February 2024 Edition

ENGLISH SPECIAL EDITION - ONLINE DIGITAL - FEBRUARY 2024

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Science

ocial media has aided Smany businesses in extending

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and marketing themselves, as well as in improving how people engage and communicate with one another.

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On the other hand, technology has caused problems with mental health, emotional uncertainty, and time waste for many people.

All Rights Reserved The Newspaper O Mensageiro7 is a monthly publication via ONLINE in English, Portuguese, and Spanish.

Social media has made a significant impact on society, influencing various elements of our lives and changing the world in several ways:

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COMMUNICATION AND CONNECTIVITY: Social media has transformed communication by enabling instant global connectivity.

It has crossed geographical gaps, allowing people to effortlessly interact and converse with others from all over the world. This has enabled unparalleled exchanges of ideas, civilizations, and perspectives.

INFORMATION DISSEMINATION: The dispersal of knowledge has become more democratic as a result of social media.

O Mensageiro7 Newspaper is not responsible for the insertion of photos, logos, slogans, errors or omissions by advertisers or information provided by third parties, edited in any part of this publication.

Social media has made a significant impact on society, influencing various elements of our lives and changing the world in several ways.

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Articles, messages, interviews, and studies published in this Newspaper, by each author, do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the Editor.

Each writer is responsible for their own content.

Therefore, each author is available to answer the reader's questions.

Science

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It has enabled individuals to communicate real-time news, ideas, and experiences without relying entirely on traditional media outlets.

This has resulted in a more diversified and decentralized information ecology, allowing users to rapidly access a vast range of opinions and breaking news.

POLITICAL AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: Social media has become a driving force behind political and social transformation.

It has provided a platform for marginalized voices, allowing activists and grassroots groups to raise awareness, organize protests, and mobilize support for a variety of issues.

Examples include the Arab Spring, #BlackLivesMatter, and #MeToo campaigns.

BUSINESS AND MARKETING: Social media has altered how businesses function and sell their goods and services.

It has paved the way for new forms of advertising, customer engagement, and market research. Social media networks provide tailored advertising choices, allowing firms to efficiently contact specific groups.

INFLUENCERS' CULTURE:

Social media has given rise to the phenomena of influencers—individuals who have amassed a sizable online following and impact. tographs, and videos, people may learn about various cultures, traditions, and lifestyles.

Individuals can use social media to express themselves artistically and share their talents with a large audience.

This has increased cultural understanding and generated Cultural interchange and a sense of interconnectedInfluencers have changed worldwide awareness have ness. dynamics of the marketing, been facilitated by social mePERSONAL brand endorsement, and dia.

EXPRESSION customer behavior because they can mold trends and af- Through shared content, pho- AND CREATIVITY:

Users can create and share content such as art, photography, music, and writing, giving them recognition and allowing them to develop communities around their passions.

Social media has given rise to the phenomena of influencers—individuals who have amassed a sizable online following and impact.

fect purchasing decisions.

CULTURAL EXCHANGE AND GLOBAL AWARENESS:

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Social media has changed public discourse by facilitating discussions and debates on a variety of topics.

PUBLIC DISCOURSE AND ENGAGEMENT:

cyberbullying, and privacy concerns.

Social media has changed public discourse by facilitating discussions and debates on a variety of topics.

It is vital to utilize social media ethically and to assess the material we come across critically.

It has provided people with a forum to express themselves, interact with others, and engage in discussions regarding social, political, and cultural issues.

For businesses, social media is vital for a variety of reasons, including increased brand awareness, customer involvement and communication, targeted marketing and While social media has advertising, driving website brought many great improve- traffic and lead generation, ments, it has also introduced and so on. ◙ issues such as the dissemination of disinformation,

SOCIAL MEDIA FUN FACTS The most liked post on Pizza, steak, and sushi Instagram is a photo are some of the most of an egg with 56 mil- popular foods on Inslion likes tagram Facebook’s like and Almost 7.2% of traffic share buttons are viewed more than 10 on the world’s largest million times every search engine comes day from people looking for the term “Google” There are approximately 390 million Twitter accounts that SOURCE: have zero followers SCIENCEDIREC.COM

Nature

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Measuring the intelligence of animals can be difficult because there are so many indicators, including the ability to learn new things, the ability to solve puzzles, the use of tools, and self-awareness.

Determining the most intelligent animals can lead to debate—and some surprises.

trictly speaking, humans Smans are the smartest animals on Earth—at least according to human standards.

We are adept at all the tasks we’ve established as intelligence indicators, and we have used our smarts to do everything from improving our quality of life as a species and building great societies to achieving scientific advancements such as sending people to the Moon.

But what about the millions of other animal species? How do we rate them?

Measuring the intelligence of animals can be difficult because there are so many indicators, including the ability to learn new things, the ability to solve puzzles, the use of tools, and self-awareness.

Consider the octopus. At first glance, it might not appear to be very smart, yet studies have found that certain types of cephalopods possess great curiosity and problem-solving abilities.

In one experiment, an octopus figured out how to unCONTINUES ON PAGE 6

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Nature

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screw a container lid to retrieve the tasty morsel inside.

In another, an octopus learned to recognize human individuals, responding positively to a friendly person while ignoring a person who acted impersonally.

The recognition of individuals is a sign of intelligence also shared by pigeons.

One might assume that chimpanzees—one of our closest genetic relatives—would rate highly on our intelligence scale, and they do.

In a 2007 study, researchers gave adult chimps, adolescent chimps, and college students the same cognitive test, which involved remembering where nine numbers were located on a touchscreen monitor after seeing the numbers for less than a second.

The adult chimpanzees and the college students scored about the same.

In a 2007 study, researchers gave adult chimps, adolescent chimps, and college students the same cognitive test, which involved remembering where nine numbers were located on a touchscreen monitor after seeing the numbers for less than a second.

The adult chimpanzees and the college students scored about the same, but the adolescent chimps scored higher, remembering the number positions with far greater accuracy.

Goats, like octopuses, have proved to be adept at problem-solving, especially when CONTINUES ON PAGE 7

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Determining which animal is the “smartest” really depends on your criteria. Perhaps a more pressing question is: Are other animals judging our intelligence? food is their reward.

ally raise the water level until Elephants are also highly sothey could reach the reward. cial and compassionate, often working together to solve problems within their herd.

In one test, goats had to use their teeth to pull a rope down, activating a lever they then had to lift with their mouths.

A total of 9 out of 12 goats were able to figure out the contraption after four tries, and the majority still remembered how to work the device 10 months later.

Many animals are effective at using tools, including chimpanzees, which commonly use sticks to extract ants and termite larvae.

The cylinder was too slender for a crow to reach into with its beak or for a child to insert a hand (children were not allowed to use their thumbs).

Crows have demonstrated similar abilities, in one test proving smarter than human children. The test involved a cylinder containing water with a reward floating on top.

Children under eight years old had a lot of difficulty figuring out the puzzle, but crows seemed to know instinctively that adding pebbles to the cylinder would gradu-

Other animals known for their intelligence include pigs, which can solve mazes and learn a symbolic language; rats, which can make decisions based on what they do and don’t know; and bottlenose dolphins, which posElephants, like many other sess the same degree of selfanimals, can learn a variety awareness as elephants. of complicated tasks, but it’s So, determining which anitheir self-awareness — the mal is the “smartest” really ability to recognize them- depends on your criteria. Perselves in a mirror — that sets haps a more pressing questhem apart on the intelli- tion is: Are other animals gence scale (Many other ani- judging our intelligence? And mals, such as dogs and cats, if so, how do we stack up? ◙ seem to believe their reflecSOURCE: tion is another animal and reENCYCLOPAEDIA act accordingly).

BRITANNICA

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Health

WHAT IS ANIMAL-ASSISTED OR PET THERAPY?

going to the hospiItalmagine to have surgery and being able to take your favorite pet with you.

Animal-assisted therapy, also known as pet therapy, uses dogs and other animals, including horses, to help people as they recover from physical and mental health conditions. The companionship of the animal has proven benefits in both medical and psychological work.

While that scenario is unlikely to happen due to hospital protocols, you can, in reality, have a dog, cat or even a horse help with your recovery. How? Through animalassisted therapy.

If you are an animal lover, you can bring joy to people facing their most challenging situations by becoming a therapy animal trainer or handler.

You can train your own pet, or you can get a pet specifically to train as a therapy animal.

Either way, you will bring joy to people as you help speed up healing and increase support for people in treatment settings.

If you think that working with therapy animals is a good fit for your passions and skills, then it’s time to take a closer look at what animal-assisted therapy is and how to become a trainer or handler.

HOW DOES ANIMAL-ASSISTED THERAPY WORK?

Animals bring comfort to people, and spending time with animals can make healing faster and easier.

Animal-assisted therapy allows a trained service or therapy animal to come to an appointment or visit someone in the hospital.

When someone is dealing with a serious medical or mental health condition, they face a significant amount of stress. That stress can hinder their healing. Animals bring comfort to people, and spending time with animals can make healing faster and easier.

Animal-assisted therapy allows a trained service or therapy animal to come to an appointment or visit someone in the hospital.

The animal will come with the owner or handler who is CONTINUES ON PAGE 9

Health

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If you have ever spent time petting a cuddly dog or cat and felt an immediate emotional boost, then you have experienced one of the mental health benefits of animal therapy. knowledgeable about work- petting a cuddly dog or cat and felt an immediate emoing with service animals. tional boost, then you have The animal will spend a set experienced one of the menamount of time with a patient tal health benefits of animal (usually around 15 minutes), therapy. who gets to pet the animal and ask the owner questions. For most people, the presence of an animal prompts The presence of the animal the body to release serotonin, provides a needed distrac- prolactin and oxytocin. tion and helps reduce stress for the patient, and this can These hormones generate a relaxation and stress-reducing speed up healing. response, according to UCLA BENEFITS OF Health. This hormone release ANIMAL-ASSISTED can lower symptoms of deTHERAPY pression and sadness, helping support good mental health.

Animal-assisted therapy has proven benefits based on Releasing these “happy hormodern scientific research. mones” also helps lower Researchers have found a anxiety, so people will relax direct connection between during their treatment or interacting with animals therapy. and enjoying positive health benefits. These animal ther- They also experience less apy benefits include mental loneliness while in the hoshealth, physical health and pital. The presence of an animal provides comfort and a skill improvement. needed distraction from an MENTAL HEALTH otherwise challenging time.

health blocks that make ther- that animal therapy positiveapy and treatment more dif- ly impacts physical health. It can speed healing and reduce ficult. the effects of some health Bringing in an animal can conditions. “break the ice” between a therapist and patient, and this HERE IS A CLOSER can reduce that initial resis- LOOK AT THE tance to therapy. This reduc- RESEARCH. tion in resistance to therapy can increase the effectiveness In a 2007 study published in the American Journal of Critiof these programs. cal Care, researchers found Finally, in patients with de- that visits with therapy dogs mentia who are struggling improved cardiovascular with agitation, working with health in heart patients, therapy dogs helps lessen precipitating lowered blood pressure and lowered stress those negative behaviors. hormone levels.

Since more than 90 percent of people who are institutional- The American Heart Associaized due to dementia-related tion has found that working problems have agitation, this with therapy animals imis a significant benefit for the proves the health of heart patient as well as for the staff failure patients in the hospiof nursing homes and memo- tal. ry care settings.

Regular visits with therapy animals can reduce the PHYSICAL HEALTH amount of medication some While the mental health ben- people need to manage medefits of interacting with ani- ical conditions. mals are well-known, many If you have ever spent time Some patients have mental people are surprised to note Anxious patients experience CONTINUES ON PAGE 10

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As more and more medical providers recognize the animal assisted therapy benefits listed above, more facilities are implementing programs. You can also find animal-assisted therapy in therapists’ offices and psychology treatment centers.

slowed breathing, and interaction with welcoming animals actually boosts the immune system as well.

Some researchers have found an increase in salivatory immunoglobulin A, which indicates a healthy immune system function, after people spend time petting a dog for less than 20 minutes.

The release of oxytocin impacts the immune system and increases the pain threshold, helping people heal more quickly.

SKILLS IMPROVEMENT A third benefit of animalassisted therapy is improved skills in therapies of all types.

In physical therapy that requires exercise that is sometimes uncomfortable, participants find themselves more motivated to participate in therapy after interacting with a pet. The increased pain threshold that comes with the oxytocin release can also motivate people to push harder in their therapy programs.

The presence of an animal can create spontaneous communication in situations where a child might otherwise choose not to communicate. hard in therapy sessions.

ARE THERE RISKS WITH ANIMAL-ASSISTED THERAPY?

Any time animals and humans interact, there are risks.

Many animals have germs that can make vulnerable Children with neurological people sick, and any animal, differences, such as autism, no matter how well trained, often perform better in their can be unpredictable. language and social therapies when they have an animal to However, these types of risks are minimized when working interact with. with trained service animals.

The presence of an animal can create spontaneous commu- That said, there are a few nication in situations where a risks associated with animalchild might otherwise choose assisted therapy, and people interested in this line of work not to communicate. should understand these They often relate better to risks so they can reduce the animals than humans, and danger to their pets and the therapists can incorporate patients they serve. the animal into the therapy session to improve communi- One risk is the danger of poor sanitation, which can be an cation and engagement. issue in hospitals. To combat For children with anxiety and this potential problem, hoshyperactivity disorders, the pitals and institutions have animal can help calm or focus strict protocols to ensure the child, so they will work their patients are not put at

Many therapists will bring in animals to help their patients or clients feel more comfortable and working with an animal can make patients open up more about their emotional needs.

Rehabilitation centers may partner with therapy animals and their handlers to help patients achieve faster rehab and get home more quickly.

The presence of therapy animals motivates patients to work harder in their rehab undue risk due to the pres- activities, whether that is ence of therapy animals. counseling-related or physical therapy.

Another potential risk is the risk of an animal hurting a Therapy animals are also patient, such as if a dog gets showing up in schools, esscared and bites a patient. pecially schools that work While you cannot eliminate with special-needs students. this risk completely, in reality, Teachers and therapists find the training these animals re- that students make greater ceive and the skill of therapy gains when working with anianimal handlers make this mals. a small risk. The benefits of Bringing trained service aniimproved healing and mental mals into these programs and health far outweigh this small schools can help these sturisk. dents achieve greater social and academic performance, WHERE IS so this practice is becoming ANIMAL-ASSISTED THERAPY OFFERED? more common. ◙ You can find animal-assisted therapy in most major hospitals. The Mayo Clinic has the Caring Canines program, for example, that allows therapy dogs to make visits to various hospital departments. Patients can request a therapy dog visit when they need a little stress reduction during their hospital stay.

SOURCE: WEBMD

Teen Health

mon. Everyone’s doing "C’ it." So why shouldn’t you?

If you're interested in sports, you might hang out with the "jocks." If you're interested in music, you spend time with others who enjoy music.

It’s almost expected that you will experience peer pressure frequently throughout your teen years.

You belong to that group and feel secure when you are part of it. The group identifies who you are and what you’re about.

Say you're invited to a party where you know there will be alcohol or drugs. A friend decides to cut class.

But what if people in "your group" start doing things that are wrong, hurtful, or even illegal? And what if these same people are your friends?

Someone offers you a cigarette. Or friends talk about having sex with their boyfriends or girlfriends.

This is what we refer to as peer pressure -- the pressure to conform to the behaviors, attitudes, and personal habits of "the group."

• How do you respond?

• Are you tempted to follow their examples?

• Or can you stand strong in your own belief system?

At some point, everyone has the desire to fit into a group.

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It’s almost expected that you will experience peer pressure frequently throughout your teen years.

In many cases, there are serious risks involved. Let’s look at some common situations.

Think about what you would do in each: "My friends told me about this party at this abandoned warehouse on Friday night. I know there’s going to be alcohol involved, and someone there is supposed to bring CONTINUES ON PAGE 12

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your advantage. Think of it as "competitive" peer pressure.

some marijuana. I don’t drink or do drugs, but I don’t want them to think I’m a loser."

For example, if you’re active in sports, your teammates probably pressure you to be the best you can be. If you’re on the track team, you pace yourself with the fastest runner, because you know it will make you better. If you’re striving for good grades, you compare your scores to those at the top of the list. If you’re in the band, and there are musicians better than you, you are pressured into striving to be the best musician you can be.

"This older guy at church that I really like smokes cigarettes.

He keeps offering them to me and my friends. Last week my best friend Stacy smoked one with him."

"My girlfriend keeps pleading with me to go all the way with her. She says 'everybody’s having sex' these days, but I want to save myself for marriage. All of my friends have had sex, and I really like my girlfriend. I don’t want her to think I’m some kind of prude."

In all of these cases, your decision about how to handle the peer pressure can have great consequences: What if the cops bust the party at the warehouse and you are arrested? How would your parents react when the police call them?

How would an arrest affect your college admissions or your reputation?

As for the second example, it goes without saying how bad smoking is for your health, including the risks of lung disease, heart disease, and cancer. It's all too easy to get hooked on cigarettes.

Speaking of long-term effects, you really have to think through what you’d do in the third example. Having sex even one time could leave your girlfriend pregnant.

You’d have to change your life from student ... to father.

And what if you got a sexually transmitted disease?

How would you cope if you found out you had gonorrhea or HIV? Friends and family increase the risk of children becoming

THE CHOICE IS YOURS

At some point, every person must stand alone, even when tempted by friends and other peers. smokers in the UK | Imperial News | Imperial College London

ASSESSING THE RISKS OF PEER PRESSURE As you see, there can be serious risks involved with peer pressure. Unfortunately, most teenagers are not applauded for their logical thought processes.

• Could this harm me physically?

• Could this harm someone else?

• Is this against the law?

• Could I go to

Most feel invulnerable, like jail? "nothing bad can ever happen to me."

What are the long-term efBut you need to assess the fects of my actions to my health? My education? My risks -- well in advance. family relationships?

Consider these questions before you're tempted to follow Now, let’s lighten up. You the crowd: can also use peer pressure to

At some point, every person must stand alone, even when tempted by friends and other peers. You know what is right.

You know what is wrong. And only you can decide which path to take.

Ask almost anyone who has "been there, done that" about peer pressure. Most people have gone with the crowd at some point in their teenage lives, and they’ve had to live with the consequences. You'll likely hear that bowing to peer pressure wasn't worth it.

Now is your chance to believe in yourself and to stand alone at times, if you need to.

When faced with group demands, assess the risks ahead of time. If you are uncomfortable doing something, don't be afraid to decline the invitation with a ''no, thanks.''

Learning to stand up for yourself and your beliefs and to look ahead to consequences of your actions are important steps in becoming a responsible adult. ◙ SOURCE: REACH OUT PARENTS

Psychology

o the winter months get D you down more than you

lated changes at certain times of year. Experts believe that SAD may be related to these hormonal changes.

think they should? If so, you might have seasonal depression, also known as seasonal affective disorder (SAD).

One theory is that less sunlight during fall and winter leads to the brain making less serotonin, a chemical linked to brain pathways that regulate mood.

Seasonal depression is a mood disorder that happens every year at the same time.

When nerve cell pathways in the brain that regulate mood don't work the way they should, the result can be feelings of depression, along with symptoms of fatigue and weight gain.

A rare form of seasonal depression, known as "summer depression," begins in late spring or early summer and ends in fall. In general, though, seasonal affective disorder starts in fall or winter and ends in spring or early summer.

SAD may affect 11 million people in the U.S. each year, and 25 million more may have a milder form called the winter blues.

CAUSES While we don't know the exact causes of SAD, some scientists think that certain hormones made deep in the brain trigger attitude-re-

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SAD usually starts in young adulthood and is more common in women than men.

Seasonal depression is a mood disorder that happens every year at the same time.

Some people with SAD have mild symptoms and feel out of sorts or cranky. Others have worse symptoms that interfere with relationships and work.

Because the lack of enough daylight during wintertime is related to SAD, it's less often found in countries where CONTINUES ON PAGE 14

Psychology

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The main feature of SAD is that your mood and behavior shift along with the calendar. there's plenty of sunshine year-round.

WINTER SYMPTOMS People with SAD typically sleep much more than usual and crave carbohydrates.

They also have many of the normal warning signs of depression, including:

• Feeling sad, cranky, or hopeless • Less energy • Trouble concentrating • Fatigue • Greater appetite • More desire

to be alone

You may have SAD if, for the also depends on whether you have another type of deprespast 2 years, you: sion or bipolar disorder.

• Thoughts of Had depression or masuicide nia that starts as well as ends Traditional antidepressants are often used to treat seaduring a specific season sonal depression.

• Weight gain You didn’t feel these symptoms during your “normal” Bupropion XL is currently the SUMMER only medication that is FDAseasons SYMPTOMS approved specifically to preOver your lifetime, you’ve vent major depressive epi• Less appetite had more seasons with than sodes in people with SAD. without depression or mania Many doctors recommend • Trouble It sometimes might take a that people with SAD get outsleeping while to diagnose SAD be- side early in the morning to cause it can mimic other con- get more natural light.

• Weight loss ditions, like chronic fatigue syndrome, underactive thy- If this is impossible because of DIAGNOSIS the dark winter months, anroid, low blood sugar, viral The main feature of SAD is illnesses, or other mood dis- tidepressant medications or light therapy (phototherapy) that your mood and behavior orders. may help. shift along with the calendar.

TREATMENT Low levels of vitamin D, It’s not a separate mood disTreatments differ, depending caused by low dietary intake order but a type of major deon how severe your symp- of the vitamin or not enough pression or bipolar disorder, exposure to sunshine, have toms are. sometimes called manic debeen found in people with pression.

The type of treatment you get SAD. CONTINUES ON PAGE 15

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However, it's unclear whether vitamin D supplementation can help to relieve SAD symptoms. Very little research has been done on dietary supplements other than vitamin D for SAD.

LIGHT THERAPY

Spend some time outside every day, even when it's cloudy.

The effects of daylight still help.

If it’s too cold out, open your blinds and sit by a sunny window. times brighter than normal PREVENTION room lighting.

Spend some time outside The therapy starts with one every day, even when it's 10- to 15-minute session per cloudy. The effects of daylight day. Then the times increase still help. If it’s too cold out, to 30 to 45 minutes a day, de- open your blinds and sit by a sunny window. pending on your response.

Don't look directly at the light Some researchers link sea- source of any light box for sonal depression to the nat- long times, to avoid possible ural hormone melatonin, damage to your eyes. which causes drowsiness.

Some people with SAD recovLight affects the biological er within days of using light clock in our brains that reg- therapy. Others take much ulates circadian rhythms, a longer. If the SAD symptoms physiological function that don't go away, your doctor may include mood changes may increase the light therawhen there’s less sunlight in py sessions to twice daily. winter.

feelings seem to be seasonal in nature, you may have a form of SAD. Talk openly with your doctor about your feelings. Follow their recommendations for lifestyle changes and treatment.

Begin using a 10,000-lux light box when fall starts, even be- If your doctor recommends fore you feel the effects of light therapy, ask if the pracwinter SAD. tice provides light boxes for Eat a well-balanced diet. This patients with SAD.

will help you have more en- You can also rent or purchase ergy, even if you're craving a light box, but they're exstarchy and sweet foods. pensive, and health insurExercise for 30 minutes a day, ance companies don't usually cover them. ◙ five times a week.

Stay involved with your social People who respond to light circle and regular activities.

Natural or "full-spectrum" therapy are encouraged to Social support is very imporlight can have an antideprescontinue it until they can be tant. sant effect. out in the sunshine again in WHEN SHOULD I A f u l l - s p e c t r u m b r i g h t the springtime.

CALL MY DOCTOR? light shines indirectly into While side effects are miniyour eyes. mal, be cautious if you have If you feel depressed, faYou sit about 2 feet away sensitive skin or a history tigued, and cranky the same from a bright light -- about 20 of bipolar disorder. time each year, and these

SOURCE: WEBMD

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Geography

In 2000 a Swiss foundation launched a campaign to

determine the New Seven Wonders of the World.

Given that the original Seven Wonders list was compiled in the 2nd century BCE—and that only one entrant is still standing (the Pyramids of Giza)—it seemed time for an update. And people around the world apparently agreed, as more than 100 million votes were cast on the Internet or by text messaging.

The final results, which were announced in 2007, were met with cheers as well as some jeers—a number of prominent contenders, such as Athens’s Acropolis, failed to make the cut.

Do you agree with the new list?

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Geography

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GREAT WALL OF CHINA

Great might be an understatement. One of the world’s largest buildingconstruction projects, the Great Wall of China is widely thought to be about 5,500 miles (8,850 km) long; a disputed Chinese study, however, claims the length is 13,170 miles (21,200 km).

Work began in the 7th century BCE and continued for two millennia.

Although called a “wall,” the structure actually features two parallel walls for lengthy stretches. In addition, watchtowers and barracks dot the bulwark. One not-so-great thing about the wall, however, was its effectiveness.

Although it was built to prevent invasions and raids, the wall largely failed to provide actual security. Instead, scholars have noted that it served more as “political propaganda.”

CHICHÉN ITZÁ

Chichén Itzá is a Mayan city on the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, which flourished in the 9th and 10th centuries CE. Under the Mayan tribe Itzá—who were strongly influenced by the Toltecs—a number of important monuments and temples were built. Among the most notable is the stepped pyramid El Castillo (“The Castle”), which rises 79 feet (24 meters) above the Main Plaza.

number of days in the solar year. During the spring and autumnal equinoxes, the setting sun casts shadows on the pyramid that give the appearance of a serpent slithering down the north stairway; at the base is a stone snake head. Life there was not all work and science, however. Chichén Itzá is home to the largest tlachtli (a type of sporting field) in the Americas.

On that field the residents A testament to the Ma- played a ritual ball game yans’ astronomical abili- popular throughout preties, the structure features Columbian Mesoamerica. a total of 365 steps, the CONTINUES ON PAGE 18

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PETRA

The ancient city of Petra, Jordan, is located in a remote valley, nestled among sandstone mountains and cliffs.

It was purported to be one of the places where Moses struck a rock and water gushed forth. Later the Nabataeans, an Arab tribe, made it their capital, and during this time it flourished, becoming an important trade center, especially for spices. Noted carvers, the Nabataeans chiseled dwellings, temples, and tombs into the sandstone, which changed color with the shifting sun. In addition, they

constructed a water system that allowed for lush gardens and farming.

At its height, Petra reportedly had a population of 30,000.

The city began to decline, however, as trade routes shifted. A major earthquake in 363 CE caused more difficulty, and after another tremor hit in 551, Petra was gradually abandoned. Although rediscovered in 1912, it was largely ignored by archaeologists until the late 20th century, and many questions remain about the city.

MACHU PICCHU This Incan site near Cuzco, Peru, was “discovered” in 1911 by Hiram Bingham, who believed it was Vilcabamba, a secret Incan stronghold used during the 16th-century rebellion against Spanish rule.

Although that claim was later disproved, the purpose of Machu Picchu has confounded scholars. Bingham believed it was home to the “Virgins of the Sun,” women who lived in convents under a vow of chastity.

TAJ MAHAL This mausoleum complex in Agra, India, is regarded as one of the world’s most iconic monuments and is perhaps the finest example of Mughal architecture. It was built by Emperor Shah Jahān (reigned 1628–58) to honor his wife Mumtāz Maḥal (“Chosen One of the Palace”), who died in 1631 giving birth to their 14th child. It took about 22 years and 20,000 workers to construct the complex, which in-

Others think that it was likely a pilgrimage site, while some believe it was a royal retreat. (One thing it apparently should not be is the site of a beer commercial. In 2000 a crane being used for such an ad fell and cracked a monument.) What is known is that Machu Picchu is one of the few major pre-Columbian ruins found nearly intact.

Despite its relative isolation high in the Andes Mountains, it features agricultural terraces, plazas, residential areas, and temples.

cludes an immense garden with a reflecting pool. The mausoleum is made of white marble that features semiprecious stones in geometric and floral patterns.

Its majestic central dome is surrounded by four smaller domes. According to some reports, Shah Jahān wished to have his own mausoleum made out of black marble.

However, he was deposed by one of his sons before any work began.

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Geography

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CHRIST THE REDEEMER

stands 98 feet (30 meters) tall—not including its base, which is about 26 feet (8 meters) high—and its outstretched arms span 92 feet (28 meters). It is the largest Art Deco sculpture in the world. Christ the Redeemer is made of reinforced concrete and is covered in approximately six million tiles. Somewhat disconcertingly, the statue has often been struck by lightning, and in 2014 the tip of Jesus’s right thumb was The resulting monument damaged during a storm.

Christ the Redeemer, a colossal statue of Jesus, stands atop Mount Corcovado in Rio de Janeiro. Its origins date to just after World War I, when some Brazilians feared a “tide of godlessness.” They proposed a statue, which was ultimately designed by Heitor da Silva Costa, Carlos Oswald, and Paul Landowski.

Construction began in 1926 and was completed five years later.

COLOSSEUM The Colosseum in Rome was built in the first century by order of the Emperor Vespasian. A feat of engineering, the amphitheater measures 620 by 513 feet (189 by 156 meters) and features a complex system of vaults. It was

capable of holding 50,000 spectators, who watched a variety of events. Perhaps most notable were gladiator fights, though men battling animals was also common. In addition, water was sometimes pumped into the Colosseum

for mock naval engagements. Colosseum. Additionally, so many animals were captured However, the belief that Chris- and then killed there that tians were martyred there— certain species reportedly benamely, by being thrown to came extinct. ◙ lions—is debated. According to some estimates, about SOURCE: ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA 500,000 people died in the

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