Urban Future - The Green Lattice

The Green • Lattice

Cooling down the Boiling Greater Sydney, Australia Onnie On Yi LIU 1906890

Table of Contents 1. Introduction

3

•

3

Definition of ‘Urban’ in the 21st Century

2. The Greater Sydney, Australia

4

• • • •

4 4 7 7

Climate of the Greater Sydney Global Scale - Global Climate Change Macro Scale - The Boiling Sydney City Scale – Urban Heat Island Effect

3. What’s Wrong?

8

•

Urban Heat Island Effect

8

4. Why? URBANIZATION!

9

• •

9 10

Urbanization – Population Growth Urbanization – Land Use Change

5. CRISES – a Vicious Cycle

12

• • • •

12 12 13 13

Rise in Energy Demand Increase in Greenhouse Gases Emission and Pollution Deterioration of Living Environment Health Risk and Mortality

6. The Future City

16

• • •

16 17 18

Concept: Design with Nature (New) & Re-naturing (Existing) Spatial Planning Model: Hybrid (Green Wedge-based) Model DRAFT - Greater Sydney Region Plan

7. Green • Connect – a network in the reality

19

• • • •

19 20 20 22

Physical Approach: Green Infrastructure (GI) Green Infrastructure Transect across the Greater Sydney Framework for using GI to mitigate UHI effect GREEN • LATTICE

8. Conclusion

24

•

The Future Four-Dimension (4D)

24

Reference List

26

2

The Green • Lattice

1

Introduction Definition of ‘Urban’ in the 21st Century What is ‘Urban’?

According to the Cambridge Dictionary (2019a), it is an adjective to describe something “of or in a city or town”.

Then what is a city or a town?

Again, with the dictionary (2019b), “city” is a noun meaning a large town while “town” is another noun defined as: “a place where people live and work, containing many houses, shops, places of work, places of entertainment, etc., and usually larger than a village but smaller than a city” (Cambridge Dictionary, 2019c) So, if “urban” is an adjective to describe a city or town, would it be a negative word rather than a positive one comparing to the past in this 21st century?

In the last century, “urban” area gave people an impression that the described area is more advanced, higher technological, smarter and wealthier places to live. Later it even led to the Rural-Urban migration in many different cities all over the world especially in China because of these attractive reasons.

However, in the mid-19th century, people who lived in cities found more and more problems there, such as, overcrowding, health issue, energy and food supply, deleterious living environment and even the global issue: climate change in the late-19th century etc. Therefore, “urban” seems also expressing an area with these problems.

Then, people start to think about how they would improve the situation. Ian McHarg suggested “Design with Nature” (1969).

By considering nature as a part of the development, people try to mitigate the existing urban problems. Later, different ideas with nature are developed, for example, ecological urbanism (Mostafavi and Doherty, 2016) and re-naturing the city (Lemes de Oliveira and Mell, 2019), and are tried to be implemented in various metropolis. Thus, some “natural” and “ecological” elements are also included in “urban” now.

In the future, hopefully in the mid or late21st century, “urban” will evolve into the people living and working areas integrating with our great nature with an optimistic and sustainable way.

In this report, an urban metropolis: The Greater Sydney, Australia with its “famous” problem of extreme heat, is studied as an example. The respective problem, causes and crises are investigated and analysed.

Future government development plan would be studied and a new vision of the future landscape in Sydney would be proposed in order to form a better “Urban” living area.

“Urban” in the 21st Century =

People living and working areas integrating with the great nature in an optimistic and sustainable way.

The Green • Lattice

3

2

The Greater Sydney, Australia The Greater Sydney, the largest city located in the southeast coast of Australia with a total land area of about 12,368.2 km2, is the capital of the state of New South Wales (NSW) according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2019a).

By the ABS, the boundary of the Greater Sydney, also known as the Greater Capital City Statistical Area, is from Wyong and Gosford in the north to the Royal National Park in the south following the coastline in between. Its west side is surrounded by the Blue Mountains, Wollondilly and Hawkesbury while the east side by the Tasman Sea (City of Sydney, 2018; ABS, 2019a).

The estimated resident population of the area as at 30 Jun 2018 is 5,230,330 while the population density is 422.9 persons/ km2 (ABS, 2019a). There are up to 35 local councils with more than 650 suburbs linked by various transportation systems consisting of rails, buses, ferries, taxis, vehicular and cycle networks (City of Sydney, 2018).

4

The Green • Lattice

The Boiling City – Current Situation Climate of the Greater Sydney The Greater Sydney has warm summers and cold winters (BOM, 2006) and therefore is classified as having a humid subtropical climate, a Cfa climate, based on the Köppen–Geiger climate classification (Kottek. et al., 2006). However, there are more hotter days in not only the Greater Sydney but also the entire Australia due to more severe heatwave caused by the global climate change and also the stronger urban heat island effect which exacerbates the situation (Department of Planning, Industry and Environment, 2019a).

Fig. 2.1 - Location Map of the Greater Sydney

The Green • Lattice

5

Global Scale - Global Climate Change In the report State of the Climate 2018 by BOM and CSIRO (2018), it states that Australia’s weather and climate had keep changing to response global warming and warmed by just over 1 °C since 1910 (Fig. 2.2). The changing will probably raise the frequency of extreme heat events in the future (Fig. 2.3).

“Human activities are estimated to have caused approximately 1.0°C of global warming above pre-industrial levels, with a likely range of 0.8°C to 1.2°C. Global warming is likely to reach 1.5°C between 2030 and 2052 if it continues to increase at the current rate. (high confidence)” was quoted from the special report “Global Warming of 1.5 ºC” (IPCC 2018, p4).

This estimated global temperature changes seems to exceed the projection of maximum temperature in Sydney increasing by 0.7°C by 2030 and up to 1.9°C by 2070 by the NSW government in the future (Office of Environment & Heritage, 2015a).

Fig. 2.2 - Australian mean temperature anomaly (BOM, 2018)

Fig. 2.3 - Number of extreme heat event days from 1910– 2017 (BOM and CSIRO, 2018)

6

The Green • Lattice

Macro Scale - The Boiling Sydney

City Scale – Urban Heat Island Effect

Based on the Annual Climate Summary for Greater Sydney by BOM (2019a), the year of 2018 was a warm year in which the annual mean maximum temperature measured at Sydney Observatory Hill was within the top five warmest years on record. On 7 January, a summer day, four sites observed the highest temperature on record while Penrith even recorded 47.3°C which is the hottest day recorded in the area since 1939.

The mean maximum temperatures raised typically by 0.5 to 1.5°C while the mean minimum temperatures mostly increased by less than 0.5°C above average across Sydney (BOM, 2019b)

Back to 2015, besides the main factor of global climate change, it was investigated by the NSW government that the urban heat island effect in the metropolitan area would further worsen the heat event situation (Office of Environment & Heritage, 2015a) (Fig. 2.4). The study shows that there is a strong relationship between the urban temperature and the change of land use during urbanization process in promoting the urban heat island effect, especially for the proposing development of the Western Sydney.

Fig. 2.4 - The urban heat island (UHI) effect in metropolitan Sydney, Summer 2015/16 (Department of Planning, Industry and Environment, 2019)

SUMMARY 2

The increase in the mean temperature and the number of extreme heat event days in the entire Australia as well as the Greater Sydney are not only caused by the global warming, but also the urban heat island effect in the metropolitan area.

The Green • Lattice

7

3

What’s Wrong?

Urban Heat Island Effect Urban Heat Island Effect The urban heat island (UHI) phenomenon refers to the higher level of ambient temperature in urban areas comparing to the surrounding suburban or rural areas (Fig. 3.1) because of: • • •

the loss of vegetation cover; the raise in the solar radiation absorption by the urban structure materials; and the changes of air mass movement through the urban fabrics (Santamouris et al., 2017; Mahdavi et al., 2016; Rajagopalan et al., 2014; Oke, 1982).

Fig. 3.1 - Illustration on the effect of urban temperature under UHI effect (SkopjeLab, 2018)

8

The Green • Lattice

Fig. 3.2 - Illustration on the causes of UHI effect (Deutscher Wetterdienst, 2019)

SUMMARY 3

The urban heat island effect is caused by the losses of green cover, raise in solar radiation absorptions and changes of air movement in the urban area leading to a higher ambient temperature.

The temperature varies in different extends with time and location in accordance to the specific meteorological, locational and urban characteristics of an area. (Kleerekoper et al., 2019; Santamouris, 2001; Oke, 1987) All the above three factors are highly

4

related to a process – URBANIZATION (Hsieh & Huang, 2016; Santamouris & Asimakopoulos, 2001), the change of land uses; i.e. forms and fabrics.

Why? URBANISATION! Population Growth Urbanisation – Population Growth In the Greater Sydney, there is an increase of resident population by 93,400 (1.8%) from 2017 and the estimated resident population of the area as at 30 Jun 2018 is 5,230,330 (ABS, 2019b). That leads to the Greater Sydney becoming one of the capital cities with the largest raise in the population (ABS, 2019c).

The growing population is the main cause for rapid urbanization in the north-west and south-west area of the Greater Sydney in providing adequate housing and job opportunities for future development (Office of Environment & Heritage, 2015a).

The Green • Lattice

9

Urbanization LAND USE CHANGE According to the impact assessment on the land-use change in the Greater Sydney’s future temperatures with respect to the NSW government development plan carried out by the Office of Environment & Heritage (Adams et al., 2015), different types of land use changes from the Bureau of Transport Statistics (2012) were analysed and divided into eight categories as shown while the temperature changes were simulated basing on the ECHAM5 GCM-driven RCM (R3) simulations from the NARCliM project (Evans et al. 2014).

The result shows that the temperature raise would be enhanced by the change of land uses (Fig. 4.1, 4.2 & 4.3).

Overall, the annual average hourly temperature changes from –1.3 to +1.4°C while that daily temperature changes from –0.4 to +0.8°C. That means the maximum annual average temperature increase would be the double of that as predicted by 2030,

0.7°C (Office of Environment & Heritage, 2015a).

The greatest annual increase in temperature of land use are projected in switching form forest or grasslands to urban area, from +0.2°C to +0.4°C (Fig. 4.4) especially in summer afternoons and during the night, and these changes are expected to occur exactly in the north-west and south-west development area.

Fig. 4.1 & 4.2 - Present and future land-use layers for Sydney’s urban region (Adams et al., 2015a) Fig. 4.3 - Projected changes in land-use by 2036 (Adams et al., 2015b)

Fig. 4.4 - Average 3-hourly annual temperature changes for projected land-use changes (Adams et al., 2015c) 10

The Green • Lattice

Fig. 4.5 - 3-hourly annual temperature changes between 1 am and 12 am (Adams et al., 2015d & e)

SUMMARY 4

In the Greater Sydney, the change of land uses in urbanisation planned in the SW area, ascribable to the rapid population growth, is the main cause of the urban heat island effect and estimated to further worsen the extreme heat situation.

The findings also show that there is a decrease of temperature in the existing urban area in the coast at night which is potentially induced by the raising building height (i.e. more shading) and the presence of stronger coastal sea breezes due to larger temperature differences between the land and sea surface temperatures.

However, for the inland area, the extend of the temperature increase is found to be much higher. This might be caused by less cooling effect from the sea breezes due to the increase distance from the coastal area; the blockage of urban structures in the coastal side as well as the creation of stagnation UHI region over the city Sydney (Santamouris et al., 2017; Office of Environment & Heritage, 2015a; Sakaida

et al., 2011; Ado, 1992). And this problem is unique and specific to the geological characteristics of the Greater Sydney.

Therefore, temperature changes, i.e. the UHI effect, caused by land-use alterations are predicated to further exacerbate that by human induced climate change (Office of Environment & Heritage, 2015a). In order to relieve the problem, other than the shortterm method of changing building materials and increasing vegetation coverage to improve the micro-climate, long-term measures such as sustainable city planning or regeneration should be proposed and implemented to enhance the overall mesoor even marco-climate of the Greater Sydney (Santamouris et al., 2017; Office of Environment & Heritage, 2015a).

The Green • Lattice

11

In order to support the raising cooling energy consumption of the buildings or indoor environment in the urban area, the peak electricity demand is increasing. Recent research by Santamouris et al. (2015) discovered that the demand for electricity changes ranging from 0.45% to 4.6% per degree of temperature increase due to the UHI effect. The cooling demand for buildings are studied to be increased up to 100% in various cities (Hassid et al., 2000).

During summer, the consecutive three or more days of high temperature (above 35 °C) imposes great stress to the electricity supply system and causes blackouts and it may cause various accident in household, traffic and emergency services (Energy Networks Australia and Australian Energy Council, 2019).

Rise in Energy Demand

5

CRIS a Viciou Increase in Greenhouse Gases Emission and Pollution

The more the amount of electricity needed, the more amount of greenhouse gases are released. According to the data from the Department of the Environment and Energy (2019), fossil fuel is still the main fuel source to generate electricity in Australia, 81% of the total electricity production in 2018. The increase amount of anthropogenic carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases by fossil fuel combustion would further contribute to the global warming and climate change (NASA, 2019).

On the other hand, in urban surface, the raise in temperature increases the stimulation of ozone formation. Ozone is one of the essential components for photochemical smog formation in the urban area under high temperature leading to deleterious air quality and road visibility (Sillman, 2003).

Ozone would also be harmful to human health as it would lead to diseases related to heart or respiratory system (Kleerekoper et al., 2019; WHO,2004).

12

The Green • Lattice

The rise in urban temperature is found to be highly correlated with the human deaths by some studies (Baccini et al., 2008). Two major kinds of hyperthermia, meaning body produces or absorbs more heat than it dissipates (Kosaka et al. 2004), heat exhaustion and heat stroke, would cause multiple organ failure and mortality (Office of Environment & Heritage, 2015b).

Elderlies, disabilities, people with chronic diseases, homeless people and those who live in poor quality environment are all highly vulnerable to heat stress (Office of Environment and Heritage, 2015b) And the government estimates that the annual average number of heat-related deaths in Sydney would increase from 176 from 2007 to 1050 in 2050 (Australia State of the Environment, 2016).

5

Health Risk and Mortality

SES us Cycle Deterioration of Living Environment In indoor environment, the temperature would be controlled by the heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) system in order to keep the optimal room temperature (25.5°C as universal) and thermal comfort. However, the outdoor condition would be much worse than the indoor because of the substantial increase of anthropogenic heat waste released from the HVAC system.

Therefore, the summer heat stress imposed by the heatwave and the UHI effect would further deteriorate the outdoor living environment and cause more heat-related deaths significantly (Kleerekoper et al., 2019).

The Green • Lattice

13

CHANGE

6

The Future City From the last century, people has discovered various problems in their existing living environments, such as living space, transportation, job, health, pollution, global warming and climate change etc., and start to rethink and find the best way of planning of cities and urban areas especially for the growing population.

In accordance to Ian MaHarg’s book Design with Nature (1969), the concept of planning the urban or city development basing on the nature was raised out (Abunnasr, 2019).

Each type of natural resources or elements is identified, mapped and overlaid with each other in order to analyse the selected area comprehensively and propose the most suitable plan for urban development (MaHarg, 1969).

Concept: Design with Nature (New) & Re-naturing (Existing) However, the idea from MaHarg (1969) is more focusing on the design of new urban areas. The Greater Sydney as an example, the use of this concept would be more suitable for the new extension of the urban area, i.e. the north-east and south-west area.

For the existing urban area, i.e. the CBD area, there is a need to add the nature elements back into the urban context. Renaturing the cities with the integration of grey (urban structures), green (vegetations)

16

The Green • Lattice

and blue (water spaces) spaces would be necessary for the existing city improvement to bring the nature back and even future planning design with the nature (Lemes de Oliveira, 2019a).

The main advantages of re-naturing the cities are summarized by Lemes de Oliveira (2019a) as below: • Fulfil the need of human connecting to the nature; • Enhance human health and well-being; • Benefit to the ecology; and • Tackle with climate change and be resilient.

Spatial Planning Model: Hybrid (Green Wedge-based) Model Considering the six principles: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Connectivity; Proximity; Quantity and size; Distribution and accessibility; Multi-scalar approach; and Multi-functionality

concluded by Lemes de Oliveira (2019b) in evaluating the city planning model, the hybrid planning model based on green wedge would be suggested to implement in the Greater Sydney (Lemes de Oliveira, 2019a).

p 18). It aims to connect the countryside and the inner-city area directly and to interconnect individual green space in the urban area (Lemes de Oliveira, 2019a).

By integrating the other green planning models including green grid, greenways, green belt and green heart, i.e. the hybrid model (Fig. 6.1), all the six principles would be maximized and Copenhagen Finger Plan (1947) would be one of the most famous example for us to as an reference (Lemes de Oliveira, 2019b).

Green wedges were defined as “wedge-like radial green spaces, bound by development areas, often linking the urban centre with the countryside� (Lemes de Oliveira 2019b,

Fig. 6.1 - A hybrid spatial planning approach for the renaturing of cities (Lemes de Oliveira, 2019)

The Green • Lattice

17

DRAFT - Greater Sydney Region Plan The NSW government published the Draft Greater Sydney Region Plan in 2017 with the vision about the Greater Sydney 2056 with a metropolis of three cities in connecting people (Fig. 6.2). This is an overall regional planning for housing, job opportunity, housing and landscape development in order to accommodate the growing population in a sustainable manner in the next 40 years in the Greater Sydney (Greater Sydney Commission, 2017).

In the draft plan, a preliminary hybrid green Wedge-based model could be identified in the new city planning (Fig. 6.3). Some green corridors would be found on the basis of green wedges.

However, how could these city scale designs turning into the reality and help to relieve the urban problems?

SUMMARY 6

The concept of re-naturing the city as well as the hybrid green wedgebased development model would be suitable for the Greater Sydney in a macroscopic aspect.

Fig. 6.3 - Draft Greater Sydney Region Plan (Greater Sydney Commission, 2017b)

18

The Green • Lattice

Fig. 6.2 - Draft Greater Sydney Region Plan (Greater Sydney Commission, 2017a)

7

GREEN • CONNECT Physical Approach: Green Infrastructure (GI)

2D → 3D

In order to achieve the hybrid green Wedgebased model, green infrastructure (GI) system could be adopted to translate the model into physical reality in the implementation of the urban development (Rouse & Bunster-Ossa, 2019).

In this study, Green Infrastructure is defined as “the physical manifestation of process that connect the built and natural environments performing multiple functions and yielding associated benefits for the health and well-being of people and wildlife” (Rouse & Bunster-Ossa 2019, p 175) GI is not only an element on the street, such as a role of tree, a planter or a rain garden, but also a connected network that penetrates fully in to the street, among urban buildings and structures as a whole to enhance the city resilience (Rouse & Bunster-Ossa, 2019).

Besides improving the micro-climate, GI elements also help to strengthen the ecological and the social network in the local community and throughout the cityscape.

It is known much about the knowledge and the technical detail for the GI elements, for example, parks, garden, green roofs, green walls and rain gardens etc. However, how could these measures be implemented as a GI system in the city? How they are distributed in the community?

The Green • Lattice

19

2D

Green Infrastructure Transect across the Greater Sydney Firstly, the character and the vulnerability to the exposure to high temperature of each type of zone across the city, whatever caused by UHI effect or heat wave, would be generally identified by the Green Infrastructure Transect (Abunnasr & Hamin Infield, 2019) (Fig. 7.1).

Fig. 7.1 - GI Transect for the Greater Sydney (Google, 2019a)

Peri-urban

Sub-urban

Tra

Low

High

Hi

VULNERABILITY

In section 4, it is predicated that the vulnerability to heat exposure in the suburban and the transition area in the northwest and south-east area would be the highest because of the absence of sea breeze. The areas of which the forests or grasslands is developing into urban area are the most vulnerable.

Framework for using GI to mitigate UHI effect Afterwards, a framework suggested by Norton et al. (2019) is adopted and further modified to prioritize GI to mitigate the exceed heat in the urban area of the Greater Sydney. The six steps in the framework are designed for different scales in a hierarchy so as to implement the most suitable GI to respective locations and functions.

And the framework would form a cycle to evaluate the GI network in different scales, the street level, community level and the city level (Fig. 7.2).

1

Identify the neighbourhoods which are more vulnerable and need to be prioritised

Fig. 7.2 - Flow chats showing the GI mitigation framework cycle (Google, 2019b) 20

The Green • Lattice

2

Identify & char existing grey in

ansition

Urban

Urban Core

Coastal

igh

Middle

Middle

Low

racterise the nfrastructure

3

Identify & characterise the existing GI

5

Identify & prioritise streets needing new GI

4

Maximize the function of the exiting GI

6

Design new GI according to location and cooling potential

The Green • Lattice

21

3D GREEN • LATTICE 4

Fig. 7.

twork

tice Ne

Lat - GI 3D

G

Diamond is known as one of the hardest materials on the Earth because of its strong covalent bonds among the carbon atoms forming a giant 3D lattice structure (Fig. 7.3).

In the point of view from a city, GI elements are similar to the carbon atoms in diamond.

o nR e re

e lif ild it W ab H

of

Gre

Fig. 7.3 - Diamond chemical structure (TutorMyself Chemistry, 2019)

en Co n

All these GI elements would be connected by the people, communities, wildlife, wind or water in the city and they are the stronger bondings.

SUMMARY 7

In order to achieve the hybrid green wedge-based model, a 3D-GI system, Green Lattice, is proposed to translate the model into physical reality by linking up the individual GI elements and various types of connections with people, wildlife and the nature.

22

The Green • Lattice

wa

le

Bio s

It is possible that the major GI elements, such as, bigger urban park spaces, narrower garden spaces among buildings, green wall, green roof, rain garden, bioswale, street tree planting, permeable pavement, building forms and material favouring positive micro-climate etc, would be designed and arranged in a way similar to a 3D lattice so as to form a even more rigid and stronger network of GI in the urban area (Fig. 7.4).

Wildli fe Corrid or

City is not a plain two-dimensional(2D) plan, but a three-dimensional(3D) “Structure” which consists of various elements with different sizes and heights.

ble r ta e t Wa tem nd Sys u o ing rgr de charg n U Re

W Co ildlif rri e do r

e Int

din r-buil g Spac e

tical Greening Ver

Wildlife Habitat

en Pe Co destr rrid i or an

n ria e st ed n n P ectio ee Gr onn C

t

e Tre

n Space

Planting

lic

G re e

t ee

life Wild or rid Cor

b Pu

en Op

St r

Gre

ta

nP ed nne estria ctio n n

fe ldli Wi idor rr Co

Wind Corridor

e

Gr

m

Ur ba

n

wa ter Sy Har ste ve sti m n Ra in

d Win r ido Corr

ing rm

g

Fa

ee n Co Ped nn e ec stria tio n n

d Win or rid Cor

Underground Water Course

ia l

i Bu

n rde Rain Ga

ld in gO

rien tation, Form

er at M and

The Green • Lattice

23

8

Conclusion Global climate is changing and people need to adapt to it or to do something to relieve the changes. In the case of the Greater Sydney, the extreme heat is not only caused by climate change, but also the urban heat island effect strengthened by the urbanization.

Urbanization is needed in order to accommodate the growing population. The problem is how we urbanize the places. As what is discussed in the introduction about “Definition of ‘Urban’ in the 21st Century”, we are now trying to change the area in a way also considering the natural system.

Although the government is planning the city in accordance to the respective concepts or spatial models, the plan finally is on a flat 2D sheet. Nevertheless, the green infrastructure network formed in a 3D lattice structure considering the community, ecological and social factors would be one of the solutions to our future.

4D

The Future Four-Dimension (4D) As the time changing, there would be changes in the 3D lattice since its connection, the people and wildlife etc., is dynamic. When, Who and How the GI elements are being used would change time to time. And TIME is regarded as the 4th dimension added to the dynamic GI lattice in the future.

Hopefully, the implementation of GI lattice network would help to improve the microclimate of the urbanized areas in the Greater Sydney and to mitigate the UHI effect as well as relieve the extreme heat event when time goes by.

4D = TIME

Future Dynamic of the Green Lattice

24

The Green • Lattice

The Green • Lattice

25

Reference ABS, Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2019a) Greater Sydney (GCCSA) (1GSYD). Available at: https://itt.abs.gov.au/itt/r.jsp?RegionSummary&region=1GSYD&dataset=ABS_ REGIONAL_ASGS2016&geoconcept=ASGS_2016&datasetASGS=ABS_ REGIONAL_ASGS2016&datasetLGA=ABS_REGIONAL_ LGA2018&regionLGA=LGA_2018&regionASGS=ASGS_2016 (Accessed 17 Oct. 2019).

ABS, Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2019b) 3218.0 - Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2017-18 - NEW SOUTH WALES. Available at: https://www.abs.gov. au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/3218.0Main%20Features20201718?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=3218.0&issue=201718&num=&view= (Accessed 17 Oct. 2019].

ABS, Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2019c) 3218.0 - Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2017-18 - MAIN FEATURES. Available at: https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@. nsf/mf/3218.0 (Accessed 17 Oct. 2019).

Abunnasr, Y. (2019) ‘Section IV: Green Infrastructure, Urban Form, and Adaptation - Introduction’, in Hamin, E. M., Abunnasr, Y. and Ryan, R. L. (eds.) Planning for climate change: a reader in green infrastructure and sustainable design for resilient cities. 1st edn. New York: Routledge, pp. 169-172.

Abunnasr, Y. and Hamin Infeld, E. M. (2019) ‘The Green Infrastructure Transect – An Organization Framework for Mainstreaming Adaption Planning Polices’, in Hamin, E. M., Abunnasr, Y. and Ryan, R. L. (eds.) Planning for climate change: a reader in green infrastructure and sustainable design for resilient cities. 1st edn. New York: Routledge, pp. 184-194.

Adams, M., Duc, H. and Trieu, T. (2015) Impacts of land-use change on Sydney’s future temperatures. Available at: https://climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au/Impactsof-climate-change/Heat/Urban-heat (Accessed: 24 Oct. 2019).

Ado, H.Y. (1992) ‘Numerical study of the daytime urban effect and its interaction with the sea-breeze’, Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 31, pp. 1146–1164.

Australia State of the Environment. (2016) Estimated annual average number of heatrelated deaths, selected capital cities and states, 2007, 2020, 2050. Available at: https://soe.environment.gov.au/file/46096 (Accessed 24 Oct. 2019).

Baccini, M., Biggeri, A., Accetta, G., Kosatsky, T., Katsouyanni, K., Analitis, A., Anderson, H.R., Bisanti, L., D’Ippoliti, D. and Danova, J. (2008) ‘Heat effects on mortality in 15 European cities’, Epidemiology, 19, pp. 711–719.

BOM, Bureau of Meteorology. (2006) Climate classification maps. Available at: http:// www.bom.gov.au/jsp/ncc/climate_averages/climate-classifications/index. jsp?maptype=tmp_zones#maps (Accessed 17 Oct. 2019).

BOM, Bureau of Meteorology. (2019a) Annual Climate Summary for Greater Sydney Greater Sydney in 2018: warm and generally drier than normal. Available at: http:// www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/nsw/sydney.shtml (Accessed 17 Oct. 2019).

BOM, Bureau of Meteorology. (2019b) Annual climate statement 2018 - Temperature. Available at: http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/aus/2018/#tabs=Temperature (Accessed 17 Oct. 2019).

26

The Green • Lattice

BOM and CSIRO, Bureau of Meteorology and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. (2018) State of the Climate 2018. Available at: http://www. bom.gov.au/state-of-the-climate/ (Accessed 17 Oct. 2019).

Cambridge Dictionary. (2019a) Meaning of urban in English. Available at: https://dictionary. cambridge.org/dictionary/english/urban (Accessed 4 Nov. 2019).

Cambridge Dictionary. (2019b) Meaning of city in English. Available at: https://dictionary. cambridge.org/dictionary/english/city (Accessed 4 Nov. 2019).

Cambridge Dictionary. (2019c) Meaning of town in English. Available at: https://dictionary. cambridge.org/dictionary/english/town (Accessed 4 Nov. 2019).

City of Sydney. (2018) Greater Sydney. Available at: https://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/ learn/research-and-statistics/the-city-at-a-glance/greater-sydney (Accessed 17 Oct. 2019).

Department of the Environment and Energy. (2019) Electricity generation. Available at: https://www.energy.gov.au/data/electricity-generation (Accessed 24 Oct. 2019).

Department of Planning, Industry and Environment. (2019a) AdaptNSW - Urban heat.

Available at: https://climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au/Impacts-of-climatechange/Heat/Urban-heat (Accessed 17 Oct. 2019).

Department of Planning, Industry and Environment. (2019b) AdaptNSW – Heatwaves.

Available at: https://climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au/Impacts-of-climatechange/Heat/Heatwaves (Accessed 17 Oct. 2019).

Energy Networks Australia and the Australian Energy Council. (2019) Heatwaves and energy supply explained - fact sheet. Available at: https://www.sapowernetworks.com.au/ data/303532/heatwaves-and-energy-supply-explained-fact-sheet/ (Accessed 24 Oct. 2019).

Evans, J. P., Ji, F., Lee, C., Smith, P., Argüeso, D. and Fita, L. (2014) ‘A regional climate modelling projection ensemble experiment – NARCliM’, Geoscientific Model Development, 7(2), pp. 621–629, doi: 10.5194/gmd-7-621-2014. Available at: https:// doaj.org/article/2527dd90b61d4d72909fde533f6e63c6. (Accessed 24 Oct. 2019).

Greater Sydney Commission. (2017) Draft Greater Sydney Region Plan. State of New South Wales: Greater Sydney Commission. Available at: https://www.greater.sydney/ metropolis-of-three-cities/introduction. (Accessed 30 Oct. 2019).

Hassid, S., Santamouris, M., Papanikolaou, N., Linardi, A., Klitsikas, N., Georgakis, C. and Assimakopoulos, D.N. (2000) ‘The Effect of the Athens Heat Island on Air Conditioning Load’, Energy and Buildings, 32, pp. 131–141.

Hsieh, C. M. and Huang, H. C. (2015) ‘Mitigating urban heat islands: A method to identify potential wind corridor for cooling and ventilation’, Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 57, pp. 130-143. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. compenvurbsys.2016.02.005 (Accessed 24 Oct. 2019).

IPCC, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2018) ‘Summary for Policymakers’, in SPECIAL REPORT - Global Warming of 1.5°C. Available at: https://www.ipcc.ch/ sr15/ (Accessed 17 Oct. 2019).

Kleerekoper, L., Esch, M. and Salcedo, T. B. (2019) ‘How to Make a City Climate-Proof – Addressing the Urban Heat Island Effect’, in Hamin, E. M., Abunnasr, Y. and Ryan, R. L. (eds.) Planning for climate change: a reader in green infrastructure and sustainable design for resilient cities. 1st edn. New York: Routledge, pp. 250-262.

Kottek, M., Grieser, J., Beck, C., Rudolf, B. and Rubel, F. (2006) ‘World map of the KöppenGeiger climate classification updated’, Meteorol. Z., 15, pp. 259–263.

The Green • Lattice

27

Lemes de Oliveira, F. (2019a) ‘Towards a Spatial Planning Framework for the Re-naturing of Cities’, in Lemes de Oliveira, F. and Mell, I. (eds.) Planning Cities with Nature: Theories, Strategies and Methods. 1st edn. Switzerland: Springer Nature. p. 81-95. Available at: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uniofglos/detail.action?docID=5673617.

(Accessed 24 Oct. 2019).

Lemes de Oliveira, F. (2019b) ‘Green Wedges: The Resilience of a Planning Idea’, in Lemes de Oliveira, F. and Mell, I. (eds.) Planning Cities with Nature: Theories, Strategies and Methods. 1st edn. Switzerland: Springer Nature. p. 17-27. Available at: http:// ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uniofglos/detail.action?docID=5673617. (Accessed 24 Oct. 2019).

Lemes de Oliveira, F. and Mell, I. (eds.) (2019) Planning Cities with Nature: Theories, Strategies and Methods. 1st edn. Switzerland: Springer Nature. Available at: http:// ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uniofglos/detail.action?docID=5673617. (Accessed 24 Oct. 2019).

Maconachie, T., Leary, M., Lozanovski, B., Zhang, X., Qian, M., Faruque, O. and Brandt, M. (2019) ‘SLM lattice structures: Properties, performance, applications and challenges’, Materials & Design, 183, pp. 1-16. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. matdes.2019.108137 (Accessed 17 Oct. 2019).

McHarg, I. L. (1969) Design with Nature. New York: Natural History Press Mostafavi, M. and Doherty, G. (eds.) (2016) Ecological urbanism. revised edn. Switzerland: Lars Müller Publishers.

Norton, B. A., Coutts, A. M., Livesley, S. J., Harris, R. J., Hunter, A. M. and Williams, N. S.G. (2019) ‘Planning for Cooler Cities – A Framework to Prioritise Green Infrastructure to Mitigate High Temperatures in Urban Landscapes’, in Hamin, E. M., Abunnasr, Y. and Ryan, R. L. (eds.) Planning for climate change: a reader in green infrastructure and sustainable design for resilient cities. 1st edn. New York: Routledge, pp. 233-249.

Office of Environment & Heritage. (2015a) Urban Heat Climate Change Impact Snapshot.

Available at: https://climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au/Impacts-of-climatechange/Heat/Urban-heat (Accessed 17 Oct. 2019).

Office of Environment & Heritage. (2015b) Heatwaves Climate Change Impact Snapshot.

Available at: https://climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au/Impacts-of-climatechange/Heat/Heatwaves (Accessed 17 Oct. 2019).

Oke, T.R. (1982) ‘The energetic basis of the urban heat island’, Quart. J. Royal Meteorol.

Soc., 108 (455), pp. 1–24.

Oke, T.R. (1987) Boundary layer climates. New York: Routledge Rajagopalan, P., Lim, K.C., Jamei, E. (2014) ‘Urban heat island and wind flow characteristics of a tropical city’, Solar Energy, 107, pp. 159–170. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. solener.2014.05.042 (Accessed 22 Oct. 2019).

Rouse, D. and Bunster-Ossa, I. (2019) ‘Landscape Planning, Design, and Green Infrastructure’, in Hamin, E. M., Abunnasr, Y. and Ryan, R. L. (eds.) Planning for climate change: a reader in green infrastructure and sustainable design for resilient cities. 1st edn. New York: Routledge, pp.173-183.

Sakaida, K., Egoshi, A. and Kuramochi, M. (2011) ‘Effects of sea breezes on mitigating urban heat island phenomenon: Vertical observation results in the urban center of Sendai’, J. Geogr., 120, pp. 2382–2391.

Santamouris, M. (2015) ‘Regulating the damaged thermostat of the Cities—Status, Impacts and Mitigation Strategies’, Energy and Buildings, 91, pp. 43–56.

28

The Green • Lattice

Santamouris, M. and Asimakopoulos, D. N. (2001). Energy and climate in the urban built environment. Earthscan.

Santamouris, M., Cartalis, C., Synnefa, A.and Kolokotsa, D. (2015) ‘On the Impact of Urban Heat Island and Global Warming on the Power Demand and Electricity Consumption of Buildings—A Review’, Energy and Buildings, 98, pp. 119–124.

Santamouris, M., Haddad, S., Fiorito, F., Osmond, P., Ding, L., Prasad, D., Zhai, X. and Wang, R. (2017) ‘Urban Heat Island and Overheating Characteristics in Sydney, Australia. An Analysis of Multiyear Measurements’, Sustainability, 9(5), pp. 712.

Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/9/5/712 (Accessed 22 Oct. 2019).

Sillman, S. (2003) ‘Tropospheric Ozone and Photochemical Smog’, Treatise on Geochemistry, 9, pp, 407-431. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-0437516/09053-8 (Accessed 24 Oct. 2019).

Mahdavi, A., Kiesel, K. and Vuckovic, M. (2016) ‘Methodologies for UHI Analysis - Urban Heat Island Phenomenon and Related Mitigation Measures in Central Europe’, In: Musco, F. (eds.) Counteracting Urban Heat Island Effects in a Global Climate Change Scenario. 1st edn. European Union: Springer, pp. 71-92. Available at: https://link. springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-10425-6 (Accessed 17 Oct. 2019).

NASA, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (2019). The Causes of Climate Change. Available at: https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/ (Accessed 24 Oct. 2019).

WHO, World Health Organisation (2004) Health and global environmental change. Geneva: World health Organisation Figures Adams, M., Duc, H. and Trieu, T. (2015a) Impacts of land-use change on Sydney’s future temperatures. State of NSW: Office of Environment and Heritage. p. 4, Fig. 2. Available at: https://climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au/Impacts-of-climate-change/Heat/ Urban-heat (Accessed: 24 Oct. 2019).

Adams, M., Duc, H. and Trieu, T. (2015b) Impacts of land-use change on Sydney’s future temperatures. State of NSW: Office of Environment and Heritage. p. 7, Fig. 3. Available at: https://climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au/Impacts-of-climate-change/Heat/ Urban-heat (Accessed: 24 Oct. 2019).

Adams, M., Duc, H. and Trieu, T. (2015c) Impacts of land-use change on Sydney’s future temperatures. State of NSW: Office of Environment and Heritage. p. 8, Fig. 4. Available at: https://climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au/Impacts-of-climate-change/Heat/ Urban-heat (Accessed: 24 Oct. 2019).

Adams, M., Duc, H. and Trieu, T. (2015d) Impacts of land-use change on Sydney’s future temperatures. State of NSW: Office of Environment and Heritage. p. 9, Fig. 5. Available at: https://climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au/Impacts-of-climate-change/Heat/ Urban-heat (Accessed: 24 Oct. 2019).

Adams, M., Duc, H. and Trieu, T. (2015e) Impacts of land-use change on Sydney’s future temperatures. State of New South Wales: Office of Environment and Heritage. p.

10, Fig. 6. Available at: https://climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au/Impacts-ofclimate-change/Heat/Urban-heat (Accessed: 24 Oct. 2019).

BOM. Bureau of Meteorology, (2018) Australian mean temperature anomaly. Available at: http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/aus/#tabs=Temperature (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

The Green • Lattice

29

Department of Planning, Industry and Environment. (2019). The urban heat island (UHI) effect in metropolitan Sydney, Summer 2015/16. Available at: https://climatechange. environment.nsw.gov.au/Impacts-of-climate-change/Heat/Urban-heat (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Deutscher Wetterdienst. (2019) The urban climate and its influencing factors. Available at: https://www.dwd.de/EN/research/climateenvironment/climate_impact/urbanism/ urban_heat_island/urbanheatisland_node.html (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Greater Sydney Commission. (2017a) Draft Greater Sydney Region Plan. State of New South Wales: Greater Sydney Commission. p. 10-11, plan. Available at: https://gscpublic-1.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/draft_greater_sydney_region_plan_web. pdf (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Greater Sydney Commission. (2017b) Draft Greater Sydney Region Plan. State of New South Wales: Greater Sydney Commission. p. 7, plan. Available at: https://gscpublic-1.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/draft_greater_sydney_region_plan_web. pdf (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Lemes de Oliveira, F. and Mell, I. (2019) Planning Cities with Nature: Theories, Strategies and Methods. 1st edn. Switzerland: Springer Nature. p. 92, Fig. 6.1. Available at: http:// ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uniofglos/detail.action?docID=5673617. (Accessed 24 Oct. 2019).

SkopjeLab. (2018) What are the “famous” Urban Heat Islands?. Available at: https:// medium.com/@skopjelab/skopjes-first-thermal-map-are-urban-heat-islands-reald681a414b365 (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Pictures AFP. (2015) A motorist drives on an unlit street. Available at: https://www.dawn.com/ news/1193147 (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

AFP. (2015) The effects of a power cut on Karachi. Available at: https://www.dawn.com/ news/1193147 (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Architizer. (2011) Riverpark Farm. Available at: https://architizer.com/projects/riverparkfarm/ (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Brown, M. (2017) 27 Ways Hot Weather Can Kill You — A Dire Warning for a Warming Planet. Available at: https://insideclimatenews.org/news/10112017/heat-wavedeaths-climate-change-misdiagnosed-health-lancet (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Gann, M. (2013) Nature and the city. Available at: https://www.sciencealert.com/natureand-the-city (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Getty. (2008) A new report states Northern Sydney residents have the country’s longest life expectancy. Available at: https://thenewdaily.com.au/news/national/2017/11/30/lifeexpectancy-australia/ (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Getty. (2018) UK weather: Britons have basked in glorious weather this summer. Available at: https://www.express.co.uk/news/weather/1001514/uk-weather-why-is-britain-sohot-this-year-when-will-heatwave-end (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Gillespies. (2007) Bradford City Park. Available at: https://www.gillespies.co.uk/news/ first-details-of-bradfords-mirror-pool-city-park-proposals-released (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Hadrian Air Conditioning. (2019) The North East’s Premier Air Conditioning Contractor.

Available at: https://www.hadrian-air.co.uk/ (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

30

The Green • Lattice

L.I.V.E. Bioswale. (2019) What on Earth is a Bioswale?. Available at: https:// illinoisvalleybioswale.weebly.com/what-on-earth-is-a-bioswale.html (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

McNew, D. (2002) Air Pollution Is Still Killing People in the United States. Available at: https://time.com/4836660/air-pollution-health-death-epa/ (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Palin, M. (2017) Destination NSW. Available at: https://thenewdaily.com.au/news/ national/2017/11/30/life-expectancy-australia/ (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

State of the Planet. (2018) Trump’s Energy Dominance and the Future of Fossil Fuels.

Available at: https://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2018/02/19/trumps-energy-dominancefuture-fossil-fuels// (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

StreetEasy. (2019) Lex 54 at 135 East 54th St. 14B. Available at: https://streeteasy.com/ property/844499-lex-54-14b (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

The Urban Developer. (2019) What’s Going On with Australia’s Population Growth?.

Available at: https://theurbandeveloper.com/articles/population-growth-positive-fordemand (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Whatman, P. (2012) Patrick Blanc and The Hanging Gardens of Paris. Available at: https:// theculturetrip.com/europe/france/paris/articles/patrick-blanc-the-hanging-gardensof-paris/ (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Map Aabjerg, M. (2015) Red ease. Available at: https://snazzymaps.com/style/31690/red-ease (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Google. (2019a) Sydney NSW, Australia. Available at: https://www.google.com/maps/place/ Sydney+NSW,+Australia/@-33.8458291,150.3701845,9z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4 !1s0x6b129838f39a743f:0x3017d681632a850!8m2!3d-33.8688197!4d151.2092955 (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

Google. (2019b) Penrith NSW, Australia. Available at: https://www.google.com/maps/ place/Penrith+NSW+2750,+Australia/@-33.7448104,150.6720233,7436m/data =!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x6b128f624bf3427b:0x5017d681632c640!8m2!3d33.7506759!4d150.687674 (Accessed: 2 November 2019).

The Green • Lattice

31

The Green • Lattice

Cooling down the Boiling Greater Sydney, Australia