BUILT FORM AND CULTURE; Case Of The El Molo Vernacular Architecture by Pablo Creative Studio

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE The Case of El Molo Vernacular Architecture In Lake Turkana Region

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE: A Case of the El Molo Vernacular Architecture in Lake Turkana Region.

Mwangi Paul Mungai B02 . 53611 . 2012

A Final Year Research Thesis (BAR 613) submitted to the Department Architecture and Building Science, University of Nairobi, in partial fulď&#x20AC; lment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelors in Architecture. Nairobi, Kenya 2018

â&#x20AC;&#x153;House form is not simply the result of physical forces or any single causal factor, but is the consequence of a whole range of sociocultural factors seen in their broadest : terms.â&#x20AC;? (Rapoport, 1969:47)

Declaration This Thesis is my original work and has not been presented in any other University or Institution for the purpose of awarding a degree to the best of my knowledge. This thesis is submitted in partial fulď&#x20AC; lment of the examination requirements for the award of the Bachelor of Architecture degree, in the Department of Architecture and Building Science, University of Nairobi.

Author: ............................................................................................... Date: ................................................................. Mwangi Paul Munagai

B02 . 53611 . 2012

Supervisor: ......................................................................................... Date: ................................................................. Dr. J. W. Kamenju Year Master: ....................................................................................... Date: ................................................................. Arch. Erustus Abonyo Chairman: ........................................................................................... Date: ................................................................. Arch. Musau Kimeu

III

To Mum and Dad, For Patience and Understanding

Acknowledgements

My utmost gratitude goes to the Almighty for the strength, wisdom and health. This thesis could never have existed without the many people who make my life, especially the architectural life, exceptional Deepest thanks to Dr. J.W. Kamenju, my thesis advisor. His ideas and criticisms were instrumental in guiding this thesis. Thank you for your endless direction, support and knowledge this past year. I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to Prof, Robert Rukwaro, for his open-minded criticism and guiding me through my thesis proposal. To the Year Master, Erastus Abonyo who braved me to direct my scattered enthusiasm into a lucid argument and through his work I found a bearing. Special thanks to my other lecturers, notably: Adnan Mwakulomba, Edwin Oyaro, Eliud Liku, Yusuf Ebrahim, Bob Muhia. The latter deserve a special mention for having encouraged me through various stages of design since the beginning. I would like to extend my gratitude to my colleague for contributing your trenchant analysis as my work progressed. Too Edwin Kaseda, for his open-minded criticism and for the constant pollinating of ideas through examples and discussions, consider me a protégé. To John Msari, for your insights and valuable opportunities in this eld of built environment have not only opened my eyes to the architecture but also made me believe that architectural design is a continuity of understanding architecture. Credit also goes to Jerry Munene for your advice and encouragement, to George Masinjila, Asya Abdulatiff and Tracy Moraa for reviewing this thesis. To my incredible parents, who without them, many of the lessons and experiences that have inuenced my architecture would not have been possible. To my sister Jacky, for reading the countless drafts of this thesis and making sure that my thoughts made sense to someone. A whiskey is needed. To the rest of my family, Josphat, Edith, Mike, Martin and my incredible twin sister Ann, thank you for the never ending excitement. To Mrs. Caroline Obrien, for receiving and hosting me in your village, I am deeply humbled. To Mr. Juma, for your assistance at the department of Planning at the National Museum of Kenya. To Jeremiah Lesirau, my research guide who kindly participated and generously helped in my in depth eld analysis and taking me through the history of the El Molo , my sincere appreciation goes to you all. Lastly, to my friends and squad members, who in their own ways tried to help me conquer my goals in the writing process of this thesis. To Naomi Wangari, Lynda Wambui, Muneer Alkizim, Tom Mboya, Kevin Waithaka, Abeid Ali, Zainab Jhuthi, Mari Njenga, Phidelis Awuor, Anita Kamau and Nyakiongora Geoffrey. God Bless You All.

Table of Contents

1.0

Introduction 1.0.1 Introduction to the Study...................................................................................................................................................

1.0.2 The concept of Culture and Built form...............................................................................................................................

1.0.3 Vernacular Architecture and its Relation to Culture.............................................................................................................

1.1 Problem Statement..............................................................................................................................................................

1.2 Research Objectives............................................................................................................................................................

1.3 Research Questions.............................................................................................................................................................

1.4 Research Justication...........................................................................................................................................................

1.5 Scope and Limitation...........................................................................................................................................................

1.6 Research Assumptions.........................................................................................................................................................

1.7 Signicance of Study............................................................................................................................................................

1.8 Organization of Study..........................................................................................................................................................

Table of Contents

2.0

3.0

Literature Review 2.1.0 Built Form As A Basic Human Need................................................................................................................................

2.2.0 Vernacularism.................................................................................................................................................................

2.3.0 Regionalism and Built form.............................................................................................................................................

2.3.1 Space and Place making ...................................................................................................................................

2.3.2 Form and Function.............................................................................................................................................

2.3.3 Architecture and Tectonic Qualities......................................................................................................................

2.3.4 Visual and Tactile Qualities.................................................................................................................................

2.3.5 Planning Concept...............................................................................................................................................

2.3.6 Symbolism and Decoration.................................................................................................................................

Forces that shape El Molo Built Forms 3.1 The El Molo: Understanding the Culture..............................................................................................................................

3.2 Historical Background........................................................................................................................................................

3.3 Geographical Characteristics.............................................................................................................................................

3.4 Research Context..............................................................................................................................................................

3.4.1 Loiyangalani ..................................................................................................................................................

3.4.2 The Desert Museum.........................................................................................................................................

3.4.3 Lake Turkana Wind Power Project.....................................................................................................................

3.5.0 Social Cultural Forces...................................................................................................................................................

3.5.1 Way of Gaining Livelihood...............................................................................................................................

3.5.2 Lifestyle...........................................................................................................................................................

VII

Table of Contents

3.0

Literature Review 3.5.3 Health...............................................................................................................................................................

3.5.4 Dressing and Decorations..................................................................................................................................

3.5.5 Craftsmanship...................................................................................................................................................

3.5.6 Family and Social Structure.................................................................................................................................

3.5.7 Religion.............................................................................................................................................................

3.6 Built form and Planning.....................................................................................................................................................

3.7 Forces Due to Nature: Environmental Response.................................................................................................................

3.7.1 Primitive Form and Climate.................................................................................................................................

3.7.2 Environmental Design Strategies.........................................................................................................................

3.7.2.1 Climate..........................................................................................................................................

3.7.2.2 Site Planning...................................................................................................................................

3.7.2.3 Structure and Material.....................................................................................................................

3.7.2.4 Human Comfort.............................................................................................................................

3.7.2.5 Trees and Plants..............................................................................................................................

3.7.2.6 Orientation.....................................................................................................................................

3.7.2.7 Solar Radiation...............................................................................................................................

3.7.2.8 Air Temperature..............................................................................................................................

3.7.2.9 House Plan.....................................................................................................................................

3.7.2.10 Geometry and Shape....................................................................................................................

VIII

Table of Contents

3.0

4.0

Literature Review 3.7.2.11 EarthCoupling..............................................................................................................................................

3.7.2.12 Structure and Material...................................................................................................................................

3.7.2.13 Humidity.......................................................................................................................................................

3.7.2.14 Openings.....................................................................................................................................................

3.8 Winds................................................................................................................................................................................

3.8.1 Effects of Wind on Built form...............................................................................................................................

3.8.2 Wind catcher in Desert Climate...........................................................................................................................

3.9 Forces due to Building Materials and Construction Technology..........................................................................................

3.9.1 Impact of Building Materials on Built form...........................................................................................................

3.10 Conceptual Framework.....................................................................................................................................................

Research Methodology 4.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................

4.2 Research Design...................................................................................................................................................

4.3 Research Philosophy..............................................................................................................................................

4.4 Research Strategy..................................................................................................................................................

4.5 Time Horizon........................................................................................................................................................

4.6 Sampling Techniques.............................................................................................................................................

4.7 Data Collection Methods.......................................................................................................................................

4.8 Data Presentation and Analysis..............................................................................................................................

Table of Contents

5.0

Data Presentation and Analysis 5.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................

5.2 Case Study: Layeni Village at El Molo Bay.............................................................................................................................

5.2.1 The Structure of the Settlement............................................................................................................................

5.2.2 The Siting .........................................................................................................................................................

5.2.3 Adaptability to geographical conditions...............................................................................................................

5.2.4 Determinants of El Molo settlement.....................................................................................................................

5.3 Case One: Gabriella Lolkilokwiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Homestead.......................................................................................................................

5.3.1 Form and Function.............................................................................................................................................

5.3.2 Planning Concept..............................................................................................................................................

5.3.3 Space and Place making....................................................................................................................................

5.4 Case Two: Olivia Lemotouâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Homestead...............................................................................................................................

5.4.1 Space and Place making....................................................................................................................................

5.4.2 Form and Function.............................................................................................................................................

Table of Contents

5.0

Data Presentation and Analysis 5.5 Case Three: Jeremiah Lesirauâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Homestead..........................................................................................................................

5.5.1 Space and Place making....................................................................................................................................

5.5.2 Form and Function.............................................................................................................................................

5.6 Case Four: Asunta Lekuloâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Homestead................................................................................................................................

5.6.1 Space and Place making....................................................................................................................................

5.6.2 Planning Concept..............................................................................................................................................

5.6.3 Form and Function.............................................................................................................................................

5.7 Environmental Design Response in Layeni Village.................................................................................................................

5.7.1 Geometry and Shape.........................................................................................................................................

5.7.2 Thermal Mass....................................................................................................................................................

5.7.3 Orientation.......................................................

5.7.4 Openings..........................................................................................................................................................

5.7.5 Natural Ventilation.............................................................................................................................................

5.8 Building Technology and Form Qualities in Layeni Village......................................................................................................

5.9 Symbolism in Layeni Village...................

5.10 The El Molo Artistic Heritage..............................................................................................................................................

5.10.1 El Molo Forms of Aesthetics and Artistic Expressions............................................................................................

Table of Contents

6.0

Conclusions And Recommendations 6.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................

6.2 Summary of Findings And Conclusions.................................................................................................................................

6.3 Architectural Design Features that can be adopted to Contemporary Built forms Based on the evidence in Layeni village..........

6.4 The Generalizations from the Findings.................................................................................................................................

6.5 Recommendations..............................................................................................................................................................

6.6 Areas of Further Research...................................................................................................................................................

References A.

List of References.........................................................................................................................................................

Appendices B_01

Field Work Check List...................................................................................................................................................

B_02

Acronyms....................................................................................................................................................................

B_03

Photo Album...............................................................................................................................................................

XII

List of Figures Chapter One

Chapter Three

Fig 1.1: Location of the El Molo community (pg. 01)

Fig 3.8: Man his family (pg. 14)

Fig 3.37: Building’s Optimum Orientation. (pg. 26)

Fig 1.2: Location of The El Molo in Loiyangalani division,

Fig 3.9: El Molo location, Lake Turkana, Kenya. (pg. 15)

Fig 3.38: Reducing Ground Radiation using Vegetation cover

Marsabit county (pg. 01)

Fig 3.10: Looking north from the Southern Island (pg. 15)

(pg. 27)

Fig 1.3: Layeni Village, Elmolo Bay (pg. 01)

Fig 3.11: Satellite image of Lake Turkana Region (pg. 15)

Fig 3.39: The N.E. bay of South Island. (pg. 27)

Fig 1.4: Vernacular El Molo house (pg. 03)

Fig 3.12: El Molo Homes (pg. 16)

Fig 3.40: Cluster based planning (pg. 28)

Fig 1.5: Newly constructed school at El Molo Bay (pg. 03)

Fig 3.13: The Desert Museum (pg. 16)

Fig 3.41: Cluster based planning, trees used to modify the

Fig 1.6: El Molo Settlement in Layeni Village (pg. 04)

Fig 3.14: Turbines (LTWP) (pg. 16)

microclimate (pg. 28)

Fig 1.7: Lacal Dispensary in Loiyangalani town (pg. 04)

Fig 3.15: El Molo man shing on Lake Turkana (pg.17)

Fig 3.42: Vernacular El Molo Hut (pg. 29)

Fig 1.8: Lorian Island, Home to El Molo Shrines (pg. 04)

Fig 3.16: Hippopotamus on lake Turkana at Alia Bay (pg. 17)

Fig 3.43: Tilamari Village, Loiyangalani (pg. 29)

Fig 1.9: Layeni Village, Elmolo Bay (pg. 04)

Fig 3.17: Layeni Village (pg. 17)

Fig 3.44: Double Roong (pg. 29)

Fig 1.10: Organization of study (pg. 05)

Fig 3.18: El Molo man with Deformity of the legs due to

Fig 3.45: Typical Egyptian house, built prior to 3000BC (pg.

drinking the lake water (pg. 18)

29)

Chapter Two

Fig 3.19: Elmolo pot (A), Knot used in net making (B)

Fig 3.46: Matmata village, Tunisia (pg. 30)

Hippopotamus Harpoon (C) Horn for bleeding (D). (pg. 18)

Fig 3.47: Earth Berming (pg. 30)

Fig 3.20: Nile patch caught on lake Turkana. (pg. 18)

Fig 3.48: Section through an underground dwelling, (pg. 30)

Fig 3.21: El Molo Woman wearing a neckless, armlet, ear rings

Fig 3.49: Cross ventilation in relation to wall openings (pg. 31)

Fig 2.1: El Molo Vernacular built form (pg. 07) Fig 2.2: Modern El Molo Vernacular built form, Source (pg. 07) Fig 2.3: Components of Regional Design (pg. 07) Fig 2.4: New Gourna Village, Egypt (pg. 08) Fig 2.5: New Gourna Village, Egypt (pg. 08) Fig 2.6: Säynätsalo Town Hall, side view (pg. 09) Fig 2.7: Säynätsalo Town Hall perspective view (pg. 09) Fig 2.8: El Molo Hut, Plan view (pg. 10) Fig 2.9: Activity & Privacy Space Matrix (pg. 10) Fig 2.10: El Molo Hut, Plan view (pg. 11) Fig 2.11: El Molo artifacts tools and Dressing (pg. 12)

Chapter Three Fig 3.1: The Southern Region of Lake Turkana, (pg. 13) Fig 3.2: El Molo women Source: Hutton, 1973 (pg. 13) Fig 3.3: El Molo Elder, Source: Hutton, 1973 (pg. 13) Fig 3.4: Elderly El Molo Woman besides her house, (pg. 14) Fig 3.5: Elmolo Woman and her child (pg. 14) Fig 3.6: Elmolo elder (pg. 14) Fig 3.7: Elmolo Women (pg. 14)

and head decorations . (pg. 19)

Fig 3.50: Indirect natural light (pg. 31)

Fig 3.22: El Molo Women in there traditional attire (pg.19)

Fig 3.51: Passive cooling in Hot & Dry climates (pg. 31)

Fig 3.23: Young El Molo Woman. (pg. 20)

Fig 3.52: Wind Pattern In Lake Turkana (pg. 32)

Fig 3.24: El Molos taking shade (pg. 20)

Fig 3.53: Hot and Arid Climate (pg. 32)

Fig 3.25: Hippopotamus on Lake Turkana, Kenya. (pg. 20)

Fig 3.54: wind roses at 3 hourly interval (pg. 33)

Fig 3.26: El Molo Women with a Cross (pg. 21)

Fig 3.56: Aerodynamic principles of the built form provide a

Fig 3.27: El Molo Sacred Shrines. (pg. 21)

comfortable breeze. (pg. 33)

Fig 3.28: Plan of El Molo Hut (pg. 22)

Fig 3.57: Cross-section of Netsilingmiut igloo (pg. 33)

Fig 3.29: El Molo Hut (pg. 22)

Fig 3.58: The layout form of Layeni settlement (pg. 34)

Fig 3.30: Section of El Molo Men. (pg. 22)

Fig 3.59: A water reservoir with a wind catcher in , Iran (pg. 34)

Fig 3.31: Parameters for Contextual Design (pg. 23)

Fig 3.60: Traditional Kanak Huts (pg. 35)

Fig 3.32: Average Temperatures and Precipitation In

Fig 3.61: The technical detail and perspective of the curving

Loiyangalani. (pg. 24)

stave wall and wattle lattice (pg. 35)

Fig 3.33: Cluster based planning (pg. 25)

Fig 2.3.62: A series of Images of Tjibaou Cultural Center:

Fig 3.34: Built structures in Layeni Village (pg. 25)

Traditional vs Modern interpretation, (pg. 35)

Fig 3.35: Benet of Trees in arid and semi arid region (pg.26)

Fig 3.63: El Molo Vernacular built form (hut). (pg. 36)

Fig 3.36: Using trees as a means of modifying climate.(pg.26)

Fig 3.64: El Molo Modern Built form (pg. 36)

XIII

List of Figures Chapter Five

Chapter Five

Fig 3.65: Lesirau's new house under construction (pg. 37)

Fig 5.10: Layeni Village. (pg. 51)

Fig 5.39: polythene covering on the roof (pg. 57)

Fig 3.66: Structural framework In Lolkilokwi's Vernacular Built

Fig 5.11: Siting, and building form (pg. 51)

Fig 5.40: Structural framework (pg. 57)

form (pg. 37)

Fig 5.12: Mt Nyiro. (pg. 52)

Fig 5.41: Structure without palm covering (pg. 57)

Chapter Four

Fig 5.13: Sun set in Lake Turkana. (pg. 52)

Fig 5.42: Openings on the wall (pg. 57)

Fig 5.14: The El Molo sacred shrines in Lorian island. (pg. 52)

Fig 5.43: lady making her shed house (pg. 57)

Fig 4.1: Lake Turkana:Unique for its turquoise color. (pg. 40)

Fig 5.15: Image of Lorian Island from the Lake Turkana. (pg.

Fig 5.44: Taking shade outside the house. (pg. 58)

Fig 4.2: Lake Turkana:Unique for its turquoise color. (pg. 40)

52)

Fig 5.45: The spiral planning concept, (pg. 58)

Fig 4.3: Images showing a group of El Molo women in their

Fig 5.16: The all weather road in the region. (pg. 52)

Fig 5.46: The Courtyard (pg. 58)

outdoor space. (pg. 42)

Fig 5.17: The doum palm (pg. 52)

Fig 5.47: Entertainment area (pg. 59)

Fig 4.4: El Molo Worrior (pg. 42)

Fig 5.18: Salvadora persica plant in Lekulo's homestead. (pg.

Fig 5.48: Seating Area (pg. 59)

Fig 4.5: El Molo woman and her children. (pg. 42)

52)

Fig 5.49: Lemotou's Sleeping area (pg. 59)

Fig4.6: The character of the landscape in Layeni Village (pg.

Fig 5.19: El Molo settlement in Layeni village. (pg. 52)

Fig 5.50: Decorations on bedside table (pg. 59)

43)

Fig 5.20: Section across Layeni village. (pg. 52)

Fig 5.51: Front view (pg. 59)

Fig 4.7: LTWP: Accommodation and Control Center (pg. 43)

Fig 5.21: Layeni village from the lake (pg. 53)

Fig 5.52: Son's hut (pg. 60)

Fig 4.8: A group of El Molo Women. (pg. 45)

Fig 5.22: El Molo Sacred Shrines, (pg. 53)

Fig 5.53: Cooking Area (pg. 60)

Fig 4.9: Elderly El Molo woman resting outside her home (pg.

Fig 5.23: A sketch of the El Molo Sacred Shrines. (pg. 53)

Fig 5.54: Shed (under construction) (pg. 60)

45)

Fig 5.24: Storage along the wall (pg. 54)

Fig 5.55: Main house (pg. 60)

Fig 4.10: El Molo Woman with her craft products. (pg. 46)

Fig 5.25: Sleeping Area (pg. 54)

Fig 5.56: Homestead layout, (pg. 60)

Fig 4.11: Section through Lekulo's house. (pg. 46)

Fig 5.26: The hearth (pg. 54)

Fig 5.57: Wattle fence in Lekulo's house (pg. 61)

Fig 4.12: El Molo Settlement in Layeni village. (pg. 46)

Fig 5.27: Utensils displayed on Wall rack (pg. 54)

Fig 5.58: chicken in Lemotou's house. (pg. 61)

Fig 4.13: Images Buiding Materials in Layeni Village (pg. 46)

Fig 5 .28: Food stuff (pg. 54)

Fig 5.59: Wall section in Lemotou's house (pg. 62)

Chapter Five Fig 5.1: The four El Molo shrines on Lorian Island (pg. 48) Fig 5.2: An areal view showing Layeni village (pg. 48) Fig 5.3: The desert museum (pg. 48) Fig 5.4 : Tilamari Village in Loiyangalani town (pg. 48) Fig 5.5: El Molo settlement in Layeni village (pg. 49) Fig 5.6: Circular Form (pg. 49) Fig 5.7: Rectangular Form (pg. 49) Fig 5.8: A section of Layeni settlement (pg. 50) Fig 5.9: The lake is used for recreation and to cool from the desert heat. (pg. 50)

Fig 5.29: Goat skin used for bedding (pg. 54)

Fig 5.60: Spatial Distribution (pg. 62)

Fig 5.30: Entering Lolkilokwi's house (pg. 54)

Fig 5.61: The spiral planning concept (pg. 63)

Fig 5.31: Plan of Lolkilokwi’s house, (pg. 55)

Fig 5.62: Lesirau's house (pg. 63)

Fig 5.32: Structural framework, (pg. 56)

Fig 5.63: Wet cloths hanged Inside (pg. 63)

Fig 5.33: El Molo Built form Layeni Village (pg. 56)

Fig 5.64: Window openings (pg. 63)

Fig 5.34: Section showing Air ow in relation to the built form.

Fig 5.65: Homestead layout, (pg. 64)

(pg. 56)

Fig 5.66: Interior view of Lesirau's Home (pg. 65)

Fig 5.35: Lolkilokwi’s home Spiral concept (pg. 57)

Fig 5.67: Lesirau's mum and her friends taking shade

Fig 5.36: Shallow holes dug on ground (pg. 57)

outside the house. (pg. 65)

Fig 5.37: Poles positioned in place (pg. 57)

Fig 5.68: Section across Lesirau's House. (pg. 65)

Fig 5.38: The oor of the hut (pg. 57)

Fig 5.69: Lekulo's Homestead from the private courtyard for the family. (pg. 66)

XIV

List of Figures Chapter Five

Chapter Five

Chapter Six

Fig 5.70: Lekulo's making her shed using the doum palm

Fig 5.96: Window opening in Lesirau's house, (pg. 75)

Fig 6.7: A section of Lekulo's house showing different building

leave. (pg. 66)

Fig 5.97: Window opening in Lekulo's house, (pg. 75)

materials used. (pg. 86)

Fig 5.71: The kitchen with crates and water cans outside.

Fig 5.98: Layeni Settlement (pg. 76)

Fig 6.8: El Molo young men in their traditional dress attire. (pg.

(pg. 66)

Fig 5.99: Cross Ventilation in Lekulo's Home (pg. 76)

86)

Fig 5.72: Layout plan of Lekulo's homestead (pg. 67)

Fig 5.100: Section of Dry Stone Walling (pg. 76)

Fig 6.9: El Molo women in their traditional dress attire, performing at the lake Turkana cultural festival. (pg. 86)

Fig 5.73: The private court (pg. 68)

Fig 5.101: Mud wall with timber structure (pg. 77)

Fig 5.74: Salvadora persica also called the tooth brush tree

Fig 5.102: Dry stone wall with timber structure (pg. 77)

and The doum Palm tree respectively. (pg. 68 )

Fig 5.103: Thatch made of palm fonds (pg. 77)

Fig 5.75: Photovoltaic Panel. (pg. 68)

Fig 5.104: Framework structure from Salvadora persica tree

Fig 5.76: Layout plan of Asunta showing the three major

(pg. 77)

courts. (pg. 69)

Fig 5.105: corrugated 35 gauge iron roong sheet (pg. 77)

Fig 5.77: A section across Lekulo's house. (pg. 69)

Fig 5.106: Structural detail in Lolkilokwi's built Form (pg. 77)

Fig 5.78: Visitor's shed and Children playing area (pg. 70)

Fig 5.107: El Molo women in their traditional dress attire (pg.

Fig 5.79: Cooking area (pg. 70)

79)

Fig 5.80: Layout plan of Lekulo's house (pg. 70)

Fig 5.108: El Molo traditional built form Home (pg. 79)

Fig 5.81: Various geometrical form explored in Lekulo's

Fig 5.109: El Molo sacred shrines in Lorian Island (pg. 79)

Homestead (pg.70)

Fig 5.110: Basket made of Doum Palm and Necklace made of

Fig 5.82: Rear view of Lekulo's main house (pg. 71)

sh bones (pg. 80)

Fig 5.83: Visitors shed area (pg. 71)

Fig 5.111: Beads as form of artistic expression (pg. 80)

Fig 5.84: The cooking area (pg. 71)

Fig 5.112: Elmolo family possessions such as shing nets,

Fig 5.85: Part elevation in Lekulo's main homestead (pg. 71)

spears, harpoons, wooden stools and head rests (pg. 80)

List of Tables Table 3.1: Perceptive Experience (pg. 11) Table 3.2: Climatic data of hot and dry zone in Lodwar Town, Lake Turkana region (pg. 23) Table 3.3: Conceptual Framework (pg. 37) Table 5.1: Onion Research Model (pg. 40) Table 5.1: Structural detail and assembly of the structure (pg. 78)

Fig 5.86: Lekulo's home (pg. 72) Fig 5.87: Lolkilokwi's home (pg. 72)

Chapter Six

Fig 5.88: Lesirau's home (pg. 72) Fig 5.89: Lemotou's home (pg. 72) Fig 5.90: Illustration depicts use of Bernoulli's effect in the dome. (pg. 73) Fig 5.91: Section through a wall in Lekulo’s house (pg. 73) Fig 5.92: Lekulo's house (pg. 74) Fig 5.93: Lemotou's house (pg. 74) Fig 5.94: Entering Lolkilokwi's house (pg. 74) Fig 5.95: opening gaps in Lolkilokwi's house, (pg.75)

Fig 6.1: Image showing the Siting, (pg. 82) Fig 6.2: Structural dome framework from tree saplings. (pg. 83) Fig 6.3: Structural detail and assembly of the structure. (pg. 83) Fig 6.4: Structural detail and assembly of the (pg. 84) Fig 6.5: Structural detail and assembly of the structure. (pg. 84) Fig 6.6: El Molo woman cooking outside (pg. 84)

ABSTRACT

Over the years, architects and theorist have recognized that contemporary architecture adapted from modern societies, pay little or no attention to its human context (culture and natural environment). With works of Hassan Fathy’s New gouna village, Renzo Piano’s Tjibaous cultural centre, a new discussion emerges, that of analyzing and understanding the vernacular traditions with the aim of regaining the connection that seemed lost in modern societies. This research begins with the premise that culture is a determining factor in shaping the built environment. The El Molo community have been chosen as a model to demonstrate the built form/culture relationship. The study highlights the principles of vernacular architecture extracted from the analysis of their built forms, which can be used to inspire modern architecture in the northern lake Turkana region. This research documents and analyzes the El Molo built forms based on key contributions examined in Rapoport’s theories of shaping built environment. As a result, both physical and social cultural determinants, forms the focus of this study. Such include: Ÿ Climate, Ÿ Technology an Materials Ÿ Site, Ÿ Socio-cultural forces such as Way of gaining livelihood, Religious beliefs, Defense, Lifestyle, Family and clan structure and Social interaction Ÿ

There are four accounts listed in this thesis of purposeful and sensitive traditional architecture that shows practices that have lasted as long as the society that invented them and the way they have been transformed. The ndings show that the social and the cultural life of the El Molo, has so helped form their built forms, which can be used as a model for modern design for integrating architecture and society.

XVI

INTRODUCTION CHAPTER ONE

S. SUDAN

1.0.1 Introduction to the Study

ETHIOPIA

SOMALIA

UGANDA

“Good modern architecture seeking some sort of formal character and regional identity adapts aspects of traditional architecture of that region that are worth preserving.” (Write, 1984:54). This aspects should be fully understood and implemented with respect to climatic inuences on the built forms including the microclimate and physical context. Glassie (1990), denes architecture as physical embodiment of cultural norms of individual buildings. He argues that true vernacular tradition is based on participation, engagement and the believe that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities. He nds much of the connection to these forces being lost in modern society which has led to ignorance and weakening of culture. According to Hockings (1985), there are ways in which aspects of form and construction of built forms are interconnected and how they help clarify through symbols, spatial relationships and social-cultural concern especially to the economics, spiritual and social structure of a culture’s tradition. (Hockings,1985)

TANZANIA INDIAN OCEAN

Fig1.1 Marsabit County, Kenya: Location of the El Molo community. Source: d-maps.com, Author modied

The study of vernacular traditions allows architects to be more self-aware and to be critical of their own cultural context when designing. Understanding vernacular traditions can help heal the disconnection of modern society and form some of the shared basis for design that marked vernacular traditions. Denyer (1978), states that even the simplest settlement as we view it today is as a result of a whole magnitude of economic, social, political, physical and technological force. Denyer (1978), found that each is a ne balance of solutions to the issue that is habitation and furthermore, need to be viewed as a physical reection of the way of life of its inhabitants. Thus, the built environment draws its inspiration from the regional context from which it is found.

Lake Turkana ETHIOPIA

Salingaros (2006), states that different communities around the world have different built form language, that is a manifestation of their culture. This means that their built forms contains specic properties that make one community unique form the other.

North Horr

Moyale Maikona TURKANA

Lake Turkana

El Molo WAJIR

Loiyangalani Marsabit Central

South Horr SAMBURU

ISIOLO N

Fig 1.2 Location of The El Molo in Loiyangalani sub-county, Marsabit county Source: d-maps.com, Author modied

Fig 1.3 Layeni Village, Elmolo Bay, Source: Google Earth, August 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch01_01

1.0.2 The Concept of Culture and Built form According to Sobania (2003), relies on the understanding of the local people and taking cognisance of ways in which people interpret built forms, and how that can provide a starting point for identifying underlying elements which are of practical and symbolic importance of a given cultural group. These elements can be incorporated to design and planning concepts. These study is concerned with how the El Molo community perceive space and built form and what professionals in the eld of built environment can incorporate an awareness and understanding of culture into their design. Given that most traditional communities are affected by cultural globalization creating tension between constantly adapting to traditional practices and the ever changing external cultural forces. The question raised is what culture should professionals respond to? Sobania explains culture as an embodiment of peoples philosophy, view of the world and behavioral patterns. Built forms on the other hand encompasses not only individual buildings and their components but also the patterns of form that these buildings create particularly in terms of spatial organization, (Hockings, 1984). Hockings, argues that built forms in traditional African architecture manifest as artifacts, not part of the natural world but brought into being by as a result of human ingeniousness and craftsmanship. As artifacts, they are perceived not in terms of their sensorial nature as physical objects but rather as why they were created and the way they are used. Hocking (1985) concludes that, whereas people might act within the designed environment, which include physical and spatial arrangements, their perception of these environments, is not solely a perception of sensorial qualities but that of meaning. Rapoport (1984) refers to three basic conceptual denition of the term culture, 1. A way of life typical of a group 2. A system of logic transmitted symbolically. 3. A way of coping with the physical surrounding Michael (1989), a cultural theorist denes culture as consisting of transmitted and created patterns of values, ideas and meaningful systems that shape human behavior. Micheal implies that culture is a product of cumulative and commonly shared experiences of group of people which is transmitted downwards through the generations.

1.0.3 Vernacular Architecture and Its relation to Culture Vernacular traditions are often thought of to be rich and ready source of cultural connectivity due to their embodiment of tried and tested solutions to local conditions like climate and ingenious use of local materials. Paul oliver denes vernacular architecture as dwellings that are designed to adapt to the environmental context using locally available resources and built with ancient technologies. according to Oliver(1997), vernacular architecture was thought as having achieved perfection through rational responses to severe resource limitations over a long period of time. To Oliver, vernacular architecture was considered to be an architecture of necessity instead of pride and status. an architecture that's severely utilitarian with regard to the applications of materials and technology, functional with regard to adaptation to climate, accommodation of activities and utilization of site and at last beautiful with regard to sculptural expressions of mass and volume as a result of manipulating the plan and section to accommodate the need of the users. Oliver, (1997) BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch01_02

1.1 Problem Statement The rate of transmission of ideas and cultural values around the world has increased, intensifying social interactions creating a globalized culture. While this phenomenon brings interconnectedness among different cultural societies (Steger & James, 2010), it threatens the viability of our local culture, values and tradition. The El Molo, just like any other culture, are undergoing rapid transformation into a more modernized culture. According to an article by ISSJ (1978), rapid modernization in our societies are based on design models from foreign societies which are not adapted to our local context. As a result, there is loss of variety and traditional cultures which are the main inď&#x20AC;&#x201A;uence in determining built form and space. This leads to a single homogeneous culture, causing people to undermine and suppress their own cultural identity. Fig 1.4: Vernacular El Molo house, Traditional building technology and materials used have a cultural connection to the communities in this region and a symbol of their craftsmanship. Their form and shape are well adapted to contextual forces and their ď&#x20AC;&#x201A;exible dimension in that they can be expanded or moved depending on the social structure requirements. Source: Author, December 2017

The main goal of this research is to understanding the connection between the El Molo culture and their built forms, but most importantly, to distill the essence of place and culture of this region. This will provide variables that can be re-interpreted into contemporary terms, allowing architects to build for the future, yet relate to the past.

1.2 Research Objectives The objectives are: 1. To unravel the meaning of Culture and its role in determining the Built Forms. 2. To demonstrate an understanding of the El Molo culture and the Forces that shape El Molo Vernacular Built Forms. 3. To highlight the salient features of the El Molo vernacular Built Forms

1.3 Research Questions The three guiding questions involved in the research are:

Fig 1.5: Newly constructed school at El Molo Bay , The new school introduces exotic design techniques and building materials that are not contextual to this region and therefore unsustainable in terms of environmental and socio-cultural aspects Source: Author, December 2017.

1. What is the role Culture in determining Built Forms? 2. What are the forces that shape El Molo vernacular Built forms? 3. What are the salient features of the El Molo vernacular Built Forms?

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch01_03

1.4 Justication Few researchers writing about the El Molo tribe have focused their attention on the social lifestyle, economic and their religious aspects of the community. Their built forms and settlement as shown in Fig 1.9, have received minimum attention from researchers leaving out key architectural aspects such as planning and organization, form, functionality, symbolism and building technology. According to Rapoport (1969), built forms stand out as physical representation of culture, hence the need for this research. This research will therefore major on vernacular built forms within the El Molo community in Layeni village (see Fig 1.11) and how culture has modied their built environment.

1.5 Scope and Limitation Fig 1.6: El Molo Settlement in Layeni Village Source: Kwekudee, July 2013

The scope of this study will focus on the El Molo people, their culture and forces that shapes their built forms. The study will also identify the key characteristics of the El Molo built form that can be transformed to their future contemporary buildings as a regional response to cultural change. The study will limit itself to Layeni Village as shown in Fig 1.9 in El Molo Bay and Loiyangalani town due to the following reasons: a) Layeni village is the largest by size and population of the El Molo settlement has the highest concentration of vernacular built forms. b) There is a clear indication of change over time yet still retain some of the traditional houses, where traditional architecture is less inuenced by modernism. The author is limited to the time provided for the research, funding for the research as the location is extreme and distant. Lack of enough documentation about the subject also poses a challenge for the research. Lake Turkana

Fig 1.7: Lacal Dispensary in Loiyangalani town, Source: Author, December 2017

Fig 1.8 Lorian Island (Waar Island), Home to El Molo Shrines Source: Aurther, August 2017

Fig 1.9 Layeni Village, Elmolo Bay, Source: Google Earth, August 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch01_04

INTRODUCTION

1.6 Research Assumptions This research makes the assumption that culture, traditional beliefs and practices of the El Molo people heavily inuenced and determined their built forms and spaces.

1.7 Signicance of Study LITERATURE REVIEW

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The study is a step toward creating design patterns that are culturally oriented- the relationship between architectural forms and socio-cultural factors would be important in the development of appropriate design. This research study will create opportunities for the El Molo community to be recognized in the region, attracting tourist in the region which will aid in boosting their economy from trading their products and cultural heritage in general. The study will be a major contribution to cultural organizations, museums and for Educational purposes as it extends the knowledge base on cultural heritage of Kenyan communities.

1.8 Organization of Study Chapter one introduces us to the Elmolo and their built forms. It provides the basis for the study stating the problem in question and how it will be addressed. Chapter two critically addresses the existing literature on the Elmolo people and their cultural practices, the physical and climatic conditions of the area and how they inuence their architectural built forms. It also has a summary of architectural constants and design principles that can be derived from examining their built forms.

FIELDWORK AND DATA ANALYSIS

Chapter three highlights the methods of data collection and sources that the author engaged with while carrying out the research. Chapter four contains a detailed analysis of the research ndings of the selected case studies in Layeni village, Loiyangalani town. Chapter ve highlights the conclusions deduced from the ndings of the study as well as recommendations for future research.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Figure 1.10 Organization of study Source: Author 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch01_05

L I T E R AT U R E R E V I E W CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review 2.1 Built Form As A Basic Human Need Man over the years has caved out nature and reorganized it according to his needs and requirements. His quest for seeking protection from enemies including the wrath of weather elements. He became the architect for his environment developing new types of dwellings that adapted to his needs. Shelter, therefore became of supreme importance to man, a prime factor in his constant struggle for survival. (Fitch and Branch,1960) All values, desires and passion of the people are unconsciously translated into their built form. Every culture has unique form language that codies practical solutions developed over the years which comply to local customs, society and climate. (Salingaros, 2006)

Fig 2.1 El Molo Vernacular built form Source: Author, August 2017

In Kenya, traditional built form varies from region to region, from the conical hut in Mount Kenya region to the dome shaped form in Lake Turkana region. The El Molo community for instance, have developed distinct design features over the years that is adapted to their peoples needs. Their built form had to adapt to forces of society, the desert climate (hot and arid), forces of building technology and the constraints of the available materials, the social organization and the forces due to physical environment. African architecture looks for the opportunity to marry traditional wisdom with modern outlooks and resources can easily result in a variety of new and original architectural developments that challenge world perceptions of aesthetics and functionality. (Kultermann, 1969: 97) Rapoport’s book ‘House Form and Culture’, convey forward an understanding of the form of dwellings and settlement in light of history, location, social aspects, climate, materials and construction techniques. Rapoport (1969), states that, “...there is a link between culture and form: rst, in the sense of understanding of behavior pattern including desires, motivations and feelings, since built form is the physical embodiment of these patterns and secondly, in the sense that forms once built affect behavior and the way of life.” (Rapoport ,1969).

Building Technology

Fig 2.2 Transformed El Molo Vernacular built form, Source: Author, August 2017 In discussing African settlement, evolution and built form, Prof. Anyamba, 1994, denes this relationship of man, his culture and the resultant built form as traditional architecture. He looks at built forms as product of time and is handed over from generation to generations. (Anyamba, 1994)

Materials and Techniques

Environment

El Molo

BUILT FORM

Hot and Dry

Culture Lake Turkana and God(Waak) Island Undulating Desert Landscape Oasis Town (Loiyangalani) Mt. Kulal & Mt. Ny’iro

Context

Fig 2.3 Components of Regional Design (Rudolfsky,1965) BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_07

2.2 Venarcularism Over the years before the age of globalization, built form and construction techniques was base on traditional and community knowledge that led to the enrichment of cultural identity, vibrancy and diversity amongst various communities.

Fig 2.4: New Gourna Village, Egypt by Fathy (1954) Source: UNESCO, October 2017

Rudolfsky (1964) gave a short introduction to vernacular architecture in his exhibition titled ‘Architecture Without Architects’ at The Museum of Modern Art (1964). He pointed out an area that had been overlooked for quite a while. He refers to this type of built forms as non-pedigreed architecture as so little is known that it does not even have a name. He therefore continues by calling it vernacular, indigenous, rural, anonymous, spontaneous as the case may be. Scholars and researchers especially in the eld of built environment have expressed the need to recognize and understand vernacular built form as they hold the folk-wisdom that is deeply rooted in the society. (Kamenju, 2012) Ozkan (1985), describes vernacular architecture as a fundamental source where the basic component of design such as climate, technology, culture and related symbolism have existed and developed over the centuries of man’s involvement with architecture. In an article title, R e g i o n a l i s m with Modernity, Ozkan (1985) observes two broad approaches to vernacularism:

Fig 2.5: New Gourna Village, Egypt by Fathy (1954) Source: UNESCO, October 2017

According to Prof. Suha, Hassan Fathy strived to revive a building tradition and tried to grasp it on the eve of its disappearance. He was rm and uncompromising in incorporating the societal forces but innovative at the same time in bringing the architects know-how and design expertise on to the scene. He notes that this may perhaps seen as the most noteworthy way to bring vernacular back to life. Fathy (1954) cherished the material, technology and art of building of Egyptian society thus bring new life and meaning t o t h e m . ( Pr o f. S u h a O z k a n , Re g i o n a l i s m w i t h Modernity,1985)

1. Conservative attitude- Pioneered by Egyptian architect, Hassan Fathy, perhaps in his successful Village of New Gourner (1948). This style involves inherited traditional technology, local materials and the natural environment. It focuses on reviving the vernacular mode and building tradition in danger of extinction. 2. Interpretative attitude- Involves conveying new life to vernacular heritage for new and contemporary functions. Architecture is seen more of an expression of local shapes and forms where culture is reduced to souvenir and myths. This approach is widely used in tourism to lore them into the regional and vernacular ambience.(Ozkan, 1985) Vernacular architecture can be said to be the architecture language of the people, with its ethnic, regional and local dialect. The people shape there environment according to there local needs, culture and the construction materials and technology available to them and without the help of intellectual specialist or masters. (Oliver ,1976) Rapoport describes vernacular buildings as prime reector of the culture of people of that region and the identity of the society is gained through the social cultural values of the people.(Rapoport, 1969) Kamenju (2012), writes that, “the study of vernacular architecture explains how buildings emerge and are sustained through cultural process.” He continues by making a compelling argument that it is crucial for architects to indulge theory of architecture in their practice, as it is anchored in the framework of their traditions.

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_08

2.3 Regionalism and Built Form “It is no longer easy to achieve beauty by the same way in which old societies did....now we have a larger and more difcult order to achieve and our spirit will shine through only if we are true to ourselves and never forget that it is man that we must serve.” (Belluschi, 1955:)

Fig 2.6

Belluschi’s article ‘The Meaning of Regionalism In Architecture’ (1955), makes a compelling reason to argue that regionalism plays a crucial role in determining the built form . According to Bellunschi (1955), architecture and the design of built form is a reection of man’s longing for order and acclimation to his natural environment has always been regional in its essence and character. He states that, “In the past, the art of building has been for the most part a shared craftsmanship, not produced by few intellectuals specialists, but by the spontaneous and continuing activity of a whole people with a common heritage, acting under a community of experience.” (Belluschi, 1955:132) Regionalism looks for meaning and substance under specic local conditions. The Built Form must not only satisfy emotions, but also mind and logic before lasting solutions emerge. The form must reect a sense of reality, a man’s ability to impart character and meaning to his environment. Belluschi (1955) claims that Regionalism at its best cannot be measured or imposed, is not a school of thought but simply a recognition within its own sphere of what architecture is to human beings , a deep regard of their emotional demands, and this need not forfeited even in the most practical demand of a project.

Fig 2.7 Critical Regionalism. Located in a small town in Finland, Säynätsalo Town Hall by Alva Aalto (1949) best describes the fusion of Nature, Man(intimacy) and Modern technology (avant-garde). Aalto designed the town hall with respect to the Finish vernacular architecture amalgamating with the humanist Italian renaissance, where he drew the concept of a courtyard layout. The choice of materials in relation to the region is perhaps what strikes more as he used bricks (which is cellular) to dominate the form and wood for the interiors. Fig 2.6 & Fig 2.7: Säynätsalo Town Hall, Alva Aalto(1949) Source: www.archdaily.com, Fleig, Karl. Alvar Aalto.

Architects imaginative force and innovative power are nourished by the world he lives in. He is surrounded by the things he can see or by that which he has learnt, by the people he knows and nally by the old symbols and forms. Therefore, the greater is his understanding of his context gives him a greater scope of his innovative power. (Belluschi, 1955) Regionalism pushes towards understanding and most importantly distilling the essence of place and culture, enabling architects to build for future yet relate to the past. Framton (1981), points out that the folk architecture should be re-interpreted in contemporary terms rather than adapting the tradition directly. He identies major principles of critical regionalism which includes: Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ

Space and Place making Form and Function Planning Concepts Symbolism Environmental Response Material and Building technology

This principles will form basis for the research study on the El Molo community in the Lake Turkana region. BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_09

2.3.1 Space and Place making The concept of space capitalizes on creating quality spaces which are comfortable, sociable, accessible, safe and welcoming. This qualities caters for the well-being, health and happiness of the users. Built forms deď&#x20AC; ne spaces that create relationship between one space and the next, indoors and outdoor, inside and outside. In traditional African architecture, built forms have space within space concept. The inner spaces are for general living and sleeping while the outer space was for working, storage and holding meetings. Other communities like the El Molo for instance, have a unitary space concept where all functions such as working, sleeping, living and storage are in one space creatively deď&#x20AC; ned. The exterior spaces are then used for large gatherings and ceremonies. Space Matrix

Exterior Homestead

Entrance

Interior Courtyard (Outdoor)

Built form (Indoor)

Privacy Gradient Cooking Storage

Activities

Stangers/ Menbers of the community (Public)

Friends/ Guest/ Relatives (Semi-Private)

Main Entrance

Storage Cooking/ Working Family Ceremonies Arbitration Meetings

Space Within Space Concept Living/Sleeping Storage Unitary Space Concept

Fig 2.8 El Molo Hut, Plan view Source: Vagnby B. and Jacobs A. H,1973

Family (Private) Living Sleeping

Cooking Living Storage Working

Fig 2.9 Activity & Privacy Space Matrix Source: Author, Dec 2017

2.3.2 Form and Function Traditional built forms have a corresponding relationship with function. The evidence of this relationship can be seen in the planning of the house and the spatial distribution. The entrance is not just to protect from intruders but it marks a space in time (Abonyo, 1994). The shape of the door in vernacular built forms was more sensitive as it conveyed a feeling of transition, changing the body posture and meaning. In the presence of a courtyard, the functions were allocated leaving the interiors for living. The courtyards in some cases were used for storage (granaries), arbitration, cooking, recreation and family ceremonies. Courtyards created privacy and security purposes. Only family and invited relatives could be allowed inside the house. Invited guest were entertained in the court. In single huts, all activities were located in one space BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_10

Senses

RESPONSE Fields

Eyes

Visual

Visual form, color & Pattern

Ears

Auditory

Noise

Skin

Tactile

Texture

Body

Kinesthetic

Movement

Hands

Haptic

Physical form

Nose

Smell

Atmosphere

Mouth

Taste

Chemical

2.3.3 Architecture and Tectonic Form Connective elds of Time and Scale

PERCEPTION

Tectonics in built structures is represented by the different materials, techniques and resources, assembled together to bring the act of construction in its true nature. Framton (1981), denes architecture tectonics as a potential means of rening the play of material, craft work and gravity so as to yield a component which gives meaning to the entire structure. He states that, “ The functionally adequate form must be adapted so as to give expression to its function.” Anderson (1996), argues that the study of structure, the spirit of materialism and craftsmanship, not only give a form artistic meaning, but to create a specic design unique to its region. Tectonics in architecture does not only represent the ability to withstand forces of nature but also the craft as a fundamental link to traditional methods and techniques of construction, creating architecture inspired not by imitating the aesthetics of the traditional craft, but rather become a transformed way in which the ideas from the past can be transplanted into modern days.

Further Fields Thermal

Humidity

Fields normally Interactive

Electrical Fields normally Inter-related

Table 2.1 Perceptive Experience: A form of Synthesis. “Its capacity to arouse the impulse to touch turns the architect to the poetics of construction and to the erection of works in which the tectonic value of each component depends upon the density of its objecthood.” (Framton, 1981) Framtons uses Alva Aalto’s public circulation in Town Hall of Synatsalo (1952), as an indication of similar evidence of tactile sensitivity. He argues that the use of brickwork in the access staircase creates a kinetic thrust of the body as you climb up.

Source: Wood, (1976) (Extract from Abonyo’s Thesis, (1992), Author Modied)

Fig 2.10: El Molo Hut, Plan view Source: Vagnby B. and Jacobs A.H ,1973

2.3.4 The Visual And Tactile Qualities The built environment has a great impact on the user’s interaction with space which can only be decoded in terms of Experience. Framton (1981), notes that it is a clear indication that priority is given to sight forgetting that tactile is an important dimension in the perception of built form. According to Framton (1981), the body registers and reacts to a whole range of sensory perceptions like: Heat, cold, darkness, light, atmosphere and aroma of materials. BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_11

2.3.5 Planning Concepts The El Molo settlement is organized in a linear way guided by the edge of the lake. Their land is owned collectively by the clan headed by the Elders. Their location of the settlement down the slope with the vast land surrounding them provides a position to spot any intruders therefor acts a s a defense mechanism giving them time to seek refuge to Lorian island. Their built forms are in close proximity to create engaging spaces and also to provide view over the properties.

2.3.6 Symbolism and Decorations Regional architecture requires a deep understanding of the place, climate, function and technology. Part of this understanding is the craft tradition. This involves symbols and decorations found in built forms and their artifacts. Decoding this symbols give an in depth understanding of the culture. The interpretation can be of cultural or religious nature. Symbiotic relationship between art and architecture is vividly expressed in traditional forms as if art and architecture is an integral part of life. The symbols are displayed in form of paintings, engraving, molding, drawing and carvings. The surfaces where this elements appear include the walls, door ways, entrance, houses. The objects and artifacts include ornaments, calabash, seat and pottery. The El Molo built forms have a sense of being part of the landscape as if crafted by nature. They appear as outcrops of the surrounding soil dressed in dry palm leaves rather than built forms. This built forms appear symbolic to the place in how they appear mimicking the landscape.

1. Iron neck-ornament with scrolled ends 2. Armlet made of split tortoise skin 3. Horn for bleeding 4. Knife for use with horn bleeding 5. Hippopotamus harpoon

1. El Molo hair-ornament made from feathers 2. Palm-tree raft 3. Rope made from dom palm-ď&#x20AC; bre 4. El Molo pot 5. The potsherd found on south island

1. Rear skirt of El Molo woman 2. Front skirt of El Molo woman The skirt both made from old ď&#x20AC; sh net 3. Fish net in the making

El Molo settlements of Layeni village looking like outcrops molded by the landscape.

Fig 2.11 El Molo artifacts tools and Dressing. : El Molo settlement, Source: Dyson, 1937 : Nene, Aug 27 2014 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_12

3.0 Forces That Shape El Molo Vernacular Built Forms Built forms according to Rapoport (1969), are as a result of both physical determinants which include climate, materials and technology, and site and social determinants relating to economics, defense and religion. All these forces revolves around man and his struggles to shaping his environment while still creating identity and character.

3.1 The El Molo: Understanding The Culture Dell (1983), argues that culture is the learned behavior that embodies the enduring values and deepest cognitive structures of a social group. Rapoport (1969) claims that the objects that man creates serve as concrete symbols of a culture’s ideas and feelings. Man’s architecture, his dwellings and settlements are the physical expression of the genre de vie:- the sum total of the cultural, spiritual, material, and social aspects of man’s life. Africans see culture as essential to their lives and future development (Sobania, 2003). It embodies our philosophy, perception of the world, behavior patterns, art, religion, built form, dressing, cuisine, marriage, family, lifestyle, social customs, music and dance. This aspects are shared by members of a society and when acted upon, they produced behavior considered acceptable within the society.(William,1977) According to Taylor (1871), culture is a perplexing accumulation of qualities, a series of consolidated activities that involve traditional knowledge, science, craftsmanship, belief and thoughts, ethics, principles, tradition and other habits which an individual learns as a member of a society. Hissan (2016), refers this values as the ultimate essence of culture.

Fig 3.1: The Southern Region of Lake Turkana, The El Molo Count Teleki and von Hohnel in 1888 speak of three different Elmolo shing communities: one at Elmolo Bay in the south where the present Elmolo live; a second at Alia Bay about 120 kilometers to the north; and a third among the Reshiat people at the northern tip of the lake. They lived entirely on sh, crocodiles and turtles that are caught on the lake and the only water they drink is of the same Lake. Source: Bo Vagnby and Jacobs, 1973

Fig 3.2: El Molo women Source: Hutton, 1973

Fig 3.3: El Molo Elder, Source: Hutton, 1973 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_13

3.2 Historical Background Although the origin of the El Molo is unclear, with different authors expressing their own theories. Linguistic researcher Dr. Heine (1978) suggests that the El Molo language has some resemblance with that of the Rendille and may perhaps be simply a dialect of it. The dwindling tribe whose numbers were approximately 500 when they were rst discovered in the year 1888 by Count Teleki and Hohnel, (Explorers from Austo- Hungarian) in a number of lands from the lake where they seek refuge from raiders (Dyson, 1937). Dyson believes that they originally migrated down into the great lake area around 1000BC from Ethiopia in the North Horn region. A similar argument is made by Tosco (2000). He writes “....Southern movement of the Cushitic speaking people occurred early in the second millennium BC and brought onto northern and central Kenya by the linguistic ancestors of the western Omo-Tana people, that is, the El Molo, Dhaasanas and Abore. The El Molo now live in El Molo bay, at the South-East shores of Lake Turkana, approximately seven kilometers from Loiyangalani Springs (the nearst town). The name El Molo is believed to have originated from ‘o-mouo’, the word for ‘sherman’ in the Cushitic language subfamily, or from ‘mo-lo’ which means ‘this person’ in the original El Molo language. They also call themselves ‘gura-paua’ El Molo word for ‘people of the lake’(Gaertner, 1995). According to Sobania (1988), the name El Molo comes from the Samburu, which means “the people who eat sh.” He argues that with the improvement of weather, the Samburu rebounded and returned to their original customs, leaving the El Molo as a Samburu-speaking minority. (Sobania, 1988) They carry on practicing an ancient sh-based lifestyle within the context of a very harsh setting. The landscape is covered virtually entirely of sand, rocks, and pebbles. The few trees are scrawny and much apart and as to the lake, it is not at all t to drinking due to its salt and alkaline content, . The neighboring Samburu, who are cattle raisers, trade their sheep and goats for El Molo–made mats, ropes, and hippopotamus leather. The animals that El Molo get from them are their only source of meat. Fig 3.4: Elderly El Molo Woman outsides her house, The population of El Molo now consist of a mixture of Samburu and Rendille dialect. Nearly fty years ago the Elmolo were approximately ve hundred in number, but in 1934, when the Lake Rudolf Rift Valley Expedition' visited them, there were only 84 of these people left. Dyson continues, their mode of life was modied by their extreme poverty, which compelled them to rely upon what they could catch in the lake for the greater part of their food. (Dyson, 1935) Source: Hutton, (1973)

Fig 3.5: Elmolo Woman Source: Hutton, 1973

Fig 3.6: Elmolo Man Source: Hutton, 1973

Fig 3.7: Elmolo Women Source: Hutton, 1973

Fig 3.8: Elmolo Family Source: Hutton, 1973 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_14

3.3 Geographical Characteristics

The geographical characteristics can be viewed in two ways as narrated by Chandhoke (1990). 1

First, is the physical nature of the site. The Lake Turkana region and especially the El Molo Bay, the site is rugged and barrel with volcanic cider cones and a few shrubby plants. The land gently slopes toward the lake. The ground cover is mostly hard coarse rocks unt to support any vegetation growth. The climate of the region is hot and dry according to Koppen climate classications.

Desert

Chalbi Basin

Mt Kulal

Desert

Mt Ny’iro

3 4 5 6 7

Secondly, Chandhoke (1990), argues that it is the initial choice of site that hold the most salient values of the community. The site has a symbolic signicance with religious and cultural values of the community anchored to it. Access to food or water, arable land for agriculture and pastures, exposure to wind or defense, all play a role in determining the choice of site. As a result, siting and to an extent building form can indeed be a product of the social factors that gives meaning to the site. This social factors may include family or clan structure, religious beliefs, way of gaining livelihood or even defense against enemies. Some of the geographical features in this region includes: Ÿ

Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ

LAKE TURKANA REGION

The Oasis town of Loiyangalani- The fresh water springs support the growth of doum palm, a plant that provide essential raw materials for the El Molo built forms. Lake Turkana- Sustains the El Molo community. Source of food water and spiritual nourishment. Mt. Kulal (2,285m asl) and Mt. ng,iro (2,750m asl) The Islands-North island, Central island and South island. Lorian island is perhaps the most important. Home to their four sacred Shrines (Gante) Chalbi Desert

Fig 3.11: Satellite image of Lake Turkana Region Source: Google Earth, Author Modied, November 2017

N High plateau and lava elds

Fig 3.9: El Molo location, Lake Turkana, Kenya. Source: Jarzombek, Author modied, 2017

Fig 3.10: Looking north from the Southern Island Source: Dyson, 'The Lake Rudolf Valley Expedition

1.Chalbi Basin

5. Southern Island

2.El Molo Bay

6. Lake Turkana

3. Oasis Town of Loiyangalani

7. Lake Turkana Wind Power Project

4. Mt. Kulal

8. Mt. Ng’iro BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_15

3.4 Research Context 3.4.1 Loiyangalani Loiyangalani is a small town situated on the southeastern coast of Lake Turkana. The name means "a place of many trees" in the native Samburu tongue. the main economic activities include shing, tourism and handi-crafts. The population of Loiyangalani is 16,965 people with a region of 11584.7 square kilometers with only 25% of the total population stay within the town totaling to 4208 people (KNBS ,2009). Different communities that live in Loiyangalani include the El Molo, Rendille, Samburu, Turkana, Gabra, Borana, Sakuye and Burji.

Fig 3.12 Local Market in Loiyangalani town Source: Author, 2017

The town has grown rapidly with new hotels and accommodation facilities being built thanks to the annual cultural festivals that happens on the months of may and june. This festivals include the: Marsabit Lake Turkana Cultural Festivals (MLTCF) and the great North Heritage Run (GNHR). All communities participate in the event and display unique performances and cultural traditions like their spectacular traditional costumes, arts and crafts, dances and music giving the guests a unique and fascinating experience. (NMK, 2017)

3.4.2 The Desert Musuem

Fig 3.13 The Desert Museum Source: Author, August 2017

The Museum is Located on top of a hill, four kilometers from Loiyangalani town and with a backdrop of the Picturesque Lake Turkana also known as the Jade Sea. It was opened on June 2008 by the National Museum of Kenya, to preserve and promote Kenya’s rich cultural and national heritage. The Museum is built of the traditional materials found in the area (the doum palm fronds for roong and stones for the wall surfaces). 3.4.3 Lake Turkana Wind Power Project Located approximately 12kilometers East of Lake Turkana in Loiyangalani District, the project is the private largest investment in Kenya’s history at a cost of $700 Million (Ksh70billion) covering 40,000 acres. The project is also the largest wind rm in Africa and will comprise of 365 wind turbines each with a capacity of 850KiloWatts(KW) and expected to generate 310MegaWatts(MW) of clean energy. (LTWP, 2017)

Fig 3.14 Turbines (LTWP) Source: Vestas, September 2017

The project area falls within a valley between two mountains, Mt.Kulal to the East and Mt.Ny’iro that produce a tunnel effect. A phenomenon observed when air converges between the mountains, a low pressure zone causing the wind speed to increase considerably. According to the Danish wind company, Vestas, the average recorded wind speed in this zone is 11m/s at 50m above ground level. This is after the extensive wind assessments and environmental eldwork conducted in 2007. BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_16

3.5 Socio-Cultural Forces Architecture practiced today lacks a connection to the people and their culture. There is need for architects to understand vernacular forms (primitive architecture) as human desires expressed by a unied group of an ideal environment. Perkins (2002) talks of awareness of social and cultural factors which will enhance the conventional design perspectives of architects. Amos Rapoport (1963), “states that house form is not simply the result of physical forces or any single casual factor but a whole range of socio-cultural factors seen in their broadest terms.” The identity of a society is gained through the socio-cultural values of the people. According to Rapoport, these forces include: Way of gaining livelihood, Religious beliefs, Defense, Lifestyle, Family and clan structure and Social interaction

3.5.1 Way of Gaining Livelihood

Fig 3.15: El Molo man shing on Lake Turkana, Kenya. Source: Aldi, 2017

Due to the physical conditions of their barren land and a hostile climate with temperatures of up to 45° C (113° F), the El Molo could neither grow crops nor keep livestock although they seemed to have a few herds of goats that they would get through trading. This also could not sustain them. They turned to shing and hunting from the Lake of which they became experts. Men were tasked with shing activities while the women were responsible in building the traditional houses and looking after the homestead. Although economic forces can be argued to have inuenced their settlement, Rapoport (1963), developed a notion that might bring forward some contradiction. He looks at the signicance of Cattle to the Masai community and states that, “cattle are unwisely used in economic terms because of their social and religious importance, therefore they could not build permanent dwellings. “ According to Rapoport (1969), such people can hardly ever consider giving up their tradition. To them, houses are less critical for survival than food. To the El Molo community, economy proves to be a lesser contributor to determining their built form although it may have contributed to the choice of siting their built forms.

Fig 3.17:Layeni Village: The settlement are tethered to the Lake Source: Author Oct 2017

Fig 3.16: Hippopotamus on Lake Turkana at Aliay Bay, Kenya. Dwellings

Fresh or dried sh forms the staple food, but is varied, whenever possible, by the addition of crocodile, turtle, or hippopotamus esh. Any form of bird was also readily accepted, even pelicans and cormorants being eaten with relish.(Dyson, 1935)

Meeting Area Animal Shed Water tank Foreign Built form

Source: Aldi, 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_17

3.5.2 Lifestyle B A

The way of life of the Elmolo Is simple. They are still considered poor due to their dependence to the lake and the fact that they don't keep animals like the neighboring Samburu and Turkana community. They give much emphasis to Fishing and Hunting, Craftsmanship, Dressing and decorations and their Customs. Their shing and hunting techniques have improved in recent years from only using harpooning (g 2.27 )in 1888 to netting and using hooks for shing.(Von Hohnel, 1888 )

Hohnel records that The heads of the harpoons that we saw were made from a soft iron bar bent double, the bent end being hammered out into a short blade, at on one side but raised to a central ridge on the other. The base of the harpoon head ts into the truncated end of an oryx horn, which, in turn, is mounted on a long wooden pole. (Dyson and Fuchs)

3.5.3 Health

Fig 3.19

Fig 3.18

Fig 3.20

Fig 3.18: El Molo man with Deformity of the legs due to drinking the lake water, Source: Dyson and Fuchs(1935). Fig 3.19: Nile patch caught on lake Turkana. (kwekudee, 2013) Fig 3.20: Elmolo pot (A), Knot used in net making (B) Hippopotamus Harpoon (C) Horn for bleeding (D). Source: Dyson and Fuchs(1935).

Neal Sobania in his writings on ‘shermen herders’ (1988), addresses the El Molo as a ‘dying tribe’ almost in the eve of disappearance. As cultural domination from other communities and the era of contemporary times is taking its toll on the community, health issue is becoming a real challenge. Their health is deteriorating. The Lake, as much as it sustains the community, it also aid in there demise. In 1935, Dyson spent some time with the El Molo community and he recorded that the calcium carbonate content of the lake is very low due to the precipitation of the calcium salts brought down by the rivers, they mix with the soda-rich waters of the lake. This causes calcium deciency in the diet causing universal deformity of the legs, from which these people suffer. He noted that this deformity had the appearance of rickets, and takes the form of outward and forward bowing of the tibia (see Fig 2.26). Dyson noticed that it occurs not only in the adults but also, to a lesser degree, amongst the children. In many, the anterior edge of the tibia appeared to be thickened and rounded, a feature that might be accounted for by the gradual bending of the bone, causing distortion. “We found that the teeth of nearly every individual were foul, and often accompanied by gums showing signs of pyorrhea and sometimes scurvy.... the lips were ulcerating, while ulcers on the top of the head were not uncommon. Besides the bowing of the tibia already remarked upon, the femora may also be bowed forwards and outwards (see Fig 2.26). In a number of cases arthritis and fusion of the vertebroo in the lumbar region were noticed. Other observations were wasted calves, sebaceous cysts, paque cornea, and varicocele.” (Dyson and Fuchs, 1935) BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_18

3.5.4 Dressing and Decorations The mens dressing was very sketchy and didn’t involve a lot, it involved a string of alternate glass beads and sh vertebrae . There cloths were twisted all around the middle, but only wore as decoration. They had a narrow strip water-tortoise skin on their arms as a tight tting bracelets. “Occasionally, a single iron-wire band with scrolled ends is worn around the neck.”(Dyson, 1935)

Fig 3.21 El Molo Woman wearing a neckless, armlet, ear rings and head decorations . Source:Hutton, 1973

The men wore saddles made from hippopotamus hide. The women wore some kind of dress made from worn-out shing nets which came in two pieces, the front and the rear skirts as shown by lady on the far right in g 2.30. On different occasions, the women would neat there out of strips of palm leaves, the same material used in their houses (see g 2.30). Large number of necklaces of ostrich-shell beads and old fashioned trade beads hanging in a great mass round the neck. Children had few ornaments and no clothing but sometimes they could be seen with string of goat teeth round the neck and sh vertebrae around the waist.

3.5.5 Craftsmanship The El Molo were superior craftsmen when it came to manufacture of ropes, baskets, mats, clay pots and shoes. They traded with the Samburu and the Rendille and in exchage they were offered sheep, goats which were ordinarily slaughtered and used only as suplements to their diet of sh. (Sobania, 1988) Mat, ropes and baskets were made from the palm leaves which was sourced in the Oasis town of Loiyangalani, pot was made of the local clay and shoes from the hippopotamus hide. The men were tasked in making rafts from poles of palm trees, tied together with ropes while the women made potterly vessels and responsible in building and repairing the house forms. “Vessels made are irregular cup-shaped bowls, with or without handles and with pointed bowls.” (Dyson,1935)

Fig 3.22 El Molo Women in there traditional dress attire.

The material culture (crafts and symbols and built forms) becomes the tangible manifestation of their traditional culture, a tool in which we can interpret the essence of a given society and a reection of dialectical relationship with the inhabitants of that community.

“Through symbols, architecture becomes an instrument to understand identity of a culture. Their interpretation therefore can help the designer to create meaningful architecture that is of any contemporary relevance.” (Ng’etich, 1992) Source: Lafforgue, 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_19

3.5.6 Family and Social Structure The El Molo were monogamus. Their family is made up of husband, wife and unmarried children. Traditional El Molo community practices endogamy, a system constricts them to marry members of one’s own ethnic group. They were divided into ve clans (Ori) each named after their male ancestor. Currently the El Molo have four shrines representing the remaining four clans.

Stages of Life Birth was celebrated by dancing and feasting. The mother is not allowed outside her heart for four days during which she is forbidden to cook or eat any food. She may not drink anything other than water with boiled dried sh in it. The father is not allowed to see the child or the mother for about ten days. (Dyson, 1937) Ÿ Courtship: The age of fourteen is a transitional stage for the El Molo young boys into manhood. A dance is arranged to celebrate the event. The El Molo don't practice circumcision, various ornamental scars. Ÿ Marriage: Due to their poverty stature, it is difcult for an El Molo young man to take wives from the surrounding tribes as they are not strong or courageous enough to pay a sufcient price. Instead, the young takes a bride from his own community as soon as he possess enough goats as dowery (usually about ten goats) to the father. Ÿ Death is inevitable and the El Molo recognise it a transitional stage to join their God (Wak). When a man dies, the body is carried some distance from the island. They then cover by very large stones to form a mound about three feet high. Cleansing from the lake is then done to those who partake in the burial, before returning to the village.

Fig 3.23 Young El Molo Woman. , Source: Dyson and Fuchs.-The Elmolo.

Fig 3.24 El Molos taking shade Source: Author, 2017

Conict resolution involved the Elders to nd solutions and administer punishment. the issues. They had a gathering point where children would play during the day and it also acted as shelter from the sun. On sundays, this area is converted to a sacred space where the priest comes from Loiyangani to hold Holy mass.

The Hippo hunt The men move north to Moite Hill where hoppos are located. When they make the kill, the carcus is butchered and the meat transported to the village. The Killer is allowed to eat after one day of hunt. His throwing arm is decorated with sacred white chalk and a special earring made rom a hippo bone is placed in his right ear. This earring is worn forever as a sign of having gained respect from the community. (Gaertner, 1995)

Fig 3.25: Hippopotamus on Lake Turkana, Kenya. Source: Aldi, 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_20

3.5.7 Religion Man has spiritual aspect which is uniquely to human and which distinguishes his construction from nest or beehives. In Africa, artifacts, buildings and nature holds a symbolic signicance to the concept of religious cosmology. Early El Molo religious culture centered on the belief in a supreme being called Waak (God), who created and controls everything in the universe. To the El Molo community, act of shing is a symbolic as well as utilitarian function. They pray to their God (Waak) for good fortune when they go for shing and hunting of hippos. (Gaertner, 1995) OriKarra is one of the El Molo shrine (Gante) that is used to prepare the men and bless them and their tools for hippo hunt. Their houses are oriented towards the Lorian Island (Waak Island) which is where their four sacred shrines are located. Their settlement can be termed as ritual oriented, their house is a function of both culture and religious attitudes. But even this fails to account for their form and other forces may be involved. Fig 3.26: El Molo Women with a Cross (Symbol of Christianity) The Elmolo of today have joined the Christianity Religion brought about by the missionaries. Their families have been baptized with Christian names. They were decorations with Christianity symbols like the cross ties together with cultural necklace on the fore head. Source: Lafforgue, 2017 GANTES (ELMOLO SHRINES) Lmarle

OriKarra Orisole

Origalgite

El Molo terms relating to their Religious culture Gante- Elmolo shrines, they are four in number (Origalgite, Orikara, Lmarle and Origole) and are located in Lorian Island in Lake Turkana. Origalgite- This Gante is responsible for Fertility incase a woman is unable to bare children. OriKarra - This Gante is used to prepare the men and bless them and their tools for hippo hunt. Lmarle- This Gante contains sacred soil taken from Moite (El-molo sacred mountain, an extinct volcano; at its base, still nowadays, the El-molo go to pray). The soil is used during the times of disaster to put curse on the enemies. Orisole- This sacred shrine is used to cure diseases related to throat and Ori- El Molo clan OriGaya- El Molo shrine that control the catsh and dream prophecies Loiyangalani- Place of many trees Waak- Term used to refer to a Supreme Being (God) Only four of the ve shines now exist in Lorian island as shown in g 2.35

Fig 3.27: El Molo Sacred Shrines. The boundary fence takes the shape of Hippopotamus, an animal with cultural signicance to the El Molo people. Source: Author, August 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_21

3.6 Built form and Planning Vagnby and Jacobs in 1973 wrote an article for the Plan East Africa, explaining the hardships of a community living in the shores of Lake Turkana, then Lake Rudolf. They describe there hut shown in g 2.37 as a dome shaped structure averaging from 200cm250cm in diameter and about 150cm in height and with a door way opening of about 850cm. The El Molo settlement is positioned between Mt. Kulal and Mt. Ny’iro, a low pressure zone which produces a tunnel effect in which wind streams are accelerated at high speed. The winds help moderate the high temperatures of the Desert which often exceeds 37oC. The Entrance to their huts is positioned on the west towards the lake to shelter from the strong winds. The El Molo derived their building materials from Loiyangalani Spring (The oasis town), where doum palm grows. The men fetched the material while the women were tasked with construction and repairs of the huts.

The construction process involved three stages:

Fig 3.28 A plan of El Molo Built form Source: Author, August 2017

Fig 2.32 El Molo Hut, Section and Plan view Source: Vagnby and Jacobs,1973

Fig 3.29 El Molo Hut Source: Author, August 2017

First, they sample about 20-30 poles, placing them in a series of shallow holes dug on the circumference of a circle. The poles are then bent over and attached to the middle to frame a vault molded rooftop. The entire frame is interlaced and tied with smaller poles to give it strength. Secondly, The structure is covered using the local doum palm leaves from the roof to walls. The leaves are interwoven into the framework and tied down with wickers (pliable twigs) to give a tight and stable covering. The third stage comprise of furnishing, making the hut livable. Hearth is usually constructed on the right side of the doorway. The pots and the cooking materials are stored behind the hearth against the wall. Small windows for air and light are made in the sloping wall and closed at night with a tightly woven bre screens. Tools and family belonging are stored along the wall opposite the doorway or hanging from the ceiling. Goat skin or woven palm mats for sleeping are place over the loose gravel oor in the center of the hut and rolled up during the day and stored against the wall. A typical El Molo hut provides accommodation for an average family of four persons. (Vagnby and Jacobs,1973)

Fig 3.30 A section of El Molo Built form. Source: Dyson and Fuchs (1935). BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_22

HUMAN COMFORT

3.7 Forces Due to Nature: Environmental Response

TEMPERATURE

3.7.1 Primitive Form and Climate

HUMIDITY

Primitive man has over the years learnt to create buildings that adapt to climatic conditions. With limited resources, he seemed to build more wisely, working out a structural form that meets all his demand. Extreme conditions(Rain, Sun, Cold) and the need for comfort and occasionally even survival, has forced primitive man to create some of the most successful buildings despite the challenges of limited materials and construction technology. His understanding and the solutions he devises shows a symbolic representation of culture and its response to the climate of the region, materials and technology. Rapoport (1969), along similar lines discusses the Eskimo traditional built form (Igloo) in that, even though they live in a hostile environment, they have learnt to solve their problems by collaborating with nature. (Rapoport, 1969:84)

WIND RADIATION & LIGHT OPENINGS LANDSCAPING TECTONIC FORM

Fig 3.31

Parameters for Contextual Design Intelligent conguration and molding of the built form and its surroundings can considerably minimize the level of discomfort inside a building, and reduce the consumption of energy required to maintain comfortable conditions. CONTEXT

MICRO CLIMATE

ENVELOPE

MACRO CLIMATE

ACOUSTIC, DAYLIGHT AND VENTILATION

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

TRANSPORT NETWORK

CONSTRUCTION TYPE

Primitive architecture as dened by Fitch and Branch, refers to buildings of preliterate societies, whether historical or current, whose general knowledge comes by word of mouth, whose training is by apprenticeship, whose industry is by handicraft and whose tools are pre-iron stage.(Primitive Architecture and Climate: 134) This folk architecture reects a precise and detailed knowledge of local climate and understanding of the performance of the building materials, a concept that seemed to have been lost in this rapid error of industrialization and urbanization. This therefore indicates that built form and settlement can indeed be modied and in other cases even determined by the climate of the region. The role architects and urban designers play is essential especially when it comes to adapting to climate change (National Research Council, 2010) Their decisions can create comfortable micro-climate or contribute to heat island effect. (Wheelar, 2008)

CONTEXT UTILITIES

IMAGE ZONING

STRUCTURE

FORM

CIRCULATION

NEED

NEIGHBORHOOD SITE

EQUIPMENT

MAINTENANCE

(INDOOR+AMBIENT)

ACCESS

ENVIRONMENT

PRIORITIES

RELATIONSHIP

ACTIVITIES

SPACE REQUIREMENT

OBJECTIVES

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL

FORM

According to Rapoport, (1969), climate affects human comfort and it is a result of the following climatic variables which will be discussed later in the chapter:

NEED

- Ambience Temperature. - Humidity (Water content present in the air) - Wind (Air Movement) - Radiation and Light - Precipitation (Rain)

Source: Author Modied, Nov 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_23

Temperature in C

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

SEMI-DESERT ZONE

Zone: Semi-Desert Max

LODWAR

C Z (day)

Min

Altitude: 506 m Latitude: 03⁰07’ N Longitude 35⁰37’E

C Z (night)

15 10 5 12

Lodwar lies in the ﬂat Northern Rift Valley 60 km West of Lake Rudolf.

Sunshine Hours

10 8

Winds

Persistent E to NE Winds occur throughout the year. The wind is usually NorthEasterly at 0600H veering Eastwards by 1500H. Nighta are frequently calm from Nov. To March one out of three being still.

100

400

Rainfall in mm

350

0600H

300

250

200

1500

150

100

Relative Humidity (%)

0 N.E E N.E N.E N.E E N.E N.E N.E N.E E N.E E N.E E

E N.E E

Lodwar is the driest town in Kenya. Annual means 0

Temp. Max 34.9 C 0 Min 23.7 C 0 Range 11.2 C Humidity 06.00 H 15.00 H Rainfall

65% 35%

165 mm.

1 1900 2

6.0 6.5 6.5 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.0 E

E N.E N.E N.E E

N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E N.E E

N.E N.E N.E

J F M AM J J A S O N D

This climatic zone comprises of a belt of land east of Lake Turkana into the Chalbi desert. The area is characterized by high diurnal temperature range, low relative humidity, cloudless skies, and frequent haze and dust storms. The terrain is made of rugged hills and rocky outcrops and susceptible to wind erosion. The soil is barren due to the high calcium carbonate and phosphate content making it infertile not suitable to support any vegetation forcing the communities in this region to depend entirely on the lake for sustenance and others to move from one place to another in search of grasslands for their animals. Charles Hooper, in his housing research, narrated design strategies that can be applied in different regions in Kenya. This study looks at hot and dry climate of lake Turkana region. 3.7.2.1 Climate

Rainfall

2.5 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.5 4.5 4.5 3.0 2.0

Wind Speed In m per sec

3.7.2 Environmental Design Strategies that Affect Built Form In Hot and Dry Climate of Lake Turkana Region

Temperatures in lake Turkana region are very high during the day and at night with an annual mean max of 33.5-350C. The afternoon temperature frequently exceeds 350C with high night temp usually 0 keeping well above 20 C. Temperatures are at least severe between June and August, when the cloud cover can be expected to lessen the impact of solar radiation. Humidity in this region are the lowest.(Hooper, 1975) Hooper 1975, states that the region around the lake Turkana is the driest zone in Kenya due to the rain shadow effect formed by the rift valley. Although the rainfall is low, violent but generally shortlived, storms do occasionally occur during the afternoon. The mean annual rainfall varies from 165mm to 393mm per annum.

1 1500 2

40 °C

Table 3.1 Climatic data of hot and dry zone in Lodwar Town, Lake Turkana region, Source: Hooper, 1975

100 mm

38 °C 38 °C

30 km/h

37 °C 36 °C

36 °C 36 °C

35 °C

36 °C 25 km/h

34 °C 34 °C 34 °C

35 °C

Precipitation

75 mm

Mean daily maximum

20 km/h

Hot days

30 °C

Fig 3:32

Average Temperatures and Precipitation In Loiyangalani The solid red line shows the maximum temperature of an average day for every month for Loiyangalani. The solid blue line shows the average minimum temperature. The dashed red and blue lines show the average of the hottest day and coldest night of each month of the last 30 years Source: meteoblue, 2017

50 mm

15 km/h

Mean daily minimum

24 °C 24 °C

25 °C

23 °C

23 °C 23 °C

22 °C 22 °C

23 °C 22 °C 22 °C

10 km/h

22 °C 22 °C

Cold nights

25 mm 20 °C

5 km/h

Wind speed 15 °C

0 mm Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

0 km/h

Dec

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_24

3.7.2.2 Site Planning Most settlements are located close to place of work, market, schools and other community facilities so as to keep the distance to minimum. This is evident in Loiyangalani town where settlements are located along the major roads. Compact layout are advised in this region of Lake Turkana to help shield from the erce sun. Compact planning minimizes solar exposure of individual houses and as a result, modies solar exposure of individual houses by providing mutual shading and reducing the external surface area. The staggered planning especially that with an oblique angle to the prevailing winds maximizes on natural ventilation and also it reduces the re-circulation of wind at the back of each house. (Moore 1993). Moore argues that, in staggered alignment, buildings in front raw do not directly block the wind towards the next raw, however, using the linear alignment will create a wind shadow which result from the low pressure areas at the back of each house. (Moore, 1993 pg 180) Having the alignment staggered at an angle to the prevailing winds presents the best results. Narrow streets Built form

Courtyard

Fig 3.33 Cluster based planning Source: Author 2017

Induced ventilation can also be an effective technique in hot and dry climate. Temperature difference is created through heating a restricted area causing hot air to rise and escape drawing in cooler air hence cooling.. Wind owing over a curved can also be used to create pressure difference. Air can be sucked out of the structure through the vent forcing air in . Likewise, Evaporative cooling can be used to enhance cooling. A pool of water can be used to cool air drawn into the living spaces.

3.7.2.3 Structure and Material Heavy structure has high thermal storage capacity that can modify and delay the impact of solar radiations and high daytime temperatures on interior spaces. However, if the heavy structure is not cooled at night, it will be ineffectual in favourably modifying indoor conditions. Walls and roofs should be reective to short wave radiation so as to minimize the heat gain from the sun during the day but emmissive to long wave radiations so as to maximize the heat loss. Reective external surfaces are particularly advantagious as unlike thermal mass and thermal insulation. They effectively lower the mean temperatures of the structure and thereby reduce indoor temperatures during the night as well as the day.

3.7.2.4 Human Comfort Fig 3.34 Built structures in Layeni Village In Layeni, four common materials are used for their built forms. They include: thatch, mud, stones which are all readily available in the region and nally iron sheets, new exotic material used for roong and door leaf. Source: Author 2017

The days are invariably very hot and nights frequently unpleasantly warm. The high daytime temperature are accompanied by moderate to low humidity such that even gently breeze will usually sufcient to prevent skin surface from becoming moist. This not only eliminates the discomfort due to moist skin itself, but also ensures that the body can efciently loose heat by means of evaporative cooling. It is essential for a building to provide protection from day time heat and to a lesser extent, glare, while allowing for maximum loss of heat at night. Majority of people have a natural desire to spend much of their day outside but in the shade. BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_25

3.7.2.5 Trees and Plants

Fig 3.35: Trees, hedges and plants in an arid context can have a dramatic effect on the microclimate and help to tie down sand and dust (Gut,1993).Trees can also be used to channel cool breeze. Source: Author 2017

Vegetation in this region are more difcult to establish in this zone because of the high salt content of the soil, leaving the character of the land to be barren. In hot and dry climate, Hooper (1975) argues that planting trees and shrubs in the hot and arid climate could be benecial in multiple ways such as providing shade, absorbing radiation, lter dust, stabilize soils beside bringing visual relief to a gray and stark environment. Vegetation and water bodies have a crucial role in modulating the microclimate around the built form. Soft scape aid in reducing ground radiation while special types of trees cool the immediate setting of the house through evaporative cooling. Trees provide buffer to sun’s heat, noise and purifying the air against pollution. The surface of water bodies evaporate moderating the air temperature and creating a cooling effect on the surrounding. (Gut,1993).

3.7.2.6 Orientation In hot regions, solar radiation and hot dusty wind should be avoided. Buildings should be appropriately oriented to control the amount of solar radiation and winds entering the building. According to Gut (1993), The sun’s orientation is inuenced by the amount of solar radiation falling on different sides at different times. He states that, “buildings are best arranged in clusters for heat absorption, shading opportunities and protection from east west sun.” Keep in mind, the end goal is to accomplish the most satisfactory appropriation of heat gain and loss in all seasons, thus, optimum orientation should be determined.

NORTH

20 0

Fig 3.36: Trees and shrubs are a very effective means of improving the climate on a larger scale. They are the simplest way of shading outdoor space and buildings.(Gut,1993). Source: Author 2017

Fig 3.37: It has been found that the optimum orientation is within 20 degrees either side of north. A building oriented outside this range loses the benets of winter sun. Source: Gut, 1993, Author Modied, 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_26

3.7.2.7 Solar Radiation All matter emits electromagnetic waves which are generated by the thermal motion of molecules composing the material. Such radiation is called thermal radiation. The intensity and wavelength distribution of this radiation depend on the nature and temperature of the material. A perfectly opaque material with a totally absorbing and therefore totally nonreecting surface, which is usually called a black body, emits radiation at the maximum possible rate for any given temperature. This black body is a convenient concept used as an idealized standard, but which should not be confused with an actual object with a blackcolored surface. For such an object, the rate of radiation emission depends only on the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

Fig 3.38: Reducing Ground Radiation using Vegetation cover. The geometry of the dome help reduce ground radiation due to their large surface area to volume ratio. Source: Author 2017

As the temperature of the radiating object increases, the wavelength of maximum radiation intensity becomes shorter, and the distribution changes so that a greater proportion of the energy is radiated at shorter wavelengths (i.e., with higher energy). At temperatures below about 500 °C (about 900 °F), the emission consists almost entirely of wavelengths too long to be observed as light. At about 700 °C (about 1300 °F), the object glows with a dull red color. As the temperature increases further, the wavelength of maximum emission decreases, and the color shifts successively to bright red, yellow, and white. (Fathy, 1986) The energy emitted by a radiating body ultimately impinges on other matter, which absorbs it, reconverting the energy into heat. In this way heat is transferred from one place to another by radiation. The amount of radiant energy on buildings varies from time to time depending on the geographical location, buildings orientation, season, time of day and the atmospheric conditions. (Bansal and Minke, 1988). In order to maximize comfort and lower the indoor environment fro hot and dry climates, solar radiation is generally undesirable. The form and geometry have direct contact relationship with regards to the surface area exposed to solar radiation and the volume enclosed. This parameter is called Surface Area/ Volume Ratio (s/v), according to Minke (1988) , shows that the Energy Performance Index (EPI) of circular buildings is the lowest in comparison to other building forms because of their small surface area to volume ratio.

Fig 3.39: The N.E. bay of South Island. “Thermal insulation is important to suppress surface temperature variations. External colors are required as a combination of high reectivity of solar radiation and high emissivity of infrared radiation to the cool sky at night: white, non-shiny surfaces, avoid all dark colored surfaces. White paint has a high reection ratio on sun exposed surfaces.” (Gut, 1993) Source: Author 2017

Rapoport (1969) points out different ways in which to avoid solar radiation. Firstly; is to use of small openings with shutters to control the amount of heat that gets absorbed in the building. Second; is to protect the building against ground radiation which can be a major source of glare and heat. To prevent this, he argues that the openings should be placed high and the arcade should be shaded all around the house.

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_27

3.7.2.8 Air Temperature Built form Narrow streets

Courtyard

Fig 3.40: Cluster based planning ( Author 2017)

The hot and dry area is characterized by high daytime temperatures of 38 C-45 C and uncomfortably low nighttime temperatures of 16oC to 23oC. Comfort is achieved by preventing heat gain during the day and radiation heat stored by thermal heat sink during the night. This can be achieved by: 1. Cluster based planning- The compact structure and form protects the external public spaces and internal private spaces against solar radiation, glare and hot dusty winds. According to Rapoport, A. (1969), mutual crowding by compacting building geometry provides maximum volume with limited surface area exposed to heat. The geometry provide shading and also due to the increased building mass, the time lag also increases keeping the interiors and the shaded streets cool. 2. Thermal Mass- Heat storage effect on wall is largely determined by the thickness of the wall, the type of material and the color of the external surface. The Lake Turkana region has abundance of volcanic rocks that can be integrated into the built form to provide heat sink effect, that is, absorbs heat during the day and re-radiates it during the night. The time delay due to thermal mass is referred to as time lag. Thermal mass also contributes in delaying the load ď&#x20AC;&#x201A;uctuation created by rapid the high daytime temperature followed by the uncomfortably low nighttime temperatures.

3.7.2.9 House Plan

Vegetation

Most of the activities happen outside such as working, eating and at times sleeping. Adding enclosed courtyards can be highly appropriate especially in modifying the microclimate by reducing temperatures, particularly if the courts contain some form of planting by setting up connective currents that increase air circulation and encourage cool air to sink into the courts and as by acting as a buffer against hot, sand and dust laden, winds. The courtyard also provides the privacy and security that is essential for some domestic activities. For courtyards to perform, and able to control climate effectively, they should be limited in size. Larger ones should be divided into smaller courts, otherwise it will e difď&#x20AC; cult to shade and which might be subject to gust of wind that are likely to raise up sand and dust within it.

Built forms Prevailing Winds

Fig 3.41: Cluster based planning, trees used to modify the microclimate and to further enclosed the small courts for ourdoor activities. Source:( Author 2017) BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_28

3.7.2.10 Geometry and Shape The roof and wall constitute major parts of building envelope, that is exposed to large amounts of direct radiation. The design of these building components play a major role in modifying heat ow. The shape of the roof in hot and arid regions is determined by environmental forces such as precipitation, solar impact and the prevailing winds and also forces due to use and utilization pattern. Flat roofs are common in this region. They outdoor living spaces during the day when the interior of the is uncomfortable. During warm nights, they would act as sleeping areas. The parapet wall along the edge of the roof provide day time shade. Flat roof

Fig 3.42 Vernacular El Molo Hut Source: Author, 2017

Interior

Interior Courtyard

Fig 3.45 Typical Egyptian house, built prior to 3000BC, Source: Paul Gut,1993 Author modied, 2017

Fig 3.43 Tilamari Village, Loiyangalani Source: Author, 2017

Thatch Pole

Brances

Air

gap

Mud

Ahmad and Gadi (2003) did a study analysis on the effects of geometric shapes in regards to minimizing solar radiation. They used two shapes with same base area ratio of 1:1. They then found that different geometric shapes have different capacity to receive solar energy on basis of their geometrical characteristics. According to their results, geometries with circular shapes received the lowest amount of solar insolation followed by the square shape. The solar insolation collected on a curved roof is lower than that of at roof in hot and arid climates (Ahmad and Gadi, 2003). The material used on the dome shaped roof have great effect on the performance of the roof. The dome shape is the dominant form for the El Molo community and other neighboring communities in the Lake Turkana region, although not as effective because of the palm leaves used as surface material. During the day, heat is rapidly gained making indoors extremely uncomfortable due to short time lag of the material. Double roof can be an object of discussion when designing for comfort especially in hot and dry climate. The roof technique is used by the Massa of the Cameroon to mitigate against heat gain during te day and heat loss in cold nights. According to Rapoport A. (1969), the roof is an effective combination of both thatch and mud. Thatch protects the mud against heat buildup from the hot sun. The air space provides heat insulation during the hot days while the mud acts as thermal mass conserving heat to be used for cold nights.

Fig 3.44 Double Roong Source: Rapoport (1969). , Author modied, 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_29

3.7.2.11 Earth Coupling The Earth is a massive heat sink and has been used by primitive man since time immemorial to achieve passive cooling. The Matmata village located in southern Tunisia in the Sahara are known for their underground villages as shown in g 2.54. Their residents live in the ground to shade themselves from the desert heat. Below ground, the temperatures are cooler than at the surface. A typical village is created by digging a large pit in the ground. Around its perimeter, articial caves are dug and used as habitable spaces. On the lower level, white substance is painted around the perimeter to reect the ground heat, reducing the amount of heat absorption. The cool ground helps keep the temperature of the internal living space down, protects against glare and the hot dusty winds. Below the ground, the temperature is constant. The indoor climate of buildings benets from the huge thermal mass (the thick layer of soil) of the adjacent ground. The temperature below ground reduces rapidly with increase in depth from the earth surface. (Gut, 1993) Lighting provision might pose a challenge, hence the need for courtyards. Courtyard- The water feature helps create a micro-climate effect

EARTH

Fig 3.46 Matmata village, Tunisia Source: Pietro Izzo, 2014

Interior

Fig 3.48 Section through an underground dwelling, Source: Author, 2017

Retaining Wall

3.7.2.12 Structure and Material EARTH INT

Re-radiating Heat in cold season

EARTH INT

Heat Absorption in hot season

Fig 3.47: Earth Berming can also be used in hot and dry climate to prevent heat gain but also to help keep the interiors warm In cold nights. Source: Author Modied

Heavy structure has high thermal storage capacity that can modify and delay the impact of solar radiations and high daytime temperatures on interior spaces. However, if the heavy structure is not cooled at night, it will be ineffectual in favourably modifying indoor conditions. Walls and roofs should be reective to short wave radiation so as to minimize the heat gain from the sun during the day but emmissive to long wave radiations so as to maximize the heat loss. Reective external surfaces are particularly advantagious as unlike thermal mass and thermal insulation. They effectively lower the mean temperatures of the structure and thereby reduce indoor temperatures during the night as well as the day. BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_30

3.7.2.13 Humidity A

Desert climates are characterized by low humidity in the air. Passive cooling can be improved by creating shaded areas, reection of solar radiation, reduction of internal heat gains and increased ventilation. Thermal comfort can be created by increasing air speed through cross ventilation. (Rosenlund, 2000). Evaporative cooling is the most preferred technique in hot and dry climate where outdoor air is cooled by evaporating water before it is introduced in the building. Its physical principle lies in the fact that sensible heat of air is used to evaporate water thus cooling the air, which cools the living spaces.

3.7.2.14 Openings Fig 3.50 Cross ventilation in relation to wall openings A High inlet and outlet - bad air movement at body level. B Low inlet and outlet - good cooling air movement pattern C Low inlet and high outlet- low level wind pattern. D The airow at ceiling height produced by a high inlet is hardly affected by an outlet at low level. E Projected shading devices produce upward airow in room. F Slot between wall & shade results in a more direct air ow

Source: Rosenlund, 2000

In hot and dry climates, their size and placement becomes important in order to keep heat gain to minimum and to allow for natural lighting. Rosenlund 2000, argues that openings play a crucial role in enhancing air movement and cross ventilation as shown in g 2.57. The placement of window openings should be in relation to the prevailing cool breeze allowing natural ow of air in the building driving out excess heat. Gut (1993) talks of various ways openings can be used to achieving passive cooling: Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ

Outlet openings ought to be situated at the highest level where hot air accumulates. The positioning of the opening should be high up to protect against ground radiation. Internally reected light should be used to protect from glare and direct light as shown in gure 2.58 Louvers should be set in an upward position towards the ceilings to channel internal draft.

During the day hours, openings must provide house interiors with light and some ventilation while excluding direct sunlight preventing excessive glare and in certain circumstances limiting the entry of sun and dust. During the night, openings in thick walled day rooms must provide ventilation that is sufcient to thoroughly cool the massive wall before day break. Wooden shutters are more preferred since when closed they exclude direct sunlight from interiors and provide a degree of thermal insulation

Native doum palm plants locally found in the Desert Oasis Town of Loiyangalani Low pressure zone creating a draft effect allowing cool air in High thermal mass Land scape and soft scape in/around the built form prevents ground radiation, creates shading and evaporative cooling and adds visual quality of the space Water body for evaporative cooling of the hot desert air

Fig 3.51 Indirect natural light Source: Gut,1993

Fig 3.52: Passive cooling in Hot & Dry climates Source: Author, Nov 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_31

3.8 Winds

Prevailing wind as an environmental force of nature has to some extent help modify and shape natural environment and built forms. (Rapoport A, 1969). In hot and arid region of Lake Turkana, the wind looked as an undesirable force. Communities in this region design their vernacular forms to have minimum resistance or having wind breakers to control the winds. According to Givoni B (1981), aridity in Africa is as a result of the trade winds blowing southwest and northwest towards the equator as shown in g 2.61 below.

Mt. Kulal

Tropic of Cancer

Equator

Tropic of Capricorn

Mt. Ng’iro

Fig 3.53 Wind Pattern In Lake Turkana Region. Source: Author Modied, 2017

Fig 3.54 Hot and Arid Climate Source: Köppen climate classication, Author Modied, 2017

Bsh- Hot semi-arid climates Bsk- Cold semi-arid climates

Trade winds (Northeasterly) Westerlies Trade winds(Southeasterly)

“Loiyangalani area has unique geographical conditions in which daily temperature uctuations generate strong predictable wind streams between Lake Turkana (with relatively constant temperature) and the Desert hinterland (with steep temperature uctuations). The Lake Turkana Wind Power Project (LTWP) area between Mt Kulal and Mt. Nyiru effectively acts as a funnel whereby the wind streams are accelerated to speeds up to 15m/s and a constant average of 11m/s. The winds are generated by a low level jet called the Turkana Channel jet. The jet stream (discovered in 1981 by J. Kinuthia of the Kenyan Meteorological Department), is caused by the much larger East African low level jet. The Turkana Channel jet blows all year round from the south east through the valley between the East African and the Ethiopian Highlands stretching from the ocean to the deserts in Sudan. The wind is accelerated locally between Mt. Kulal (2,300m asl) and the Mt Ng’iro Range (2,750m asl) as shown in g 2.60. Due to thermal effects, the wind slows down during midday and is at full force during the night.“ ‘ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT SUMMARY REPORT DATED NOVEMBER, 2011’ BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_32

2.8.2 Effects of Wind on Built form

The need for comfort leads to either encouraging or discouraging wind. In arid regions, the winds are hot, stormy and carry dust particles collected in their path. Amos Rapoport looks at the life of the Eskimo and how their built form (igloo) adapt successfully to the extreme polar winds. Prevailing wind are mainly North-East and South-East trade winds that are modied by landsea breezes during the day and, to a much lesser extent, by sea-land breezes at night. Land-sea breezes which build up at about 1000 hours range at 1 to 2 m/s, while land-sea breezes only amount to between 4 or 15 m/s.

NE NE

18 NE NE

Fig 3.57 Cross-section of Netsilingmiut igloo Source: Heinrich W. Klutschak Collection (1880) LOCATION: LODWAR ZONE: SEMI-DESERT MONTH: APRIL 1/2-5 M/Sec 5-10 M/Sec Over 10 M/Sec 0

Frequency

Calm

Fig 3.55: WINDROSES AT 3 HOURLY INTERVALS Prevailing wind are mainly N-E (North easterlies) and S-E (South easterlies) trade winds.

The Igloos were sited on the Lee ward side of the cliff facing the sea, which was their main source of food. The entrance to the Igloo is through a tunnel which is curved to keep out wind. Built form just like any object always obstruct the wind. Smooth surface have to low resistance to wind and minimum surface area exposed to volume enclosed. (Rapoport ,1969) The dome shaped form and porous nature of El Molo hut provides less resistance to the prevailing winds and allows for controlled cross ventilation.

Source: , Hooper,1975, Author Modied, December 2017

Fig 3.56: Aerodynamic principles of the built form provide a comfortable breeze. Figure showing the aerodynamic principles that provide a comfortable breeze to circular form of a building. The positive and negative signs indicate the regions of pressure build-up and deciency, respectively. A detailed analysis of the aerodynamic lines of air movement is important when applying scientic principles to optimal thermal comfort. The airow over and around the building produces a zone of low pressure on the leeward side. This ensures steady airow due to suction through the small openings. Source: Author Modied, 2017

Prevailing Winds

Pressure buildup

Pressure deﬁciency

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_33

Prevailing Winds

Settlement pattern

Built form

Gut (1993), in his piece ‘Climate Responsive Building’ narrates the importance of designing with winds in mind. He argues that Built form should be designed to achieve physiological and psychological comfort requirements. Settlements have to be properly oriented regarding prevailing winds. Evaporative cooling on the other hand should be incorporated in the design and use of vegetation and landscape to act as wind breakers from the hot, dusty winds of the desert. He also notes the use of wind catchers (see g 2.66) especially in the middle east countries, to ventilate and cool buildings in hot and dry regions.

2.8.1 Wind Catcher in Desert Climate

Fig 3.58: The layout form of Layeni settlement The staggered alignment of the built form in this settlement allows the prevailing wind to effectively ventilate the built forms naturally and it also minimizes on the wind shadow effect. Source: Author, 2017

Wind in hot and dry climate has been used for cooling over the years. The towers are meant to catch wind at higher elevations and direct it to the interiors. The design of the towers is such that the opening faces the direction of the wind. This system has been used predominantly in the middle east countries for natural ventilation and passive cooling. The general principle of how it works lies on the temperature change causing pressure difference. The air around the tower is heated up creating a draft, pulling air upwards through the tower. This draft creates a pressure difference causing cool air to be drawn in. This way, the wind catcher acts as a chimney. In wind prone region like that of Lake Turkana, the wind catchers will use the direct ow of wind to cool the interiors. The open side faces the wind directly thus catching it. The success of the tower design can be accomplished by modifying the tower heights, cross section of the air ow, size and number of openings, and nally the location of the wind tower with regard to the living space to be cooled. The wind catcher can be uni-directional receiving winds only from one direction, bi-directional or multi-directional. Air is pushed down the shaft and into the building. At the base of the tower is a pool of water provided by aqueducts called qanat, over which the air is allowed to pass. As the warm air passes over the surface of the water, the air cools through evaporative cooling. At night, cold air is sucked into the house thereby cooling it naturally.

Fig 3.59 A water reservoir with a wind catcher in Yazd, Iran Source: Amusingplanet, 2014 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_34

3.9 Forces due to Building Materials and Construction Technology Vernacular built form in this region presents informative examples of sustainable solutions to building problems, yet this solutions are thought to be inapplicable to modern buildings. (Mamum and Rahat, 2015). This primitive buildings (Traditional Hut) shows strong understanding of natural environment where they belong, structural precision and material integrity. Frank L. Wright, a pioneer of modern architecture, talks about organic architecture, a design language that creates buildings as an extension of the environment and that their three dimensional form should depend upon the properties of materials. Vernacular cultures exhibit the art of perfection when it comes to their craft (dressing, decorations, music, architecture and even cuisine). Their understanding of locally available materials, the limitations of site, climate and environment, is interpreted into their built forms that makes them suitable for their region. Piano (2001), demonstrates this using Kanak culture in Tijibou Cultural Centre. Fig 3.60 Traditional Kanak Huts The architectural style was derived from traditional constructional techniques. Initial studies by piano analyzed the Kanak vernacular architecture. The Kanak traditional hut is most notable for its high conical roof made of wattle and thatch. Source: Conciega 2004

Piano (2010) uses Tjibaou Cultural Center as a traditional sensitive building (see Fig 2.69) that shows integration of balance between traditional and modern cultures. The architectural style was derived from traditional built forms and the construction techniques. Initially, Piano analysed the Kanak vernacular architecture. Their built forms was known for their high conical roof made of wattle and thatch(see g 2.67). Steep pitched roof like the one depicted in g provide protection from heavy New Zealand rains. (Conciega, 2004). Reed and timber were adopted into the expressive woven silos which are iconic passive design. The high roof allows for an emulation of the cooling passive systems that act much like the stack effect in chimneys. This gave the area its character. (Sekler,1963). According to Rapoport (1969), vernacular built form are limited to organic materials such as timber and twisted vegetable bers which presents challenges of technology that considerably affect the form but then he than add that this factor does not determine the form but only modies it. (Rapoport, 1969). To achieve an Integration of modern and traditional qualities in architecture a gap must be bridged. He surmises that the essential architectural manifestation of a people is important to guring out what makes them unique as a people. The traditional and primitive architecture of a group sets them apart from their fellow humans and unies them around shared principles, beliefs and practices. Celebrating this common social denominator in architecture via the re-invention of symbols and materials, helps accommodate the vernacular spirit into the modern architectural world, effectively giving the soul back to architecture.

Fig 3.61 The technical detail and perspective of the curving stave wall and wattle lattice The Jean Marie Tijibou Centre utilizes laminated glue timber rafters that adopts a curvilinear arch rising vertically. This shape is held mechanically with pivot joints (g 2.69) to accommodate bending as generated by wind loads. The joins are bolted to a hardcore concrete foundation. Source: www.vitruvius.com.br/revistas 02/2011

Fig 3.62 A series of Images of Tjibaou Cultural Center: Traditional vs Modern interpretation, Source: Archdaily, 2018 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_35

3.9.1 Impact of Building Materials on Built form With the increasing use of new industrial materials and construction technologies in Loiyangalani by the local dwellers, poses a risk of dissemination of their construction heritage. The dwellings are built with mechanically crafted stones, new roofs with corrugated iron sheet (mabati) (as shown in g 2.71) that shows poor architecture since little building practice is transferred from local vernacular craft skills. This industrial materials according to Montanar (2001), have low thermal resistance, making buildings vulnerable to outdoor temperature uctuations thus high dependence on air conditioning systems.

Fig 3.63 El Molo Vernacular built form (hut). Building materials used in the traditional construction broadly correspond to the region in terms of climate and the traditional technology known to them. Source: www.shutterstock.com, Author Modied, Nov 2017

Nature has provided materials for construction. This materials need less processing, shipping, environmental and economic costs are low. They give the building a sense of belonging. (Bande et al, 1378). Materials originating from the same region have greater adaptability, economy and are durable. (Singh et al, 2011). Berge (2009) as cited by Fernandes in “The potential of vernacular materials to the sustainable building design” notes that materials of natural origin have low toxicity hence less effect on human health, no volatile compounds, and some of them capable of regulation the temperature and indoor air quality. “Supporting sustainable local development means also preserving a cultural heritage of construction knowledge inherent to regions.” (Fernandes, 2014) “Primitive buildings for example, that of the El Molo people in the Lake region are able to conserve their materials since they have denite and exact knowledge of the behavior and characteristics of materials, not just in terms of climatic response and construction, but also in regard to weathering (how the material and building fabric will stand up to the ravages of time and weather.) This understanding prompts an unmistakable and direct solutions to the problems posed by gravity and weathering.” (Rapoport, 1969) Rapoport, discusses various material factors that have impact on modifying the vernacular built form. Process of Construction: The process normally consist of stages where members of the community help in the task of building. The rst stage is site selection and preparation. Materials are gathered usually by the men and then brought to site. The second stage according to Amos is the actual building of the house till completion. Rituals and religious practices are celebrated before the family moves in so as to devoid the house from evil spirits.

Fig 3.64 El Molo Modern Built form The environmental and economic cost incurred by introducing new construction materials is quite high especially when the material is not adapted for that region. Source: Author, August 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_36

Choice of Material : The type of form structure is determined by the type and choice of building materials. (Rapoport, 1969) With scanty and limited materials, primitive architects according to Fitch and Branch (1960), have been able to build more wisely responding to the climate and culture of their region. As previously stated in this chapter (pg), his buildings has had to cope with the natural forces of gravity, wind, heat, oods and snow.

Social and economic advantages : Fotwe and Prince (2009) divided the process of building into three levels in the sense that this stages dened a set of social parameters that ought to be considered for enhancing sustainable built environment. This includes the macro level which involves urban design, micro level which involves scaling down to the built form and nally the material level. A sustainable built environment according to Fernandes (2014), ensures the well being of the community, their safety, employment, education and training skills and nally aims to conserve the culture/heritage of the region. In this sense, locally produced materials are economically cheaper to produce, ensure the community get job opportunities in construction areas. The workers get proper education and training on vernacular building systems improving their workmanship and nally it allows the preservation of local heritage and cultural legacy. (Suiya 2007) Another advantage is reduced pollution when using locally available materials(Berge, 2009) Fig 3.65: Lesirau’s new house under construction (now nished). He has introduced new building materials such as the corrugated iron sheets, not adapted to hot and dry climate of the region, but he has also integrated traditional method of construction onto the new built form. Source: Author, August 2017

Lateral Forces : The type and choice of building materials should be able to resist the fores of nature such as winds and earthquakes. Different construction techniques such as bracing and space frame should be incorporated into the design to make the structure rigid and able to resist winds. Forces due to climatic conditions, topography and extremity of exposure can lead to weathering, deteriorating the structure integrity of the material, therefore builders need to have a deep understanding of the local conditions. (Rapoport, 1969) Rapoport (1969) notes that materials should be selected with view to the impact of time and not just adequacy for structure or jointing.

Gravity:

Fig 2.73 Structural framework In Lolkilokwi’s Vernacular Built form Source: Author, December 2017

Load distribution in built form involves two components; the structural beams which span horizontally with a purpose is to collect and transfer load to the structural columns which then carries the load back to the ground where they can be resisted. (Rapoport, 1969). He notes that, these horizontal spanning elements and their character have major effect on the form. The materials used as structural members should have tensile strength in order to be effective in supporting the structure. “ Round dwellings form a skeleton covered by thatch and their walls woven like basket for greater rigidity.” (Rapoport, 1969 :130) BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_37

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK : BUILT FORM AND CULTURE RELIGIOUS FORCES

EL MOLO BUILT FORMS Oliver (1976), summarizes traditional architecture as a type of architecture that grows from inside of the societies and accommodates itself with social, technical and climate situations over time and faces revolution and is harmonious with values, economy and life style of its cultural roots. In this chapter, we identify the cultural construct that makes up the El Molo Vernacular built forms by looking at the forces that determine and modify them. They include:

ECONOMIC FORCES LIFESTYLE AND HEALTH

SOCIAL-CULTURAL FORCES

1. contextual forces aiming to tackle elements of regionalism 2. Socio-Cultural forces that shows the connection of people and their culture, and how their desires has helped shape the built environment around them. 3. The construction technology and building materials in the region which aims at providing sustainable solutions to building problems.

SYMBOLISM FAMILY STRUCTURE SPACE AND PLACE MAKING PLANNING CONCEPT FORM AND FUNCTION

SLOPE AND LANDSCAPE ORIENTATION

CONTEXTUAL FORCES

SPATIAL ORGANIZATION CLIMATE STRUCTURE AND MATERIALS TREES AND VEGETATION

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN IN VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE

PREVAILING WINDS

SHAPE AND GEOMETRY

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

OPENINGS BUILDING MATERIAL FOLK TECHNOLOGY SYMBOLISM

Table 3.2: Conceptual Framework Source: Author, 2018 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch02_38

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Research Methodology 4.1 Introduction This chapter seeks to outline various ways the author will take to achieving the goals and objectives set out in chapter one of the thesis. This chapter will describe the research method and process involved in carrying out the research. Research questions will be formulated to be the guiding principles towards answering how the research was carried out, how the data was analyzed and presented. To investigate the research problem, detailed case studies will be used to investigate the Vernacular El Molo Built forms, cultural inuence on built form, the environmental strategies employed and their building technology for each case studies.

North Island

Most of the data utilized in this study were derived from the sampled houses and their occupants. Other sources of the data were the key informants and documentary sources. The key informants were mainly elderly persons and women who are the local builders in El Molo community. In the initial stages of this study, literature review was undertaken. This was very helpful, particularly in the review of books and journals which illuminated the research drawback, and assisted in the design of an appropriate methodological approach for the study.

Alia bay

Cental Island

Moite

MARSABIT COUNTY

TURKANA COUNTY

Layeni Village Paulo Korangapa Is Koranguta Is

El Molo Loiyangalani

South Island Mt. Kulal

0 0

10 20

Miles 20 30 40 Km

40 60

50 80 Mt. Ny’iro

Fig 4.1: Lake Turkana:Unique for its turquoise color. Source: Neal Sobania,1988, Author Modied 2017

Fig 4.2: Lake Turkana:Unique for its turquoise color. Source: Neal Sobania,1988, Author Modied 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch03_40

4.2 Research Design

A research design according to Neuman (2003) can be characterized into three types:

Exploratory- This research approach seeks to develop a better insight regarding a specic aspect. Sanddhurzen (2000), argues that exploratory research, studies results in a range of causes and nds alternative options for a solution to that specic problem. Descriptive- This approach is usually structured to examine the characteristics depicted in research questions. (Neuman, 2003).

Explanatory- This research approach knows the issue and has depiction of the issue however help decide the features of the complex inter relationship that exists within the issues proposed in the Research questions. (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The main purpose is to identify the impact of culture and regional forces on El Molo built form in Lake Turkana region. This force as described in chapter two include socio cultural forces, environmental forces and material and construction technology. The ultimate goal is to nd alternative options for solution which in this case to re interpret traditional built form into contemporary architecture. This research adopts both a descriptive and exploratory approach since descriptive research helps to examine the factors that inuence built form while exploratory research approach assist in nding alternative options for a solution. Research design is normally discussed once the purpose of the research is established. The current study has used the ‘Onion’ model proposed by Saunders et al (2003). The research design contains ve various layers as per onion research process.

LAKE TURKANA REGION

Layer

Approach

Research Philosophy

Positivism, Interpretivism, Realism

Research Approaches

Deductive, In-deductive

Research Strategies

Experiment, Survey, Case study, Grounded theory, Ethnography, Action research

Time Horizon

Cross sectional, Longitudinal

Data collection methods

Sampling, Secondary data, Observation, Interviews, Questionnaire

Table 4.1 Onion Research Model Source: Adopted from Sanunders et al (2003) [83], November 29 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch03_41

4.3 Research Philosophy Research philosophy deals with the source, nature and development of knowledge. (Bajpai (2011). This research holds fast to the tenet of positivism, as it directs the research philosophy approach, where only factual knowledge gained through observation (the senses), including measurements is trust worthy. The research is limited to data collection and interpretation through objective approach and research ndings are usually observable and quantiable.

4.4 Research Strategy This research focuses on multiple case studies approach. Four built forms were chosen for the study all in Layeni Village.

Fig 4.3 Images showing a group of El Molo women in their outdoor space. Source: Hutton, (1973)

1. Layeni Village, in El Molo bay: Rural zone with vernacular built form. 2. Loiyangalani, an Oasis in the Chalbi desert: A more urban zone. 3. The Desert Museum The case study method looks at the traditional built forms, spatial layout, environmental forces and the material aspect with detailed analysis of each carried out. All cases are in the same climatic zone of hot and arid region of Lake Turkana. This approach provides the best opportunity for contrasting and comparing similarities or differences. The research method will adopt three approach: 1. Find out what exist in the eld: -Establishing the design strategies adopted that has determined and inuenced their built forms. 2. Find out what is needed: -Determining the architectural interventions that can be made to better the existing conditions. 3. Making recommendations: -After carefully study and analysis of the areas, appropriate recommendations are made. This proposal offer design guidelines for professionals in the building industry

4.5 Time horizon Fig 4.4 El Molo Worrior Source: Hutton, (1973)

Fig 4.5: El Molo woman and her children. Source: Hutton, (1973)

A cross-sectional form of study was used in this research, and different variables observed. The study area is in El Molo bay and Loiyangalani town with specic cases selected at random. This enables comparative study.

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch03_42

4.6 Sampling Technique There are various types of sampling techniques according to Saunders et al, (2003). They brieď&#x20AC;&#x201A;y include: 1. Random sampling- This sample model gives every respondent an opportunity to be selected. 2. Systematic sampling- This method involves in selecting the sample at regular intervals from the sampling frame. 3. Stratiď&#x20AC; ed sampling- This method, the researcher divides population into separate groups. Probability samples are then drawn from each group.

Fig 4.6 The character of the landscape in Layeni Village The hot and dry area is characterized by high daytime temperatures of 38oC-45oC and uncomfortably low nighttime temperatures of 16oC to 23oC. Source: Maria Nene, Aug 27 2014

For this research, the author considered the Purposive sampling method as the most appropriate towards saving cost and time. Samples are chosen from the subset of individuals of the entire population by relying on the judgement of the researcher. According to Saunders et al, (2003), this method is used as the selection procedure takes place through measuring several technical features which makes to select suitable sample for the study. Layeni village and Loiyangalani town are selected as study areas, and also to represent the entire El Molo community. Layeni for instance, has the highest concentration of El Molo vernacular built form, and the indigenous community is still rich in social cultural values. There is also a clear indication of change in their built form. Different typology are being developed with different construction technology and building materials used. The Lake Turkana region in Marsabit County was selected as it experiences the extreme hot and dry climate which is one of the focus for this study. The area is also dominated with pastoral and nomadic communities that are deeply rooted in culture including the El Molo community.

Fig 4.7 LTWP: Accommodation and Control Center Newly constructed (now completed) Lake Turkana Wind Power Project- Accommodation & Control center The hot and dry area is characterized by high daytime temperatures of 38oC-45oC and uncomfortably low nighttime temperatures of 16oC to 23oC. Source: Maria Nene, Aug 27 2014 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch03_43

4.7 Data Collection Methods Case study method was used to carry out the research and collecting data. It enables the researcher to closely examine the data within a specic context, usually by selecting a small geographical area of study. The purpose is to explore and investigate contemporary and real-life phenomenon through detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of event or conditions.(Yin 1984). The research sort to center mainly on the architectural aspect of the community. A comparative case study approach will be used to compare certain features of the El Molo vernacular built forms. As a result, data was collected towards illuminating the set parameters for the study within the research which were mainly: Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ

Space and Place making Form and Function Tectonic Form Qualities Symbolism:- Context, privacy, defense, artifacts, religion, social interaction, lifestyle, family and clan structure, Planning Concept Visual and Tactile Qualities Environmental Response Materials & Building Technology

All this were presume to affect and inuence the built form language in this region including thermal comfort due to hot and dry climate, natural lighting and ventilation. As such, data was collected through the following methods: Fig 4.8 A group of El Molo Women. Source: Hutton, 1973

Observation: Primary data was collected through the observations made in the study area. This was done through sketches (measured and annotated), photographs and measured drawings. Observation is aimed at gaining an understanding of the culture and behavioral patterns, spacial organization and the physical context of the area including climate and the impact it has on determining and modifying the built forms. The major strength of direct observation is that it is unobtrusive and does not require direct interaction with participants. (Adler and Adler, 1994) Observation supplements other methods and illuminates the discrepancies between what people said in the interviews and casual conversation and what they actually do. (Pettigrew, 1990). Observation is also used to determine the user comfort levels through gauging the pattern and behavior towards the environment.

Fig 4.9 elderly El Molo woman resting outside her home Source: Hutton, 1973 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch03_44

Photographs: Photo-elicited interviews have been identied as a way to bridge cognitive limitations as participants can use photographs to prompt their memory and show ‘while’ also ‘tell’. (Erdner and magnusson, 2011; Lorenze, 2011) All subject of study were captured in photographs and analyzed in sketches and computer generated models. Photographs were the major tool in capturing the existing situation in the areas of study. They were later used in the analysis of the information obtained from the eld.

Sketches and Measured drawings: Sketches and measures drawings were used as a major role in communication of ndings and observation in the course of the eld work and analysis. The offer a wide variety and exibility of presenting the ndings of the research. Plans, sections, elevations and three dimensional drawings of the different form language and typologies were sketched out to communicate information on areas and general layout, fenestration and general structure.

Interviews: The goal of the interviews is to see the research topics from the perspective of the interviewee and to understand why he or she has this particular perspective. Unstructured interviews were carried out on the locals to further the understanding of culture and built form of the El Molo’s. Open ended interviews encourage the interviewees to express their feelings, thoughts and beliefs. Fig 4.10: El Molo Woman with her craft products. Source: Eric Lafforgue, 2017

Fig 4.11: Section through Lekulo’s house. Source: Author, 2018

Fig 4.12: El Molo Settlement in Layeni village. Source: Author, 2018 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch03_45

BUILDING MATERIALS 1. Doum palm and Wattle saplings 2. Mud 3. Dry stone

4.8 Data Presentation and Analysis This consist of categorizing the data collected, examining, tabulating and recombining the qualitative and quantitative data to address the research questions. The major unit of analysis was the El Molo built forms in relation to their culture and physical context. The data was analyzed both physically and scientically. Physically, several variables were used to analyze the built forms which included the planning concepts, architectonics qualities, openings, material and building technology, form and function and cultural symbolism. Scientically monitored data of the built form temperatures and humidity and wind speed was analyzed and compared to the ambient outdoor temperatures, humidity and wind speed. A comparative analysis of the different built forms with regards to all the parameters studied was conducted to gauge the performance of all cases against each other. The analyzed data was presented in tables, photographs, architectural drawings and modied three dimensional images and visualization. Tabulation: Tables were used in the eld for collecting and presenting data collected scientically like thermal comfort levels. It also collect observable data like the interview data. Data tabulated provide comparisons in performance of the built forms with regards to the user comfort. Photographs: Photography has been the most widely used mode of communication in this study towards capturing and documenting parameters of the study such as shape, form and materials. Architectural Drawings: Measured replicated sketches to represent drawings of the subject study including plans, sections and elevations are used to present the ndings of the study in area of study. The plans give an indication of the buildings orientation, function and the openings. The sections show the quality of space, air movement, openings and their sizes and position and roof structure (cross-section).

Fig 4.13:

Modied three dimensional images and Visualization:

PHOTOGRAPH OF VARIOUS BUILDING MATERIALS USED IN THE SELECTED CASE STUDIES

This method is used to present the computer generated models of the built form types and analysis including form structure, openings and space planning. Additional software like the CorelDraw and Sketchup were used for simulations of building analysis.

Photography has been the most widely used mode of communication in this study towards capturing and documenting parameters of the study such as the roof details, building materials, form and structure etc.

Maps: These are used to give a clear indication of the location and orientation of the areas of study.

Source: Author, December 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch03_46

DATA ANALYSIS AND P R E S E N TAT I O N CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Data Presentation and Analysis

Fig 5.1, Section 1: The four El Molo shrines on Waak (Lorian) Island

5.1 Introduction This chapter focuses with the analysis of data collected during eld study carried out in Loiyangalani in the far west region of Marsabit county. The main goal of the research is to understand the relationship between the El Molo built forms and culture, but most importantly, to extract the essence of place from which they are found. This research places its emphasis on key variables from inferences made on the literature with regards to built form and culture. Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ

Fig 5.2, Section 2: An areal view showing Layeni village located in the edge of Lake Turkana.

Space and Place making Form and Function Planning Concepts Symbolism Environmental Response Material and Building technology

Fig 5.3, Section 3: The desert museum creates a link between culture and form as it was designed to mimic the surrounding landscape and applying traditional design knowledge and use of local materials

The explanatory nature of the research takes on a case study approach that has been identied as the main research strategy. The case study approach provides the best opportunity for contrasting and comparing Similarities and differences between each of the built forms selected in this region. The map in g 4.0 shows Layeni Village as the main case of investigation and various sections in the lake region namely: Section 1 - Layeni Village in El Molo Bay - Four Case Studies Section 2 - Lorian Island Section 3 - The Desert Museum Section 4 - Tilamari Village in Loiyangalani Fig 5.0

Fig 5.4, Section 4: Tilamari Village in Loiyangalani town, takes an interpretative attitude towards design. Architecture is seen more of an expression of local shapes and forms where culture is reduced to souvenir to lore tourist who visit the area. BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_48

5.2 Layeni Village at El Molo Bay The settlement is located near the south-east shores of Lake Turkana (see Fig 4.0) , in Loiyangalani, with a total population of approximately 500. In this section, three different homesteads were selected and analyzed on basis of:

1. The Built form language 2. The Building Material and Technology used 3. The Social Structure

5.2.1 The Structure of the Settlement The signicance of studying the settlement pattern of the El Molo village is to provide a reference of urban and rural construction in the future but also most importantly is to create an understanding of man’s relationship to his built environment. This means that their built forms should not be seen in isolation from the settlement but as part of the whole social and spatial system, that is, the house, the settlement, their way of life and even the adjacent landscape. This relationship can be explained in terms of social interaction of man, for instance, the meeting place in certain areas of the village is the house while in other areas, it is part of the settlement. The settlement consist of isolated homesteads with a few dispersed groupings of small compounds loosely dened. Access to the settlement is through the all weather Laisamis-South Horr road that connects the lake region to Marsabit town. The circular form is the most predominant in this settlement although rectilinear forms are attracting popularity. The two very different lines of architectural development converge and blends in this area: Ÿ Ÿ

The circular form with curved roof, thatched with doum palm leaves on the roof and the wall. The rectilinear form with pitched and gable roof that seem to have been assimilated to the traditional customs.

The settlement appears to pay very little attention to sun’s orientation or aspects that might contribute to maximum thermal comfort. The siting of the built forms does not follow any rational physical pattern either by way of grouping or following a form grid line. The houses are widely separated to allow free circulation of breeze. The space created in between this forms is used as shelter from the sun. Depending on the social and economic status of an individual, the homestead may have different congurations.

Fig 5.5: El Molo settlement in Layeni village Source: Author, December 2017

Fig 5.6 Circular Form Source: Author, December 2017

Fig 5.7: Rectangular Form Source: Author, December 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_49

5.2.2 The siting

Fig 5.8 A section of Layeni settlement indicating the orientation of built forms in relation to the prevailing winds and the lake. The image also shows the outdoor space which is used both as circulation and activity area. Source: Author, December 2017

Siting proves benecial to the residents due to close proximity to the lake and the building materials. The land slopes towards the lake as shown by the contours in gure 4.20, hiding the settlement from sight at the shore, providing the inhabitants with a virtually unobstructed view in all directions. This providing privacy and defense function for the community. The organic layout of dwellings are built close together to create circulation paths and shaded spaces in between. Young goats and sheep have some space reserved within the settlement during the night. There are few planted salvadora pesica plants, locally known as tooth brush tree, in different homesteads for beautication and some times used as building material. Most of the site is hard surface consisting of sand and rock sediments. This surface is treated as walkways. Due to the nature of the desert climate of the area, the hard surface has resulted to glare from overcast bright skies in the settlement. The main openings are exposed to direct sunshine and low rays in the late afternoon sun making the indoors uncomfortable during the day. The semi-compact planning approach adopted by the settlement with built forms spaced at 2m6m to each other, allows for air ow and also creates shaded spaces. The spaces created in between built forms is used as activity spaces for access, entertainment and ritual celebrations. The staggered planning allows the prevailing winds to effectively ventilate the interiors through the small pores in the structure of the built forms and also help create a cool microclimate outdoor. Lack of windows in most built forms hinders proper cross ventilation, but it also prevents stormy winds from entering the building. The settlement consist of irregular pedestrian routs that link each homestead as well as the communal spaces. Their built forms although appearing isolated, form the total setting for life as evident in their planning of homes and spatial distribution. The built forms are made up of differing combinations of components that will be analyzed in the chosen built forms. They include: Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ Ÿ

The plan form - The geometrical appearance of the built forms which involves the rectilinear and the circular buildings Space planning and Planning concepts Environmental qualities Visual and tactile qualities of the form - This revolves around the sensory perception experienced in the built forms. The shape and form of the roof - The type of roof structure used which includes pitched roof and curved roofs The building material - The most predominant material used is thatch from doum palm tree, stones that are collected nearby and earth. Architectonic qualities- The form structure is to a certain degree a play of different materials coming together and the craft work employed all to withstand th forces of nature. Symbolism in Layeni village

Fig 5.9 The lake is used for recreation and to cool from the desert heat. Source: Author, December 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_50

Lake Turkana

Lekulo’s Homestead_4

Lemotou’s Homestead_2

Lolkilokwi’s Homestead_1 Lesirau’s Homestead_3 N

Fig 5.10: Layeni Village. Source: Author, December 2017

Fig 5.11: Image showing the Siting, and to a degree, building form that are mainly the result of socio-cultural factors, which will be highlighted in the four selected cases namely: Lolkilokwis , Lemotou’s, Lesirau’s and Lekulo’s homestead respectively. Source: Author, December 2017

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_51

4.2.3 Adaptability to geographical conditions

Fig 5.12 Mt Nyiro

Fig 5.13

Fig 5.14 El Molo sacred shrines

Fig 5.15

The overall form of traditional settlements is generally restricted more by natural setting of the region. The area has distinct land structure and geological formation dened by the topography and climatic characteristics with a diverse cultural and historical background. This characteristics are principle factors in the formation of El- Molo built forms and settlement. The terrain appears broken consisting of valleys and cliffs which are frequent well distributed along the region sloping towards lake Turkana as shown in g 4.13 above. The lake has physical and social cultural characteristics that anchors the settlement. This includes the religious aspects, economic aspects and the believe that they came from the lake. The region is abundant of stones and the doum palm tree (see g 4.12), a common material in the construction of their built forms. The dry sand-storms winds, are common in the region originating from the east and south-east and has to a certain degree inuenced the orientation of the settlement, the size and positioning of the openings and the general form of the buildings. Lake Turkana

Fig 5.16

Fig 5.17

Fig 5.18

The images above shows the characteristics of the surrounding context that has inuenced the El Molo built forms.

Lake Turkana

Fig 5.12 Mt Nyiro. Fig 5.13: Sun set in Lake Turkana. Fig 5.14: The El Molo sacred shrines in Lorian island. Fig 5.15: Image of Lorian Island from the Lake Turkana. Fig 5.16: The all weather road in the region. Fig 5.17: The doum palm (Hyphaene thebaica) tree in Loiyangalani.. Fig 5.18: Salvadora persica plant in Lekulo’s homestead. Source: Author 2018 N

Fig 4.19: El Molo settlement in Layeni village. Source: Author 2018 Layeni Village Lake Turkana Edge of Lake

Fig 5.20: Section across Layeni village. BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_52

5.2.4 Determinants of El Molo settlement The choice of site for the Layeni settlement depends on cultural denitions. This includes ritual orientation as a function of religious and cultural approach rather than climatic, economic, defense and building materials.

Fig 5.21: Layeni village from the lake Source: Author, December 2017

1. The Lake Turkana - The lake is perhaps the most crucial determinant of the El Molo settlement. The El Molo believe that they originated from the lake, hence the name ‘gura-paua’ meaning ‘the people of the lake’. Their settlement are oriented towards the lake and their built forms open up facing the lake. The nature of the land does not allow farming therefore the tribesmen, having no fertile land to grow food or animals to keep, turned to the lake for sustenance. The sh provided food for the community and also sold to the other communities nearby and their bones used to make jewelry. 2. Loiyangalani Spring - The spring creates an oasis in Loiyangalani town provide suitable conditions for the growth of the doum palm tree (Hyphaene thebaica) that is used in the construction of their built forms.

Fig 5.22: Image of El Molo Sacred Shrines, Lorian Island The boundary fence takes the shape of Hippopotamus, an animal with cultural signicance to the El Molo people as shown in g 4.23 below. Source: Author, February 2018

3. The Gantes (El Molo Sacred Shrines) - Ritual orientation as a function of religion is common in traditional African communities. For the El Molo tribe, their supreme being Waak (God) is the provider of both food and protection to the community. Their four shrines gantes are located in the Waak Island shown in g 4.22, that translates to mean the ‘Island of God’. At this place, the Elders would gather to perform certain rituals and offer prayers and sacrices. In times of attack from neighboring communities, the island acts as temporary shelter for the community. Their built forms are easier to dismantle and rebuild, the nature of the material used also makes them light to transport across the lake to the island. The El Molo shrines (Gantes) hold a symbolic signicance to the El Molo community as they represents the concept of religious cosmology centred in the belief oa a supreme God known as Waak. The four Gantes are located in Lorian island protected by a boundary fence that takes the shape of a hippopotamus which has a cultural signicance to the community and especially the men. Killing a hippopotamus signies a transition from boyhood to manhood, a sign of becoming a warriors in the community. Although no longer happening, as the community has turned to Christianity and modern medicine, the Gantes still have some salient cultural connection to the community. The Gante of Orikarra, for instance, is still used to bless and prepare the El Molo warriors and their tools as they go for shing and hunting. Gante- Elmolo shrines, they are four in number (Origalgite, Orikara, Lmarle and Origole) and are located in Lorian Island in Lake Turkana. 1. Origalgite- This Gante is responsible for Fertility incase a woman is unable to bare children. 2. OriKarra - This Gante is used to prepare the men and bless them and their tools for hippo hunt. 3. Lmarle- This Gante contains sacred soil taken from Moite (El-molo sacred mountain, an extinct volcano; at its base, still nowadays, the El-molo go to pray). The soil is used during the times of disaster to put curse on the enemies. 4. Orisole- This sacred shrine is used to cure diseases related to throat.

Fig 5.23: A sketch of the El Molo Sacred Shrines. Source: Author, February 2018

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_53

5.3 Case One : Gabriella Lolkilokwi’s Homestead Home description Lolkilokwi (48yrs), is a mother of three children. Two sons and a daughter. She is a widow and only lives with her fourteen year old daughter Imambilan as her two sons moved to different homestead. She makes a living through her skilled craftsmanship of making beads and ornaments from sh bones and doum palm leaves, that she learnt from her parents, and then sells them to the lucky customer who passes by her home. The house she lives in, shows evidence of the traditional El Molo dome-shaped built forms, that followed a spiral planning concept representing movement and space relationship. The spiral visually divides the space into two. The rst section of the spiral is the entrance through a narrow door of 600mm wide. There is a central pole which anchors the house and supports the bed that has been raised off ground different from the traditional elmolo homestead. The bed is constructed from timber post, articulated in plan to achieve privacy but also to create a sociable space where family members and guests can be entertained. The bed is made by weaving branches to form a woven lattice. At night, goatskins and woven palm mats for sleeping are placed on the bed and covered with a dark grey blanket. The second section is the storage area. Different commodities are stored according to how frequent their used. Kitchen utensils are placed over the loose gravel oor or on a small rack raised about 800mm against the wall (see Fig 4.27). Food stuff is stored next to the bed (see Fig 4.28), where it is easily monitored while water containers are stored along the wall next to the bed together with the other general household stuff. The hearth which is the third section constitute of the cooking area is where Lolkilokwi prepares food for her family and the replace made of a circular wood burning clay stove. This was always constructed to the right side of the doorway (the doorway being extended and slightly pitched at an angle to prevent breezes from blowing in). Pots and other cooking materials are stored behind the hearth and against the wall.

Fig 5.24: Storage along the wall Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.25: Sleeping Area Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.26: The hearth Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.27: Displays on rack Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.28: Food stuff Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.29: Goat skin for bedding Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.30: Entering Lolkilokwi’s house Source: Author 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_54

Fig 5.31: Lolkilokwi’s house, oor plan layout. Source: Author BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_55

5.3.1 Form and Function Lolkilokwi’s home shows a corresponding relationship with function in terms of planning of the house and the spatial distribution. The entrance is designed to be narrow about 650-700mm wide and 1.2m height to protect from intruders but also most importantly to prevent the wind shadow effect that occur due to pressure buildup, that is, the suction on the leeward path which causes poor ventilation. Orienting the entrance toward the lake opens up to the cool breeze lowering the indoor temperatures. The shape of the door is designed to mark space in time in that, it conveys a feeling of transition as depicted when Lesirau enters Lolkilowi’s house (see g 4.32). There is a feeling of transition that forces Lesirau to change his body posture. There is no clear denition of the court (Maa) by the individual buildings but the exterior space plays a very important role. During the day, women can be seen seating beside the house under the shade doing their bead works. During the day, the interior of the house is treated as storage space. The geometrical form is a circular plan that has transformed from the spiral planning concept borrowed from the El Molo traditional built forms. The oor is designed at the same level as the ground showing a seamless transition of space from the exterior to the interiors. This type of design becomes organic in that, space can be transformed without having to disturb the ground but also due to there nature of construction, their forms can be moved and relocated with ease. The dome roof is generated by rotating an equilateral triangle about its vertical axis (the central post which anchors the form). The surface of the hut is made of the dry doum palm tree leaves woven together with branches from salvadora persica to form a structural framework, creating one solid form that resembles a dome shape. The material used on the surface emphasizes the concept of individuality and visual continuity of the surface planes (see g 4.32). This is indicated by appearance of the color, texture and the patterns.

Fig 5.32: Structural framework, Source: Author 2018

Fig 5.33: El Molo Built form Layeni Village, Source: Author 2018

Fig 5.34: Section showing Air ow in relation to the built form. The entrance is oriented towards the lake opening up to the cool breeze lowering the indoor temperatures, but most importantly , it si designed to mark space in time conveying a feeling of transition from exterior to interior. Source: Author 2018 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_56

Construction Process All built forms in El Molo village have one entrance. The circular built forms have the same material ans construction technology in their walls as in the roof, with a central post for structural support. In recent years, corrugated iron sheets has replaced the thatch as a preferred roong material. The construction process involves a series of stages that starts with twenty to thirty sapling poles are sampled and placed in a series of shallow holes dug on the circumference of a circle or the extent of the plan. The diameter ranges from 200cm to 250cm depending on the capacity of the built form. Pairs of opposed poles are bent over and tied together in the center to form the dome-shaped roof. The entire frame is interlace and tied with small poles to give it strength.

Entrance Kitchen

Resting

The second stage involves covering the structure with the doum palm fonds. Materials are collected in the nearby spring where they grow in abundance to cover the roof and the walls. The palm leaves are interwoven into th sapling framework and tied down with wicker to give as tight and stable as possible. In other cases, animal skin and any usable debris of any kind are placed on top of the wicker lattice to Storage give added protection. Lastly, the hut is furnished to make it livable. Small windows for air and light are made in the sloping walls for ventilation. Before furniture is added, the oor is sprinkled with water to Fig 4.35 Lolkilokwi’s space organization in spiral Plan concept slightly compact it and also to absorb the dust. Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.36 Shallow holes dug on ground Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.37 Poles positioned in place Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.40 Structural framework Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.41 Structure without palm covering Fig 5.42 Openings on the wall Source: Author 2017 Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.38 The oor of the hut Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.39 polythene covering on the roof Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.43 lady making her shed house Source: Author 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_57

5.3.2 Planning Concept

Fig 5.44 Taking shade outside the house. Source: Author 2018

The land tenure system in El Molo village is such that land is owned communally headed by the elders of the village. This is reected in the informality and the exibility of the built forms and the fact that growth was easily accommodated in the building of the villages on the communally owned land. The built form relationship and organization to one another involves attributes such as the function (indoor, outdoor), proximity (activities) and circulation paths (movement) . A central court can be dened by two or three built forms surrounding one another that can be used for activities such as feasting and entertainment, meeting areas and working space. Most of the family possessions such as shing nets, spears, harpoons, wooden stools and head rests are stored along the wall opposite the doorway or hanging from the ceiling. There is an interrelationship between the outdoor space and the built forms in emphasizing the sense of security. The interior spaces are linked by common space which has a degree of visual and spatial continuity that seem to depend on the surface that denes them.

2 1 3 4

Fig 5.46 The space created due to the amalgamation of various built forms is used both as the circulation and place for outdoor activities. Most of the built forms enclosing a centre space come from the same clan. Source: Author 2018

1- Entrance 2- Resting 3- Storage

From above images, its evidence that close proximity to water as a basic necessity was important. For the El Molo, water from Lake Turkana had a socio-cultural connection with an economic, spiritual and social signicance to the growth of the community.

1 4

4- Cooking Fig 5.45 The spiral planning concept, Source: Author 2018

5.3.3 Space and Place making Other communities like the El Molo for instance, have a space within space concept where activities ows to the outdoor spaces. This activities may include the kitchen area and at times, the sons sleeping area. The different activities denes a private court and all built forms orienting around it. For Lolkilokwi, her home has a unitary space concept where all activities are creatively dened to t in one space as shown in g 4.44. BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_58

5.4 Case Two : Oliva Lemotou’s Homestead Homestead description Lemotou (30yrs) had a more transformative approach when it came to building her own house. She lives with her husband, a 19yr old daughter and two sons of whom she has built sleeping space as an extension of the main house. The design of the homestead combines two form language.

Fig 5.47: Entertainment area Source: Author 2017

1. The circulation form which includes the son’s hut and the kitchen all overlooking into the courtyard. 2. The rectilinear form which is the main house as shown in g 4.50 The two forms of architectural development converge and blend in Lemotou’s homestead visually tied together with the use of traditional building and material technology only known to them. Introducing the rectilinear form shows some sense of permanency in the homestead, especially if one was keen in the transformation of building technology and material applied. The homestead has a space within space concept where the inner space is basically used for living, resting and storage while the outer space (Maa) is used for cooking, working, entertainment and ritual celebrations. There is one main courtyard Maa that is enclosed and dened by the built forms and the 1.5m boundary wall made from the doum palm tree leaves and the Salvadora persica’s branches locally known as the tooth brush tree. The main entrance to the homestead is located in the west orienting the homestead towards the Lake Turkana which ties up with their believe as ‘gura-paua’ meaning people from the lake.

Fig 5.48: Seating Area Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.49: Lemotou’s Sleeping area Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.50: Decorations on bedside table Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.51: Front view Source: Author 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_59

Fig 5.52 Sonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hut Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.53 Cooking Area Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.54: Shed (under construction) Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.55: Main house Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.56: Homestead layout, Source: Author 2018 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_60

5.4.1 Space and Place Making

Fig 5.57: Wattle fence in Lekulo’s house Source: Author 2017

There is some spatial hierarchy in Lemotou’s homestead layout . According to Lemotou, the courtyard is used to outdoor utilitarian and recreational activities such as weaving and craft making. Activities such as cooking, community meetings and ritual celebrates like the naming of the children also happens within this space. The courtyard de-congest the interior spaces for activities such as resting, living and storage. Most importantly, incorporating the courtyard into the design and enclosing it with the doum palm boundary wall buffers against the hot and dusty winds creating a calm environment for working. The courtyard also achieves some level of privacy and gives a sense of security. The main house transforms in terms of the geometrical form, space planning and the building materials used. This transformation represents some resemblance with the traditional El Molo space planning concepts and the use of locally sourced building materials. Lemotou uses local stones with mud plaster that runs horizontally across the wall and the dry doum palm leaves for the walls. Lemotou adds a shack into her homestead that was under construction which is to be used during the day to shed against the desert heat but also opens up to the courtyard to trap the cooler breeze from the lake. The main house has only two window openings which are opened when the wind is calm for cross ventilation. The roof is designed in such a way that it also allows for cross ventilation making the building porous, a concept borrowed from the traditional built forms where the woven facade is done in such a way that it allows cross ventilation. In the house, Lemotou was rearing chicken that had laid two eggs (see Fig 4.57). She tells me that the chicken was a gift from a friend in Loiyangalani town. The furniture was oriented facing the door to welcome visitors, or so it seemed, as the television set was also on similar direction. She has a 450mm by 750mm photovoltaic solar panel that harness solar power, generating electricity used to power the television and the mobile phones.

5.4.2 Form And Function

Fig 5.58: chicken in Lemotou’s house. Source: Author 2017

In Lemotou’s homestead, the court is withdrawn from the public view so the built form surrounding it close themselves from the outside world preserving the sanctity of the inner circle. This sense of enclosure is further increased by the boundary wall made of doum palm leaves and salvadora persica branches to further dene the entrance of the court. Within the family however, a series of communal relationships develop symbolized by the central court of which the family’s spiritual direction is given and its personal identity is established. The court host such functions as traditional songs and dances, rituals such naming of the children, eating, arbitration and even story telling.

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_61

5.5 Case Three : Jeremiah Lesirau’s Homestead

3 Storage

5.5.1 Space and Place making

2 Resting 4 Cooking 1 Entrance Lesirau’s Planning Concept

1 Entrance

4 Cooking

Lesirau (24), lives with his wife (19) and their three year old son in his newly built home. He has adapted to live in what he refers to as contemporary house. The rectilinear shaped built form still resembles some of the design principles and strategies that were being used traditionally. The space planning for instance as shown in g (4.60) as abstracted the spiral planning concept and used the door to provide privacy to the kitchen where the hearth is located. The front door is oriented to face the lake and is covered by the roof eaves that extends about 600mm from the beam structure. This creates a cool micro climate as you approach the inside. The is a wood stool at the entrance for visitors and children and three new blue plastic chairs for the family arranged around rectangular table. The hearth is behind the door almost looking as if its hidden from the public, a concept borrowed from traditional El Molo built forms. Just as we were seating down, there was a hanging line with wet almost dry cloths. Lesirau explains this idea as a necessary mechanism to enhance cooling in the room through evaporative cooling, but also to prevent the cloths from attracting dust particles os blown away by the wind. There are three small openings about 200mm by 100mm at the back as shown in g... of the house mainly for cross ventilation. The construction technology employed in the wall design s such that it allows air to penetrate enhancing cross ventilation but also able to withstand the forces of wind. This due to how the wall facade is woven together creating a skin that can be argued to be breathing, a traditional technology that can be advanced and adapted to modern architecture.

Resting

3 Storage

Lolkilokwi’s Planning Concept

3 Storage 2 Fig 5.63: Wet cloths hanged inside

Resting 4 Cooking 1 Entrance Fig 5.61: The spiral planning concept traditonally used in construction can be traced both in Lolkilokwi;s house fprm and Lesirau’s rectilinear house form. Source: Author, 2018

Fig 5.64: Window openings Fig 5.62: Lesirau’s house BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_63

Construction Process Although the process is similar to that of Lolkilokwi’s house, Lemotou has integrated new form language in her homestead. The main built form is rectilinear in plan made of mud wall with stone in ll both locally sourced from within the region. The roof is made of thatched palm fonds made from the doum palm tree. She introduces two window openings each from the two rooms in the house for proper cross ventilation. Unlike Lolkilokwi’s home with a cental pole on a circular plan, Lemotou has introduced a structural wall that partitions the room into two but also transforms the space to make it more enclosed for privacy and security purposes (see g 4.59). Support post Plan

A Centre Post

B Sleeping Area

Partition wall

Fig 5.60 Spatial Distribution Source: Author 2018

A Living Area

Partition wall

First, she clears the site from any objects and large rocks to make a smooth surface and marks the outline of the house. The house is set out with the 200mm diameter doum palm post dug about 450mm into the ground to a height of 2100mm from the ground level. During the construction of the wall, a gap is left between the mud and wattle wall and the roof to allow to allow hot air to escape thus ventilating the space.

Section

Elevation Fig 5.59: Wall section in Lemotou’s house According to Lemotou, mud proves to be a reliable yet very sustainable building material. This also shows the people’s struggle for permanence in their built forms as compared to the traditional thatch forms. Source: Author, 2018

The poles are distributed at regular intervals of 3m by 1.5m (see g 4.59). Small saplings harvested from the branches of Salvadora persica are lled in between and interconnected with horizontal saplings to form a structural lattice. The main house is constructed in mud mixed with local stones. Wattle saplings are used to hold this in ll of mud and stones and nally plastered with mus to give a smooth nish. The oor is made of rammed earth nicely compacted to create a smooth nish, but left at the same level as the outdoor as is similar case to Lolkilokwi’s house, thus creating a seamless transition of space from the interiors to the exteriors. The door is made of steel plate, two hinges to pivot and hold the leaf and the door lock. This can be seen as a form of transformation from the earlier generation of traditional El Molo built forms where there were no doors used and instead just an opening. The size of the homestead usually depends on the social needs of the family. Larger families like that of Lekulo, requires larger spaces, hence the size of the homestead. Mud is used as a contemporary material that in Lemotou’s homestead, a breakout from the traditional thatched walls made from the thatched palm leaves. With exception of the roof which is done with the iron roong sheets. The kitchen and the son’s room have adopted the traditional dome shaped built forms. The shed next to the house (see g 4.55) was under construction and had a rectilinear plan. BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_62

Fig 5.65: Homestead layout, Source: Author 2018

The main house has a symmetrical spacial distribution of activities. There is a middle wall that separates the public space which is the seating and the working area from the private public family space used for sleeping and storage. Light distribution can also be argued to have a symmetrical distribution as the bedroom space are relatively dark due to lack of adequate openings while the seating area gets most of its light from the door opening. The bed arrangement is such that the wife and the kid sleep on one side of the room while the husband sleeps on the other side separated by the curtain for privacy. Thereâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a furniture in between the beds. Cloths and the ď&#x20AC; shing nets are stored on the back side of the bed and some hanged on the wall. The construction of the pitched roof involves new exotic building materials such as the (MRM) mabati and construction timber that have been transported all the way from Marsabit town. Lesirau takes advantage of this material to create eaves that create shade outside. A great spot for socializing and working.

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_64

5.5.2 Form and Function The most distinct traditional feature in Lesiraus home is verandah and the rectilinear built form. There is no dened court in Lesirau’s homestead and the outdoor is used as the walkway. The verandah is dened by the roof eaves which create shade allowing for outdoor activities such as resting and socializing. The verandah is limited vertically by the roof and dened horizontally by points in space and at the extent of the roof eaves. The function hosted in the verandah in Lesirau’s house includes resting as shown in g..and also shading the inner wall from direct solar radiations.

Fig 5.66: Interior view of Lesirau’s Home showing the area where of the visitors and children seat and that of Lesirau and his wife. Notice the wall of woven doum palm fonds separating the public space from the private bedroom area with a middle door opening that allows the physical transition. This can also be depicted in the house plan in g (4.64). Source: Author, 2018

Fig 5.67: Lesirau’s mum and her friends taking shade outside the house. The house has extended roof eaves that act as an extension of the interior space. It also protects the walls from direct solar radiation. Source: Author, 2018

The main geometrical component of Lesirau’s homestead is the rectilinear plan and the pitched roof as shown in g(4.67). The oor is not raised or sunken but instead let to extend to the outdoors creating a seamless transition. The rectilinear plan is centralized about the middle axis dened by the centre of the rectilinear plan and the four walls that serve as an environmental envelope and provides protection from solar radiation and resist lateral forces. The house form is nished with similar materials, color and texture that are carried all around hence de-emphasizing the individuality of the surface planes and instead focuses on the volume of the form.

Fig 5.68: Section across Lesirau’s House. The roof is constructed such that there is a gap between the roof and the walls for cross ventilation. The small sized windows are designed to minimize heat absorption but at the same time , allow for cross ventilation. Source: Author, 2018 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_65

5.6 Case Four : Asunta Lekulo’s Homestead Home description Lekulo (50) is a mother of seven children namely; Njeri Lekulo (38yrs), Simon Imengashu (19yrs), Diro Lekulo (17yrs), Nadiru Lekilo (14yrs), Maksanja Lekulo (11yrs), Lonapu Lekulo (8yrs) and Joseph Lekulo (1.5yrs). Her husband, Lekulo works for the Kenya Police Reserve stationed in Loiyangalani Town. The choice of Asunta’s homestead for a case study was mainly determined by three factors: 1. The size of the family 2. The spatial distribution of space 3. The materials and building technology used. Her homestead is the combination of vernacular and contemporary built forms all dened by different choice of materials. The homestead consist of various built forms with different roof structures and materials. The homestead consist of various built forms with different roof structures and materials. The home consist of various built forms all characterized by their appearance (shape and form) and the choice of building material and technology used. The most dominant forms are the rectilinear plans with pitched roof which includes the main house, the son’s rooms, the kitchen and the newly constructed toilet. The circular traditional domes shaped forms include the shed (was under construction at the time) and the old toilet (now not in use.) Lekulo (Top right in g 4.69), just like herself has perfected the traditional craftsmanship in basket making and beadwork which she uses to construct her home. Her homestead takes different approach from the vernacular El Molo buildings but still retain aspects of rooted in thier construction traditions.

Fig 5.69: Lekulo’s Homestead from the private courtyard for the family. Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.70: Lekulo’s making her shed using the doum palm leave. She does the thatch from the inside Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.71: The kitchen with crates and water cans outside. Support post are used to prevent the wattle wall from topping over. Source: Author 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_66

Fig 5.72: Layout plan of Lekuloâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s homestead Source: Author, December 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_67

5.6.1 Space and Place Making The courts (Maa), unlike that of Lemotou, which was strongly enclosed leaving the entrance area open as main access. Lekulo has designed the built forms to partially enclose the courtyard having no dened access. Introducing rectilinear forms shows a sense of permanency especially with the use of stone as a building material.

Fig 5.73 The private court dened by the three built forms. sons bedroom, the Main house and the kitchen Source: Author 2018

Fig 5.74 Salvadora persica also called the tooth brush tree by the local community and The doum Palm tree respectively. Source: Author 2017

The homestead has used the space within space within space concept, an idea that is being adopted with new constructions in the Layeni village. Most of the activities are distributed in different built forms. The cooking area is almost at the epicenter of the homes activities with an integrated storage area and a hearth. The main house is used for resting and entertainment in the living room and as storage and sleeping in the bedroom. The outdoor space is used for cultural rituals and celebrations, eating and recreational activities. All built forms are surrounding the courtyard which is oriented to face the lake Turkana. There are two plant species that grow as shown in g (4.73). The Salvadora persica and the doum palm tree which grow next to the small shed and next to the kitchen respectively. The plant are used for beautication and not as a buffer from the erce sun or the desert wind as you would expect. Lekulo build two Shacks one next to her house and the other next to her son’s house. She uses hers for day to day activities and to entertain her friends while the other one is used as a joint for her kids to play. The use of the external space is evident especially at the level of the court and that of the built form (verandah). Two signicant points about the porch in addition to its serving as an introduction, or transition from the outside, into the house are: being covered and kept open all day it serves as a funnel through which cool, fresh air blows into the courtyard continuously; and it symbolizes the relationship between the household and the larger community of which it is an integral part. Even though the house is enclosed it is more or less permanently open to the rest of the community. There is hierarchy in social organization of Lekulo’s homestead. There are distinctive courtyards within one main space. The homestead expanded depending on the grown of the family structure. The son’s in elmolo community get their own house once they attain the age of 18 years.

Fig 5.75 Photovoltaic Panel in Lekulo’s homestead. Source: Author 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_68

5.6.2 Planning Concept

3 1

The public courts which is where the homestead is accessed dened by the main house, the dome shaped Lekulo’s activity shed and the kitchen area. The court is mainly used for recreation activities, receiving guest and for cultural ceremonies. There is no sense of visual privacy. The semi-private court is on the eastern side of the homestead dened by the visitors shed, the son’s room and the kitchen built form. It is mostly used by family members for resting and recreational activities. The nal court is the most private curt and acts as the entrance porch to the main house, the kitchen and the sons room. The main house has rectilinear form with similar planning concept to that of Lesirau’ homestead. This form makes it easy to allocate activities and fully maximize on space. Some of this activities include a temporary shop. In the bedroom, there are crates of beverages and refreshments which that are being sold to the locals in this village. This refreshments have been bought all the way from Loiyangalani town about seven kilometers away. The planning of the main’s house and son’s room takes the similar approach as Lesirau’s house. The rectilinear plan is centralized about the middle axis dened by the centre of the rectilinear plan, the four walls that act as environmental envelope by protecting the interior from direct sun’s radiation and also resisting all lateral forced keeping the house stable. The choice of materials and building technology differs to some extent. The house is built on timber structures and covered with stones plastered on the inside. The roof used in the main house is the blue coated corrugated iron sheet, a material foreign to the region. Coating provides a reective surface that minimizes heat absorption in the house.

Fig 5.76: Layout plan of Asunta showing the three major courts. The courts are dened by the sense of enclosure. A unitary space concept is highly differentiated to accommodate living, working, storage and sleeping. For Lekulo, her homestead has individual built forms that are adjusted and expanded depending on the spatial requirement. It is also evident that close proximity to water as a basic necessity was an important feature There is a clear emphasis in the central court as all doors open to the court. The verandah when it came to planning of the homestead and orienting the buildings. creates shaded external space creating a cool micro climate. The main house has three Source: Author, December 2017

window openings of 400x450mm wide. Two are located at the rear facade each centrally located in each room. At the front there’s only one window in the bedroom and a door opening in the living room. The aim is to maximize on natural cross ventilation. The rear windows are only opened when the wind is calm to prevent gust winds from blowing into the house. There is a gap left at the roof to allow hot air to escape enhancing cross ventilation. The main house and that of her son’s house has symmetrical distribution of internal space. In both, their is a middle wall that separates the public space from the private space and a door in the middle of the wall for both privacy and security purposes. There is only one three sitter sofa in the sitting room at Lekulo’s main house overlooking the courtyard. There is a television cabinet Fig 5.77: A section across Lekulo’s house. behind the entrance door which is powered by a solar panel that is left outside during the day The oor plain is raised by 250mm of the ground breaking from the (see g 4.74) The bedroom is neatly organized into a sleeping area and storage. Clothes are traditional way of not disturbing the ground but with an entrance porch stored in one section unlike for Lemotou and Lesirau’s case. This provides more space for which accentuates the feeling of transition from the outside to the inside. commercial activities and for sleeping. Their is a bedside storage with decorations for Lekulo.

Source: Author, December 2017

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_69

5.6.3 Form and Function

Fig 5.78: Visitor’s shed and Children playing area Source: Author, December 2017

Fig 5.79: Cooking area Source: Author, December 2017

The most notable form include the courts, the verandah in the main house and the built forms enclosing the courts. Just like Lolkilokwi’s home, most built forms in Layeni village including Lekulo’s homestead shows a corresponding relationship with function. The social requirements for the families were simple and mainly similar in all homestead, that is, a place for each member to sleep, a place for cooking, a place for food and water storage, a place to eat and nally a place to sit and talk in the day or working by making craft products like basket making, beadwork and weaving. Most of these activities in Lekulo’s homestead happen in the outside. Each built form consisted of a specic purpose like the son’s bedroom and the kitchen area. Access to the buildings is through the courtyard. The entrance is oriented to face the lake to maximize on the cool breeze which helps to lower the indoor temperature. For Lekulo’s main house, the entrance door marks space in time in that, raising the oor level and introducing the porch accentuate the feeling of transition as shown in g(4.76). The private court as dened by the buildings around it. This are Lekulo’s main house, the son’s house, and the kitchen area. The three built forms form dene a space perfect sport for social and outdoor activities such as eating and story telling but most importantly creates an enclosed and compact space dedicated only to the family and also where the entrance for the three buildings are located. The private court is always shaded from the erce sun due to the compact nature of the space. The geometrical form with the rectilinear plan has transformed the vernacular architecture of the elmolo community but still shows traces the vernacular architecture especially in space planning, materials and building technologies that were being used. The homestead has incorporated both modern and traditional materials in different built forms. The sheds, the kitchen and the sons bedrooms are constructed using the doum palm leaves as thatch and using saplings from the Salvadora persica to provide stability while the main house introduces new technologies of building materials, space planing and construction methods. The roof design in Lekulo’s homestead is a combination of pitched roof, at roof and dome and semi-dome shaped roof in the main house, visitors shed and son’s house, Lekulo’s shed and the kitchen respectively. This is illustrated below.

Fig 5.80: Layout plan of Lekulo’s house Source: Author, December 2017

Fig 5.81: Various geometrical form explored in Lekulo’s Homestead ( Author 2017) BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_70

Fig 5.82: Rear view of Lekulo’s main house Source: Author 2017

The site where the main building is cleared of any objects or large rocks and excavated to a depth of about 300-450 mm. Rocks are then added and compacted as hardcore to create a stable base. Concrete is then used to create a smooth oor slab. Dry wall construction is used for the walls to provide high thermal mass. The roof system used comprises of the roof truss and covered with the MRM mabati coated blue to reect heat radiation and also constructed in that it create the roof eaves that provide a micro climate at the entrance and also protect the external wall from direct solar radiation. Most material used are exotic and not native to that particular region apart from the eld stones that were used for the dry wall construction and the substructure. The windows are positioned high at the beam level (lintel) fully sun shaded by the extended roof eaves to prevent solar radiation from penetrating the building as shown in g 4.81. The door is made of rusted steel plate, two hinges to pivot and hold the leaf and the door lock for both security and privacy purposes. This can be seen as a form of transformation from the earlier generation of traditional El Molo built forms where there were no doors used and instead just an opening. The size of the homestead usually depends on the social needs of the family. Larger families like hat of Lekulo’s homestead requires larger spaces. Local stones are used as a contemporary material, that way Lekulo’s main house shows a breakout from the traditional thatched walls made from the thatched palm leaves. Lekulo installed roof gutters made from available materials with the hope of harvesting rain water when it rains. This is clearly illustrated in g 4.84

Fig 5.83: Visitors shed area Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.84: The cooking area Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.85: Part elevation in Lekulo’s main homestead, showing the character of the facade and the different components that makes up the form. This includes the dry stone walling held by the barbed wire to prevent toppling, the corrugated iron sheet, the sawn timber, the 3 inch (dia) drain pipe used as gutter and the 5 litter Tilly container as down pipe and nally the air gap at the roof eaves. Source: Author 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_71

5.7 Environmental Design Response in Layeni Village: Case of Lolkilokwi, Lesirau, Lekulo and Asunta’s homesteads. Traditional built forms have a climatic design strategies that have been developed over the years. In Layeni village, some of the exemplary design features that show understanding of the context and climate and how their built forms have adapted to these conditions. The El Molo community have over the years learnt to build more wisely, working out structural forms that meet their comfort demands. They have had to survive with the limited resources available to them to build their dwellings. This knowledge of their contextual environment and the climate has forced them to come up with design solutions that have a symbolic meaning and also respond well to the environmental, materials available to them and the traditional knowledge of construction. The four highlighted case studies as shown below portrays unique features and transformations that adapt to the environmental conditions. Some cases shows potential issues that will lead to uncomfortable thermal performance of buildings.

Fig 5.86: Lekulo’s home Source: Author, 2017

Fig 5.87: Lolkilokwi’s home Source: Author, 2017

Fig 5.88: Lesirau’s home Source: Author, 2017

Fig 5.89: Lemotou’s home Source: Author, 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_72

5.7.1 Geometry and Shape For hot and dry climate, focus is on reducing the amount of direct solar radiation that the built form is exposed to. Geometrical features becomes and important feature to consider when designing for hot and dry climate as it involves the roof and the walls which constitute the major parts of the building envelope that is exposed to the direct solar radiation. Lolkilokwi’s home with a circular dome have great effect on thermal performance as they receive less amount of solar radiation. Her dwelling is based on a circular ground plan with a dome geometrical form which is more stable and resistance to physical and mechanical forces. This dwellings encloses the maximum number of materials and reduces the amount of surface exposed and obstruction to high wind.

Fig 5.90: Illustration depicts use of Bernoulli’s effect in the dome. Upward draft is caused by solar heating of outside surface which then heats nearby surrounding air. The warm air rises creating a thermal column. Air is sucked out of the large openings at the ground level causing reduced pressure inside the dome. Reduced pressure causes air near top vent to rush in through small opening or the porous wall. Increased ow of air through small opening cools the incoming air.

For rectilinear geometrical forms like the one used by Lesirau, Lemotou and Lekulo, more effort is required to make the structure stable as the dwelling could easily topple if exposed to lateral forces. Load bearing materials are needed in order to have durable structures thus increasing the weight. Rectangular plans have high surface exposed to solar radiation that could make the interiors uncomfortable . The roof eaves that have been adapted to rectangular built forms like in Lekulo’s house help prevent direct solar radiation from heating up the wall and also to modify the micro-climate in the verandah, but also provides day time shade that can be used as sociable space.

As reviewed in chapter two, the dome shape has an increased surface area larger than a at roof hence only a third of the radiation is felt per unit area. This reduces heat radiation and temperatures in the house. Small parts of the roof surface area are exposed to direct solar radiation at normal incidence. The other surface areas receive greater incidence angles or are shaded by the rest of the roof. This keeps Lolkilokwi’s home much cooler than that of Lesirau. The dome shaped built form is able to remain a stable structure and being established from lightweight materials such as doum palm tree and the salvadora persica plant. The geometrical component include the circular plan, the doum shape that blends the wall to the roof and the door and window openings. The walls are centralized about the middle axis and resting on the circular base making it stable. The walls treatment the load but also act as environmental envelope. Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.91: Section through a wall in Lekulo’s house Source: Author 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_73

5.7.2 Thermal Mass

Fig 5.92: Lekulo’s house Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.93: Lemotou’s house Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.94: Entering Lolkilokwi’s house Source: Author 2017

Heat storage effect on wall is largely determined by the thickness of the wall, the type of material and the color of the external surface. The technology applied in wall construction is very simple and economical. The construction materials are locally sourced and culturally viable to the people. Since the El Molo people are a dialect of the Rendille community who practice a nomadic pastoralism, their built forms have been designed to be well suited to their frequent movement even though they founds a permanent home and the hot and climate. The choice of building materials has thus to be climatic responsive, culturally and economically sensitive. Materials commonly used in Layeni village include stones, mud, thatch made of doum palm. Modern materials such as the corrugated iron sheet has been introduced as roong materials to replace the thatch previously used as shown in Lekulo’s and Lemotou’s homestead as shown in Fig 4.91 and 4.92. The inner temperature in thatched built forms like that of Lolkilokwi’s home, gradually decreased with time. This could be attributed to the fact that the thatch has air spaces which helps in the reduction of heat by evaporation from the roof (see g 4.89) and also to the fact that the thatch are normally laid layer by layer (see g 4.93). Thus each layer will absorb its own heat leading to a progressive heat loss along the layers. This reduction of heat causes reduction in the temperature of the inner room. Temperature distribution in the corrugated roof was high almost throughout the day and was relatively moderate than that of the thatched roof. This could be attributed to the combined effect of radiation both from the roof and from the walls. This because as the corrugated sheets absorbs solar radiation, they become heated and the heat is radiated into the interior thereby raising the temperature of the interior. At night however, the walls radiates the heat it absorbed in the day thereby making the inner room temperature to go high as well. With roof thatched the radiated heat from the walls is nullied by the effect of evaporation from pockets of air trapped in the thatch making the inner room temperature at a comfort level Thermal mass as reviewed in chapter two is highly recommended in this region where the day and night temperature uctuation is high. The dry stone walling construction is Lekulo’s home performs best when it comes to keeping the interior cool during the day. The stone used on the wall has characteristics such as light colored surface which reects heat, the thickness of the wall is about 200mm which helps increase the time lag for heat absorption and nally the entire structure is porous allowing wind to permeate and keep the interior cool. The materials have been collected from within the region. Mud has also been used as a preferred traditional material as thermal mass to keep the interior cool in Lekulo’s homestead as shown in g 4.92.

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_74

5.7.3 Orientation

Fig 5.95: opening gaps in Lolkilokwi’s house, Source: Author 2018

Most of the built forms in Layeni village are culturally oriented to face the lake. This exposes their built forms to direct solar radiation. As a result, most homestead like that of Lemotou and Lekulo are forced to build and outdoor shed where most of their work will take place including entertaining visitors and making their crafts work. For built forms in this region, the high temperatures and the wind speeds should be considered and integrated and not avoided. This is seen in Lemotou’s homestead as she introduces a courtyard, well enclosed by the boundary fence and the two built forms, the kitchen and the sons’s house respectively. (See g 4.55). The courtyard creates shaded areas for outdoor activities and buffers the stormy trade winds (northeasterlies and southeasterlies). Although not successfully done, to be effective, the built forms need to be arranged in clusters for heat absorption and shading wind opportunities and mostly protection from east-west sun. This should not be not neglect the cultural relation to the west where the lake is located but should explore a ne balance between comfort and cultural connection.

5.7.4 Openings Initially, El Molo built forms did not have provisions for window openings. Ventilation was through the small gaps created through the weaving of the wall surface as shown in Fig 4.94. This evident in Lolkilokwi’s hut which has only one opening through the 600mm wide by 1100mm high door. The lack of windows in most of the built forms in the village including Lolkilokwi’s hut is because of the high stormy wind streams caused by the temperature uctuations between the day and night causing strong predictable wind streams in the lake region of up to 15m/s. This gust winds are undesirable as they carry dust particle with them forcing their built forms to have minimum or no window openings on the direction of which the wind blows. Fig 5.96: Window opening in Lesirau’s house, Source: Author 2018

With time, their has been some transformation within the settlement. Lesirau and Lekulo, for instance has introduces windows openings both with different approach. For Lesirau, he has introduces three small openings on the rear facade solely for cross ventilation purposes as shown in g 4.95. To prevent dust from getting in, he used the doum palm fonds in fronds of the opening to block the dust but also to act as louvers preventing direct solar radiation. For Lemotou and Lekulo, their window opening are large designed to allow in both light and for cross ventilation. The location of the openings is at the beam level with a sill height of about 1500mm. This is done to prevent ground radiation and also to achieve privacy. Locating the openings on opposite to each other encourages cross ventilation. There is also air gaps under the roof eaves that allow hot air to escape keeping heat gain ti minimum but also lters in diffused natural light.

Fig 5.97: Window opening in Lekulo’s house, Source: Author 2018 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_75

5.7.5 Natural Ventilation The semi-compact planning approach adopted by the settlement with built forms spaced at 2m-6m to each other, allows for air ow and also creates shaded spaces. The oblique angle to the prevailing winds maximizes on natural ventilation and also reduces the re circulation of wind at the back of each house.

Lolkilokwi’s Homestead_4

Lolkilokwi’s Homestead_1

Lesirau’s Homestead_3

The traditional dome shape used by Lolkilokwi has low resistance to the winds providing some aerodynamic features that create comfortable breeze. This principle is known as induced ventilation and it works naturally while wind blows at the surface of the roof by creating pressure difference forcing air to be drawn in through the porous walls and the door openings thus ventilating the interiors. The thatched used in the walls except from Lekulo’s home, are porous in nature made from the dry doum palm leaves which also provide some less resistance to the wins allowing controlled cross ventilation while sieving dust at the same time. Lesirau has a clothing line inside the house where wet clothes are hanged to dry thus enhancing evaporative cooling creating a cool microclimate indoors making the interiors habitable for the better part of the day. For Lekulo, as mentioned earlier, the use of dry stone walling is an ingenious transformed way of creating a porous wall that imitates the traditionally used thatch but also provides a better thermal performance. This ancient technology is called dry stone walling which can also be seen in their cairns. The stones are stacked together without mortar creating an interlocking structure that is load bearing and stable. The friction between the stones causes most of them to act as if being a monolithic gravity wall of the same weight. The wall consist is large stones in which small one are placed. This stones and boulders are collected nearby Layeni village as they appear in abundance.

SEA BREEZE TRADE WINDS

Hot Dusty Air

Clean Cool Air

Lekulo’s Homestead_2

Lake Turkana Fig 5.98: Layeni Settlement Trade Winds blowing towards East-West, inuencing their orientation and positioning of openings Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.99: Cross Ventilation in Lekulo’s Home Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.100: Section of Dry Stone Walling Source: Author 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_76

5.8 Building Technology and Form Qualities in Layeni Village

Fig 5.101: Mud wall with timber structure

Form

Section Fig 5.102: Dry stone wall with timber structure

Framework D_01 Fig 5.103: Thatch made of palm fonds

Joinery D_03 Fig 5.104: Framework structure from Salvadora persica tree

Footing D_02 Fig 5.105: corrugated 35 gauge iron roong sheet

Fig 5.106: Structural detail in Lolkilokwi's built form

There is a creative use of structural expressions and play of Built forms in Traditional African Architecture. The techniques used in Layeni village emphasize on the use local building materials such as stones, mud, timber and palm thatch. The structural technology in this village exhibit sophisticated craftsmanship that has been developed and perfected for centuries. Lolkilokwi, for instance, used the traditional way building for her homestead. The art and science of construction revolves around vertical members that curve inwards and anchors to the center (see Fig 4.105). The dome denes a stable circular base that enhances the stability of the structure. The horizontal and diagonal braces are added for more rigidity. Structural load is transferred through the centre pole as it anchors the entire dome structure and transmit the load to the ground. The span is determined by the social structure of the family and spatial requirements which will affect the type of structure used and the material properties to be selected. For Lekulo, the pitched roof structure with truss allowed for more spans and different materials to be used. The framework for Lolkilokwi is porous making it less resistant to lateral forces. The construction is simple and understood by most members of the community. The nature of materials are such that they determine the proportion, scale and expression of the built forms. The thatch allows air to seep through. Lemotou, Lekulo and Lesirau used a frame structural system as shown in g 4.101, which are foreign to the region. The roof is done using corrugated iron sheet (see Fig 4.104)and sawn timber for the columns and rafters. The play of materials and craft work and how they respond to the lateral forces in Lolkilokwi and Lekulo’s houses give the form a specic character that is true to its region, a fundamental link to traditional methods and techniques of construction. BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_77

The table 4.2 below shows a comparison between the four different homestead showing the major signicant features and their transformation. The homes have been arranged according to recognizable features such as the form language, the building material used, the type of window openings and the planning concept which shows evidence of transformation in Layeni village. Case Study

Form Language

Construction Material

Window Openings

Planning Layout

1. Lolkilokwi Age: 48 Children: 3 One daughter and two sons (moved out) Gender: Female Occupation: Local Artisan

The traditional dome geometry made from the palm fonds on tree saplings.

Doum Palm Leaves for the thatch and Savadora persica for the structural framework. (saplings)

Circular plan with a unitary space layout where all the activities are in one space. A central pole for structural support. The space is partitioned to dene the sleeping area, the living space and the kitchen.

No dened openings aside from the door. The porous wall act as secondary openings.

2. Lemotou Age: 30 Children: 3 One daughter and two sons (moved out) Gender: Female Occupation: Local Artisan

Amalgamation of the traditional and the modern planning layout. This introduces a space within space concept by having an enclosed courtyard Combination of circular and Rectangular built form with different play of materials

Mud wall with timber saplings from Salvadora persica plant and iron roong sheets

Main house has two 400x500mm windows at the back and one door in front The rectangular plan has adopted the unitary space concept into a modern built form. The sense of enclosure between the sleeping areas and the public space is evident with the partition wall, the doors and the small windows.

3. Lesirau Age: 24 Children: 1 A 3yr old son Gender: Male Occupation: Local Fisherman

Rectangular built form made from traditional building materials and exotic materials.

Doum Palm Leaves for the thatch and Timber Post for the structure.

Small windows of 200x100150mm at the back mainly for ventilation as well as privacy

4. Lekulo Age: 50 Children: 7 Three daughter and four sons Gender: Female Occupation: Local Artisan

2 3

Combination of circular and Rectangular built form with different play of materials

Dry Stones for walls with barbed wire for support, timber post for structure and iron roong sheets.

Main house has three 400x500 mm windows at the back and the front and one entrance door

The homestead has several courtyard all serving different functions providing a space within space concept planning. Most of the activities are distributed in different built forms. The main house is constructed using local stones

Table 5.2: Structural detail and assembly of the structure. Source: Author, 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_78

5.9 Symbolism in Layeni Village The El Molo architecture built forms is not only elaborate in terms of function but also appears as a reection of the people and the spirit of their independence, a variety of their forms and design principles that encode expressive messages. From time immemorial, the El Molo culture has sensibly symbolized associations through graphics and forms that are simplied abstractions of complex realities where the power of the visible is the signied invisible. This is referred to as cultural symbolism and requires deep understanding of the representational quality of spaces and the cultural inuences of the spatial schema. The symbols used as abstraction provide a simpler yet powerful means of signifying what one wants to communicate even spatially.

Fig 5.107: El Molo women in their traditional dress attire Source: Author 2017

Fig 5.108: El Molo traditional built form Home Source: Author 2017

The traditional art and craft were used as symbolic elements to transmit laws, moral codes, to communicate between people and the spirit world and to signify status and wealth in the community. This includes all of life, birth, initiation, work, marriage, child birth, death and after life. The symbolic construct can be expressed in architectural elements like space, form, materials all which portrays culture, history and art of the community. Symbolism can be found in the built forms through the interior congurations, image, social factors, planning, materials and technology. Using the traditional materials like the doum palm fonds and the dry stone technology for the walls asserts a regionalistic identity. The doum palm tree used symbolizes longetivity and protection for the purpose that they are used. The Salvadora persica and the acacia tree used in the making of the structural framework symbolizes permanence. This are elements of landscape that bear role of signicance in the El Molo community. The undulating desert landscape represents their hardships and struggles but also it becomes a symbol or resilience in nding ways of adapting. The built form is modied to adapt to the environmental and cultural markers. The dome shape provides protection from the winds enhancing the lifetime of the material and ensures structural survival. The shape also enhances stark effect by blowing on the surface, creating pressure difference that forces cool air thus inducing natural ventilation. Most communities in lake Turkana region have different form of decorations that signies African aesthetics, an appreciation of the nature, beauty and values of artistic expressions and representation. The rounded geometry type house developed functionally as mans way of adapting to the environment. The courtyard had some functional purposes such as receiving the visitors, cooking, recreation and areas for drying cloths. The internal organization of a house varies from an open space with special areas for different functions such as sleeping, cooking and storage. The El Molo ornaments and decorations are bounded by social values. Mainly established to assert personal and community identity and also give deeper meaning to the community. They provide the opportunity for impressing the outsider, promoting morals, pride and solidarity of the people. The necklaces were worn not just to be pleasing to the eye but also to have some magisterial or religious signicance.

Fig 5.109: El Molo sacred shrines in Lorian Island Source: Author 2017 BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_79

5.10 The El Molo Artistic Heritage

Fig 5.110: Basket made of Doum Palm and Necklace made of sh bones Source: Author 2018

The El Molo have developed a diverse tradition of sculpture, architecture, textile, pottery and beadwork as shown in ..., The most commonly used materials include wood, clay, earth, stones and animal products such as bones and sh scales. The form of representation varies from relative naturalism to general abstraction and the artistic talent was hereditary from generation to generation. There is a deliberate concerns for abstraction in the design process. For instance, using an representational elements as a criteria of sculptural beauty.. This include visibility even if it necessitates proportional distortion, straightness, symmetry, smoothness, etc. The symbols are directly linked to the diverse geographical, historical, cultural, religious or spiritual experiences of the El Molo people.

5.10.1 El Molo Forms of Aesthetics and Artistic Expressions 1. Music and Dances. Used to communicate and convey feelings and emotions (happiness, unity, praise). They combine elements of spirituality in their rhythm to give meaning to their songs. Music forms an integral part of cultural celebrations such as rights of passage, economic prosperity, religion and healing rituals. A large proportion of traditional music has been passed down from generation to generations with little emphasis of glorifying the composers. Their traditional dance is unique to the El Molo community with one’s movement simulating the music creating an inherent sense of rhythm. The dances just like the music, signify an interrelationship between beauty and utility, employing a range of symbolic gestures, costumes and body paintings. 2. Story telling. Education through fables and myths forms a distinctive way of entertaining as well as educating the young about the world. The young draws wisdom from the elders.

Fig 5.111: Most of the family possessions such as shing nets, spears, harpoons, wooden stools and headrests are stored along the wall opposite the doorway or hanging from the ceiling. Source: Author 2018

3. Crafts. The El Molo have a long tradition of craftsmanship passed on from generations to generations. Major crafts includes pottery, weaving, basketry and animal crafts all made by hands. This also includes ornamental decorative that forms a signicant part of El Molo dress attire. This includes bracelets, bangles, rings, ear rings, nose rings, necklaces, anklets, and waist bands. The beads have a spiritual connotation with different colors, shape and size symbolizing purity, fertility and sexuality, spiritual protection and healing. Their traditional dresses, to a degree expresses their identity with their distinctively colored fabrics and design that are of cultural signicance such as fertility, vitality or spirituality. 4. Architecture. The El Molo built forms are distinctively designed using different styles and features of architecture. Their structures are both functional and decorative. The material used are readily available in the region’s natural environment such as mud, thatch from palm tree, stones and tree saplings.

Fig 5.112: Beads as form of artistic espression Source: Author 2018

5. Dress. The El Molo traditional dress plays an important role as an expression of their cultural identity. The attire is made from the doum palm tree as shown in Fig 4.111, give it its distinctive character that have a cultural signicance such as a ceremony being performed. BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch04_80

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER SIX

6.1 Conclusions and Recommendation Introduction This research study analyses the culture of the El Molo people and how their way of social and cultural life has helped shaped their built structures. According to the ndings, the study of vernacular buildings has long served as a model for contemporary design through the ‘style free’ approach to provision of functional space, climatic control, structural honesty and efciency as seen in Jean Marie Tjibaou Cultural Centre by Renzo Piano (1991-1998). The cultural centre has used Kanak vernacular culture as a model for integration architecture and society.

Lekulo’s Homestead_4

Lolkilokwi’s Homestead_1 Lesirau’s Homestead_3

For the El Molo community, utilization of construction technology and traditional wisdom of construction inspire regional approach that can be adopted to modern buildings as they bare evidence of local building technology in harmony with the immediate environment. The study shows transformation in the architectural form of built forms in Layeni village that indicates a reection of peoples response to change in their cultural, social and economic lifestyle. For the case of Lekulo’s homestead, it is observed that small adjustments have been made to suite the dynamics of the way of life and family structure. This means that architecture and built forms has roots in the culture as a social phenomenon composed of peoples needs and wishes and tied down to the believes and the contextual environment.

6.2 Summary of Findings and Conclusions

Lemotou’s Homestead_2

Lake Turkana

Undulating Landscape

Fig 6.1 Image showing the Siting, and to a degree, building form that are mainly the result of socio-cultural factors, which will be highlighted in the four selected cases namely: Lolkilokwis , Lekulo’s, Lesirau’s andLake Asunta’s homestead respectively. Turkana Source: Author, 2018

The architecture of the lake Turkana region has lately been disregarded especially with the upcoming developments by the government like the Lake Turkana Wind Power Project, causing the loss of the knowledge handed down by the local population on how to create comfortable built environments with local resources. This thesis set out to investigate, analyze and understand the inuence of culture on the built forms in Layeni village, Loiyangalani. From the eld study, there are three types of dwelling practices observed. 1. Traditional circular built forms as seen in Lolkilokwi’s Homestead 2. Transitional built forms carrying forward elements of traditional building parts to a new form. This is seen in Lesirau’s homestead and Lemotou’s homestead. 3. Modern house type represented in a few numbers. The four case studies shows current trend in built forms from traditional, transitional to modern forms. The study shows that individuals build there houses the way they want depending on the current trends and social status of the family, although the resultant built forms has some social cultural connection such as spiritual aspect, size and family structure and economic aspects. The climate and building materials proves to modify the built form as external contextual forces. BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch05_82

6.3 Architectural Design Features that can be adopted to Contemporary Built forms Based on the evidence in Layeni village accumulated in this document, certain considerations become apparent. For a successful union between modern technology and African traditional architecture, certain principles would augment the overall relevance and effectiveness of the design. Some of the key design principles that can be adopted include: Datum, hierarchy, balance and repetition.

1. Datum

Fig 6.2 Structural dome framework from tree saplings. Source: Author, 2017

The settlement is organized along the Lake Turkana which acts as the centre of the socio-cultural activities amongst the El Molo people. The built forms are culturally oriented to face the Lake. The El Molo believed that they originated from the lake and the fact that it sustains them economically and more so, their sacred shrines are located in the island of Waak (God’s island) also known as Lorian Island. The Lake as a directional cultural feature is therefore is the unit of organization in Layeni settlement.

2. Hierarchy This feature is represented from the space planning especially between the public and private spaces. The kitchen area was hidden from the visitors area using a partition wall in Lolkilokwi’s home while in Lesirau, the door is used to create this separation. The sleeping areas are on separate rooms only accessible to the family members. In Lekulo’s home, a series of courtyards are used dened by different built forms.

3. Balance Order in Layeni village is achieved both through asymmetrical and symmetrical planning system. The settlement has a staggered arrangement dening uneven outdoor spaces while the interior space planning is divided into two almost equal spaces. Both systems contribute to the denition of public and private spaces.

4. Repetition This is perhaps the most noticeable feature in the El Molo traditional customs. Repetition is emphasized in their art, cultural dances and music and their craftsmanship used to assert certain regionalistic identity and cultural meaning. The character of their building geometry and assembly displays some unique repetitive shapes that creates pattern in the built form that causes a visual echo that accentuate elements such as materiality and structure. The pattern in the facade for instance changes a little every time during construction. This slight transformation generate a progressive rhythm that has a steady sequence. This is illustrated in gure 5.4

5. Similarity Fig 6.3: Structural detail and assembly of the structure. Source: Author, 2017

Houses were simple and similar in layouts, materials and sizes. The units were simple and uniform to express equality within the community BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch05_83

6.4 The Generalizations From the Findings 1. In Layeni village, there is an extensive variation of built form that take different shapes and vary in construction materials. Changes can be seen from the circular dome shape that was traditionally used to rectilinear form with pitched roof. The construction materials ranges from thatch made from doum palm tree and mud with plant saplings made from the acacia tree and Salvadora persica to stones, cement and iron roong sheets. 2. New exotic methods of construction and building and building materials such as iron sheets are being adopted instead of the indigenous materials such as thatch. The shift from the traditional built forms of round dome shape shows an indication of change. Fig 6.4: Structural detail and assembly of the structure. Source: Author, 2017

3. There is a clear reection of specic pattern in the innovation of built form. A directional trend from traditional built form to transitional and nally modern. The built forms in each phase consist of elements of both traditional built forms and modern. Lemotou’s homestead, consist of combination of mud and poles walls with stone in lls and iron sheet roong materials and elements of modern architecture. 4. The socio-cultural factors play major role in the evolution of built forms. The introduction of courtyard seem to be a major trend especially in Lekulo’s homestead where built forms are used to dene outdoor spaces. Because of the family structure and size, the space planning has evolved from the main house, connected by a series of courts. The built form is culturally oriented to face the lake as is believed to be where they originated from also the fact that is sustain them. The lake also holds some spiritual connection to the El Molo community. Their sacred shrines are located in Lorian island (the island of God). From the study, individuals build according to their social and economic status

Fig 6.5: Structural detail and assembly of the structure. Source: Author, 2017

In conclusion, it could be stated that El Molo culture and their traditional customs have a direct relationship with their built forms. The philosophical and environmental features of their region can be decoded in their architecture.

6.5 Recommendations With regards to the ndings, several recommendations are made. 1. Understanding the El Molo traditional knowledge and social values and how it has been incorporated into built forms gives a more cultural signicance to African architecture of a region. This knowledge can be used by designers to create architecture that has roots and gives a sense of identity to the region. 2. Using local construction materials and technology in the design of the El Molo built form portrays a rich culture and history of the community. This feature must be incorporated into modern designs. They assert community identity and can signal different messages known to the communities.

Fig 6.6: El Molo woman cooking outside Source: Author, 2017

3. The El Molo have learnt to solve their problems by collaborating with nature. This is represented through planning, construction materials, building geometry and construction technology. The porous wall in Lekulo’s home for instance, not only protects them from the intruders, but also the elements. During the day, it acts as thermal mass protecting the interiors from the desert heat but at the same time, due to its porous nature, it also allows cool and dust free breeze to ventilate the interiors. BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch05_84

6.6 Areas of Further Research This study is focused on El Molo Built forms and forces that helped shape them. As a result, the study looked at the socio-cultural, climatic and contextual forces and ď&#x20AC; nally the building technology. Although there is need to investigate on the following areas in El Molo community in Lake Turkana region. 1. The Transformation and Modern Trends in the Architectural Built forms in Layeni and Kamote village, Loiyangalani. 2. The Environmental constants in the lake Turkana region looking at the case of the El Molo people. 3. Comparative analysis of Traditional Architecture of El Molo and the neighboring Turkana, Samburu and Rendille tribes. 4. Symbolism in El Molo Traditional Architecture. 5. Transformation of Building technology in Layeni and Komoto village

Fig 6.8: El Molo young men in their traditional dress attire. Source: Dyson, 1935

Fig 6.7: A section of Lekuloâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s house showing Fig 6.9: El Molo women in their traditional dress attire, performing at different building materials used. the lake Turkana cultural festival. Source: Author, 2017 Source: Author, 2017

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch05_85

REFERENCES Abonya, E.O (1992). Built form and Function, A Contemporary Regional Approach. University of Nairobi. Anyamba, T. C., & Adebayo, A. A.(1994). Traditional Architecture: Settlement, Evolution and Built Form, Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation. Bansal N.K. and Minke G. (1988)., Climatic Zones and Rural Housing in India, Kernforschungsanlage, Juelich, Germany. Belluschi, P. (1955). The meaning of Regionalism in Architecture - Architectural Record, BNP Media. New York Berge, B. (2009). The Ecology of Building Materials. 2nd Ed., Oxford: elsevier. Denyer, S. (1978). African Traditional Architecture: An Historical and Geographical Perspective. London: Henemann Educational Books. Dyson, W. and Fuchs, V. (1937). The Elmolo, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Fathy, H. (1979). Architecture for the Poor: An Experiment in Rural Egypt. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Fitch, J.M. - Daniel P. Branch (1960) Primitive Architecture and Climate - Scientiď&#x20AC; c American. Fuchs, V. (1935) The Lake Rudolf Rift Valley Expedition 1934, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 86. Frampton, K. (1981) Towards a Critical Regionalims :Six Points for an Architecture Resistance. Thames and Hudson Gaertner, U. (1995). El Molo, Rosen Pub. Group. Givoni, B. (1981) Man, Climate and Architecture.- Van Nostrand Reinhold. New York. Gut, P. (1993),"Climate responsive buildings : Appropriate building construction in tropical and subtropical regions", St. Gallen :SKAT: Dieter Ackerinecht.

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REFERENCES Hooper, C. (1975). Design for Climate Guidelines for the Design of Low Cost Houses for the Climates of Kenya. Unpublished B. Arch Thesis. University Of Nairobi. Kamenju, J. W. (2013). Transformation of Kikuyu Traditional Architecture. Oslo: Oslo School of Architecture AHO. Oliver, P. E. (1976). Shelter in Africa London: Barrie and Jenkins. Ozkan, S. (1985). Regionalism with modernism - The Aga Khan Award for Architecture. Rapoport, A. (1969). House form and culture, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Renzo P. (1997). Renzo Piano Logbook, New York: The Monacelli Press. Rudofsky, B. (1965). Architecture Without Architects: A short introduction to non-pedigreed architecture, Iniversity of New Mexico Press. Rukwaro, R. & Maina, S. (2006). Transformation of Maasai art and architecture. Nairobi: Arts Press. Salingaros, N. 2006, A Theory of Architecture. Umbau-Verlag, Solingen. Sobania, N. (2003). Culture and customs of Kenya, Greenwood Press. Sobania, N. (1980). The Historical Tradition of the Peoples of the Eastern Lake Turkana Basin. Sobania, N. (1988). Fishermen Herders: Subsistence, Survival and Cultural Change in Northern Kenya, The Journal of African History. Sandhusen, R.L. (2000) â&#x20AC;&#x153;Marketingâ&#x20AC;? Barrons (Haviland William, Anthropology,1977) Vagnby, B. and Jacobs, A.H. (1973). Housing the Poor in Human Settlements, Athens Center of Ekistics. Wheeler, S.M.,2008. State and Municipal Climate Change Plans : The First Generation, J. Am. Plan Assoc. Write, D. (1984) Natural Solar Architecture. 3rd Ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, York.

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch05_87

Appendix 1: FIELDWORK CHECK LIST

1. Settlement and Homestead Structure Location Village organization, and settlement linkages Linkage with surrounding civilization Spacial and Social Structure- Cooking space, Sleeping space, Furniture type and layout, Storage area. Decoration and ornaments Privacy levels 2. House Form Homestead composition Courtyard concept House unit Typologies Form and structure Spatial organization and layout 3. Building Technology Construction Techniques Materials Wall prole Roof prole Foundation prole Transformations Inuence and changes in built form Craftsmanship Symbolism and cultural beliefs on buildings 5. Environmental response Orientation Openings Form Geometry Ventilation Building Materials BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch05_88

Appendix 2: ACRONYMS

ISSJ- International Social Science Journal KNBS- Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. LRRVE- Lake Rudolf Rift Valley Expedition MLTCF- Marsabit Lake Turkana Cultural Festival MOMA- Museum Of Modern Art NMK- National Museum of Kenya

BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch05_89

Appendix 3: COLLAGE_PHOTO ALBUM

3mm gauge MRM corrugated iron sheet (mabati), an exotic industrial building materials being adopted Sun drying is the most commonly used way by the local builders of sh preservation in Layeni El Molo village

A traditional shing canoe and a modern shing boat

Abandoned sh store in Layeni Village The Desert Museum, Loiyangalani A traditional shing canoe and a modern shing boat

Abarndoned sh market at Layeni Village

The Desert Museum, Loiyangalani

Newly constructed school near Layeni Village. Local Stores in Loiyangalani town

Major transportation within the region Lake Turkana at sunset is via the motorcycle

OďŹ&#x201E;oading Commodities.

Local a stores at Loiyangalani town

Kitchen Ware made from animal products as displayed in the Desert Museum (Above, a serving spoon made of goat scapular bone and a serving bowl from tortoise shell.)

Ancient Burial Ground near the desert Museum BUILT FORM AND CULTURE _Ch05_90

THE EL MOLO

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