriod, XXV ,246 earth mounds, XXV,246 earthquake, XX,203 Eastern Hemisphere, XXV,247 economy, IX,94 agricultura! irrigation, XXV,247 Ecuador, III,22; IV,36 ( mcteorological map); VTC,63;64; IX,87 ;96; XVI,180; XXIV,241 ;242;244 ínterrelatíons, XHI, 131 Ecuadoriau-Peruvian Ecuadorian border, Xll,116; XXII,236;238;240 Egypt, 11,15; lll,23 írrigatíon societies, X,'\V,247 Egypt-Ethiopiu eomplcx, XXV,247 Egvptians, VI,61 Eighth American Scíentlfic Congress, Washington, D. C., 1940 Proceedlngs, 11,15 "empire" buildin~ potentialities, XXV,247 Enginccring Socicty, IV,28 English iutcrcsts, XX,203 epidemic rneasles, Cajt1marca, XUI,131 Estaca~. lluaca, XIJ, 123;Figs.12-J3;126 La Estaqueria, Vl,55;59,Fig.27 Estele, ~ligue! de, X,\'.11,217 ( 1537) Eten. \'ll,69; XVI,151;175 Etea-~lonsefú, Vll,69; XVl,175 ethnic groups, IV,25;26;27 Europa, Hotel, Chiclayo, XVl,149 Europe, XXV,247 European art, Xl,112 European music, Xl lI,133 Europeans, XXV,246 Evans. Clifford, XvU,183 ( 1952) "exotic" ª'pccls of thc past, XXV,247

257

F Fachén, Huaca, Xl.JOl,Fig. l Fuírchild Photographic }.li-.sion to Peru, V,40 Fnir lntional, Lima, lV,30,Fig.14; Xll,123,Fig.l 1 Fulloshulí, XVl,l 75;176 fanegada - 714 acres, XXJ,21.5 Furfán, XII,116,Fig.2;123 Faucett Line, IT,16 pilots, XXI,216 XXtll,235;236 planes, VIT,64; Xll,121,cap.Fig.6; Iodernnon, XVI,178 foderntions of theocratic uníts, XXV,246 Fcllcnpísan ( or, Fell-Kurn-Pisan), VIII,&'>;86 Ferreñafe, XVT,L50;15l;l71;175 Viejo, XVT,)60 Ferrocarril. Hotel ( Hailroad Hotel) Pacasmayo, XII, 121 ;122 VlTl,79 ( 1763) Ft•yj6o, de Sosa, Miguel, Vll,70,cap.Fig.24; fk>~ta Moche, TX,94,Figs.23 and 25 Santiago de Chuco, X,98 nnd Fig.4;99,Fig.9 fish motíf, IX,95 fishing, IX,9.'>;96 lhhing cultures, X..'{V.247 Florian, Mario. XVl.16:3 folk lcgcnd, XVI,147;148 XVI,175;Ji7 folklore, ludian, XIJ,119;120;121; Iolk music and dances, IV,28 Fomento, Ministerio ele, 11,16; XXIII,231 Fontam, XVI,175 fort·ed labor, T,13 XVII,183; XVJII.189 Ford, james ( 1949), Xl,109,cap.Fig.34;117; Fortaleza, river and valley, V,44; XXU,218;219 Supe Valley Complex, IX,88; XJ(l,216; Fortaleza-Parívilca XXII,217 iortifit·ations xvrn, 189; XXI.211 and XIT,123; XV,142; XVl,151;153;159;160; XXHT,227,Fig.2 Fig.2;210,Fig.1;213; XXTl.217;218,Fig.2;219.Fig.3 "Fortress" Paramonga, Xl,102.Fig.4; Iov-hunting, XVll,184 Iree labor, J,13 "French hom .. , XIIl,134,Fig.15 Fur (Pleíades). Xll,119

e: Caleta Crau. lll.23,Fig.6 Calindu. lX,89;91.Fig.11; x:-...209 Callínnzo culture, \IIII ,72; XXV,246 Curcilaso de la \'ega ( J6()1), Jl,20; VIU,79;81 ;83;84; XVIIl,189;194; XXI,211, XXII,217; XXJV,2.'35 La Carita, IX,89 Currido, José Eulogio, VJl,fl5; VIII,84; IX,92,Fig.17;94.Figs.23 XXJII,236 25; X,97, XVUl,188:189; Ccographic Society of Lima, IT, 16; lV,28 Ccography, l\',36: XVI.ll8

xvn.i

258

aud

Ciesecke, Alberto ( 1939), IV,30 Gilbert aocl Sulli. un, XVIII,134 Cillio, john Phillip ( 1945), IX,94; X\'l,166 Gonzales, Emilio, VII.65; XI,108,Fig.30; X\11.167,Fig.48; X\'11,183 Cothic stylc, X 1, IT Crace, W n. & Co., XXII,218 Grande, Iluucus Pampa, XXI,212.Fig.4 and Figs.21,23-24;161, Pampa, XV,145: XVI,153;154.Fig.14;1.59 Fig.29 Mesa, VL50;5l Río Crande, V, 11; VI,50;51;58 Grant, Verne, fX,90; XVI,166; XX.203 growth, IV,36 Cuadalupe, Xll,116 and Figs.2 and 5; 1 Hl;l21;123; 12!5; 12(; Cuadalupito, Salt works, XVIII,190 Cuambucho, Vulley of, XX,210 Cuuñapc, TX,89 Guatemala, XX\',245 Guayaquil, Ecuador, III,22.Fig.4 Guayaquil Busin, X\'I,148,180;181 Cuayaquíl Bay, TII.22; IX,90; XXIV,240-244: and fig.22 XVI.154,f'ig.14; Cuitarras, Cerro, XV,139,Fig.1;140,Fig.2;142;144; 161,f'ig.29 Cuttíérez, Lub. Vll,65

H tcrrnces, IX.31:32,cap.Fig.22; XII .123; XVII, 18:3,Fig.3 hacendados, Xl,107; Xll,128; XVl,151; xvru.isr haciendas, XI,103; 107; Xll,121; XVl.151; XVU,183;184;185, see also uuder individual narnes llagar, Stansbury, V[,60 Hiimmerle, Señor and Señora, Xll,117;118;122 llondbook of South American l tulians, 1\',2.5,cap .Fig.I, \'1.60; \ lll,75 l Iausenstein, Wilhelm, Xl,112 nelícopters, XlV, 135-l 38 Ileyerdahl, Thor, VIIT,85; XXIV,241 Hispanizntion, IV,26 Tlolmberg, Alluu, XVII,183 Holstein, oue (1927), \1JJ,79 Honduras, XX\',245;246 La Horca (Thl' Callows ), XXII,217 Horkheimer, Dr. Hans, IV,31; \11,52; \llII,79; IX,91 El Horno ( Tl11· Oven, or the Colorcd One) pyramid, XVl,162 houses, XI,107 J l,cap.Fig.40 huaca clustcrs, Xl, L07,108:109,cap.Fig.33;l huaca cornplcx, Xl, 107 huacas; índr-xcd by name Huacatambo, XX.205 Huachaeo, XJI,124,Fig.14 huacos wn ter jug~. ¡H1s.\im Huallanca, XIX,197 Hualpa, Cu~>i, XVI, 175 l luamachuco, [ortress, X,97,Fig.1;99,l'ig.7 Iluambacho ( :-l'e¡wiía), VT!,65; XX,203;210 l Iuambacho Viejo. XX,209 l Iuancaco ( Virú Valle>'), XVII.1S1,Fig.G hahitation

Huanchuco, IX,89;95,Figs.26-28; X,98: Xll.123;124 and cap.Fig.14 H11án11L~1, IV,26 huaqueros-« grave robbers, \111,66;67; IX.95; XI,108,trip.Fig.28; XJV,138; XX,207 XIJ,126,cap.Fig.18; l luarús, XIX,197,Fig.8;198;200 l Iuurco Confederacy, VIII,73 XX.:W3; l luarmcy Vnlley and River, IX,87: XVIJI.182; XIX,199: XXl,211 ;213;216 Huusaquito (Chao Valley ), XVU.186 and Fi~.13 l Iuaseur, XVl,179 7 J Iuascurán, XlX,195;197,Fig.9;199;200,Figs.15-J Huauru, \',44; VI,55; IX,88; XVIl,182; XXH,217;226; XXlTI.227234 ;228, Fig.3 ll uuynu Capa e, VIII,83; XV 1.175 l luaynu Piechu, XXIV,236,Fig.5 Humboldt, Alexander von, VI,54;60; XllI.130 J Iumboldt Current, III,22; IX,95 hunting and fishing settlements, \'UJ,í2 hunting and Iood-collecting societies, XXV.247 hydrologicnl data, IV,29,Figs.10-12;32;33 hydrolngicul unir, XIV,135 hydrology, TT,16; XIII,130; XVTI,183; XVlll.187. XXI.211; XXll,218; XXIV,239 hydroelectrlc plants, XlX.198

I ka Vulley, TV,27; V,44; VI,50;51 tough mountain grass, X,97 ichu lllimo, XVl,151 Legend of the Painted Temple, XVl,176;177 Inca Chronology, Vlll,80 conquest of Lambayeque, XVJ ,179 dynasties, VJTT,80 Empires, Vlll,72; XXV,246 "Cau lciter", XVI, 179 music, XIII,132; 134 XVJ,153;165 road, X.98; XII,117; XlV,137,Fig.4; rulcrs, \1111,79;80 scttlcmcnts, XV,143,cap.Fig.8 Incas, Il,]9;20; III,2.2; IV,26;34; \11,59; VIII,71;73;74;7.5:77;81;8.3; xrv, X,98-100; XU,117-l19;122;123;12í; 84;86; lX,89;90;96: 176-80; X\'II,182; 136-138; XV,145; 146; XVl,148;153;159;163; XXTT,217, XlX,197;201; XX,210; XXI,211. XVlll,189-190;194; XXlll,228;229; XXIV,235;23Ci;238;2·11 ludia, 11, 15; III.23 mountains of Northwest, XXV,247 Indian La borers on Chinese haciendas, XTT ,126 Iangunges, lV,26 music, Xlll.134 musicians, IV,28; XlX,198 songs, XIII,130 Xlll. Indians, IV,25;26;27; Vl,61, VJll,7l;í7: L'{.95: Xll,126;134; 130-132; X\',146; XVIII,143: XlX.198: XXIIl.227; XXl\',236: 238;241

•

Indiun - \Vhitl' luborers, VH,61 l ndu-, \ºalk) cornplev, XX\',247 i1rigation \Odeti('s, XX\',247 Iug ... níeros, 11 uaca de los ( The Engineer's Huaca), XVI.J 62 Ingenio Vulley, Vl,50,cap.F'ig.2;.51 Instituto uf Anthropology, Trujillo, VIT,65;(j6,Fig.J 8;68 and Fig.19; 69; Xl,107,J08,c.:ap.Fig.30; XV,142; XVIT,183; XVIIT,189 Iustitutions, 1.14 intermarriagc, 111,27 inter-Andeuu vulleys, l V ,36 fnler-vallt•v economic and polítical expansíon, \TTTT,7.'3 interlodJng cultures, XXV,246 Internauonul Petroleum Company, V,44; X\'l.169: XXI\'.2:38;239 intervalley canal sy~tems, XVl,178 intogmph, JV.34 Tu/r(l-valley GJ!riculturnl development, \ 'I ll,72 Iquitov, T\",27 Iraq, 11.15 irrigation, T\'}31; \'H,66; IX,90;95; XI,104;10'1 .cap.Fig.27: Xlll.130: xtv, l3í; xv.i M; X\'I,147, 150;153:162;163:166:171: X\°ll.182: X\'lll,187,189;192; XL'\,199; XX.205:207: XXl.216: X,Xll.218: XXUI.227: XXIV.242 Irrigution, Departmeut of, IV,33; XX.206; XXl,213 irrigation ,cx·it>tit·~ of Egypt and thc lndus Vallcy, XXV.247 irrigation techniquev, XXV,247

J jnck-o'<lnnteru, huaco ( Rirunc Vallcy), TV ,36,Fig.28 Iacobs, Enrique, XV!l, L86 jayancn, XV,14(:;; XVl,163;165;175;176 jequetepeque rivcr aud vallcy, V,44; Vlll,83; IX,87 ;89; XI.104; 113; Xll,115-128; XIII,129; XIV,135-138; XV,144-146; XVI,147; 165; 180; XVIl,181;182; XXll,218; XXlV,236 Iequetepeque ( town}, XII,116, Fig.2;118; 121 jewish soug, Xlll,134 Jiíón y Cauumño (1949), lV,30 johnson, Lt. Ceorge R., II,19 Juan, Jo11éf ( 1793), V.40,Fig.3 Junín. IV.26

K l{howrm, XX\',247 kinship ')\lem, xtochlca, \'11,íO Ko11, Vlll.S.5;86 K1111-Ko11, VIII,86 Kon-Tiki expodition, VIII,85; IX,96 Kosok, ~lkhael. 11,20; Ilf,211; IV.38; VI,54;56; VII,66.Fig.23;69; XIJl,J30; XV,145,Fig.12; XVI,149-51;162;166; XIX,195;202; XX,205;207: XXIT,219;220; XXIV,235;239;242; X)..'V,246 Kosok. Paul, XII,117; XVf,166,Fig.44 Kroeher. Vl,,55; Xll,123; XTV,138;142; XVI,J47;J50;163; XXI,213 Kuks, l11ge11i<'ro, of Casa Grande, XI, l 03;108,Figs.31-32;109,Fig.31

L Lamlnujequc A111111ario, XVl,153 Larubnyeque, Hiver nnd Vulley, IV,26;33; V,44;47; VI,60; VlI,64;69;

\'lll,79:8-1; l.X,87-89;91;95; Xl,113;114; Xll,115;1Hi;J 18; X\, 139 and cap.Fíg.L, 142; 144;145; XVl,14S-l 51; 161,F'ig.29;177,I<':~. 71; XVll,181; 184; XX,206; XXTV,236;239;24 l ;244 Complex, vui.zs, XVI,177;178 Icquetepcquc Complex, X\1111,187 Leche-Motupc Complex, XVl,147-180 Zuna unit, Xl\1,138 rulers, Vlll,79;85 town, XVl,171,177,Fig.7 L land cultivution, XVI,151 languuges, IV,27,Fig.3; XIJl,131 Larco Jloylc, Constante, Vll,69,cap.Fig.22; XI,L02 Larco l loyk-, Rafael, Vl,60; Vll,69; VIII.72: IX.89; XI,101,"note"; 102;109-112; Xlll,133 Lau- Chírnú wulled compounds, XXV,247 Late vliddle Períod, XVI, 148 Lute Pcríod, lV,31;37,cap.Fig.27, IX,9-1; Xl,111: XV,139; 166: XIX,201; XXT,215; XXll,223;225: .\Xlll,228; XX\.,246 Lcauue of Mayapan, X.\'V,246 Leche. \'.44; IX,87: Xl,108; XII,11.5; XVT,147,150;151; 153; 159-16-'3: 166:171;173,Fiq.58;178; XVII,184; XXlV,239 The Lcgcnd of the Painted Temple of Illimo, X\'l,176;177 Lcgcnds, see: Folklore lcísurc. 1,13; Léon Barandíarán, Augusto, VTH,83; XVI,li5;177,178 Los Leones, Xll,128 lcvcls of dcvelopment, IX,88 La Libertad, Departamento de, VH,64 Library of Congress, 11, J 9 Lima, l ll,24; lV,25,Fig.1 ;26;28,Figs.5-9;29-31; V,39; VI,.57; Xll,126; XVI,165; XXll,217;219; XXIV,235;236 Lima-Callao rq~ion, lV,27 Limatambo airport, lII.24; lV,36 Lirnoncurro hactenda, XTI,121 Linguistic problern, IV,26;27,Fig.3 list of ancient rulers, Chart Il,VTII.73; Chimús, Incas, Lambayequans Lizárruga, VlrI,79; XV,146 llama trnín , VlT,63,Fig.2; Xlll,129 Llama, Huaca Pampa ( Casma Valley ). XXJ.212,Fig.-1;2 l!l Llama, Huaca, Hacienda, XXII.220;226 llamas, XlX,199 Llapchillulli, XVl,16.5 Lockc, Leslie L., VI,59-60 Lockj er, Sir Norman, Vl,53 llama clouds, UI,23,Fig.7;2.4; XIl,117,Fig.2; XVU,181,Fig.2 Long Island Univcrsity, ll,16; V.47; VI,60; VIl,65 Board nf Trustces, TI,19;20 Lostuunnu, Osear, XIl,123;12<1; XTV,138 Lothrop, Snmuel Kirkland Luna, Huaca de la, Vlll,71, lX,92,cap.Fig.17;94 Lu11a, Sciior, XXI.213-215 lunar-solar cycle, XI,113.cap.Fig.44 Lurín, 1V,30;31;38,Fi¡,¡.2H; V,40 and Figs.3-6;44 and Fig.7; lX,88; XVH,182; XXTI,217, XXIIl,229;231 Lusfaque, XVI,l.'53

xvi.iea.

t\lcl3rvde, Wr-bstor, XVIT,183 t\hu:t:Í)11 Picd111, XXTV,236,Fig.5;237,Fig.6 t\flll':-.1illan, XX,203;205 Mncluilu, XXIV,241 t\fngdalt•11:1 d<'I ti.far ( Rimuc Vallcy), IV ,23,cap.Fig.2:1 t\htgchil<·irn Viejo, IV,28 t\lügín, Corro, XVl,159 111ag11ay plunt, ITI,24,Fig.10 rn.riz« awiculture, VTII,72;75; XXV,247 111:1iz<' llne, XTX,199 t\!ala river and vulley, V,44; XXIIl,231 Mulubrig«, TX,89; XH,117; XXIV,236 Malabrig« Viejo, XI,107; XXIV.236 mampuesto aqucduct, XIV.137: X\ºII,184 t\lanabí Coust, XXTV,241 lunulluli, XVT,175 t\landuil ( Casmn Valley) Sometimes called Manchán, XXl,21-1,Fig~.7-8;215 mnnufucturcd g00<J... XX\',247 111.IJ)\

Ct'ntral Const, p.22.0 Chillon-Himae-Lurin Complex, p.24 Lumhaycquc Complex, p.146 Mochc-Chicama Cornplex, p.86 Pt'ru-l3abylo11in; Endpapers inside back cover, South America, 1,2 Pcru-Egypt; Endpapers inside front cover Santn Art'a, p.180 Sontlwm Znnc of the Chimli Empire, p.180 t\taquina Vieja (Old Machine), XX,205 ]\faranga ( 1 hrndca), TV,29,Fig.24;34 Marías, los tres ( thrce belt stars on Orion). XH,119 markings in the dt>scrt, Vl,5 L-60; XXIIT,227 marriagc, XIT,121 Mowalc, Cerro, XXlV,244,Fig.26 Martincz de Compañ6n, Archbishop, Vlll,p.80,c.:ap.Fig.8; JX,!)3,cap.Fig.20; XIV,137 and cap.Fig.4 matrfarchy, xn.121 ~loury, Hotel Lima, 111,24 l\laya, \'l,54;58-62; Vll,68; XJ,l ll; X,X\',245 calendar, VI,54 c:cmmics, VII,68 pyramicl~. XXV,246 ~layascón, Hacienda, XVl,160 ~h>:\n,, Philip Ain.~worth, IV,30; VIIl,75;79; Xll.119; XVl,1~8 \IC'diterrancan, XXIV,241 ~lejía Xesspe, Vl,52 \lcnesE'S, Padre, VIII,84 melling pol of mees, IV,27 La M('re<'d (Merey) pyramid, XVT,162 l\ferida, XXV,246 metal objccts, 1,13 t\1ctcalfc, Tristram Walker, II,20 t\fct<?nrological Tnstitute, IV,36 Mexico, Xll.(,134; XXV,245;246 t\l<•xit'()-l\fo~oamcrica complex, XXV,247 "t\fickry ~'louse" cernmics, XIX,201

259

Míddendorf, IV,30;34,Fig.25;

V,40,cap.Fig.3; Vll,69; Vlll,i9; XVlll,189; XX,209; XXI,211;213 ~1iddle Period ( Coastal Tiahuanaco ), I,14; VII,68; VJII,75; IX,89; XII,121,cap.Fig.6; XI,101;105;110,cap.Fig.36;1JJ;l13; 91;94; XX, XVIII,194; 123: XlV,138; XV,139;145; XVI,166;167;180; 209;210; XXI,215; XXII,221;223 Mi<ldlt· Ycllow River, XXV,247 migratory workers, XV,142 Miguclíto .. Huaca, XV,141,Figs.2-4;144 \1ikodv, XlU,134 Millones <le Carillo, Señora Manuela, VTl,69; XVI,l i5 mi/110 svstem, \11,59 Minchancaman, XU,ll6; XVIl,182; X)Ull,229 "miniature 'iles", Ill.23 Mirador, Cerro, XVI,153 Mi'l>b~ippi Vulley, XXV,246 Mocán, Xll.118 Pampa de, Xl.104:105,Fig.19 ~loche, River und Valley, V,44; VTI,70,Fig.24; Vlll,il; IX,bí-96; XII,119;126; X.111,139; XVI, 159; 166; X.9í; Xl.102;103;106;114; XVIIl,187:194; XX,206;209 169;178; XVII,182:183;186; IX,87; XIl,115;116;118: ~loche-Chicama, Vlll,71;74:75;83:84; XVU,181 XVl,147;148;180; Moehíca, I.5;14; Vl,51 ;60; Vll,68; VIIJ,72;75; lX,89;94;95; Xl,101; XJI,117;l18;123;126;X\', l 02:108.Fig.28;109,cap.Fig.34;110-114; XVIII,188;189:191; XVII,181;183;185;186; 145; X\11,148;159; XX,203-210; XXI,211; XXV,246 Mochica Empire, .X.'11,112;113; XVI,159; XX,208 Mochica huacos, 11,18,Figs.5-8;19,Fig.10 Mochica kinship system, Vll,70 Mochíca lady, Vll,70 ~1ochica l:111g11ag1,, IV,26; Vll,69; XVI,175 Mochícus, XVI,175 ~1ochumí, XVI,151 vlocollope, Xl,107;108,Fig.28 ~1ocollotw hill, Xl,107 Mocupe, XIV,139;144 modclled blackware, $ee: Ceramics Mojeque ( Casrna Valley) Huaca, XXI.2Ll;213 Pueblo, XX,208; XXl,212.Fig.4;213:214;216,Fig.10 molds, \111.68 Mollepata, X,99,Fig.8 Molo Solar, IV,32.cap.Fig.22 Monjas, Huaca de, XI,107 Monlotum, xvi, 175 monochrome ware, XXT,215 monolíthíc uprights, XXII.225,Fig.19 Monsefú, XVI,151; 175 montnña, Vll,63;64 XVH,181 ,Fig.l; 1110111e, Xll,117 ;126; XV.142,Fig.5;144;145,Fig.12; 184 Monte Craude, Las Huacas de, XII,127,Fig.19;128; XXI,214 Montesinos, Vl,59; VIIl,79;80;86 moon worship, Xll,cap.Fig.18;126 Morgnn, Lcwís A., XXV,246 Morley\ urchaeoloalcal map, XXV,246

260

Moro ( 'epeña Valley), VJI,70; IX,95; XX,203;206;207 Viejo, XlI,122,Fig.9; 126 Moro Ca11al, VIl,70,cap.Fig.24; IX,94 Mórrope River, XVT,169 Mórrope ( town), XVI,150;151;171 Mórrope-Lambayeque desert area, V,45 "mosaics" (aerial photographs}, V,39;45;46 Motete, Cerro, XN,139;143 ~lotupe, Ríver and Valley ( Northwest Coast ), ll,16; V ,44; IX,87 ;90; 165-169:171; XVI,147;151;153;1()2;163; X,99; XII,J 15; 117;126; 175,Fig.68; 178 town, XVI,167;169 :\1ouncl Builder cultures, Mississíppí Vallcy. XXV,246 mound clusters, XXV ..246 mountain-dcsert vallcy complex, XXV,247 Mulato, Cerro. XVI,161,Fig.29 mule truíns, Xll.118 The x 1 ummy of t he Caciq ue, XVI, 175 ~lurra, john, XXIV ,241 muste. XIII,130-133 musical instruments, Xlll,132 and Figs.9-ll;l33;134 mustcians, IV,28: XIII,132; XlX,197,Fig.8;198 muulauon, Xl,112,cap.Fig.43 mystcrious markíngs, Nazca, VI,51;49-58 and Figs.1-26

N XVII, 181 ;186 Nunccnpinco, Xll,116;118;126; ancho, Xll,126; XV,143 anchoe (Zaña), XII,126 nurcotícs, XIX,197 Nntionul Archives, IV,28 ationul Library, II,16; IV,28 Nnymlap, VIII,80; XV,145; XVI,148; 153; 165; 178 and l'"i¡.(.74; 'XIV,241 .Nazca, VI,49-62; Vll,68; IX,88; XVU,182; XXII,217, XXJll,227; XXlV,235 Nazca ceramies, Vl,56; XIII,131 Na1ca culture, Vl.50;51;58 Nazca textile, VI,62 K1>ale, )ohn, lV,38; VI,55; XIV,135; XXJI,220 Xegro slaves, IV,27 XVlll.187: Xepeñn. V,44¡ IX,87;89;95; XI,112;113; XVII,182;184; 192: XIX,199;20-2; XX,203-210; XXI.211:215 town. XX.203;209;210 Neumann, Señor, XV,142 New Orleans, X,'{V,246 Ncw Worlc.l. XXV,246 .Niño ( thc child). warm equatorial oecan current, IJl,22; XVIl,183; XXIV,239 Nor, XVI,153 ordenskiold, Erlancl, VI,59;60 north-south Sierra roads (Inca), IX,96; XII,118,Fig.3; XVI,153; XX,209 orth Central Coast, Vlll,75; XXIl,217;220 orthwest Coast, 11,16; JV,26;32; V,39; VH,64;68;69; VIII,74;75; IX,87; Xl,101; XIV,138; XV,146; XVl,149;153;166;175; 182; XXI,213;215; XXII,217; XXIII,233; XXIV,242 populutíon, IV,34

xvn,

orthwest India, mountains, XXV,247 ueva Arica, XV,144 nurnerical signíficance of stars, etc., XI,113,cap.Fig.44 numerology, VI.60;61 luttall, Zelia, Vl,60

o ocean currents, TIJ,22 Ocoña, V,44; \llI,65,cap.Fig.9 ollas cooking pots, XXII,221 Olmos, XVI,líl Ongollape, huaca, XI,108;109,Fig.34 Los Organos, XXIV,240 Orion constellatíon, XII,119 El Oro (The Golcl One ) pyramíd, X\'I,162; 163;165.Figs.38 and 42 La Oroya. Vll.63,cap.Fig.3 Ort:iz Silva, VIII,84 Otra Bande, XV,145,Fig.14 Oyotún (Zaña Valley). JX,95: XV.139;142;143: XVJ.154.Fig.14

p Xlll,129 Pacasmayo. XIl,117;121;122;126;128: 123:125: 126: Pacatnnmú, X.11,116,Fil{.2; 118; 120,Fi¡::.6;121,Fig~.7-8: XVI,176 V,39.c.ip.Fig.1: Pnchacámac, IV,30;33.cap.Fig.23:38,cap.Fig.38; 40-43 and Figs.S-6;47,Fig.13; XVIl,182 Puchucutec, VJ,.58,Fig.26 Pucheco, Julio Víctor, VIII,82-84;86 Pucherras, Cerro, XVI,153;154,Fig.J4 Pacífic Ocean, Xll,123 Pacora, XVl,151 El Padrejón, XX,205;207 Pniján, XJ,J03;107 paleo-hydrologv, XlV,135 Pallasen, X,98 Las Palmas, IV,32,cap.Fig.22 Palo Redondo, Quebrada ( Rouncl Stick), XVIIT, 191 "Palo Telégrafo, Huaca" (Telephone Pole Pyramid ), Xl\'.137 Palpa, VT ,49,cap.Fig. l ;52,cap. Fig. 7 ;54, Fig.13;55 pampa, XVUT,187 La Pampa, XII, 115,Fig. l XJV,137;138 Pampa de Zaña, XII,116,cap.Fig.2;117;128; Pan de Azúcar, Cerro ( Sugar Loaf Hill), XX.208,Fig.2 l Panagra Airways Company. lV,36 Panama, lll,21; XXV,245 Pañamarca (:\epeli.a ValJcy), VI,52,cap.Fig.7, XX,203.Fig~. 10u-10b:205;207-208 and Figs.11-13 Pan American Highway, 11,16; 111,23,Fig.6; JV,30; VJ.52-56; VII, XTV,135;137;138; 63:64; IX,90;93; XI,104; Xll,117;122;123;126; XVlJI,187; XVl,162;165;17 l ;172; l'"ig~.58,59; XV,139;142;144; 188;L90-192; XXI,211;215 Panreon, Huaca, XVJII,189 Paracas textiles, 11,16,Fig.2;18,Fig.9; VT,51 parallel or "double" canals, XV,144 Paramonga (Pativilca Complex ), Vlll,8.1; Xl,102,Fi¡:¡.4; XVII.182; XXI,213; XXlI,217-218 and Figs.2-3;225 Hacienda, XI,102,Fig.2; XXll,218;220 nnd Fig.5

Pardo y .\ligue!. Señor, H,16; XVI.150;155.Fig.19 Pasamayo. \'ll,6.5,Fig.8 Pátapo (Lambayeque Valley}, XVI,lS.'3 Cerro, XVI,153;155,Fig. li; 1.59 Hacienda, Il,16; XVl, 150; 155,Fig.15 Pativilcn, Hiver and Valley, V,44; IX,87; XXII,226 Complex, XVTT,182; XVHJ,194; XXI,211;213; XXII,217-220 Sy,tem. XVlII,187 Paytu, XXTV,241 Cañé>n del Pato ( Duck Canyon ). XlX,196.Fig.5:197;198 Paule. XIll,131 Pcl.1da, Huaca, IX,9-t Pl'nachis. X\"I.175 Pcñica. Hacienda, )G(IJ ,220;226 1wríod dating, XI,107 Pl'riod of Culm'nutíon, VJll,173 Perrichole Palace, T,13; lV,29 Per,iu. XXV,247 Peruviuu-Bclivian highland bordcr, IX,95 Peruvian Arrny Mups, IT,17; V,46; X,98; XVI,167; XX.210; X.XIIl.227 Pt•ruvian Coastal Soefr•lie,, XXV,246 Peruviun Oíl Company, XXl\/,239 Peruvian Road Departmenl, Xll,117 Peruvían Sierra, XXV,247 Pcruv ianists, North American, XVII,18.'3 Petersen, Dr. Georg, Xlll,130; XXIU,239;240 petroglyph. XVI,16 L,Fig.30 phallic worship, XXU,221 Pierna Calzón ( The Trousered Leg}, XX,205;206 Pillacup, XVT, l 75 Pimcntel, XVI, L51;175;177,Fig.7l:l 79,Fig.78 Pintada. Huaca, XVI,175;176 Pisco Valley, V,44; Vl,51; XXIIl,231 pisco Peruvian cognac, XVI.167 Pitura, Cerro. Xll,128 Piura. l\".38; V,44; IX,87: X\'l.169;180; XVU,181; XXIV,236; 238;2:39 Pizarro. \ '11,64; XII,118; XIII.130; XV.144,cap.Fig. ll; )C\'1, 153: 163:li9 Platt, Raye, ll,19 plazas, Xl.107 Pleiadcs (Fur ), VI,53; Xll.119 political ndministrntion, I,13 political-cerernonial center of Supe .. XXIl,226 política] federations, IX,88 political-hydrologícal systcm, XV,144 political maturity, I,4 pohtical-rnilitary expansión, Xl,110 política! unity, X\'1,178 polychrome painting, XI, 10..1; 109,Fig.32; XVI,l 63; XX,206-208 Pongmassa, Xll,116; XVI,179 population, TI, l 7; TV ,25;26;33;34; VI.49;59; TX,89;9 I ;9.5; XVl,151; XVIII,188 Poroto area, IX,95 portrait huacas, p.l,cap.Fig.2; VJl,61;; ulso vassim Portugal, Señor, IV,38; Vll,69; Xl,104,Fig.17, XVI,166.Fig.44;171; XXll.220

r.s.

Posnansky, Arthur, Vl,60 potsherds, see also: cerumics VII,66;68;09; VIII,72;75: Xl,113;114; XII, 122,Fig.9; 126; XI\'. 137;138; XV, 142; 14.5; XVl,149;159;16l;J 63; 168; 169; XVI ll.188: XXl,214;215; XXJl,218;220;221;223; XXlll,228,Fig.4 pre-agricultura! hunting nnrl fishing settlements, VI fl ,72 pre-agricultura! hunti11~ and Iood-collecting societtes, XXV,246 pre-Chavin Pcriod, XXV,247 pre-colonial "plowíng", XI,107,Fig.26 pre-Columbian times, JV,34 pre-historie periods, \'lll,72 pre-history, VlTI,71-86 prehistoric sequencev, XXV,247 príest-dominated cluns, XX\',247 príest-dominated cultures and socíetíes, XI, 104.cap.FiJ.(.16; 107; 110-ll2 priesthood, VI,57; XI,l O 1; 11O;112; XII,119 príestly-controlled ceremonial site, XXV,246 priests, IV ,3 L Prieta, Huaca ( Chicnma Val ley). VIII,75 primitive tribal societies, XXV,247 property, 1,13 proro-agrículture, XXV,247 proto-Maya cultures, XXV,245 Pucalpo, VII,63 Puerto Viejo, Ecuador, X,'(IV,238 Puíneonsoli, XVI,175 puna- high mountain pasture, X,97;98,Fig.2; XIX,199; XXIV,235 Puna, lsland of, XXlV,244 Puno, XXl\/,235 Punkuri Alto, XX,208,Fig.16 Punkurí Bajo, XX,208,caps.Figs.16 and 18 La Puntilla ( Lambayeque Vallcy ), XVI,153 Purgatorio (Leche Valley ), Xl,108; XVI,147; XXI,213 Cerro, XVI,153;162; 163; l66;168,Fig.50;169;Pig.53; 170,Figs ..54, 55:171,Figs.56,57 ;l i8 Pur Pur, Cerro, Vll.66,Fig.12 pyramids, Ill,23; f\',29;34,Figs.24 and 25; V,39,Fig.1;40-43 and Figs.3-6;47,Fíg.!3; Vll,6.5; IX,92; XI,15; L07; 109,cap.Fig.34;110; Fig.36;113; XII, 121,cap.Fig.6; and Fig.8;122,Fig.9; 126; XIV, l37; 138; XV,142;144;145; XVI,147;149-15l;J53;J59-l63;16.'5-169 uud Figs.38,39 nnd 53;171,F'ig.56; XVIll,188;189; XX,206-208: XXI. 213;215; XXlI,225; XXIV,236; XX\/,246 pyramid clustors, XXV,246 pyramid groupings, XI, 108; 111,cap.Fig.40

X,98

n Raearumi Cuual, XV[,159-161 and Fíg.29;163 and Fig.35;178 racial problcrns, lV,26 Rafael Larco l lorrera Museum, Chiclín (Museo Arqueologico Rafael Lareo llerrera), VU,6.5; Xl,102 rafts, IX,96; XVI,148 minfall, nI,22;23; IV.32;36; XlX,199; XX,203; XXT\',239;240: XXY,245-247 minfall, mountnin zone, Xlll,129 rainfoll economy, XXV,247 rains oí ]925, XlV,135;137;138 Beappralsal of l'cruvlan Archaeologi), \TTII,72;75; XVllI,183 records and recordlng devíces, VI,59;60 Recuay moufs, X,99,Fig.8; XIX,196;200,Fig.14;201,Fig.19 Reiche, Maria, ll,20; VI,51,cap.Fig.4;53-57 nnd Fig.IO: XXUl,235 Reichlen, Or llenri, XIII,130;131; XVl,159 religio-polítical units, XI,107 Beque, XVf,]51 Rimac Confederacy, IV,28; X\/ll,182 Rimac Valley, IV,27;So.Fig.31;36,cap.Fig.27; V,44: VI.5í: XIII,129 Rinconado de Collique, XVI,153;154,Fig.14;159:161,Fig.29 Río Seco ( Ory River}, XVIlI,191 Rio , Carlos, XIl,122 roads, IX,96-98; XI,105;107;110,Fig.36; 112: Xll,117 ;118;122;123; X[V,137; XV!,151;153;165; XX,209;210; XXl,215 La Rodillona (The Kneeling Woman) pyrarnld, XVI,162;165, cap. F'ig.43; 167,Fig.48;168,Fig.50 Rodríguez SuyS11y, Antonio, VII,6.5;70; VIII,85,Fig.18; IX,87, cap.Fíg.I ;91 and cap.Fig.12:92,cap.Fig.14; X,98; XVI,175; XVTil,188;189 Rojas, Bertha, IX,88 Romero, Carlos A .. lV.30: XVI,169 Rondón, Jorge. Xll,126; X'VI,149 Roosevelt, C.v.S., XVIII,189 Rosario, Huaca (Chícarna Valley ), X(,108;109.Fíg.34 Rossell, XVI.166 Howe, john, lI,20; VIII,79;80; XI, lll Huya], llotel ( Casma ), XIX,202; XXl ,213 Royal, Hotel (Chiclayo ), XVl,149 Hubiños, Padre, VIII,79; XVI,169 Hunahuánac ( Upper Cañete), XVII,182

vur.ra,

Q quebrada, lV,31; Xl,105; XII,ll 7;118;127,cap.Fig.20; XV,144; XVHI,189; XXJl,219 Quechua, IV,26; Xlll,131; XXU,219 quena flute, Xlll,132 nnd Figs.10 and 11;131 Queneto, VI,57 Quimbe ( Nepeña Valle y), XX,203 quipus, VT,59;60;61,Fig.32 Qui¡wcama!fOCs, Vl,59; Vlll,77;79; XVII.182 Qulroz, XX'lV,239

Quiruvilca, X,9i;98 Quisque, XX,203,Fig.1;20.5 Quito, Ecuador, III,21.Fig.3;22;

Xl\',137;

s-shaped serpeutine Iurrows, XI,107,Fig.26 Sachsahunmán, X.XIV.238,Fig.9 sacred numbers, VI,56.cap.Fig.18;58,cap.Fig.26;61,caps.Figs.lOa and lOb; XX,207; XXI,213 St. Louiv, Missouri, XXV,246 Salns, XVI,l 66; 167 Salmar culture, XXV,246 Salaverry, Vll,66,Fig.13; lX,89 Salitral, J Iuaca, XI,108 salt work , XX,208

261

ultur, X\'1.150,Fig.7 .151,Fig.8 Cerro, XVl,158;154,Fig.14;159 Hacienda, XVI,151,Fig.8 Surnuneo, port of. XX,207 a11 Cregorio, Río Seco de ("dry river"}, XII,116.eap.Fig.2,llí; 119;J 23,cap.Fig.12; 126; XIV,138 an Jacinto, Hacienda, XX,203;206;207 X\'1,151;176. Son José (Larnbayeque Vallcy}, XII,126,cap.Fig.17; Fig.6tl San Marco Univcrsity, Lima, VI,53 San Nicol{1s (Supe), XXII,221 San Pedro de Lloc, XII,122;126 anta C;111al, XVIII,190,Fig.8 anta, Rivt•r ami Valle-y, lV,33; V,44; VTTT,81; lX,87;89; X.98; XIX,195-202; XX, XVlll,187-194; XVll,182;183;186; XTI,121; 203;209;210; XXI,211: XXII,219 town, XVlll,187 wnll, XVI,160; XVIll.189;190; XIX,195,Fig.l unta Clara, Hacienda, XVIIl,187 ruine, X\'lll,190;191,Fig. l l Santa Elena, XXlV,242 Santa Rosa. XXl V ,240 antíago de Chuco, XlX,196 Santillo ( Little Saint) pyramid, X\'l.162 Sarmiento, Vlll,79-81 Schuedel, Dr Hichard P., IV,30;38: V,47; Vll,63-65;66.Fig.18:68; X,98; XI. \'lll,75;81: lX,88.cap.Fig.3;90:91:92,cap.Fig.14;93;94; XV,144: XVI,147; 1-19; 150:151 109; Xll,117,123;125,Fig.16;126: X\'ll.18.'3: and Fig.44;175; 153;159;161;163; 165,Fig.43;166 XXTT.219:220; XVIII,188; XlX,201, XX.207:208: XXI,214;215; XXIII,228;229; XXIV,236 SCJPA, lV,38; Yl,55; VTI,69; XII,126; XI\',135; XVI,150;151.169: XXl,215; XXU,220; XXIV,235 sciencc, Vl,52;54 S1•chin, XXI,211;213;214 Cerro, XXI,211 Sechurn Descrt, V,45; Vll,66,cap.Fig.12; XVI,167;169; XXlV,236;239 Second lntcrnationaJ Congress of Indigenists, XXIV 23.5 secondary siles, V,47 secondary tmnk. 1,3 secular authority, 1,13; IV.31; Xl,110-112 'rcular cla;~ socíeues, XXV,246 secular devclopmcnt, I,13 vecular 'tate, XXV ,246 \t·culariai.tioo, XX\',246 '>l'<:ul:1ri/1•d upper class, l,5 sedcntanj society, XX\',246 'crni-,1,1triculturnl, semí-Iood-gatherlng and hunting socíetie-, .:\XV,246 vcmi-arid vegetatíon, X,\.'V,245 -emi-ruinínll agricultural ureas of the S'erras, XX\',247 c1iora, XVH,182 Serranos, XXV, 247 Servicio Acruforográfico ºatio11al, V,39;40;44;47, lX,9-1; Xll, 116: X\'I í.11'3: 124,c·ap.Fig.14;] 28; XTV,135; XV,142; XVl,149;160: XVIII,189; XXT,213; XXIII,229; XXIV,235 T, 12,cup.Fig.30 Shi-huang-ti,

262

Shippee. Bobert, II,19 Shippee-johnson Expedítion, XVI,160; X\llll,189 Shirán, IX.95 Sianfu. I,12.Figs.29-30 Sicán pyramíd, XVI.162 IX,88; Sierra. culture and influencc. [V,36: Vll,63:6-1; \'IU,73;81; XllI,129: XV,146; XVI.159:180: X.97-99: Xll.117-119:126;128: XVIl.184; XlX,198; XX.209; XXII,220 Sierra, Peruvian, XX\' .247 Sierra Chavín, VIII,72 X\'m.18..i: Sierras, lll,22; IV.25-27;32; \'J,50;55; XIl,118;119; XIX,HJ5-197;201; XXI,211;216; XXII,220; XXlll,235; XXIV,241: XXV,240;247 Síete Huacas ( Seven Mounds ), XX,20.5 and Figs.R-9 Cerro de, XX,206;207 sight Iines, VI,53 Siguan, XIl,1HJ;l26,cap.Fig.18 Sihuas, V,44; XXII,231 Silcer M eteor, lll,21 Simbal, IX,91,cap.Fig.12 similarity of social structures, XXV,247 incape, Xll,126 ipan, Huaca Rajada de ( Tom Pyramicl), XVT,152,Fig. 1O;J.'53;154. Fig.14;161 ,Fig.29 slaves, lV,27 smallpox epidemic, TV,38 "Al Smith" brown derby, IV.30,capFig. l.5 social-astrological cult, VI.58 social evolutíon, p.1,2; 1,3;4 Social Science Rescarch Councíl, ll,15 social vtructures, similarity, X)(V,247 social urbanizatíon, I.5 Sol, Huaca cid (Moche Valley), VTIT.71; IX.89:93.Figs.18-20;91; XVI,159; XXI,215 Solivin. Quebrada, XX,206 Songoy, Cerro, XV,143;145 Sonolípe, l Iuaca. Xl.108 Soriano Infante, Dr. (Padre) Augusto. VII,65; XIX,202 ami Fig.23; XX,209 South Central Coast, VI,50; Ylll,75 South Coast, IV,34; VIII,75 Southern Coast, Vl,49 Southern Hemisphere, XTI,119 Southern Sierras, IV,26 Southern Zone of Chimú Empire, XV!l,182 Spaín. IX,89; XV,146' IX,89;90; Spaníurds, II,16: III,22; IV,26; VII,64; VTTI,71;75;77;81, 96: X,100: XJI,119; XIIl,134; XV,146; XVT,165 Spunish Chroníclers, see: Chroniclers Spanish conquerors, IV,26; X,XJV,241 XXV,245 Spanish conquest, l\'.Z7;31; VIII,81; Xll,119; Spunish culture, lV,26; XIlI,134 Spanish-Iudian mixtures, XIII,131 Spunish ínfluenoe, XIII,131 Spanish intereontinental sea empirc, VTII,73 Spanish language, IV,.26; Xlll,131 Spanlsh musíc, XIII,134 snecia! evolutíon, XXV,246

xvm.iso.

Squier, Ephraim Ceorge, V,40,cap.Fig.3; VTTI,79; X\'It, 184; XX, XXT.211,Fig.2;213 203,Fig.2;204,Fig.4;205,Fig.9;205-207, Step pyramid of Djeser, Egypt, I,12,Fig.31 Stevenson, XXV,246 stirrup spouts, p.l,cap.Fig.2; II,18,Figs.6 und 8; VII.68 Stokowskí, Leopold, XIIJ,130 stone mounds, Xll,128 stone structures. XI, 106,Fig.24; XXI\',236,Fi¡:t.3;238,Fi!:(<..7-9 Storck, Jnhn, \11,65; TX,96 stratified societies, T.14 strutigraphic excavations, XI, 111 strntigraphy, \'Il,66 Strong, William Duncan, X\.11,183 Stumcr, Louís, IV,30; XXII.229 Sturm. und Drang Middle Period, Vlll,í.5 sugur cane, XI,102;103,Figs.8 and 12;107; 111,cap.Fiq.39; Xl l, 120. Fig.6; XV.142; XX,203 Supe, Hiv er and Valley (Central Coast }, 11,16; V,..i4: XXll 217-22'5: 226,Fig.13 Surtun, Ingeniero Carlos, IV,31;33; XVT, 171; XVII,187 symphony orchestra, Lima, IV,28

T Tublachaca, X,98 Tablones, Hacienda, XVIII,184;192; XIX,195 Tacna Theatre, IV,28 Talambo, XII,116,Fig.2;123 Cerro, Xll,116,Fig.2;124,Figs.14-15;125,cap.Fig.16 Hacienda, XJI,121 Talara, lll,2.'3,cap.Fig.6: XXIV,239;240 Tambo Real, Cerro (Royal Road Station llill), XVI, 161 Hacienda, XVIII,187 tambos - stations or rest houscs, Xll,117; XIV, 137 Tanguche, XVIII,191 Hacienda, XVIII,189;191 Taros, Cerro los, XXII.225 laxes, V,39 Taycanamo, IX,89 Huaca, IX,93 178 Taymi Canal, XVI,150;158;162,Fig.31; Tccapa, Hacienda, XII,127 Pampa de, Xll,128 Tegucígulpa, Honduras, XXV,245 Tello. Dr. Julio, IV,28; VII,67; VIII,72; XVJ,147;159;162:16.'3: XIX,199; XX,209; XXl,211;213 Tembladera, XlI,126; 127,cap.Fig.19; 128 Pachacamoc, Temple of the Sun Virgins (~lamacona), V,42,caps. Figs.5-6 temples, IV,30; IX,91 temporary coasl settlements, XIT, 118 temporales Teodora, Huaca, XV,142,Figs.5-7;144 tcrraecd fanning (andenes), X,97.Fig.7 tcrra<.-es. VI,49; Xl,107; XVII,184,Fig.9; XX,20!5; XXI.215 textiles, 1.5;7; ITI,23; VI,60;61; IX,92,Fig.21; XT,113.Fig.44; XII,119;126; XXIII,227.Fig.l thcatres, lV.28 thcocratic societies. XI,111,112

theocratic trunvitíon form from late tribal societies, X,'\\',246 thcocracy. 1:\.89 therrnal bpring;,. X.!)8 Thomnwn, P L.. VI.Sí Thompson, \11,01 T'[nhununc«, highl:md, VIII,71 Tiahuauncoid ( 1\liddlt> Period }, V.39; VT,60; VII.68; IX.89;91 ;91; 1 J4; Xll,123; XIV,138; }..'VJJ66;16í,180; XVIII,191; XT,111,113; :XIX,201; XXl,2 l5: XXTT,221 ;223 Tibet, XI, 112 Ti~ris-Enphr:lt<'S Vn lleys, 1,11,cnp.Fig.26 Ti~u('~. !lío de, XV, 143 Titicac·a. 1.nke ( Tiuhuanaco}, VI..'iO; VJI,63; IX,9.') Toledo. Huaca. \1111,70,cap.Fig.24 Tolí111. hacienda, XII, 127,cnp.Fig.20; 128 Tol,tO\, Prof. S. P .. XXV,247 1 omm al, X\'Il .183 topo¡.,rraphic-dimatic und socíal-economic simllarities, XX\',24i topoqr;1phical cross-section of Peru, p.2,Fig.3 topographical complexity, IV,36 topogr.1phic-hy<lrolo~rical foctors. XIIT.130 tupogmphy/ X\'lll,18í Lotrms, \'l.56,Si ,cap.Fig.21 totora rceds. lX,95.cap.Fig.26 trade, :\}.V,247 tradc und tribute. X,98-100; Xl.101: XlI.119;121; XIII.129 tradc treurlcs, X,100 trading class, X,98 transfonnation of socícties, l,13 tr.insitlon 1.011c. Vl.50; XIU,129; XXl,216; )G{lV,242 trnnsítlonal priest-domlnatcd socíetics, XXV,247 transportatiou, VI,56; IX,95; X,99-100; XIII,129; Xll,117; XXIV,241 travol facilities, VII,6'1 Los Tres Huacas, XI,107 trimctrogon acrial survey, II,19; XII,116;117; XIV,13:'> Trinidad, Cerro, XXIIl,232 Trujillo, IV,27; Vll,63-70; VJJT,84; lX.89;94; X,97; XV,146; XXlV,236 XVI,149;150; Departamento de, XV,146 Untcersidad. IV,38; V,47; VII.64;65; XVI,149 Túcume, XVJ,J68,Fig.50; 171 Huaca Pueblo de. X\'I, 168¡Fig,,.50-52 Viejo, XVT,J 63 Tumbes, IIl.2:3,t·ap.Fig.6; l\',33; \',14; IX,8í; XII,119; XVI,179; XX.IV.2.'36;238-241;243,Fig.22 180; XVII.181;182; Tunpa, Antn, X\'l,170;177 Turista, l lotr-l. :-\:vea, VJ.55;.59,Fig.28; VU,67,Fig.15 "twin-town" ( Lurín Valley), V ,4+45,Figs.7-1 O Tweuty-seventh Congress of Americanists, 1939, Vl.52

u U-shapcd vnlley, I,4,Fig.8 Ucupe, Hacienda. XIV,139

Uhk·, ~I'"· \'111,71;72, Xl,111; XXII,225; XXUI,229 United tal<"> color líue, lV,27 Unitcd tal(><, Arm} ( Air Force), 11.19; XVll,189; XXJ,213 t;ni\cr.ity of Trujillo, l\'.38; V.47; \·II.64;65; XVl,149 urban ccnters nnd urbnnization, I.13; l\',34,cap.Fig.26; Xll,123; XVI.163; 16.5; XXl.213: XXIII.232 utensils, Jlf.23 utilit> warc, \'Il,68; XXTI.221

V-shupcd vallcy, l,'1,Fig.9 Vaca de Castro, Viceroy, \/llf,84 Valcárcel, Dr. Luis, lV,28 Vnlcárcel, Teodoro, IV,28 La Vaquita, Xl,104 Vargas Ugurte, H11hé11, Vlll,74;79 vq~dation, XXV,246 1 egetation zone, Xll,118,Fig.3 Venezuela, Vll,64 La Ventana (Tlw \Vindow) pyramid, XVJ,162;166,Fig.45 Ventunilln« ( Little \Vindows), XII,127.Fig.20 ccrrutu: Iever prevalent in Carás región, XTX,198 Very Earl) Coastal Chavin ( Cupísnique ), XXV,246 \\·~ Early Coastal period, Xlll,72 Vieja, Cerro de la, XVI,153 Viejo.Puerto, Ecuador, XVII,181 Vilchuaura, XXIT,226 and Fig.1 Antigua, XXlll,228 and Fig.3;229,Fig.7 Hacienda, XXlll,227 \Tillar Córdova, Pedro, l\',30; X)\Tl.2J7: XXITT,227 La \'iiia. XVl,163;165;166;173,Fig.61:176;178 Villarenl, Federico, \'lT,69 Vínchanca Canal, Vll,70,cap.Fig.24 Vinzos, xviu.iss Virgen, Cerro de la, XVI,167 Virú, V,44; Vl,5í; Vll,66,cap.Fig.12: XI,113; XVII,181-186; XV1U,187 Expedltion, XJ,113; XVU, 183 XXII,220 Vivas, José, lV,38; Xl,104,Fig.17;

w W;1g11C'r, Dr., VJ,60;62; XIII, 133 walk-d eompounds, see: cornpounds wulled road, JX,89,Figs.6-7; XIV,137 XVII,183; Xll,117; XV,141;143; wnlls, Xl,107,cap.Fig.34;109; XVHI,189; XX,204,Fig.5;208;209; XXI,211 :213; XXII,282,Fig.8; X..XIII,232,Fig.1!);233,Fig.22 WaN of Indepcndcnce, VTT,64 Wa,hington, D. C., Jl,15;19 Water arul Life i11 Ancie11t Peru, U,20; IV,32; VIII,73; XIll,130; X\"1,151; XXIV,2:35 wutcr iugs, sce olso: ccrumics XIV.137;138: X\'llT,191

ceremonial ).lochi<·n, XVJJ,183 <~mntc•rf<'it "untique", XVI,169 water runníug uphill, Xl\1,136 Wciss, Dr. Karl, XVI,149 \\'ei'>muller, Johnny ( Tar::1111, in Spanish ), XlX,201 Wcnner-Cn-n ( \'iking Fund ) Foundation for Anthropological Hesearch, Inc., ew York, II,19 \\'C'st European civilization. l.3 ..\\'el Inca road" ( the sea). LX,96 wet SC.l~On,I,9.cap.Fig.15 \\'hitc-lndian mixtures. l\',25-27 \\'hites. rv ,2.5;27 \\'ille). Cordou, X\'11,183: XXll,229 \\'bcon~in Indíans, VJ,56,Fig.20 witchcruft, XVI,166;16í; XXIl,219 women, status of. XII,121 wooden idols, L\'.,91 World pre- und proto-history, XXY,24í World \\'tu 11, 11,19; l\',26;38; XlI,116 Wright, Dr. johu, II,19 writing, Vl,59 see also: bcun-mnrking q ui¡ms Wylt'r, Ro,t, II,15

X Xerez, Francisco de, XVl,153;179

y Yasser, Joscph, XJTI,133 Y<•llo" River, China, XXV,247 Yellow River Valley, 1,13 Yucatan, XXV.245;246 Yugo, Cerro, XI.104 Yungas, XVl,175;176 Yupanqui, Ingeniero Tupac, XV,143;145,Fig.12

z Zañn, Iliver and Vallcy, V,44; VI,57; IX.87 ;95; XTT, 115; 118;119; XVl,147;153;159;161,F'ig.29; XV,139-146; 126; XIV,137;138; 165;179;180; XX,206; XXITI,236 Departamento or Corregimiento de, XV,146 Pampa de, XIV,135-138; XV,144;145 uucblo, XV, 139; 146 - Larnbayeque-Leche-Motupe Complcx, XVII, 181 Zarumilla, XXIV,240;244 Zevallo~ Quj1\ones, Jorge, VIT,69; XVI,163 Ziggural, l,l l ,cap.Fig.25 Zorritos, XXTV,239

263

Addenda p.38 Kosok lnst saw Peru more than a decade ago, and although man} chungcs huvc taken place, the general observatíons mado in thi and subscqucnt chapters are still valid. The 1960 census has recently although ali the data have yet to be nnnlyzed. It b('t'll tubulnted, will providc a good basis for comparíng the populatíon Cigure:. the uuthor lists in his charts to see how much real change has taken place in the past twenty years.

p. 180 Subsequent to the termination of the writing of thís rnanuscript, Dr. James Ford undertook extensive invesligations in the Lam-

264

bayoque-Leche area for the American :'.\luscum of Natural History, the rcsults of which are soon to be published. p.216 After the completiou of the manuscript, Tello's studies in the Casma valley were published and Dona Id Collier undertook further detailed iuvestigations in thc valley, the results of which are due to appcur shortly p.244

Piura-Chira. Many of Dr. Petersen's studies have been published subsequently, largely in Peruvian journals.

Balsa or Guayaquil River Boat. ( with Fig. 23, Chnpter 24) A. Prow

B. C. D. E. F C.

Aft Cabin Poles that serve as masts Sails Cross beams Board that serves as wooden protector and steering rudder

H. Kitchen Flasks for water K. Main ropes ( rigging) L. Floor or deck J Main ropcs ( rigging) K. Floor or deck l.

"·'

C:,} .. ;Jet

THE PERUVIAN COASTAL RIVERS AND VALLEYS (from the Río Grande to Ecuador) and their relationships

to the Chimú Empire.

1 1

ECUADOR

PERU

1 1 1

\ 'O

The Cent

of the Emp

SECHURA DESERT

Piuro

The Northem Zone of the Empire

Comparison of Babylonian and Peruvian lrrigation Problems The general principle holds true here as in the case of The Nile. The two rivers herc compare in length to the historically important part of the Peruvían coast. But here again the Peruvian arca is crosscd by dozens of small rivers, creatíng different social problems

...

BABYLONIA (same scale as Peru) PERSIAN GULF

.. .

Grande

¡¡o

1 1

Mala

1 1

. -------------------'

---------------

Supe Pativilco

ERA NEGRA

Southern Temporary Extensions of the Empire

MEDITER-

RANEAN SEA

Possible Ultimate Extensions of Raids by the Empire

I ~

peño

one of the Empire )

EUPHRATES

Pacífíc Ocean

SYRIA

---IRAQ

,,... """

-- --- - ' IRAN

TIGRIS