Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto) by Paidéia Usp

Paidéia Volume 25, Issue 62, September-December 2015 CONTENTS

Articles The Wishes and Expression of Gratitude of Youth Jonathan Richard Henry Tudge - University of North Carolina at Greensboro, NC, United States of America Lia Beatriz de Lucca Freitas - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil Irina L. Mokrova - University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC, United States of America Yudan Chen Wang - University of North Carolina at Greensboro, NC, United States of America Marion O’Brien - University of North Carolina at Greensboro, NC, United States of America

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Intervention Program on Adolescent’s Creativity Representations and Academic Motivation Maria de Fátima Morais - Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal Saul Neves de Jesus - Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal Ivete Azevedo - Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal Alexandra M. Araújo - Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal João Viseu - Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal

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Suicidal Ideation in University Students: Prevalence and Association With School and Gender Adelino Pereira - Centro de Psicologia da Força Aérea, Lisboa, Portugal Francisco Cardoso - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal

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Validity and Reliability Evidence for Assessing Holland’s Career Types Everson Meireles - Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia, Cruz das Almas-BA, Brazil Ricardo Primi - Universidade São Francisco, Itatiba-SP, Brazil

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Evidence of Validity for the Portilho/Banas Teaching Style Questionnaire Giovani de Paula Batista, Evelise Maria Labatut Portilho - Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, Curitiba-PR, Brazil Sueli Édi Rufini - Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina-PR, Brazil

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Evidence of Validity of the Job Crafting Behaviors Scale Renata Silva de Carvalho Chinelato, Maria Cristina Ferreira, Felipe Valentini Universidade Salgado de Oliveira, Niterói-RJ, Brazil

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Normative Study of Rorschach (Parisian School) for Brazilian Adolescents Maria Luísa Casillo Jardim-Maran, Sonia Regina Pasian, Erika Tiemi Kato Okino - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil

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Impact of the Worst School Experiences in Students: A Retrospective Study on Trauma Paloma Pegolo de Albuquerque, Lucia C. A. Williams - Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos-SP, Brazil

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Discriminant Profile of Young Internet Dependents: The Role of Family Relationships Michele Terres-Trindade, Clarisse Pereira Mosmann - Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, São Leopoldo-RS, Brazil

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Evidences of Factorial Structure and Precision of Phonemic Awareness Tasks (TCFe) Dalva Maria Alves Godoy - Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis-SC, Brazil Hugo Cogo-Moreira - Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brazil

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Interpersonal Interactions in the Marital Pair and Mental Health: A Comparative and Correlational Study Gleiber Couto - Universidade Federal de Goiás, Catalão-GO, Brazil Luc Vandenberghe - Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás, Goiânia-GO, Brazil Wanessa Marques Tavares - Universidade Federal de Goiás, Catalão-GO, Brazil

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Executive Functions: Influence of Sex, Age and Its Relationship With Intelligence Larissa de Oliveira e Ferreira, Daniela Sacramento Zanini - Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás, Goiânia-GO, Brazil Alessandra Gotuzo Seabra - Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, São Paulo-SP, Brazil

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Effects of a Brief Meditation Training on Negative Affect, Trait Anxiety and Concentrated Attention Carolina Baptista Menezes, Lisiane Bizarro - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil

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Ad Hoc Consultants - 2015

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Publications Guiderlines

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Paidéia Volume 25, Número 62, Setembro-Dezembro 2015 SUMÁRIO

Articles Os Desejos e a Expressão de Gratidão dos Jovens Jonathan Richard Henry Tudge - University of North Carolina at Greensboro, NC, Estados Unidos da América Lia Beatriz de Lucca Freitas - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brasil Irina L. Mokrova - University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC, Estados Unidos da América Yudan Chen Wang - University of North Carolina at Greensboro, NC, Estados Unidos da América Marion O’Brien - University of North Carolina at Greensboro, NC, Estados Unidos da América

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Programa de Intervenção nas Representações de Criatividade e Motivação Acadêmica de Adolescentes Maria de Fátima Morais - Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal Saul Neves de Jesus - Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal Ivete Azevedo - Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal Alexandra M. Araújo - Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal João Viseu - Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal

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Ideação Suicida em Estudantes Universitários: Prevalência e Associação com a Escola e o Género Adelino Pereira - Centro de Psicologia da Força Aérea, Lisboa, Portugal Francisco Cardoso - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal

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Evidências de Validade e Precisão Para Avaliação dos Tipos Profissionais de Holland Everson Meireles - Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia, Cruz das Almas-BA, Brasil Ricardo Primi - Universidade São Francisco, Itatiba-SP, Brasil

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Evidências de Validade do Questionário Portilho/Banas de Estilos de Ensino Giovani de Paula Batista, Evelise Maria Labatut Portilho - Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, Curitiba-PR, Brasil Sueli Édi Rufini - Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina-PR, Brasil

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Evidências de Validade da Escala de Comportamentos de Redesenho do Trabalho Renata Silva de Carvalho Chinelato, Maria Cristina Ferreira, Felipe Valentini Universidade Salgado de Oliveira, Niterói-RJ, Brasil

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Padrões Normativos do Rorschach (Escola de Paris) em Adolescentes do Brasil Maria Luísa Casillo Jardim-Maran, Sonia Regina Pasian, Erika Tiemi Kato Okino - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brasil

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Impacto das Piores Experiências Escolares em Estudantes: Um Estudo Retrospectivo Sobre Trauma Paloma Pegolo de Albuquerque, Lucia C. A. Williams - Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos-SP, Brasil

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Perfil Discriminante de Jovens Dependentes de Internet: O Papel das Relações Familiares Michele Terres-Trindade, Clarisse Pereira Mosmann - Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, São Leopoldo-RS, Brasil

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Evidências da Estrutura Fatorial e Precisão de Tarefas de Consciência Fonêmica (TCFe) Dalva Maria Alves Godoy - Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis-SC, Brasil Hugo Cogo-Moreira - Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brasil

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Interações Interpessoais no Par Conjugal e Saúde Mental: Um Estudo Comparativo e Correlacional Gleiber Couto - Universidade Federal de Goiás, Catalão-GO, Brasil Luc Vandenberghe - Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás, Goiânia-GO, Brasil Wanessa Marques Tavares - Universidade Federal de Goiás, Catalão-GO, Brasil

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Funções Executivas: Influência do Sexo, Idade e Sua Relação com Inteligência Larissa de Oliveira e Ferreira, Daniela Sacramento Zanini - Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás, Goiânia-GO, Brasil Alessandra Gotuzo Seabra - Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, São Paulo-SP, Brasil

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Efeitos de um Treino Breve de Meditação no Afeto Negativo, Ansiedade Traço e Atenção Concentrada Carolina Baptista Menezes, Lisiane Bizarro - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brasil

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Consultores Ad Hoc - 2015

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Normas de Publicação

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Paidéia Volumen 25, Número 62, Septiembre-Diciembre 2015 SUMARIO

Artículos Los Deseos y la Expresión de la Gratitud en los Jóvenes Jonathan Richard Henry Tudge - University of North Carolina at Greensboro, NC, Estados Unidos de América Lia Beatriz de Lucca Freitas - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brasil Irina L. Mokrova - University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC, Estados Unidos de América Yudan Chen Wang - University of North Carolina at Greensboro, NC, Estados Unidos de América Marion O’Brien - University of North Carolina at Greensboro, NC, Estados Unidos de América

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Programa de Intervención en Representaciones de Creatividad y Motivación Académica de Adolescentes Maria de Fátima Morais - Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal Saul Neves de Jesus - Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal Ivete Azevedo - Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal Alexandra M. Araújo - Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal João Viseu - Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal

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Ideación Suicida en Estudiantes Universitarios: Prevalencia y Asociación con la Escuela y el Género Adelino Pereira - Centro de Psicologia da Força Aérea, Lisboa, Portugal Francisco Cardoso - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal

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Evidencias de la Validez y Fiabilidad Para Evaluación de los Tipos Profesionales de Holland Everson Meireles - Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia, Cruz das Almas-BA, Brasil Ricardo Primi - Universidade São Francisco, Itatiba-SP, Brasil

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Evidencias de Validez del Cuestionario Portilho/Banas Estilos de Enseñanza Giovani de Paula Batista, Evelise Maria Labatut Portilho - Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, Curitiba-PR, Brasil Sueli Édi Rufini - Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina-PR, Brasil

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Evidencias de Validez de la Escala de Conductas de Rediseño del Trabajo Renata Silva de Carvalho Chinelato, Maria Cristina Ferreira, Felipe Valentini Universidade Salgado de Oliveira, Niterói-RJ, Brasil

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Estudio Normativo del Rorschach (Escuela de Paris) Para Adolescentes Brasileños Maria Luísa Casillo Jardim-Maran, Sonia Regina Pasian, Erika Tiemi Kato Okino - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brasil

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Impacto de las Peores Experiencias en la Escuela en Estudiantes: Un Estudio Retrospectivo Sobre Trauma Paloma Pegolo de Albuquerque, Lucia C. A. Williams - Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos-SP, Brasil

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Perfil Discriminante de Jóvenes Dependientes de Internet: el Papel de las Relaciones Familiares Michele Terres-Trindade, Clarisse Pereira Mosmann - Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, São Leopoldo-RS, Brasil

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Evidencias de la Estructura Factorial y Precisión de las Pruebas de Conciencia Fonémica (TCFe) Dalva Maria Alves Godoy - Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis-SC, Brasil Hugo Cogo-Moreira - Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brasil

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Interacciones Interpersonales en la Pareja Conyugal y Salud Mental: Un Estudio Comparativo y Correlacional Gleiber Couto - Universidade Federal de Goiás, Catalão-GO, Brasil Luc Vandenberghe - Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás, Goiânia-GO, Brasil Wanessa Marques Tavares - Universidade Federal de Goiás, Catalão-GO, Brasil

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Funciones Ejecutivas: Influencia del Sexo, la Edad y Su Relación con la Inteligencia Larissa de Oliveira e Ferreira, Daniela Sacramento Zanini - Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás, Goiânia-GO, Brasil Alessandra Gotuzo Seabra - Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, São Paulo-SP, Brasil

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Efectos de un Breve Entrenamiento de la Meditación en el Afecto Negativo, la Ansiedad Rasgo y la Atención Concentrada Carolina Baptista Menezes, Lisiane Bizarro - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brasil

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Consultores Ad Hoc - 2015

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Paidéia sep-dec. 2015, Vol. 25, No. 62, 281-288. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201501

Article

The Wishes and Expression of Gratitude of Youth1 Jonathan Richard Henry Tudge2 University of North Carolina at Greensboro, NC, United States of America Irina L. Mokrova University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC, United States of America

Lia Beatriz de Lucca Freitas Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil

Yudan Chen Wang University of North Carolina at Greensboro, NC, United States of America

Marion O’Brien University of North Carolina at Greensboro, NC, United States of America

Abstract: Little research has examined the development of gratitude in youth, and none has related their gratitude to their wishes. We therefore asked 358 7- to 14-year-old North American participants (56% female; 55% White) to write their greatest wish and what they would do for their benefactor. Using chi-square and linear curve estimation, we found that younger youth (aged 7 to 10) were significantly more likely to express hedonistic wishes (desire for immediate gain) and concrete gratitude (not taking the benefactor’s wishes into account); older youth (aged 11 to 14) were significantly more likely to wish either for something involving future well-being for themselves or the well-being of others and connective gratitude (taking into account the benefactor’s wishes). Within both age groups, there was a significant inverse relation between hedonistic wishes and connective gratitude. This research has implications for encouraging the feeling and expression of connective gratitude. Keywords: gratitude, child development, adolescent development

Os Desejos e a Expressão de Gratidão dos Jovens Resumo: Poucos estudos examinaram o desenvolvimento da gratidão em jovens, e nenhum estabeleceu relações entre sua gratidão e seus desejos. Assim, solicitamos a 358 participantes norte-americanos entre 7 e 14 anos de idade (56% meninas; 55% brancos) que escrevessem qual seria o seu maior desejo e o que eles fariam a seu benfeitor. Utilizando qui quadrado e estimativa de curva linear, encontramos que os mais jovens (de 7 a 10 anos de idade) foram significativamente mais propensos a expressar desejos hedonistas (desejo por ganho imediato) e gratidão concreta (não considerando os desejos do benfeitor); os jovens mais velhos (de 11 a 14 anos de idade) foram significativamente mais propensos a desejar seja algo envolvendo bem-estar futuro para si mesmos seja o bem-estar de outros e gratidão conectiva (levando em conta os desejos do benfeitor). Em ambos os grupos etários, houve uma relação inversa significativa entre desejos hedonistas e gratidão conectiva. Esta pesquisa tem implicações para encorajar o sentimento e a expressão de gratidão conectiva. Palavras-chave: gratidão, desenvolvimento infantil, desenvolvimento do adolescente

Los Deseos y la Expresión de la Gratitud en los Jóvenes Resumen: Pocos estudios han examinado el desarrollo de gratitud en los jóvenes, y ninguno ha relacionado su gratitud a sus deseos. Por lo tanto, pedimos a 358 participantes de América del Norte de 7 a 14 años de edad (55% femenino, 55% blanco) a escribir su mayor deseo y lo que harían por su benefactor. Utilizando un distribución ji-cuadrado y estimación curva lineal, encontramos que los más jóvenes (de 7 a 10 años de edad) fueron significativamente más propensos a expresar los deseos hedonistas (deseo de ganancia inmediata) y la gratitud de concreto (no tomar los deseos del benefactor en cuenta); los jóvenes mayores (de 11 a 14 años de edad) fueron significativamente más propensos a desear sea para algo relacionado con el bienestar futuro para sí mismos o para el bienestar de los demás y gratitud conectivo (tomando en cuenta los deseos del benefactor). Dentro de ambos grupos de edad, existe una relación inversa significativa entre los deseos hedonistas y gratitud conectivo. Esta investigación tiene implicaciones para fomentar el sentimiento y la expresión de gratitud conectivo. Palabras clave: gratitud, desarrollo infantil, desarrollo del adolescente Acknowledgement: We would like to express our gratitude to the youth who participated in this study. Support: The first author received support from the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES - Grant no. BEX18344/12-7) and The John Templeton Foundation (Grant no. 43510); the second author was supported by the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq - Grant no. 301714/2012-6).

Correspondence address: Jonathan Tudge. Dept. of Human Development and Family Studies. University of North Carolina at Greensboro, NC 27402-6170, USA. E-mail: jrtudge@uncg.edu

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

Gratitude is a socially desirable trait valued in many cultures for its role in strengthening social bonds. Parents encourage children to express gratitude, and ungrateful individuals are viewed negatively. Gratitude has been defined in at least two ways. Some include in the definition positive feelings about the good things that life offers – such as beautiful sunsets or good health, or being grateful to God (Froh, Yurkewicz, & Kashdan, 2009; Wood, Froh, & Geraghty, 2010). Others, in both psychology and philosophy,

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have defined gratitude more specifically as positive feelings towards and desire to repay a benefactor who has intentionally and freely provided a gift or help, without requesting or requiring payback (Baumgarten-Tramer, 1938; McConnell, 1993, 2013). We use this latter definition, which is also the one accepted by psychologists who were among the first to conduct empirical research on gratitude (BaumgartenTramer, 1938) as well as by recent scholars (Freitas, Pieta, & Tudge, 2011; Froh, Bono, & Emmons, 2010; McCullough, Kimeldorf, & Cohen, 2008; Rava & Freitas, 2013). The sense of connection to a benefactor and desire to reciprocate are key components of gratitude in that they contribute to a positive cycle of giving or helping. In the course of repaying the benefactor, the original beneficiary becomes a benefactor as well, and the cycle repeats, thus helping to form ever-closer relations between the individuals concerned. This positive cycle has been recognized in humans (Piaget, 1954/1981) and may also occur in nonhuman primates (Bonnie & de Waal, 2004). Gratitude is present in the life of youth who live in different contexts (Paludo, 2014), features as a part of young adolescents’ conceptions of what it takes to be considered a moral person (Hardy, Walker, Olsen, Skalski, & Basinger, 2011), and develops during childhood and adolescence (Baumgarten-Tramer, 1938; Freitas et al., 2011; Piaget, 1954/1981) as children form a theory of mind, are able to think in non-egocentric ways, and can take into account others’ intentionality (Kawashima & Martins, 2015). We should thus expect youth of different ages to express gratitude in different ways. Young children can be taught to say “thank you”, but a learned social convention is not the same as the more sophisticated type of gratitude fitting with the definition we have used. Older children may learn that one should reciprocate in some way beyond saying “thank you” for help or gifts received. However, reciprocation in a way designed to be helpful or pleasurable to the benefactor requires taking another’s perspective; egocentric children or those who show little understanding of theory of mind are unlikely to express gratitude in its most sophisticated form (Freitas, O’Brien, Nelson, & Marcovitch, 2012; Nelson et al., 2013). Adolescents are more likely than younger children to take into account benefactors’ intentions (Weiner & Graham, 1988) and thus should be more likely to express the more sophisticated type of gratitude than are younger children. One of the main aims of this study is to test this hypothesis. To date, the development of gratitude has received little empirical focus, with research mainly on adults (Freitas et al., 2011). Among adults, gratitude is related to individuals’ sense of well-being and quality of life (Emmons & Mishra, 2012; Wood et al., 2010): individuals who more often experience and express gratitude report being happier; enjoying their work more; being more optimistic, energetic, and helpful; and having lower levels of depression and stress than those who do not (Kerr, O’Donovan, & Pepping, 2015; McCullough, Emmons, & Tsang, 2002). In adolescents gratitude is related to life satisfaction, contentment, optimism, and positive affect (Algoe, 2012; Algoe, Fredrickson, & Gable, 2013; Froh et al., 2009). Experimental studies have shown that youth who

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are encouraged to express gratitude subsequently feel more positive about their school, teachers, and friends (Bono & Froh, 2009; Froh et al., 2014). Much of this research, however, does not treat gratitude as the “positive feeling towards and desire to repay a benefactor”, as described above. Except for studies in which gratitude is induced by having participants write a letter to someone who has helped them in some way (Froh et al., 2014), the most widely used measures are the Gratitude Questionnaire (McCullough et al., 2002), most items of which are not related to a benefactor, or the Gratitude Adjective Checklist (McCullough et al., 2002), which asks participants the extent to which they feel grateful, thankful, and appreciative over the previous 24 hours, without any reference to a benefactor. A different type of measure is needed to assess gratitude towards a benefactor (Gulliford, Morgan, & Kristjánsson, 2013). Moreover, none of these studies are designed to examine the development of gratitude. In the first study designed specifically to examine the development of gratitude, Baumgarten-Tramer (1938) asked 1,059 7- to 15-year-old Swiss participants to state their greatest wish and what they would do for a benefactor who granted that wish. Responses to the second question were categorized as: verbal gratitude (e.g., “thank you”); concrete gratitude (providing the benefactor something valuable to the beneficiary, such as offering a doll in return for a game); and connective gratitude (providing something valuable to the benefactor, such as saying “I would do whatever I could to help her”). Baumgarten-Tramer found that verbal gratitude was common at all ages but most frequent among 15-yearolds, concrete gratitude was more common in her younger than older participants, and connective gratitude was more common in those who were older. Connective gratitude, as the name suggests, should help build or maintain relationships with others and is the most sophisticated type. Recent research using Baumgarten-Tramer’s (1938) method has supported her findings with data from 430 Brazilian children and young adolescents (Freitas et al., 2011). In this study verbal gratitude was expressed at all ages but most frequently by 12- and 14-year-olds. Children (7- to 10-year-olds) were more likely to express concrete gratitude whereas adolescents (11- to 14-year-olds) were more likely to express connective gratitude. Neither study provided data on the types of wishes the participants had. One might expect, however, some link between children’s wishes and their gratitude. For example, youth who wish for something that is designed to benefit others may be more likely to express connective gratitude than those who wish for something of benefit to themselves. The content of youths’ wishes is also likely to vary by age. It is possible that adolescents’ more sophisticated expressions of gratitude are related to the nature of their wishes, which may focus less on material objects than those of younger children. Support for this idea comes from research by Chaplin and John (2007) who found 12- to 13-year-olds chose more material objects to place in a collage than did either 8- to 9-year-olds or 16- to 18-yearolds. They interpreted their findings to show age differences in materialism.

Tudge, J. R. H., Freitas, L. B. L., Mokrova, I. L., Wang, Y. C., & O’Brien, M. (2015). The Wishes and Gratitude of Youth.

Gratitude researchers have generally not examined gender or ethnic differences. In one study girls were found to be more likely to express gratitude for interpersonal events such as being helped, whereas boys were more likely to express gratitude for material things (Gordon, MusherEizenman, Holub, & Dalrymple, 2004). Such a finding is supported by other research into American adolescents’ values, showing that females are less materialistic than are males (Goldberg, Gorn, Peracchio, & Bamossy, 2003; Kasser, 2005). Kashdan, Mishra, Breen, and Froh (2009) found that adult women were more likely to express gratitude than were men, and women who expressed more gratitude were more likely to feel a sense of connectedness with others. No studies have examined cultural or ethnic variation in the expression of gratitude. The Present Study The main goal was to examine the expression of gratitude in children and adolescents and to identify age differences in the types of gratitude expressed, rather than variations in the extent to which individuals feel grateful, the typical focus in gratitude research with adolescents and adults. However, as our aim was to assess gratitude relating to the hypothetical receipt of something wished for, we first asked our participants to identify their “greatest wish”. Initially, therefore, we examined the content of our participants’ wishes. We hypothesized that those who were younger would be more likely to wish for immediate hedonistic material gain (money, toys, etc.) whereas adolescents’ wishes would focus on longer-term benefits such as their own future well-being or the well-being of others. Second, we asked our participants what they would do for the person who granted them their wish. We hypothesized that those who were younger would be more likely to express concrete gratitude whereas those who were older would be more likely to express connective gratitude. We expected no age differences in verbal gratitude, as found in earlier research. Finally, we examined the expression of gratitude in relation to participants’ wishes. We anticipated that those wishing for immediate benefits for themselves (hedonistic wishes) would be more likely to express concrete gratitude, whereas those whose wishes are focused on the well-being of others would be more likely to express connective gratitude. Youths wishing for their own future well-being were expected to fall in between. Based on earlier findings, we hypothesized that girls would be less likely than boys to express hedonistic wishes and more likely than boys both to express connective gratitude and to wish for social well-being. No gender difference was expected in wishes for self well-being.

Method Participants A total of 358 7- to 14-year-old youths from a city in the southeastern United States participated in this study. Females (mean age 10 years 10 months, SD = 24.4 months) comprised 56% of the sample (197) and males 44% (155) (mean age 10

years 4 months, SD = 25.7 months) (six participants did not report gender, and were excluded from all analyses involving gender). For purposes of analysis, children were divided into younger (7-10 years) and older (11-14 years) age groups. Approximately 55% (197) self-identified as European American (White), 33.5% (120) as African American (Black) or Black/White bi-racial, 8.4% (30) as Hispanic or from Spanish-speaking homes, and 4% (11) from other ethnic groups or provided no information about ethnicity. Because of the low numbers of Hispanic and other groups, they were excluded from analysis of ethnic group differences. The participants were recruited from six public schools (three elementary and three middle schools). Although we did not collect data on social class, the schools were selected to reflect the range of SES represented by the city’s public schools. Students were asked to take home, and return, a parental consent letter; we described the study to those youths whose parents had provided consent and invited them to participate. Classrooms were provided $2 for each student who returned the parental consent letter, regardless of parental permission. The return rate was 56%; 86% of these gave consent and 84% of this number participated (the remainder were absent or chose not to participate). All youths whose parents gave permission and who themselves wished to participate were allowed to do so. Instruments The participants were asked to respond, in writing, to the Wishes and Gratitude Survey (Freitas, Tudge, & McConnell, 2008, derived from Baumgarten-Tramer, 1938), consisting of four open-ended questions: “What is your greatest wish?”, “What will you do for the person who granted you this wish?”, “Is there anything else you should do for this person?” and “Who is this person?” For this study, only the first two were coded and analyzed. The second question includes the assumption that the wish is being freely and intentionally granted, thus fitting our definition of gratitude. Procedure Data collection. Data collection took place in groups in the participants’ classrooms at school or in a central place, such as the school library or cafeteria. Research assistants were available to help any participants who had reading difficulties and to make sure that their responses were legible. Data collection took approximately 20 to 30 minutes. Data analysis. Responses to the first question were coded into three categories: (a) hedonism, or a desire for something that brings immediate pleasure; (b) self wellbeing, or a desire for future-related personal benefits; and (c) social well-being, or a desire for current or future benefits for others. Fourteen youths (4%) were excluded from the analyses involving wishes as they did not provide a wish or the wish’s meaning was unclear. Responses to the second question about what each respondent would do for the person who granted his or her wish were coded into the three main categories used by Baumgarten-Tramer (1938): (a) verbal gratitude (“thank you” or “I would thank him 1,000 times”);

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Ethical Considerations This research project was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the University of North Carolina at Greensboro (IRB # 11-0315), and was carried out in full compliance with all ethical considerations. Parents first needed to provide their consent before students were asked to listen to and/or read a child-assent form that clearly explained the project and their role. Only students who signed that form were permitted to engage in the research.

Results Types of Wishes As hypothesized, 7- to 10-year-olds were more likely than 11- to 14-year-olds to express hedonistic wishes (56% vs. 24%), and less likely to express wishes relating to either self-well-being (36% vs. 55%) or social well-being (8% vs. 21%), c2 (2) = 37.49, p < .0001 (Figure 1). The two age groups differed significantly between hedonistic wishes and both self well-being (c2 [1] = 27.61, p < .0001) and social well-being (c2 [1] = 25.04, p < .0001), but not between self and social well-being (c2 [1] = 1.55, ns). We also ran curve-estimation analyses to test whether the relation between age and types of wishes changed in a linear fashion. As only four 14-year olds were included

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in our sample, the curve estimations were conducted with 354 7- to 13-year olds. The results indicated a significant linear decline in hedonistic wishes with age (R2 = .74, p = .012), and significant linear increases in wishes for both self well-being (R2 = .73, p = .015) and social well-being (R2 = .64, p = .031). 70

Percentage of responses

60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Male

Female

Hedonism

Black

White

Self well-being

7 to 10

11 to 14

Social well-being

Figure 1. Percentages of expression of wishes for hedonism, futureoriented self well-being, and social well-being by gender, ethnicity, and age group.

Although we had hypothesized that fewer girls than boys would express hedonistic wishes, no significant differences were found (c2 [2] = 3.18, ns). We had not hypothesized ethnic variation in the participants’ wishes, but we found African American youths to be more likely than their European American counterparts to wish for self well-being (52% vs. 41%) and less likely to wish for social well-being (5% vs. 20%), c2 (2) = 11.83, p < .005. No difference was found for hedonistic wishes (42% vs. 39%). 70 60 Percentage of responses

(b) concrete gratitude (offering the benefactor something in return, but something of value to the child and not to the benefactor; e.g., in return for being granted the wish “to become a pro basketball player,” offering the benefactor an autographed basketball); and (c) connective gratitude (offering an object or help of value to the benefactor, such as: “I’ll help her in any way that I can”). In addition, 32 (9%) of the participants were coded as “other” (including no response and “don’t know”) and were dropped from the analyses involving gratitude. Two of the research team (the first author and a graduate student, trained in coding both wishes and gratitude) independently coded 50% of the responses to these two questions; kappas were .82 and above for wishes, and .90 and above for gratitude. All disagreements were discussed until agreement was reached. A large majority of the participants provided a response that could be coded into just one of the possible types; in the 76 cases (21%) in which participants provided two or more responses, the more advanced was included in the analyses. The coded data were then analyzed using SPSS Version 18. Chi-square analysis was used to examine whether younger (7- to 10-year-olds) were more or less likely than those who were older (11- to 14-year-olds) to choose one or other type of wish and to respond with one or other type of gratitude. Chi-square analysis was also used to examine the relation between types of wishes and the types of gratitude expressed. We used curve estimation (one of the available options in SPSS for linear regression analysis) to assess the extent of age-related changes in both types of wishes and types of gratitude.

50 40 30 20 10 0 Male Female Verbal

Black White Concrete

7 to 10 11 to 14 Connective

Figure 2. Percentages of responses of verbal, concrete, and connective gratitude, by gender, ethnicity, and age group.

Tudge, J. R. H., Freitas, L. B. L., Mokrova, I. L., Wang, Y. C., & O’Brien, M. (2015). The Wishes and Gratitude of Youth.

Types of Gratitude As predicted, younger participants were more likely than those who were older to express concrete gratitude (47% vs. 27%) and less likely to express connective gratitude (32% vs. 49%), with little difference (21% vs. 24%) in expression of verbal gratitude (c2 [2] = 14.95, p < .01) (Figure 2). To test the specific hypothesis dealing solely with concrete and connective gratitude, we reanalyzed the data without including those participants who had expressed verbal gratitude; as predicted, the younger age group (n = 119) was significantly more likely to express concrete gratitude and the older group (n = 119) significantly more likely to express connective gratitude, c2 (1) = 15.01, p = .0001. The curveestimation analyses revealed no significant linear change in terms of verbal gratitude (R2 = .43, p = .109), but a significant linear decline, with age, in concrete gratitude (R2 = .76, p = .011) and a significant linear increase in connective gratitude (R2 = .91, p = .001).We found no gender or ethnic differences in expressions of gratitude. The Connection Between Wishes and Gratitude Data on the relation between types of wishes and types of gratitude are in Table 1. We predicted that participants whose wishes were hedonistic would be more likely to express concrete gratitude whereas those who wished for social wellbeing would be more likely to express connective gratitude. This prediction was supported, c2 (2) = 26.87, p < .0001. The finding also held across both age groups: younger group, c2 (2) = 10.82, p = .004; older group, c2 (2) = 10.01, p = .007. Table 1 The Relation Between Types of Wishes and Types of Gratitude Types of gratitude

Verbal

Concrete

Connective

7- to 10-year-olds Types of wishes Hedonism

18 (22%)

45 (55%)

19 (23%)

Self well-being

12 (21%)

23 (40%)

22 (39%)

2 (14%)

8 (57%)

Social well-being

4 (28%)

11- to 14-year-olds Hedonism

11 (27%)

13 (32%)

16 (40%)

Self well-being

20 (23%)

26 (31%)

39 (46%)

2 (6%)

23 (70%)

Social well-being

8 (24%)

More 7- to 10-year-olds expressed hedonistic wishes (82, 53.6%) than wishes for self well-being (57, 37.3%) or social well-being (14, 9.2%) (Table 1). However, of those expressing hedonistic wishes only 19 (23%) expressed connective gratitude, whereas 8 of 14 (57%) who expressed wishes for social well-being did so. As for the 11- to 14-yearolds, the majority (85, 53.8%) expressed wishes for self wellbeing, followed by 40 (25.3%) who expressed hedonistic wishes and 33 (20.9%) who wished for social well-being.

Of the 40 expressing hedonistic wishes, 13 (32%) expressed concrete gratitude and 16 (40%) expressed connective gratitude. By contrast, of the 33 in the older group who had wished for social well-being only 2 (6%) expressed concrete gratitude and 23 (70%) expressed connective gratitude. As expected, the participants at both ages who wished for self well-being were more evenly divided in their expression of concrete versus connective gratitude.

Discussion The purpose of the present research was to examine agerelated changes in the expression of three types of gratitude in youth, and the extent to which these types of gratitude were related to the participants’ wishes. Verbal gratitude is the simplest form, and is found in children as young as 3 (Becker & Smenner, 1986). It is difficult, however, to distinguish verbal gratitude from politeness. Concrete gratitude involves reciprocity in that children indicate that they should repay a favor, but, in egocentric fashion, they think that what they themselves value will also be valued by the benefactor. Connective gratitude is yet more sophisticated, and thus the most advanced, developmentally, because it requires that youth take into account the desires or needs of the benefactor. Only connective gratitude fully captures the moral sense described by Piaget (1954/1981) as the feeling that occurs when a person does not simply value the help or favor but the person who provided it. As hypothesized, 7- to 10-year-olds were most likely to express concrete gratitude whereas 11- to 14-year-olds were most likely to express connective gratitude, with little agegroup difference in the expression of verbal gratitude. There was, however, a good deal of individual variation. About one third of the younger group expressed connective gratitude, and a just over one quarter of the older group expressed concrete gratitude. Nonetheless, the findings provide evidence that with development comes a greater propensity to express gratitude in a way that involves forming or strengthening a bond with a benefactor. We wanted to know the extent to which the participants’ wishes varied by age. Our data support our hypothesis that younger children are more likely than those who are older to wish for things that benefit themselves fairly immediately and less likely to wish for things that are related to their own future well-being or the well-being of others. As with gratitude, there was a good deal of individual variability. Although a majority of the younger group’s wishes were coded as hedonistic, more than a third wished for something that involved future-oriented self well-being and some wished for something that would benefit the wider community. There was a similar degree of variability in the older group, with more than half the participants wishing for something related to their own future well-being and the remainder being divided between those who expressed hedonistic wishes and those who wished for something to benefit others. In examining the relation between wishes and expressions of gratitude, we found an inverse relation

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between hedonistic wishes and connective gratitude. Some scholars studying older adolescents and adults have reported an inverse relation between materialism and the expression of gratitude (Froh, Emmons, Card, Bono, & Wilson, 2011; Lambert, Fincham, Stilman, & Dean, 2009). To the extent to which a desire for things that give immediate pleasure is one component of materialism, our findings suggest that the issue might be more complex, at least with children and younger adolescents. Those participants who wished for something that would immediately benefit themselves were just as likely as others to express gratitude, but it was concrete gratitude that did not involve taking another person’s wishes, needs, or desires into account. By contrast, those who wished for something that would benefit the wider community were more likely to express the sort of gratitude that involves connections with others. Although the older group was more likely than those who were younger to show both connective gratitude and social well-being, this inverse relation between hedonistic wishes and connective gratitude was found equally in the younger and older age groups. In the adult literature, gratitude is linked to many indices of well-being. It is thus surprising that so little attention has been paid to the development of this positive characteristic. From a developmental perspective it is important to consider the implications of the existence of different types of gratitude. Saying “thank you” may be politeness and concrete gratitude may be a mark of a child’s egocentric thinking whereas connective gratitude fulfills the required aspects of gratitude as defined by philosophers and psychologists. Specifically, connective gratitude encompasses both pleasure in the gift or help received and a desire to repay with something that is of benefit or pleasure to the benefactor. As its name suggests, connective gratitude is most likely to build or strengthen connections between benefactor and beneficiary. The vast majority of research on gratitude conducted with older adolescents and adults has focused on how much individuals express gratitude, regardless of the type of gratitude expressed or the source of the feeling of gratitude. Further research is needed to examine variations in the types of gratitude expressed across a range of contexts and situations. Future studies will also need to go further and assess the development of gratitude longitudinally as well as examining precursors to individual differences in the expression of gratitude. No studies have so far examined ways in which parents encourage their children to feel and express gratitude. Similarly, more work is needed to understand the broader social contexts of social class, ethnicity, and culture, and the ways in which these contexts influence the development of gratitude. We had not expected to find racial/ethnic variations in the types of wishes expressed, yet we found more African American youths to express wishes for self well-being and fewer to express wishes for social well-being as compared with European American youths. Although our results are similar to those reported from Brazil by Freitas et al. (2011), more work is needed to determine whether these findings hold in other samples both within and outside the United States and, if so, to understand the source of these

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differences. Clearly, with data only collected from one part of the United States we would not wish to generalize our findings to other regions of the country or to other parts of the world (Tudge & Freitas, 2012). We should also note that 44% of the permission letters sent home with the students did not come back to the school. This is not necessarily indicative of a high refusal rate; of those letters that came back (classrooms were promised $2 for each letter returned, whether parents granted permission or not), only 16% indicated refusal. It is possible that the letters were simply lost en route. Unfortunately, we were unable to collect data on the socioeconomic backgrounds of the participants in our sample, but understanding the links with social class must be a priority for future work in this area. Moreover, research is needed to elucidate how gratitude develops in societies (and in cultural groups) in which parents are more closely connected with community and value relatedness as much as or more than autonomy ( , 2012). The connection we found between wishes and gratitude is an interesting one, and something that needs further exploration. The data presented here are correlational, and given that the question regarding wishes preceded the question about gratitude, it might be that youths who have just expressed a wish about others’ well-being are more ready to express connective gratitude than are those who think about their own immediate desires. Nonetheless, encouraging youth to feel and express connective gratitude might not only help strengthen ties with others and with the broader community but may also reduce the desire to satisfy hedonistic wishes. Regardless, it might be helpful for parents and teachers to encourage their children to express their gratitude not so much for the gift or help they received but to the person providing it, thereby supporting the development of connective gratitude. Similarly, these findings should be helpful to professionals seeking ways to encourage youth well-being and connection with others in the community.

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work on the concept of gratitude in philosophy and psychology. Journal of Value Inquiry, 47(3), 285-317. doi:10.1007/s10790-013-9387-8 Hardy, S. A., Walker, L. J., Olsen, J. A., Skalski, J. E., & Basinger, J. C. (2011). Adolescent naturalistic conceptions of moral maturity. Social Development, 20(3), 562-586. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2010.00590.x , C. (2012). Sociocultural change and integrative syntheses in human development: Autonomous-related self and social-cognitive competence. Child Development Perspectives, 6(1), 5-11. doi:10.1111/j.17508606.2011.00173.x Kashdan, T. B., Mishra, A., Breen, W. E., & Froh, J. J. (2009). Gender differences in gratitude: Examining appraisals, narratives, the willingness to express emotions, and changes in psychological needs. Journal of Personality, 77(3), 691-730. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00562.x Kasser, T. (2005). Frugality, generosity, and materialism in children and adolescents. In K. A. Moore & L. H. Lippman (Eds.), What do children need to flourish? Conceptualizing and measuring indicators of positive development (pp. 357-373). New York, NY: Springer. Kawashima, R. A., & Martins, R. A. (2015). The absence of generosity and obedience to authority: Judgments of teachers and students from kindergarten. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 25(60), 115-123. doi:10.1590/198243272560201514 Kerr, S. L., O’Donovan, A., & Pepping, C. A. (2015). Can gratitude and kindness interventions enhance well-being in a clinical sample? Journal of Happiness Studies, 16(1), 17-36. doi:10.1007/s10902-013-9492-1 Lambert, N. M., Fincham, F. D., Stilman, T. F., Dean, L. R. (2009). More gratitude, less materialism: The mediating role of life satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(1), 32-42. doi:10.1080/17439760802216311 McConnell, T. (1993). Gratitude. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. McConnell, T. (2013). Gratitude. In H. LaFollette (Ed.), International encyclopedia of ethics (Vol. 4, pp. 22202229). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. McCullough, M. E., Emmons, R. A., & Tsang, J.-A. (2002). The grateful disposition: A conceptual and empirical topography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 112-127. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.82.1.112 McCullough, M. E., Kimeldorf, M. B., & Cohen, A. D. (2008). An adaptation for altruism? The social causes, social effects, and social evolution of gratitude. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(4), 281-285. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00590.x Nelson, J. A., Freitas, L. B. L., O’Brien, M., Calkins, S. D., Leerkes, E. M., & Marcovitch, S. (2013). Preschool-aged children’s understanding of gratitude: Relations with emotion and mental state knowledge. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 31(1), 42-56. doi:10.1111/ j.2044-835X.2012.02077.x Paludo, S. S. (2014). As emoções no universo moral

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dos adolescentes [Emotions in the moral universe of adolescents]. In L. F. Habigzang, E. Diniz, & S. H. Koller (Orgs.), Trabalhando com adolescentes: Teoria e intervenção psicológica [Working with adolescents: Psychological theory and intervention] (pp. 164-179). Porto Alegre, RS: Artmed. Piaget, J. (1981). Intelligence and affectivity: Their relationship during child development. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews. (Original work published 1954). Rava, P. G. S., & Freitas, L. B. L. (2013). Gratidão e sentimento de obrigatoriedade na infância [Gratitude and the feeling of obligation in childhood]. Psico-USF, 18(3), 383-394. doi:10.1590/S1413-82712013000300005 Tudge, J. R. H., & Freitas, L. B. L. (2012). Internationalization, globalization and culture. Psicologia & Sociedade, 24(3), 547-556. doi:10.1590/S0102-71822012000300008 Weiner, B., & Graham, S. (1988). Understanding the motivational role of affect: Life-span research from an attributional perspective. Cognition and Emotion, 3(4), 401-419. doi:10.1080/02699938908412714 Wood, A. M., Froh, J. J., & Geraghty, A. W. A. (2010). Gratitude and well-being: A review and theoretical integration. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(7), 890-905. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.005 Jonathan Richard Henry Tudge is a Full Professor at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, and a Collaborating Professor at the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. Lia Beatriz de Lucca Freitas is an Associate Professor at the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. Irina L. Mokrova is a Research Associate at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Yudan Chen Wang is a Postdoctoral Researcher at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Marion O’Brien is a Professor Emerita at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Received: Oct. 17, 2014 1st Revision: Apr. 22, 2015 Approved: Apr. 27, 2015

How to cite this article: Tudge, J. R. H., Freitas, L. B. L., Mokrova, I. L., Wang, Y. C., & O’Brien, M. (2015). The wishes and expression of gratitude of youth. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 25(62), 281288. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201501

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Article

Intervention Program on Adolescent’s Creativity Representations and Academic Motivation1 Maria de Fátima Morais2 Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal

Saul Neves de Jesus Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal

Alexandra M. Araújo Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal

Ivete Azevedo Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal

João Viseu Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal

Abstract: Creativity and its promotion are widespread concerns in education. However, few efforts have been made to implement intervention programs designed to promote creativity and other related aspects (e.g., academic motivation). The Future Problem Solving Program International (FPSPI), aimed for training creativity representations and creative problem solving skills in young people, has been one of the most implemented programs. This intervention’s materials and activities were adapted for Portuguese students, and a longitudinal study was conducted. The program was implemented during four months, in weekly sessions, by thirteen teachers. Teachers received previous training for the program and during the program’s implementation. Intervention participants included 77 Basic and Secondary Education students, and control participants included 78 equivalent students. Pretest-posttest measures of academic motivation and creativity representations were collected. Results suggest a significant increase, in the intervention group, in motivation and the appropriate representations of creativity. Practical implications and future research perspectives are presented. Keywords: adolescents, creativity, educational program evaluation, motivation, representation

Programa de Intervenção nas Representações de Criatividade e Motivação Acadêmica de Adolescentes Resumo: A criatividade e sua promoção geram grande preocupação em educação. Contudo, poucos esforços têm existido para implementar programas destinados a sua promoção e de outros aspetos relacionados (e.g., motivação acadêmica). O Future Problem Solving Program International (FPSPI), criado para melhorar as representações de criatividade e a resolução criativa de problemas em jovens, tem sido um dos mais implementados. Os seus materiais e atividades foram adaptados para estudantes portugueses, efetuando-se um estudo longitudinal. O programa foi implementado durante quatro meses, semanalmente, por treze professores, que receberam formação antes e durante a implementação. O grupo experimental incluiu 77 estudantes do Ensino Básico e Secundário, apresentando o grupo de controlo 78 estudantes com características equivalentes. Os dados sobre a motivação e criatividade foram recolhidos num pré e pós-teste. Os resultados sugerem um aumento significativo na motivação e crenças apropriadas de criatividade no grupo experimental. Implicações práticas e perspectivas para investigações futuras são apresentadas. Palavras-chave: adolescentes, criatividade, avaliação de programa educacional, motivação, representação

Programa de Intervención en Representaciones de Creatividad y Motivación Académica de Adolescentes Resumen: La creatividad y su promoción generan gran preocupación en educación. Sin embargo, han sido llevados a cabo pocos esfuerzos para implementar programas de promoción de la creatividad y otros aspectos (e.g., motivación académica). El Future Problem Solving Program International (FPSPI), creado para mejorar las representaciones de creatividad y la solución creativa de problemas en jóvenes, ha sido bastante implementado. Se adaptaron sus materiales y actividades para estudiantes portugueses, y se desarrolló un estudio longitudinal. El programa se implementó semanalmente durante cuatro meses por trece profesores, que recibieron formación antes y durante la implementación. El grupo experimental incluyó 77 estudiantes de Educación Primaria y Secundaria y el grupo de control incluyó 78 estudiantes con características semejantes. Los datos de motivación y creatividad fueron recogidos en un pre y post-test, sugiriendo un aumento significativo de motivación y creencias apropiadas sobre la creatividad en el grupo experimental. Se presentan implicaciones prácticas y perspectivas para futuras investigaciones. Palabras clave: adolescentes, creatividad, evaluación de programa educacional, motivación, representación This article is based on the third author’s postdoctoral research, under the supervision of the first author and included in the Postdoctoral Program in Psychology of Education of the Institute of Education of the Universidade do Minho. Support: This study was funded by the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT, Portugal - SFRH/BPD/80825/2011).

Correspondence address: Maria de Fátima Morais. Universidade do Minho, Instituto de Educação. Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal. E-mail: famorais@ ie.uminho.pt

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

Motivation and creativity are becoming increasingly valuable assets in today’s unpredictable, ever-changing society (Cropley, 2009; Starko, 2010). Accordingly, educational settings, in particular, should focus on creativity, providing students with creative skills and appropriate representations of creativity (Almeida & Alencar, 2010). Research has suggested that intrinsically motivated students, who seek to enhance their skills and knowledge, demonstrate

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higher levels of creativity (Jesus, Rus, Lens, & Imaginário, 2013). Creativity is a multidimensional concept, which has challenged many authors over the years. There are many definitions, explanatory models and even controversy about this concept, showing that, despite its appeal, it is a complex subject (Kaufman, Beghetto, & Pourjalali, 2011; Starko, 2010). Therefore, it is not surprising that creativity representations involve erroneous viewpoints and that there are many myths or wrong conceptions about creativity, as it is something difficult to know or understand (MacLaren, 2012). However, there are common aspects in the numerous definitions of this construct: creativity is usually referred to the development of something simultaneously new and appropriate, which can be a product or a solution to an existing problem (Lubart, 2007; Runco, 2006). In turn, the erroneous conceptions about creativity may result in negative personal and social consequences, namely in terms of investing in creative potential, as mental representations condition behavior. Representations, defined as subjective reconstructions of reality, are the condition in which an individual approaches and assesses his or her reality (Moscovici, 2003). One of the most frequently observed myths of creativity is the representation of this construct as something that stems from a sudden and unexplainable inspiration. Many works have dismissed this myth, highlighting the role that effort, persistence and time play in creative ideas (Perkins, 1981; Weisberg, 2006). Based on the representation of creativity as an inspiration, it is still believed that this concept is strongly associated with geniality. However, the importance of creativity in everyday life is broadly acknowledged, suggesting that everyone has a creative potential, which may be intentionally promoted (Fairweather & Cramond, 2010; Runco, 2006). In addition, creativity is not only originality, but also appropriateness – a frequently forgotten duplicity in the definition of this concept (Kaufman & Beghetto, 2009; Lubart & Guinard, 2006). Once more, this definition stresses the role of effort, time and elaboration. Another myth, which is particularly salient in educational settings, links creativity to indiscipline or troubling behavior (Beghetto & Plucker, 2006; Cropley, 1997). Nevertheless, the expression of creativity does not necessarily result in adjustment problems, as creativity can promote motivation and healthy, adjusted behaviors in daily life (Cropley, 2009). One additional and frequently observed conception of creativity is the one that relates it to arts (Makel & Plucker, 2010; Péter-Szarka, 2012). This belief may neglect the value of creative ideas for innovation in contexts, such as scientific research, human and social sciences, leadership, or even sports. Creativity is necessary in various domains, from the school years until professional life (Craft, Jeffrey, & Leibling, 2007; Moraes & Lima, 2009; Pfeiffer, 2013). The abovementioned misleading conceptions have been addressed in educational interventions (Aljughaiman & Mowrer-Reynolds, 2005; Morais & Azevedo, 2011), as they seem to condition the representations of the creative teacher and of the creative student. For example, the creative teacher may be seen as someone who has difficulties in managing the classroom (Babicka, Dudek, Makiewicz, & Perzyck, 2010) and the creative student may be expected to present disrupting

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behaviors (Lucas, 2007). Finally, as creativity representations may constrain teachers’ practices for its promotion (Monteiro, Morais, Braga, & Nakano, 2013; Newton & Newton, 2009), the prevalence of these representations in students should not be ignored. In Portugal, a survey (Azevedo, 2007) demonstrated that self-reported creativity in adolescents did not correlate with their creative performance or with their teachers’ assessments of creativity. From this point of view, positive and appropriate representations of creativity in students may facilitate their self-knowledge and decision-making skills (for vocational or professional decisions, for example), as well as their investment in creative potential. Regarding teachers, previous studies suggested that their own representations of creativity may change due to systematic intervention (Park, Lee, Oliver, & Cramond, 2006). As these representations may change in teachers, it is possible that students’ representations of creativity may also benefit from interventions that aim to deconstruct these myths and promote students’ proactivity in creativity development. Motivation is one of the most important concepts in psychology, as it relates to the explanation of the dynamics, direction and persistence of behavior, considering that all behavior is motivated (Latham & Pinder, 2005). As in creativity, motivation can also be framed according to several theoretical approaches. Due to the diversity of micro-theories and specific variables studied, there is currently a need for an integrative approach to motivation that merges the contributions of the various theories about this construct. An example of this integrative framework has been presented and empirically tested by Jesus and Lens (2005), combining several theories of motivation. Despite the importance of motivation, it seems that social changes, in the past decades, have resulted in increasing demotivation in various fields of activity. As many suggest (Lévy-Leboyer, 1994), we are experiencing a motivation crisis. The lack of student motivation concerns educators, as students’ learning, academic achievement, adjusted behavior, and persistence are highly related to motivation (Rosário, Núñez, Valle, González-Pienda, & Lourenço, 2013). In 2004, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD] stressed the importance of motivating students in order to significantly reduce attrition rates. Dropout is a significant problem in Portugal, as the school dropout rate is of 31.2% (Instituto Nacional de Estatística & Statistics Portugal, 2013), doubling the average rate of 14.4% in the European Union (European Commission, 2011). The increasing importance of motivation in academic learning is leading to a greater emphasis on this topic (Jurisevic, 2012; Zenorini & Santos, 2010), with the objective of exploring possible solutions to engage students in academic tasks and learning (Buijs & Admiraal, 2013; Diseth, 2011). Evidence from research suggests that intrinsically motivated students engage in activities to develop skills and knowledge, showing better academic performance and higher levels of self-efficacy (Gottfried, 1990; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). A recent meta-analysis has demonstrated significant associations between intrinsic motivation and creativity (Jesus et al., 2013). Characteristics such as curiosity, persistence or openness to experience, for example, are important for

Morais, M. de F., Jesus, S. N., Azevedo, I., Araújo, A. M., & Viseu, J. (2015). Intervention on Creativity and Academic Motivation.

academic motivation, as well as for creative behavior (Morais, 2013), which illustrates the close relationship between these concepts. Learning tasks that stimulate students’ curiosity, persistence, and flexibility, such as those of creative problem solving, allow higher levels of learning motivation associated with these specific tasks, and promote creativity in students’ achievement. Aiming to assist students with the development of their creative potential and other associated dimensions, such as academic motivation, some techniques and training programs have been presented, specifically for the classroom environment (Fairweather & Cramond, 2010; Starko, 2010), including the Future Problem Solving Program International - FPSPI (E. P. Torrance, J. P. Torrance, Williams, & Horng, 1978), which will be analyzed in this study. The program’s goals follow general guidelines in the literature, suggesting that the promotion of creativity, along with the development of cognitive skills, should also include emotional and social competencies related to creativity (Runco, Lubart, & Getz, 2012). Creativity is described as a product of a dynamic interaction, or even of a co-incidence of several conditions (Megalakaki, Craft, & Cremin, 2012; Morais, 2013), as proposed in the explanatory models presented by Amabile (1996), Gardner (2011), or Sternberg and Lubart (1995). Considering an intervention in this dynamic co-incidence of cognition, personality, motivation, and environment, it is expected that creative performance will not improve without the contribution of these various facets, and also that better performances will be observed beyond creative skills. Creative Problem Solving has its origins in the 50s and is one of the most influential frameworks for training strategies (Sawyer, 2006). This model aims to produce innovative answers, based on divergent and convergent thinking. It includes three main components: (a) understanding the problem; (b) generating solutions; and (c) implementing the solution, in a sequence of six stages, each of which includes the development of divergent production and critical analysis. Creative Problem Solving is based on a combination of cognitive and interpersonal features, and works on knowledge collection, analysis, synthesis, production, assessment, and communication (Isaksen, Dorval, & Treffinger, 2011). Based on the model of Creative Problem Solving, the Future Problem Solving Program was presented in the 70s, in the United States of America. The program aims to train creative thinking in children and young people, by exercising their problem solving skills while exploring themes related to the future, based on real life examples (Treffinger, Solomon, & Woythal, 2012). The program is now named Future Problem Solving Program International (FPSPI) and is one of the most implemented training programs for creativity (Treffinger, Selby, & Crumel, 2012) in various countries. An example of the widespread use of this program is an annual international competition where teams of children and adolescents (4th through 12th grade) compete: the International Conference Future Problem Solving (www.fpspi.org). This international conference includes three alternative competition modalities that translate in different ways of presenting a creative project, and which are based on the application of creative

problem solving. Specifically, problem solving can be applied to problems in the community (Community Problem Solving) and in domains such as education, culture, or environmental issues. In addition, every year, there is an international proposal of topics such as human rights, healthy living, or genetic tests, which the participants have to analyze and develop creative solutions for an impending problem, considering the future, as the problem is presented through a future scene; this is the modality of Global Issues Problem Solving. There is also a modality of writing futuristic creative texts (Scenario Writing) related to the same mentioned topics. In the first two cases, the program is developed in small groups of children or young people; in the last, the student writes his or her creative text individually. In all modalities, creative projects are mentored by an adult (coach), who can be a teacher, a parent, or another educator. The program can be implemented in the classroom, as well as in extracurricular environments, such as school clubs, community-based groups of young people, or even in the family. In whichever of these modalities and topics, participants advance through a process of six stages. The first stage corresponds to the identification of generic problems. Subsequently, these fundamental problems are operationalized in specific problems. The third stage is related to the production of solutions, focusing on the quantity and diversity, and not yet having a critical attitude towards these ideas. It is in the next stage that the production and assessment of decision criteria for the aforementioned solutions come to place, in order to, finally, propose an implementation plan for the problem resolution (J. P. Torrance, E. P. Torrance, & Crabbe, 1983). This process takes place throughout the school year. With the help of a mentor, children or adolescents collect, analyze, and integrate relevant information. They produce and assess ideas, trying to organize an action plan. These students experience a process of Creative Problem Solving involving divergent and logic thinking, which are two fundamental conditions for creativity (Baer, 2003; Kaufman & Baer, 2006). Throughout this process, the participants also develop competition and cooperation skills (facilitated by teamwork), as well as emotional regulation, establishing interpersonal relationships and dealing with schedules and deadlines. They develop communication skills too, as they are invited to report the project’s development (in group or to their mentor) and to present this information in a written assignment or through drawings or videos, for example. Results of the FPSPI have been assessed (Treffinger, Selby et al., 2012), suggesting positive results in cognitive dimensions, namely in creative thinking and in critical and analytical thinking, but also in communication (Cojorn, Koocharoenpisal, Haemaprasith, & Siripankaew, 2012), career and occupational planning (Cramond, 2002), and in motivation for teamwork (Alvino, 1993). Moreover, creative problem solving skills seem to be developed not only in children and adolescents participating in the program, but also in the program’s coaches (Margison, 2004). The current study aimed to examine a program that promotes creative problem solving in adolescents, analyzing its impact on students’ representations of creativity and academic

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motivation. We hypothesized that the FPSPI contributes to the improvement of both aspects in an experimental group.

Method

six-point Likert-type scale (e.g., “When I have problems in a task, I ask my teacher for help”), and presented a Cronbach’s alpha of .82 in the current study. Procedure

Participants The intervention program was administered to 77 students who attended the 7th to 12th grades in Portuguese schools. These students were 12 to 17 years old (M = 14.47, SD = 2.25), being 54.2% boys (n = 42) and 45.8% girls (n = 35). The control group included 78 students with equivalent characteristics, of the same school years, and being roughly half boys (n = 36; 45.8%) and girls (n = 42; 54.2%), as observed in the experimental group. The participants in the control group attended the same educational establishments and educational levels of the participants in the experimental group, and were included in similar age groups. Instruments Both in the pretest and posttest, students completed the School and Creativity Scale - Students’ Perceptions (Azevedo & Morais, 2012; Azevedo, Morais, Jesus, Ribeiro, & Brandão, 2012). This scale assesses representations of creativity and creative teachers/students, and includes 25 five-point Likerttype items (1 = completely disagree to 5 = completely agree). Items are constructed based on explicit theories of creativity (e.g., “Creativity is finding a relation between different ideas”), as well as on myths or distortions frequently associated to this concept (e.g., “Creativity has to do with being an artist”). The development of this measure included an initial content analysis of items, performed by an expert in creativity, and an exploratory study with 10 adolescents, who completed the scale in order to clarify the formulation of the items for the age range considered. The scale is composed by two factors, corresponding to Appropriate Representations (15 items) and to Erroneous Representations (Myths; 10 items). In the present study, the first factor presented a Cronbach’s alpha of .84 and the second. 76. Participants also completed the Portuguese version of the Scale of Motivation for Academic Learning (Imaginário et al., 2014), which is based on the work of Siqueira and Wechsler (2006). This scale presents a unidimensional structure, assessing motivation for learning, a specific aspect of motivation. This instrument is composed of 14 items in a

Data collection. The program’s assessment included a control group and an experimental group, as well as two repeated measures (pretest and posttest). Assessment happened at the same time for both groups and data collection was conducted in the classroom after obtaining the permission of the schools’ principals and students’ parents, who were informed about the purpose of the study. The sequence of tasks was the same for all students in both groups and at both assessment times. The control group did not attend the sessions of the FPSPI program. The program (FPSPI) was implemented during four months, in weekly sessions of 45 minutes, by thirteen teachers. Teachers received previous training for the program and, during the program’s implementation, they participated in biweekly meetings with the third author of this paper, who is the coordinator of the program in Portugal. Data analysis. Data analysis was performed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). A MannWhitney t-test was conducted to compare the results of the experimental and control groups. This test was performed since, in both groups, the samples’ normality criteria was not respected, as evaluated following the assumptions of Field (2009). Ethical Considerations This research project received approval from the Consulting Board of the Research Centre for Spatial and Organizational Dynamics (CIEO - Universidade de Algarve, Portugal). Students were requested to sign an Informed Consent and anonymity and confidentiality were assured.

Results The assessment of the program’s impact was conducted by comparing the results between the experimental and control groups. Table 1 presents the results in the pretest phase. Results show that, before the implementation of the program, there were no significant differences between the experimental and control group in the variables creativity representations (appropriate and erroneous conceptions) and academic motivation.

Table 1 Pretest Results of the Experimental and Control Groups

Appropriate Representations Erroneous Representations Academic Motivation

Groups

MRc

CGa

56.53

47.20

57.31

46.37

56.32

1085.00

nse

1043.50

1550.50 ns EG 62.86 Note. aCG: Control group; bEG: Experimental group; cMR: Mean Rank; dMann-Whitney t-test; ens: non-significant statistical values (p > .05).

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Morais, M. de F., Jesus, S. N., Azevedo, I., Araújo, A. M., & Viseu, J. (2015). Intervention on Creativity and Academic Motivation.

Differences between pretest and posttest scores were calculated to assess the program’s impact on appropriate and erroneous representations of creativity and student motivation. Results suggest that there are statistically significant differences between the experimental and control group, both for academic motivation and appropriate

representations of creativity, which are favorable to the experimental group. Differences were also observed for erroneous representations (myths) which, although favorable for the experimental group, are not statistically significant (Table 2).

Table 2 Differences in Pretest and Posttest Scores in the Experimental and Control Groups

Appropriate Representations Erroneous Representations Academic Motivation

Groups

MRc

41.51

63.12

53.42

50.50

52.59

769.00

< .001

1250.00

nse

1356.00 .039* EG 65.75 Note. aCG: Control group; bEG: Experimental group; cMR: Mean Rank; dMann-Whitney t-test; ens: non-significant statistical values (p > .05). *p < .05.

Discussion Nowadays, the promotion of creativity in educational settings is a widespread concern (Fairweather & Cramond, 2010; Starko, 2010). In this study, we presented the Future Problem Solving Program International (FPSPI), a program to train creative problem solving skills in young people. Changes were observed in the pretest and posttest moments since, in the second moment, statistically significant differences were found for appropriate representations of creativity and academic motivation. Given the absence of baseline statistically significant differences between both groups in the three evaluated variables, the changes observed in the posttest may be interpreted as a result of the FPSPI intervention, and thus suggest the program’s effectiveness. On the one hand, the increase in motivation for school learning, which was observed in the experimental group, reveals the effectiveness of this intervention in creative problem solving skills not only at a cognitive, but also at an emotional level (Runco et al., 2012), confirming other results obtained with this program, namely concerning motivation (Alvino, 1993). The current findings may be influenced by the relationship between creativity and motivation (Eisenberger & Rhoades, 2001; Jesus et al., 2013), as there are communalities in the concepts’ definitions, including curiosity or persistence (Cropley, 2009; Morais, 2013). In fact, according to several theoretical models, creativity cannot be expressed without showing high levels of intrinsic motivation (Amabile, 1985; Sternberg & Lubart, 1995). Moreover, the intervention program included, in the initial sessions, the clarification of the creativity concept, and of what being creative means, as well as the training of specific creative skills (such as flexibility, remote association of ideas, and the production of alternatives). Conditions were created for students to have clear and accurate representations of creativity. However, if

research has shown that these representations can change, it has also indicated that this challenge does not happen without problems (Park et al., 2006). In this case, results may suggest that it is easier for these students to assimilate appropriate beliefs about what is creativity (significant differences are observed only in this dimension of representations), than to change the erroneous representations corresponding to myths, which have been observed for decades. Although the program was initially developed for creativity promotion, the close relationship existing between motivation and creativity contributes to the understanding of this study’s results. The obtained results also suggest the importance of planning instruction and learning, in order to meet students’ curiosity and provide them the opportunity to express their creativity in learning. Therefore, in addition to the influence that this intervention may have in creativity (Cramond, 2009), the observed impact on students’ academic motivation represents an important contribution to solve one of the most salient problems in education, in most European countries, which is the lack of motivation for studying (Katz, Eilot, & Nevo, 2014; Vansteenkiste, Sierens, Soenens, Luyckx, & Lens, 2009). In sum, the present paper demonstrated that the Future Problem Solving Program International (FPSPI) contributed to the improvement of the participants’ appropriate representations of creativity, allowing, simultaneously, an enhancement of their academic motivation. However, the program was not effective at changing the students’ erroneous representations of creativity. These findings suggest that the FPSPI can be a useful tool in educational settings. This study presents some limitations worth considering. The sample size was the major limitation of this research. A reduced sample, with few participants in each group, may not provide as accurate results as a sample with more participants per group. In addition, the use of Likerttype scales may be regarded as a limitation. These scales

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might present a number of answer options the respondents consider insufficient to express their opinion, or participants may not understand the category labels available for their answers (Maeda, 2015; Weijters, Geuens, & Baumgartner, 2013). Furthermore, these scales only provide quantitative information, which prevents researchers from accessing the actual opinion of the participants about the variables studied (Weijters et al., 2013). Moreover, the fact that the instruments were the same at both moments (i.e., pretest and posttest), while allowing the respondents to get some level of familiarity with the items, might have contributed to a better performance in the posttest moment, and possibly explained the differences observed between the two test moments (Anastasi & Urbina, 2000). Finally, the absence of another posttest, conducted in an extended period of time after the intervention (i.e., a follow-up assessment), might have been useful to observe if the results of the intervention program remained the same over the time. In the future, studies may use larger sample sizes in order to allow more reliable comparisons between the experimental and the control groups. In addition, the use of other instruments in the posttest moment might prevent possible training effects. The realization of a follow-up posttest may be important to observe if the effects of the intervention are consistent over time. Research should also focus on the impact of this program on learning difficulties, aiming to improve students’ motivation and appropriate representations of creativity, as well as assessing the program’s impact on school achievement. Furthermore, the implementation of this program in other student populations, namely in university students, could serve to test its effectiveness in other school contexts. Although this study has not focused on gifted students, the benefits of this program as a training tool for this group of students is evident, due to its goals and based on this study’s results. According to various theoretical paradigms, giftedness involves creativity and high levels of motivation (Miller, 2012; Terry, Bohnenberger, Renzulli, Cramond, & Sisk, 2008). In this order of ideas, future interventions may be conducted with gifted students, aiming to compare the effects of this program with the effects observed in other students, namely with students who present learning difficulties (Alves & Nakano, 2014). The program can be more effective in some specific student populations and, if this is observed, modifications in the FPSPI should be suggested, in order to adapt the program to students’ characteristics and allowing it to be implemented in a wider range of populations.

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Morais, M. de F., Jesus, S. N., Azevedo, I., Araújo, A. M., & Viseu, J. (2015). Intervention on Creativity and Academic Motivation.

Treffinger, D. J., Selby, E. C., & Crumel, J. H. (2012). Evaluation of the Future Problem Solving Program International (FPSPI). International Journal of Creativity and Problem Solving, 22(2), 45-61. Treffinger, D. J., Solomon, M., & Woythal, D. (2012). Four decades of creative vision: Insights from an evaluation of the Future Problem Solving Program International (FPSPI). The Journal of Creative Behavior, 46(3), 209219. doi:10.1002/jocb.14 Vansteenkiste, M., Sierens, E., Soenens, B., Luyckx, K., & Lens, W. (2009). Motivational profiles from a selfdetermination perspective: The quality of motivation matters. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(3), 671688. doi:10.1037/a0015083 Weijters, B., Geuens, M., & Baumgartner, H. (2013). The effect of familiarity with the response category labels on item response to Likert scales. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(2), 368-381. doi:10.1086/670394 Weisberg, R. W. (2006). Expertise and reason in creative thinking: Evidence from case studies and the laboratory. In J. C. Kaufman & J. Baer (Eds.), Creativity and reason in cognitive development (pp. 7-42). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Zenorini, R. P. C., & Santos, A. A. A. (2010). Escala de metas de realização como medida de motivação para a aprendizagem [Achievement goals scale as a measure of motivation for learning]. Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 44(2), 291-298. Maria de Fátima Morais is an Assistant Professor at the Institute of Education, Universidade do Minho. Saul Neves de Jesus is a Full Professor at Universidade do Algarve. Ivete Azevedo is the Director of the Torrance Center Portugal and a postdoctoral researcher at the Institute of Education of the Universidade do Minho. Alexandra M. Araújo is a postdoctoral researcher at the Institute of Education of the Universidade do Minho. João Viseu is a Ph.D. researcher at the Research Centre for Spatial and Organizational Dynamics (CIEO) of the Universidade do Algarve. Received: Nov. 7, 2014 1st Revision: Apr. 27, 2015 Approved: May 5, 2015

How to cite this article: Morais, M. de F., Jesus, S. N., Azevedo, I., Araújo, A. M., & Viseu, J. (2015). Intervention program on adolescent’s creativity representations and academic motivation. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 25(62), 289-297. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201502

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Article

Suicidal Ideation in University Students: Prevalence and Association With School and Gender1 Adelino Pereira2 Centro de Psicologia da Força Aérea, Lisboa, Portugal

Francisco Cardoso Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal

Abstract: Suicidal ideation is often an indicator of mental health problems and a major risk factor for suicide. This study aims to present the prevalence of suicidal ideation and compare students of a Portuguese university by school and gender. A total of 366 individuals from four schools completed the Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire (cut-off point ≥ 41 is significant) and specific questions about lifetime and past week suicidal ideation. Frequency analysis and chi-square tests were performed. The lifetime, past year and past week prevalence of suicidal ideation was 12.6%, 10.7% and 10.7%, respectively. A higher percentage of suicidal ideators were attending the School of Human and Social Sciences, and were of the female gender. However, these variables are not significantly associated with suicidal ideation. The results obtained emphasize the need for more research and the importance of taking special precautions to help students to deal with their personal and professional contingency challenges. Keywords: suicide, ideation, college students

Ideação Suicida em Estudantes Universitários: Prevalência e Associação com a Escola e o Género Resumo: A ideação suicida é frequentemente um indicador de problemas mentais e um dos principais fatores de risco para o suicídio. Este estudo pretende apresentar a prevalência de ideação suicida e comparar por gênero e por escola estudantes de uma universidade portuguesa. No total, 366 alunos de quatro escolas preencheram o Questionário de Ideação Suicida (pontuação ≥ 41 é significativa) e questões sobre a ideação suicida ao longo da vida e na semana anterior. Realizaram-se análises de frequências e o teste Qui-quadrado. Ao longo da vida, no ano e na semana anteriores verificaram-se prevalências de 12.6%, 10.7% e 10.7%, respetivamente. A maior porcentagem de alunos com ideação suicida pertence às Ciências Humanas e Sociais e ao gênero feminino. No entanto, estas variáveis não se relacionam significativamente com a ideação suicida. Estes dados suscitam mais investigação e reforçam a importância de auxiliar os alunos a enfrentar as contingências pessoais e profissionais desafiadoras. Palavras-chave: suicídio, ideação, estudantes universitários

Ideación Suicida en Estudiantes Universitarios: Prevalencia y Asociación con la Escuela y el Género Resumen: La ideación suicida es frecuentemente un indicador de problemas mentales y uno de los principales factores de riesgo para el suicidio. Este estudio intenta presentar la prevalencia de ideación suicida y comparar por género y por escuelas estudiantes de una universidad portuguesa. En total, 366 alumnos de cuatro escuelas completaron el Cuestionario de Ideación Suicida (puntuación ≥ 41 es significativa) y cuestiones sobre la ideación suicida durante su vida y semana anterior. Se realizaron análisis de frecuencias y la prueba ji-cuadrado. Durante su vida, en el año y semana anterior se encontraron prevalencias de 12.6%, 10.7% y 10.7%, respectivamente. El mayor porcentaje de alumnos con ideación suicida pertenece a las Ciencias Humanas y Sociales y el género femenino, pero estas variables no se relacionan significativamente con la ideación suicida. Los datos suscitan más investigación y refuerzan la importancia de ayudar a los estudiantes a enfrentar las contingencias personales y profesionales desafiantes. Palabras clave: suicidio, ideación, estudiantes universitarios

Students, when entering into the level of university education, experience a broad range of changes that may This article was derived from the master’s thesis of the primary author, under the supervision of the second author. The thesis was defended in 2012, in the Graduate Program in Clinical Psychology, in the Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro.

Correspondence address: Adelino António Gonçalves Pereira. Centro de Psicologia da Força Aérea. Azinhaga dos Ulmeiros,1649-020. Lisboa, Portugal. E-mail: aagpereira@ emfa.pt

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

affect every level of their lives, regardless of their cultural background (Arslan, Ayranci, Unsal, & Arslantas, 2009). This experience can also expose them to stressful situations that may have an emotional and academic impact (Tosevski, Milovancevic, & Gajic, 2010). In this sense, it is crucial that university students have coping strategies that allow them to experience college in a comfortable way, so they can take advantage of the challenges and opportunities that a university environment may offer. Otherwise, the changes and challenges that students face can bring intense

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psychological suffering and, in the extreme, lead them to suicide. Suicidal behavior is a complex phenomenon, with several predictors and related variables (Ganz, Braquehais, & Sher, 2010). Beyond that, this behavior reveals particular nuances in college students, requiring a specific conceptualization in this population (Drum, Brownson, Denmark, & Smith, 2009). Suicide, in fact, is the second leading cause of death for youths between 15 to 24 years old in the USA, accounting for 4822 deaths in 2011 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). Suicidal thoughts seem to be a fundamental element in the suicidal process, known as a continuous and hierarchical succession of suicidal behaviors that gradually increase in severity in consequence of the interaction between internal and external factors (Runeson, Beskow, & Waern, 1996; Thompson, Dewa, & Phare, 2012), and are a major cause for suicide completion. This kind of thoughts tend to be common in university populations, as seen by the prevalences of 2.5% (Eisenberg, Gollust, Golberstein, & Hefner, 2007), 5.9% (Curran, Gawley, Casey, Gill, & Crumlish, 2009), 6% (Arria et al., 2009), and 11.1% (Garlow et al., 2008) in a four weeks analysis. When this observation is extended to 12 months, the results indicate prevalences of 13.7% and 14.3% (Fridner et al., 2009), 14% (Tyssen, Vaglum, GrĂ¸nvold, & Ekeberg, 2001) or 11.3% and 12% (Eskin, Voracek, Stieger, & Altinyazar, 2011). Lifetime suicidal ideation seems to be even more frequent, as revealed by percentages of 26%, 35% (Eskin et al., 2011), and up to 43% (Garlow et al., 2008). Other studies noted that during university years, 12% of students experienced suicidal thoughts, with 2.6% of them expressing persistent suicidal ideation (Wilcox et al., 2010). In a similar sense, the American College Health Association (2011) stated that 3.7% of students seriously considered committing suicide in the last 12 months, and 1.5% thought of taking their own lives in the two weeks prior to the data collection. This same association references that 0.8% of students attempted suicide in the last 12 months, and 2.9% mutilated themselves by, for example, cutting or burning. Those results clearly pointed to the importance of paying special attention to the development of suicidal thoughts and behaviors among university students (Garlow et al., 2008). In Portugal, despite being scanty, available results on this subject show that about 8% of students have suicidal ideation (GonĂ§alves, Sequeira, Duarte, & Freitas, 2014). Gender has always been a subject of analysis related to suicidal ideation. These kind of thoughts tend to be more frequent in girls (Borges & Werlang, 2006), as well as suicide attempts, whether or not they are in college (Arria et al., 2009; Borges & Werlang, 2006; Dervic et al., 2007; Faria, Gandolfi, & Moura, 2014; Kirkcaldy, Eysenck, & Siefen, 2004; Rudatsikira, Muula, Siziya, & Twa-Twa, 2007; Schaffer, Jeglic, & Stanley, 2008). Borges and Werlang (2006) found that 67.6% of the suicidal ideators were females. Despite it being largely accepted that girls express a higher prevalence of these thoughts, it is also possible to find some studies suggesting that there are no differences

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between boys and girls or that boys more frequently reveal suicidal thoughts (Eisenberg et al., 2007; Eshun, 2000; Eskin et al., 2011; Tyssen et al., 2001). These data reveal some disparity in the relationship between gender and suicidal ideation in university populations, requiring more research to strengthen conclusions. Academic variables are also important for students. When they study for their favorite courses they reveal lower levels of depression when compared to those who choose their course based on family pressure or due to the ability for finding a job in the future (Arslan et al., 2009). Analysis by area of study reveals that students in social and political sciences more often feel depressed, anxious and stressed than engineering students (Bayram & Bilgel, 2008). Cavestro and Rocha (2006) found that occupational therapy students are four times more likely to develop depression and risk of suicide than physiotherapy or nursing students. Some studies suggest that nursing and human sciences students have a higher prevalence of psychological disorders (34% and 22%, respectively) and death wishes (18% and 19%, respectively) than computer sciences students (9% prevalence of psychological disorders and 4% of death wishes) (Cerchiari, Caetano, & Faccenda, 2005). Overall, the research suggests that psychological distress is more common in students of sciences related to the Human Being (Cerchiari et al., 2005). Considering the facts mentioned previously, the present study aimed to investigate (a) the lifetime prevalence of suicidal ideation and to determine different levels of severity in its manifestations; (b) the prevalence of suicidal ideation in the previous 12 months; (c) the prevalence of suicidal ideation in the past week; (d) the inter- and intra-gender distribution of students with and without suicidal ideation; and (e) the interand intra-school distribution of students with and without suicidal ideation in four different scientific schools.

Method Participants In a university population containing 7,102 students, a representative stratified sample was extracted, with a margin of error of 5% and a confidence interval of 95%, from four differing groups of knowledge areas called Schools, that constituted this particular University located in Northern Portugal. In this way, 366 students participated in this study, within the following distribution: 60 students from the School of Agricultural and Veterinarian Sciences (SAVS) (total population of 1,162), 86 from the School of Life and Environmental Sciences (SLES) (total population of 1,660), 83 from the School of Science and Technology (SST) (total population of 1,622), and 137 from the School of Human and Social Sciences (SHSS) (total population of 2,658). The sample was composed of university students between the ages of 18 and 58, with a mean of 21.14 (SD = 4.03). In terms of gender, 63.7% (233 subjects) of the students were female and 36.3% (133 subjects) were male. During the academic year, 23.8% of the students lived with their families

Pereira, A., & Cardoso, F. (2015). Suicidal Ideation in College.

or guardians, 66.4% lived with classmates, 8.5% lived alone, while 1.4% lived with their landlords. Instruments Dichotomous questions. After a short set of sociodemographic questions, two dichotomous questions with two set answers – “Yes” or “No” – were included in order to evaluate the lifetime suicidal ideation: “ In your lifetime, have you ever thought that you would rather be dead?” and “In your lifetime, have you ever seriously considered doing something to kill yourself?” Participants could choose only one response alternative for each question. Multiple choice question. The data collection protocol included a multiple-choice question concerning suicidal ideation in the past week. Participants were asked to choose one of four available alternatives: 0. I do not think of suicide or death; 1. I feel that life is empty or wonder if it’s worth living; 2. I think of suicide or death several times a week for several minutes; 3. I think of suicide or death several times a day in some detail, or I have made specific plans for suicide, or have actually tried to take my life. The Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire (SIQ). The SIQ consists of a form with good psychometric qualities that measures self-destructive thoughts. This questionnaire was developed by Reynolds in 1988 and was adjusted to the Portuguese population by Ferreira and Castela (1999). It contains 30 items that evaluate a group of self-destructive thoughts with varying degrees of severity. While some of the items merely refer to thoughts related to death, other items refer to desires and plans to commit suicide. The individual should mark one option, on a scale of seven (0 = never; 1 = almost never; 2 = rarely; 3 = sometimes; 4 = frequently; 5 = almost always; 6 = always), in correspondence to the frequency of experiencing each thought. The sum of the resulting values could vary between 0 and 180, and the higher the score the higher the frequency of suicidal ideation. For the present research, the SIQ was used to evaluate suicidal ideation in the last twelve months, using the cutoff point proposed by the original author, who states that an individual with a score equal to or greater than 41 points may be at risk of death by suicide and suffering from psychopathology (Mazza & Reynolds, 2001). In the present study, the questionnaire revealed a good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = .96) and the item-total correlations varied between .35 and .83 (M = 0.65). Procedure Data collection. Firstly, authorization and ethical approval to conduct the study was granted by the Presidents of each of the Schools. Secondly, classes were randomly selected and the respective teachers were contacted in order to request permission for data collection. The aims of the study were then explained to the students, as well as the ethical considerations related to confidentiality, to the anonymity of their answers, and to their free will in participating (instructing them to complete the form only if they could do it in a thoughtful and honest way) and discontinuing participation at any moment if they felt like it. Finally, as the

students were completing the form, they were reminded to verify if all the items had been completed, in order to avoid exclusion just because of missing values. Data were collected from 21 distinct courses. Data analysis. The lifetime prevalence of suicidal ideation. A frequency distribution analysis was performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 19. This analysis is a representation that displays the number of observations within mutually exclusive and exhaustive intervals. In our study, it is a record of how often each set of values of suicidal ideation occurs during the lifetime, enhanced by the addition of percentages that fall into each category. The dichotomous questions were adopted once they referred to lifetime suicidal ideation. To these questions, the students could choose between two possible answers that represent two categories of distribution (“Yes” or “No”). The prevalence of suicidal ideation in the past 12 months. To evaluate the suicidal ideation in the past 12 months, the SIQ and the cutoff point recommended by Reynolds in 1988 were used. Reynolds proposed that a score equal to or greater than 41 would be an indication of psychopathology and risk of suicide (Mazza & Reynolds, 2001). Using this criterion, the present sample was classified into two categories: students scoring below 40 were considered “Non-Suicidal Ideating Students” (NSIS); and students scoring equal to or greater than 41, were considered “Suicidal Ideating Students” (SIS). Even though Reynolds’ cutoff value was adopted, Pinto, Whisman and McCoy (1997) indicated that a significantly lower cutoff point would be clinically useful. Afterwards, a similar analysis was conducted using the normative data obtained from a Portuguese sample by Ferreira and Castela (1999) in order to identify the percentage of subjects with a total score equal to or greater than a standarddeviation above the mean. With this criterion, two groups were established: students who scored below 44 points (nonsignificant suicidal ideation); students who scored greater than or equal to 45 (significant suicidal ideation). Finally, the same analysis was then conducted using the mean and the standard-deviation of the present sample. In this analysis, the first group was composed of students with a score between 0 and 36, and the second group was composed of subjects with a score equal to or greater than 37. We carried out a procedure similar to the one described in the previous topic. That is, we performed a frequency distribution analysis to identify the number and percentage of observations that fell into each category. The prevalence of suicidal ideation during the past week. This analysis was conducted with a multiple choice question. Participants were asked to specifically consider the previous week. Like the previous two topics, a frequency distribution table was performed. Each response alternative is an exclusive category, so this analysis aimed at recognizing the percentage of students in each category, identifying how many never thought of suicide and how many thought of

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suicide within three levels of severity during the past week (see the “Multiple choice question” topic in “Instruments”). The inter- and intra-gender prevalence of suicidal ideation. This analysis aimed at identifying the frequency of males and females belonging to SIS or NSIS groups. For this procedure, a cross tabulation and a chi-square test were performed. By analyzing the interrelationship between gender and suicidal ideation, this procedure helped us find the interactions between them and provided data to verify if there was a significant relationship between the variables or if they were independent. The inter-and intra-school prevalence of suicidal ideation. The prevalence of suicidal ideation by school was examined by intersecting the variable “school” with the two groups established with the SIQ score (NSIS and SIS). This analysis was performed, as in the previous topic, with a cross tabulation. With this procedure it was possible to verify the percentage of participants that presented significant suicidal ideation amongst the students from the same school and also the distribution of all NSIS and SIS within the four schools enrolled. Also, a chi-square test was performed in order to determine if there was a significant association between the variables in the study. Once the variable “school” had more than two categories, it was relevant to determine which contributed to the overall association (if statistically significant). That is, we wanted to find which of the schools contributed the most to the chi-square statistical significance. This was obtained by the analysis of the standardized residuals. If the value of the residual lied outside ±1.96 then it was significant.

The results obtained indicated that 10.7% (n = 39) of students experienced suicidal ideation in the past year, belonging, therefore, to the SIS group. Consequently, 89.3% (n = 327) belonged to the NSIS group, that is, their suicidal thoughts were not significant. These results suggested that approximately one in ten students experienced significant suicidal ideation. Using the normative data established by Ferreira and Castela (1999), it was verified that 9.6% of the sample was at least one standard-deviation above the mean. With the mean and the standard-deviation of the sample in this study, the percentage of students with a score equal to or greater than the standard-deviation above the mean of the SIQ (M = 17.3; SD = 20.1) climbed to 11.2%. The Prevalence of Suicidal Ideation in the Past Week In conducting this analysis, it was verified that 9.3% of the sample answered “I feel that life is empty or wonder if it is worth living”, 1.1% reported “I think of suicide or death several times a week for several minutes”, and 0.3% answered “I think of suicide or death several times a day in some detail, or I have made specific plans to commit suicide or have actually tried to take my life”. Taking into consideration the answers to all of the options, the percentage of students with suicidal ideation was 10.7% (Table 1). Table 1 The Prevalence of Suicidal Ideation for the Past Week (N = 366) Response Alternatives

Ethical Considerations

0. I do not think of suicide or death.

All the ethical considerations were taken into account in order to protect the participants. As referred to previously, ethical approval was ensured by the presidents of each School. Before the questionnaire was completed, participants had the opportunity to give their informed consent as the researchers verbally explained all of their rights. The ethical implications of their participation, as well as their free will not to participate, were written on the front page of the questionnaire. To ensure absolute anonymity in such a sensitive topic, students were not asked for personal data to identify them, in case of clinically significant suicidal ideation. Instead, the students were informed that they could contact the researchers in case they felt the need for our support, or that they could head directly to the University’s psychological support department.

Results The Lifetime Prevalence of Suicidal Ideation During their lives, 12.6% of the students asserted having wishes of being dead and 5.5% maintained that they had seriously thought of doing something to take their lives. Therefore, about half of those students who had suicidal ideation seriously considered committing suicide.

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The Prevalence of Suicidal Ideation during the Previous 12 Months

1. I feel that life is empty or wonder if it’s worth living.

327 89.3 34

9.3

2. I think of suicide or death several times a week for several minutes.

1.1

3. I think of suicide or death several times a day in some detail, or I have made specific plans for suicide or have actually tried to take my life.

0.3

The Inter-and Intra-Gender Distribution of Students With and Without Suicidal Ideation The intra-gender analysis revealed that within the male gender, 7.5% of participants belonged to the SIS group. Meanwhile, within the female gender, the percentage of participants that belonged to the SIS group was 12.4%. In the inter-gender analysis, 74.4% of the SIS were women and 25.6% were men (Table 2). The chi-square failed to reveal a significant relationship between gender and suicidal ideation at the 0.05 level (χ2 (1) = 2.159, p = .142), indicating that gender does not have a significant impact on suicidal ideation. The Inter- and Intra-School Distribution of Students With and Without Suicidal Ideation By the intra-school analyses, it was verified that 14.6% of the sample from the SHSS obtained a score equal to or greater

Pereira, A., & Cardoso, F. (2015). Suicidal Ideation in College. Table 2 The Intra- and Inter-Gender Prevalence of Students With and Without Suicidal Ideation (N = 366) SIQ NSIS n (%)

SIS n (%)

Pearson ChiSquare

Sig.

Male

123 (37.6)

10 (25.6)

2.159

.142

Female

204 (62.4)

29 (74.4)

123 (92.5)

10 (7.5)

Gender Inter-gender

Intra-gender Male

Female 204 (87.6) 29 (12.4) Note. NSIS - Non-suicidal Ideating Students, SIS - Suicidal Ideating Students.

than 41, thus belonging to the SIS group. In the remaining Schools, this percentage dropped to 10% for the SAVS, 8.1% for the SLES, and 7.2% for the SST. The interschool analyses indicated that about 50% of the SIS study in the SHSS and the remaining 50% were distributed amongst the other three Schools in a relatively similar manner (Table 3). The chisquare test for independence was non-significant (Ď&#x2021;2 (3) = 3.860, p = .277). These results reveal that the school was not related to whether or not students had suicidal ideation.

Discussion Suicidal ideation should be a major concern for the health services of universities (Mackenzie et al., 2011). The analysis conducted in this study, relative to lifetime suicidal ideation, showed that 12.6% of students had experienced, at least once in their lives, wishes of being dead. It is, however, a rate that is inferior to the values recorded in other studies, where the prevalence was 43% for Norwegian students

(Tyssen et al., 2001), 26% for Turkish students, and 35% for Austrian students (Eskin et al., 2011). When questioned about a possible intention of committing suicide, 5.5% of the students answered affirmatively. In this aspect, the results obtained did not differ in such a discrepant way from the existing literature. For example, the study mentioned previously with Norwegian students revealed that, despite the elevated rate of suicidal ideation, only 8% really planned on committing suicide (Tyssen et al., 2001). In a similar way, in an analysis conducted for suicide attempts, the rate of prevalence takes a sharp drop, for both Austrian (0.3% during the last year and 2.2% in a lifetime) and Turkish students (2.1% during the last year and 5.8% in a lifetime) (Eskin et al., 2011), supporting the conclusion that the most grievous suicidal behaviors occur with less frequency. Focusing on the week prior to the completion of the form, it was verified that 10.7% of the present sample had suicidal ideation. Of this percentage, practically all of the students (9.3%) reported experiencing feelings of emptiness, wondered about the meaning of their lives, and whether their existence made any sense. The remaining 1.4% of the participants revealed suicidal ideation with greater severity. In observing the existing literature, similar results are obtained for other university populations in a four weeks analysis. For example, both the studies of Curran et al. (2009) and Garlow et al. (2008) found a prevalence of 11.1% and 5.9% for North American and Irish students, respectively. GonĂ§alves et al. (2014), in an investigation with students from the Polytechnic Institute of Viseu (Portugal), verified that about 8% of the students had suicidal ideation in the month prior to their participation in the study, which is an approximate value to the one obtained here. Similarly, in investigations involving students from Latin American cultures, prevalences of 7.9% (Finger & Argimon, 2013), 11% (Vieira & Coutinho, 2008), 13.4% and 12.3% (Alexandrino-Silva et al., 2009) were found. Cavestro and Rocha (2006) also estimated that 9.6% of their sample was at risk of committing suicide, with the prevalence of

Table 3 The Intra- and Inter-School Prevalence of Students With and Without Suicidal Ideation (N = 366) SIQ Schools

NSIS n (%)

SIS n (%)

117 (35.8)

20 (51.3)

Agricultural and Veterinarian Sc.

54 (16.5)

6 (15.4)

Life and Environmental Sc.

79 (24.2)

7 (17.9)

Science and Technology

77 (23.5)

6 (15.4)

117 (85.4)

20 (14.6)

54 (90)

6 (10)

79 (91.9)

7 (8.1)

Science and Technology 77 (92.8) Note. NSIS - Non-suicidal Ideating Students, SIS - Suicidal Ideating Students.

6 (7.2)

Pearson Chi-Square

Sig.

3.860

.277

Interschool Human and Social Sc.

Intraschool Human and Social Sc. Agricultural and Veterinarian Sc. Life and Environmental Sc.

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suicidal ideation varying between 7.5% for medical students and 25.6% for occupational therapy students. The evaluation of suicidal ideation in the previous 12 months, using the cutoff point recommended by Reynolds in 1988, revealed that the percentage of students with significant suicidal ideation in the present study lies at 10.7%. The results obtained are quite similar to the ones of other investigations analyzing suicidal ideation during the same period of time (12 months), such as 13.7% and 14.3% obtained by Fridner et al. (2009) in Sweden and Italy, respectively, 14% obtained by Tyssen et al. (2001) in Norway, or 11.3% and 12% obtained by Eskin et al. (2011) in Austria and Turkey, respectively. Considering the scrutiny of gender, it was possible to verify that 12.4% of female students and 7.5% of male students reported significant suicidal ideation. Inter-gender analysis revealed that students with significant suicidal ideation (the group of SIS) were distributed in close to a 1/3 proportion. That is, of the group of SIS, one in every three students was male and two were females. Some research on the analysis of gender and suicidal ideation suggests that females reveal more suicidal thoughts than males (Arria et al., 2009; Borges & Werlang, 2006; Dervic et al., 2007; Gonçalves et al., 2014; Schaffer et al., 2008). The analysis of the distribution in our study seems to show the same. However, when performing a chi-square test, there is a non-statistically significant association between gender and suicidal ideation. These variables do not seem to be related, according to our findings. Other studies present similar results. Eisenberg et al. (2007) found that the prevalence of depression was identical by gender among undergraduate students, and females were not more likely than males to present suicidal thoughts. Also, Eskin et al. (2011) found that there were no differences in lifetime, past 12-month and current suicidal ideation and suicide attempts between male and female students. Eshun (2000) and Tyssen et al. (2001) results also do not support the idea of females showing more propensity to suicidal thoughts than man. We can conclude that our findings contrast with the assumption that females have more propensity to feel suicidal, but are consistent with previous studies that have found no significant relationship between gender and suicidal ideation in college students. Considering each scientific School separately, results indicated that 14.6% of Human and Social Sciences students presented significant suicidal ideation and the same occurred with 10% of Agricultural and Veterinarian Sciences, 8.1% of Life and Environmental Sciences, and 7.2% of Science and Technology. These results were similar to the ones obtained by Bayram and Bilgel (2008), since these authors verified that the students of political or social sciences presented higher levels of psychopathology in comparison to the engineering students. The majority of the students with significant suicidal ideation (51.3%) were enrolled in the SHSS. The other 48.7% were distributed in very similar ways amongst the other three Schools. Some studies suggest that students whose education, in one way or another, involved studying Human Beings and their modus vivendi (Cerchiari et al., 2005) express the most severe levels of psychological suffering. For example, Cerchiari et al. (2005) found a higher percentage

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of mental disorders in nursing students in comparison to computer sciences students. However, there are differences even between courses related, in one way or another, to the Human Being. Cavestro and Rocha (2006) highlighted the case of occupational therapy students due to the high percentage of students with depressive symptoms and at risk for dying by suicide when compared with medicine or physiotherapy students. Also, nursing students expressed a higher percentage of mental disorders than law students (Cerchiari et al., 2005). Even though our data reveal a higher number of students from the SHSS in the SIS group, there is no evidence of a statistically significant relationship between gender and school, as shown by the chi-square test. Maybe we could have found a significant relationship if we focused on the analysis of courses instead of schools, as the studies referred to previously. However, our intent was to analyze a representative stratified sample of the university’s population, which was not possible with a pre-selection and analysis of a few courses. Differences between courses may be a result of the satisfaction with the university, course, peers, or due to others variables, such as worry about their professional career and unemployment, which is a significant problem in young Portuguese adults. This may vary between courses. Bayram and Bilgel (2008) found that the students who were satisfied with their course revealed lower depression and anxiety when compared to students who were not satisfied. Depression tends to be more prevalent in students worried about their future (Arslan et al., 2009). Future research could be focused on the distribution of suicidal and non-suicidal students in specific courses. The employment of multiple statistical criteria for the identification of students with suicidal ideation deserves some considerations. Either the cutoff point recommended by Reynolds (score ≥ 41 in the SIQ), or the identification of students that obtained a score equal to or greater than a standard-deviation above the mean (using the normative data established by Ferreira and Castela (1999) and the data from the present study) converged in the identification of the rate of prevalence. Thus, with the employment of all these criteria, we not only tried to surpass the absence of an adaptation study for the cutoff point proposed by Reynolds (score ≥ 41 in the SIQ), but fundamentally tried to validate the results obtained. The option made by Reynolds’s criteria involved concerns based on the comparison of transcultural findings, with the assurance that if we preferred to use other criteria (SD above the mean) the values obtained would not differ much, especially since these criteria permitted the observation of a general rate of prevalence of suicidal ideation of about 10%, not too far from 10.7%. The main limitation faced by the present study was the exclusive use of classrooms for data collection. With this procedure, students missing classes on the days of data collection were automatically excluded. Sometimes psychological suffering can be a major cause for missing classes. There are also some limitations related to our data collection. Even though we collected a representative stratified sample, the external validity of our results should

Pereira, A., & Cardoso, F. (2015). Suicidal Ideation in College.

be viewed with precaution. Another limitation is related to the margin of error adopted. A 5% margin, as we used, is the most commonly accepted in statistics, however it could be reduced if we had a larger sample. Future studies should increase the sample size in order to reduce the error. Preventive interventions would require support services, where they are non-existent, and annual or biannual evaluation of risk factors, behaviors and psychopathological processes associated to students’ psychological suffering. This would contribute to identification of the at risk students, and to the design of individual interventions. Prevention would also include devising informative campaigns in order for the academic community to be aware of the signals and symptoms associated with subjective psychological suffering, and how to proceed in order to obtain help. Prevalence rates of suicidal ideation found in the literature were similar to those found in the present study, with the exception of lifetime suicidal ideation, which was inferior when compared with other studies from different countries. Altogether, the results obtained here indicated that one in ten students presented significant suicidal ideation both during the past year and during the week prior to participating in the study. Beyond this, the study indicated that, even with the higher percentage of students from the Human and Social Sciences and from the female gender in the SIS group, there was no statistically significant association between these variables and suicidal ideation. Despite this, the present study confirms that the prevalence of suicidal ideation is a distressing phenomenon in university students. Prevention and intervention services are required to be implemented at this level of education.

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(S.I.Q.)]. In M. R. Simões, M. M. Gonçalves, & L. S. Almeida (Eds.), Testes e provas psicológicas em Portugal [Psychological tests in Portugal] (Vol. 2, pp. 123-130). Braga, Portugal: APPORT/SHO. Finger, I. R., & Argimon, I. I. L. (2013). Propriedades psicométricas do Inventário de Depressão de Beck-II (BDI-II) em uma amostra universitária [Psychometric Properties of the Beck Depression Inventory – II (BDI-II) in a University Sample]. Revista de Psicologia da IMED, 5(2), 84-91. Fridner, A., Belkic, K., Marini, M., Minucci, D., Pavan, L., & Schenck-Gustafsson, K. (2009). Survey on recent suicidal ideation among female university hospital physicians in Sweden and Italy (the HOUPE Study): Cross-sectional associations with work stressors. Gender Medicine, 6(1), 314-328. doi:10.1016/j.genm.2009.04.006 Ganz, D., Braquehais, M. D., & Sher, L. (2010). Secondary prevention of suicide. PLoS Med, 7(6), e1000271. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000271 Garlow, S. J., Rosenberg, J., Moore, J. D., Haas, A. P., Koestner, B., Hendin, H., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2008). Depression, desperation, and suicidal ideation in college students: Results from the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention College Screening Project at Emory University. Depression and Anxiety, 25(6), 482-488. doi:10.1002/da.20321 Gonçalves, A. M., Sequeira, C., Duarte, J. C., & Freitas, P. P. (2014). Ideação suicida em estudantes do ensino superior politécnico: Influência de algumas variáveis sociodemográficas, académicas e comportamentais [Suicidal ideation on higher education students: influence of some sociodemographic, academic and behavioral variables]. Millenium, 47, 191‐203. Kirkcaldy, B. D., Eysenck, M. W., & Siefen, G. R. (2004). Psychological and social predictors of suicidal ideation among young adolescents. School Psychology International, 25(3), 301-316. doi:10.1177/0143034304046903 Mackenzie, S., Wiegel, J. R., Mundt, M., Brown, D., Saewyc, E., Heiligenstein, E., . . . Fleming, M. (2011). Depression and suicide ideation among students accessing campus health care. American Orthopsychiatric Association, 81(1), 101-107. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01077.x Mazza, J. J., & Reynolds, W. M. (2001). An investigation of psychopathology in nonreferred suicidal and nonsuicidal adolescents. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 31(3), 282-302. doi:10.1521/suli.31.3.282.24245 Pinto, A., Whisman, M. A., & McCoy, K. J. M. (1997). Suicidal ideation in adolescents: Psychometric properties of the suicidal ideation questionnaire in a clinical sample. Psychological Assessment, 9(1), 63-66. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.9.1.63 Rudatsikira, E., Muula, A. S., Siziya, S., & Twa-Twa, J. (2007). Suicidal ideation and associated factors among schoolgoing adolescents in rural Uganda. BMC Psychiatry, 7:67. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-7-67 Runeson, B. S., Beskow, J., & Waern, M. (1996). The

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suicidal process in suicides among young people. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 93(1), 35-42. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1996.tb10616.x Schaffer, M., Jeglic, E. L., & Stanley, B. (2008).The relationship between suicidal behavior, ideation, and binge drinking among college students. Archives of Suicide Research, 12(2), 124-132. doi:10.1080/13811110701857111 Thompson, A. H., Dewa, C. S., & Phare, S. (2012). The suicidal process: Age of onset and severity of suicidal behaviour. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47(8), 1263-1269. doi:10.1007/s00127-011-0434-0 Tosevski, D. L., Milovancevic, M. P., & Gajic, S. D. (2010). Personality and psychopathology of university students. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 23(1), 48-52. doi:10.1097/ YCO.0b013e328333d625 Tyssen, R., Vaglum, P., Grønvold, N. T., & Ekeberg, Ø. (2001). Suicidal ideation among medical students and young physicians: A nationwide and prospective study of prevalence and predictors. Journal of Affective Disorders, 64(1), 69-79. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00205-6 Vieira, K. F., & Coutinho, M. P. L. (2008). Representações sociais da depressão e do suicídio elaboradas por estudantes de psicologia [Social representations of depression and suicide elaborated by psychology students]. Psicologia: Ciência e Profissão, 28(4), 714727. doi:10.1590/S1414-98932008000400005 Wilcox, H. C., Arria, A. M., Caldeira, K. M., Vincent, K. B., Pinchevsky, G. M., & O’Grady, K. E. (2010). Prevalence and predictors of persistent suicide ideation, plans, and attempts during college. Journal of Affective Disorders, 127(1-3), 287-294. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.04.017 Adelino Pereira is a Psychologist of the Centro de Psicologia da Força Aérea, Portugal, and a researcher of the Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. Francisco Cardoso is a Professor and a researcher of the Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. Received: Mar. 15, 2014 1st Revision: Feb. 4, 2015 2nd Revision: Apr. 17, 2015 Approved: Apr. 23, 2015

How to cite this article: Pereira, A., & Cardoso, F. (2015). Suicidal ideation in university students: Prevalence and association with school and gender. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 25(62), 299306. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201503

Paidéia sep-dec. 2015, Vol. 25, No. 62, 307-315. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201504

Article

Validity and Reliability Evidence for Assessing Holland’s Career Types1 Everson Meireles Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia, Cruz das Almas-BA, Brazil

Ricardo Primi2 Universidade São Francisco, Itatiba-SP, Brazil

Abstract: Professional interests are a synthesis of personal characteristics and function as a guiding factor for one’s career choice. This study shows evidence of validity and reliability for the interpretation of the scores of a measure of career types. The responses of 1,265 high school students to 154 items from the Escala de Avaliação dos Tipos Profissionais de Holland (ATPH) [Assessment Scale of Holland’s Career Types] were used. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses showed that the six-factor structure is appropriate and consistent to represent the RIASEC types. Evidence of convergent-discriminant validity of parcels of items was demonstrated to represent the latent factors of the ATPH Scale. Results of multidimensional analysis and phi correlation phi partially confirmed the hypothesis of circularity and congruence among the career types, which are organized in the acronym RASIEC. The implications of these results and study limitations are discussed. Keywords: professional interests, factor analysis, test validity, psychometrics

Evidências de Validade e Precisão Para Avaliação dos Tipos Profissionais de Holland Resumo: Interesses profissionais representam uma síntese das características pessoais que atua como fator de orientação para a escolha profissional. O presente estudo apresenta evidências de validade e precisão para a interpretação dos escores de uma medida dos tipos profissionais. Foram analisadas as respostas de 1.265 estudantes do Ensino Médio aos itens da Escala de Avaliação dos Tipos Profissionais de Holland (ATPH). Análises fatoriais exploratórias e confirmatórias demonstraram que a estrutura de seis fatores é adequada e consistente para representar os tipos RIASEC. Foram demonstradas evidências de validade convergentediscriminante de parcelas de itens para representar os fatores latentes da ATPH. Resultados de análises multidimensionais e de correlação phi confirmaram parcialmente as hipóteses de circularidade e de congruência entre os tipos profissionais, os quais se organizaram no acrônimo RASIEC. As implicações dos resultados aqui encontrados e as limitações do estudo são discutidas. Palavras-chave: interesses profissionais, análise fatorial, validade do teste, psicometria

Evidencias de la Validez y Fiabilidad Para Evaluación de los Tipos Profesionales de Holland Resumen: Intereses profesionales representan una síntesis de las características personales que actúa como guía para la elección de carrera. Este estudio muestra evidencia de la validez y fiabilidad para la interpretación de las puntuaciones de una medida de tipos profesionales. Se analizaron las respuestas de 1.265 estudiantes de secundaria a los artículos de la Escala de Evaluación de los Tipos Profesionales de Holanda (ATPH). Análisis factorial exploratorio y confirmatorio mostraron que la estructura de seis factores es adecuada y consistente para representar los tipos RIASEC. Se demostró evidencias de validez convergente-discriminante de las parcelas de artículos para representar los factores latentes de la ATPH. Análisis multidimensional y correlación phi confirmaron parcialmente la hipótesis de la circularidad y la congruencia entre los tipos de profesionales, que se organizan en el acrónimo RASIEC. Se discuten las implicaciones de los resultados actuales y las limitaciones del estudio. Palabras clave: intereses profesionales, análisis factor, validación de test, psicometría

One of the best known approaches to understanding personality traits related to professional interests is the Career Typology and Environmental Models proposed by Holland (1959, 1997). This approach was developed to meet needs Support: National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) through productivity grant (Level A1 - Protocol No. 305346/20130) made avalaible to the second author, and Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) through scholarship (PRODOUTORAL) granted to the first author.

Correspondence address: Ricardo Primi. Universidade São Francisco. Rua Alexandre Rodrigues Barbosa, 45, Centro. CEP 13251-900. Itatiba-SP, Brazil. E-mail: rprimi@ mac.com

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

concerning the professional qualification of individuals in the United States in the mid-20th century. Career interests are expressions of life’s objectives, values, identifications, competencies and the abilities of individuals within the professional sphere, representing a synthesis of personal characteristics that orient one’s career choice. Six basic types of personality and working environments can represent these characteristics: Realistic (R); Investigative (I); Artistic (A); Social (S); Enterprising (E), and Conventional (C); they are assessed in terms of predominance (Holland, 1996, 1997; Holland, Fritzsche, & Powell, 1994). People whose predominant characteristics are described by the Realistic (R) type have a tendency to focus more

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frequently on observable and concrete realizations, are not very sociable, have good motor skills, and prefer to deal with concrete problems rather than abstract ones. The Investigative (I) type is represented by individuals predominantly more introverted and focused on intellectual exploration, who enjoy thinking more than acting and are more skilled to deal with abstract ideas and words. The predominant characteristics of the Artistic (A) type are introversion, a tendency to use feelings, emotions, intuition, imagination, and creativity to deal with daily situations (Holland, 1996, 1997). The Social (S) type corresponds to individuals whose most prominent characteristics are extroversion, sensitivity, solidarity, with good verbal and interpersonal skills and a tendency to social interaction and engagement. More enthusiastic, impulsive, and outgoing individuals who prefer activities in which they dominate, persuade and lead others belong to the Enterprising (E) type. The Conventional (C) type, in turn, gathers characteristics such as conformism and control, prefers more structured activities involving obedience to orders and rules (Holland, 1996, 1997). In addition to the description of the six types of personality, Holland proposed that these types be clockwise-organized in a multidimensional circular and dynamic hexagonal structure with the acronym RIASEC. This hypothesis predicts that the prototypical distances in the multidimensional area between the adjacent types (RI; I-A; A-S; S-E; E-C and C-R) is greater than the distance between the alternate types (e.g., R-A; I-S; A-E; S-C; E-R and C-I); which in turn is greater than the distance between the opposite types (e.g., R-S; I-E and C-A (Holland, 1996, 1997; Rounds & Tracey, 1996; Tracey, Watanabe, & Schneider, 1997). Holland’s typology gained international recognition due to its operational simplicity, empirical testability, ease of application, and ease of interpretation of results (Nauta, 2010). Among the instruments proposed to assess RIASEC types, the Self-Direct-Search - SDS (Holland et al., 1994) stands out. It has been translated into 25 different languages and used with more than 22 million people from different cultures around the world (Goldstein & Hersen, 2000). The basic assumptions concerning the existence of six types of vocational personality have broad empirical evidence, with results from numerous cross-cultural and meta-analytical studies showing evidence of its validity (Holland, 1997; Kantamneni & Fouad, 2011; Rounds & Tracey, 1996; Tien, 2011; Yang, Stokes, & Hui, 2005). Another important aspect of this typology concerns its ability to predict a series of variables related to the world of work. Van Iddekinge, Roth, Putka and Lanivich (2011), showed, based on a meta-analytical study, that RIASEC types are efficient to predict performance at work (d = .14), performance in training (d = .26), and intentions and volumes of businesses (d ranging from -.15 to -.19). Pässler, Beinicke, and Hell (2015) demonstrated in a meta-analysis study a consistent and significant relationship between professional interests and cognitive abilities, with coefficients ranging from -.29 to .47 for different professional types.

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In the Brazilian context, the results of empirical studies using the Questionário de Busca Auto-Dirigida (Primi, Mansão, Muniz, & Nunes, 2010), the name given to the commercial version of the SDS in Brazil, are in agreement with international findings. Mansão and Yoshida (2006), for instance, reports evidence of validity related to the SDS’s internal structure. Other studies using SDS found evidence of validity for using the RIASEC model in Brazil, especially as related to external variables, which are important to understanding career types such as: personality (Nunes & Noronha, 2009; Primi et al., 2002; Primi, Moggi, & Casellato, 2004); career choice (Nunes & Noronha, 2009; Sartori, Noronha, Godoy, & Ambiel, 2010); other measures of interest (Primi et al., 2002, 2010); self-efficacy for occupational activities (Nunes & Noronha, 2009); cognitive skills (Nunes & Noronha, 2009; Primi et al., 2002); sex, school year (Sartori, Noronha, & Nunes, 2009), and parents’ education (Noronha & Ottati, 2010). Aiming to propose an alternative measure to assess RIASEC types, Primi, Muniz, Nunes and Mansão (2008) proposed a version parallel to the SDS, developing the Escala de Avaliação dos Tipos Profissionais de Holland (ATPH) [Holland Assessment Scale for Holland Career Types] as a non-comercial alternative for assessing career types in Brazil. This instrument, in addition to its practical and economic advantages linked to research in the field of vocational and career guidance, is also a shorter alternative (154 items) for the assessment of career types in Brazil, compared to the SDS with 216 items. The initial studies conducted with the ATPH, Mansão and Noronha (2011) reported evidence of reliability (Cronbach’s alpha coefficients > .90) and validity based on the scale’s internal structure to assess Holland six occupational personality types. Another study reports convergence validity between ATPH and the Photos of Professions Test (BBT-Br), equivalent to BBT - Berufsbilder test, masculine and feminine versions (Mansão, Noronha, & Ottati, 2011). Noronha, Mansão and Nunes (2012), in turn, showed that the Holland types are related to the personality traits of the Big Five model, corroborating results from other international studies (Barrick, Mount, & Gupta, 2003; Holland et al., 1994; Larson, Rottinghaus, & Borgen, 2002; Staggs, Larson, & Borgen, 2007). Overall, the revised studies reveal that there is an effort to show evidence to compose, in Messick’s (1980) terms, evidence for the use and interpretation of scores obtained from instruments such as RIASEC. Particularly in regard to the ATPH, promising evidence has been found in regard to its appropriateness to assess Holland types. The structural hypothesis of circularity, however, which grounds the interpretation of congruence between the types within the hexagonal model, has not yet been assessed. Additionally, the scale’s factor structure has not yet been tested based on analyses that consider the polychoric correlation matrix as a source of information, as is recommended by Kline (2011) to analyze categorical items as is the case of ATPH. Additionally, confirmatory analyses have not yet been conducted to assess the factor structure found by Mansão and Noronha (2011), so that new studies addressing larger samples and testing the

Meireles, E., & Primi, R. (2015). Validity and Reliability for the RIASEC Model.

scale’s internal structure based on different methods of data analysis are relevant and justified. Considering the previous discussion, this study sought to gather validity and reliability evidence for the ATPH. The study was conducted around distinct, but closely related objectives, namely: to find validity evidence based on the ATPH’s internal structure; to assess the internal consistency of career types assessed by the instrument; and to test the hypotheses of circularity and congruence among the career types assessed by the ATPH.

Method Participants The sample was composed of 1,265 participants regularly enrolled in public or private high schools in cities of the interior of São Paulo, Brazil. A total of 710 (56.1%) students were females and 555 (43.9%) were males, aged between 13 and 54 years old (M = 17.19; SD = 4.02; 89.6% with up to 20 years). Instruments Escala de Avaliação dos Tipos Profissionais de Holland (ATPH). The ATPH was developed by Primi et al. (2008) based on the SDS - Self-Directed-Search (Holland et al., 1994) with the objective to verify vocational interests and preferences. It is composed of 154 items that represent the six RIASEC types. The participant is asked to assess each item and respond as to the intensity of his/her interest, recording answers on a four-point ordinal scale ranging from 1 = no interest to 4 = a lot of interest. Reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha) for all six factors were above .90 (Mansão & Noronha, 2011; Mansão et al., 2011). Procedure Data collection. After initial contact with the schools and gaining the principals’ authorizations to collect data, the students were contacted and given clarification about the study’s objectives. Free and informed consent forms were distributed to the students’ parents/legal guardians. The collection of data, initiated after forms were returned with the parents’ signatures, was performed in the classrooms. The respondents self-administered the instrument, a procedure that took 30 minutes on average. Data analysis. Analysis involved assessing the structure and internal consistency. The database was randomized and divided into two parts, similar in terms of age and sex. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted with the scale’s 154 items, considering the subsample “A” (n = 616). Mplus7 with a matrix of polychoric correlations was used, as was estimation by the Ordinary Least Squares method (OLS) and oblique rotation GEOMIN (Asparouhov & Muthén, 2009; Kline, 2011). To establish the initial number of factors to be extracted, parallel analysis was performed using R software (Lorenzo-Seva & Ferrando, 2006). Criteria to keep the items within the factors were: theoretical reasonableness

and saturation ≥ .30. The items kept in each factor were assessed in terms of their internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) and item-total correlation using SPSS 19. The scale’s internal structure was replicated with the database’s subsample “B” (n = 649), using confirmatory testing with item parceling (Bandalos, 2002; Hall, Snell, & Foust, 1999) in structural equation modeling (Kline, 2011). The use of this procedure has been noted in the literature as a useful methodological strategy to increase the stability of estimated parameters and can be employed when there is prior evidence concerning the dimensionality of the set of items that will be combined into parcels. According to Cupani, Vaiman, Font, Pizzichini and Saretti (2012), parceling items of the same factor can be done using different criteria. The most commonly used include: random parceling; based on theoretical content; based on statistical criteria, such as factor load, asymmetry, difficulty, or discrimination, among others. The specificity of items was maintained in the respective factors according to the structure indicated by EFA when parceling items in this study. Two parceling strategies were tested: with statistical criteria, in order to ensure variability of asymmetry in each parcel; and random-items parceling. Five parcels, with at least four items each, were created to represent each latent factor. No important violations concerning extreme multivariate cases or collinearity among parcels were observed. In regard to normality, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test indicated non-normal distribution of parcels. To deal with this lack of normality among variables, we opted to use bootstrap replications (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010; Kline, 2011) of the coefficients estimated by the Maximum Likelihood estimation (MLE) method, with a 95% confidence interval. The measurement model was specified assuming the items parceling to be endogenous variables to represent six latent oblique factors. Assessment of the model’s goodness of fit was based on recommendations provided by Garson (2012), Hair et al. (2010) and Kline (2011), namely: CFI (> .90 indicate goodness of fit); RMR, SRMR, RMSEA (close to zero indicate goodness of fit, while values up to .08 are considered acceptable). Indicators such as normed chi-squared (c2/gl), AIC and CAIC were used to assess the best fit among the models tested – values below these indexes indicate the most parsimonious model with the most satisfactory goodness of fit. Indicators that show reliability and convergent-discriminant validity of the scale factor structure were also calculated: Composed Reliability - CR (valor ≥ .70 indicates satisfactory internal consistency) and Average Variance Extracted - AVE > .50 indicates convergent validity of parcels to represent the latent factor; the squared root of AVE (√AVE) greater than the association of phi among factors indicates discriminant validity (Farrell, 2010). Finally, a multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis (Proxscal algorithm) was performed to assess the hypothesis of circularity of career types with ordinal transformations of proximities, Euclidean distances

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Paidéia, 25(62), 307-315

and data regarding standardized career types (Z scores). The following fit criteria were established for these analyses: normalized row stress (values less than .20 were considered acceptable) and Tucker’s congruence coefficient (values greater than .90 indicate goodness of fit) Ethical Considerations This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board regulating research involving human subjects at the Universidade São Francisco, Bragança Paulista Campus (CAAE no. 0171.0.142.0000-07).

Results Parallel analyses indicated the possibility of extracting up to 22 factors, among which at least eight factors stood out. Assessment of these potential factor solutions indicated that the six-factor configuration was the best fit and most coherent with the theoretical model grounding the ATPH, corresponding to the career types proposed by Holland (1996, 1997). Table 1 presents a synthesis of results found in this exploratory analysis, as well as coefficients of internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) for each of the factors extracted.

Table 1 Synthesis of the Results of the Exploratory Factor Analysis and Consistency for the ATPH Factors / Types

Estimated loads (range)

Item-total correlation (range)

Number of items

Eigenvalues

1. Conventional

.45 to .91

.47 to .82

44.4

.96

2. Artistic

.40 to .85

.42 to .71

20.54

.94

3. Realist

.51 to .97

.42 to .85

12.86

.96

4. Social

.32 to .90

.37 to .83

8.53

.96

Cronbach’s alpha

5. Investigative

.34 to .89

.43 to .80

6.38

.95

6. Enterprising

.36 to .75

.45 to .76

4.9

.95

310

of career types. The fitness measures presented satisfactory values: normalized row stress = .07; S-Stress = .16; Tucker’s congruence coefficient = .97. The distribution of career types in the two-dimension space is presented in Figure 1.

1.0

TypeE

TypeC

0.5

Dimension2

The factors extracted with the exploratory factor analysis (Table 1) reproduced a six-factor structure as foreseen by the RIASEC model. Afterwards, a model for the confirmatory analysis of the factor structure found in EFA (Table 1) was specified. The model that specifies covariance among latent factors and assumes the 30 parcels of items as endogenous variables (five parcels to represent each latent factor of RIASEC types) was tested twice, considering the items parceling strategies previously mentioned. The results of these analyses are presented as follows. The following goodness of fit indexes were obtained for model 1, in which items parceling used statistical criteria: CFI = .94; RMR = .03; RMSEA = .08 [CI: .07 - .08; PCLOSE = .001]; SRMR = .06; c2/gl = 4.77; AIC = 2.009.249; CAIC = 2.419.906. For model 2, in which parcels were created based on random criteria, the following indexes were found: CFI = .95; RMR = .03; RMSEA = .07 [CI: .06 - .07; PCLOSE = .001]; SRMR = .05; c2/gl = 3.96; AIC = 1.695.581; CAIC = 2.106.238. Comparison between the two models shows satisfactory goodness of fit for both with a slight improvement of goodness of fit when the strategy used was the random grouping of items (Garson, 2012; Hair et al., 2010; Kline, 2011). The estimated factor loads for the item parcels were significant and ranged from .81 to .96 in model 1 and from .82 to .95 in model 2, and were stable in the bootstrap analysis with a confidence interval of 95% (Table 2). Correlations among the latent factors are presented in Table 3. A multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis was performed to assess the circular hypothesis of the distribution

TypeI 0.0

TypeR

TypeS TypeA

-0.5

-1.0 -1.0

-0.5

0.0

Dimension1

0.5

1.0

Figure 1. Two-dimension MDS Projection of factors measured by ATPH.

Meireles, E., & Primi, R. (2015). Validity and Reliability for the RIASEC Model. Table 2 Results of the Confirmatory Analysis and Consistency for the ATPH, Considering Different Strategies of Items Parceling Factors and saturation of parcels into two types of items parcelingb Itemsa

Items parceling

12, 22, 76, 77, 99, 118

TCP1

.93

20, 21, 74, 116, 120

TCP2

.91

13, 75, 100, 117, 119

TCP3

.90

.92

16, 17, 19,73, 154

TCP5

.90

.91

14, 18, 97, 114, 115

TCP4

.89

.92

5, 57, 66, 110, 111, 112, 132

TAP4

.92

.94

6, 7, 9, 11, 68, 71, 108

TAP3

.90

.86

8, 10, 69, 104, 105, 107

TAP5

.90

.85

1, 3, 4, 72, 113, 131

TAP1

.81

.91

2, 15, 67, 70, 106, 109

TAP2

.87

.83

33, 41, 85, 129, 133

TRP1

.96

.95

35, 38, 40, 130, 134

TRP2

.95

.90

36, 84, 87, 88, 128

TRP4

.92

.93

34, 42, 43, 89, 136

TRP3

.91

.93

39, 83, 86, 90, 135

TRP5

.86

.87

49, 52, 92, 93, 138

TSP1

.95

.93

51, 91, 137, 141, 144

TSP2

.93

.94

28, 48, 54, 96, 142

TSP5

.92

.87

45, 47, 50, 53, 95

TSP4

.92

.95

44, 46, 94, 139, 143

TSP3

.90

.82

23, 26, 32, 80, 124

TIP1

.91

.85

30, 31, 122, 125

TIP3

.91

.87

24, 27, 81, 82

TIP4

.87

.84

25, 79, 123, 127

TIP2

.86

.89

29, 37, 78, 121, 126

TIP5

.81

.88

56, 58, 101, 146, 152

TEP5

.92

.89

61, 64, 98, 145, 150

TEP3

.92

.80

59, 60, 102, 147, 153

TEP4

.91

.88

62, 63, 65, 148, 149

TEP2

.88

.91

55, 103, 140, 151

TEP1

.79

.89

Composed Reliability – CC

.96

.95

.94

.97

.96

.97

.92

.94

.93

.95

.93

Average Variance Extracted - AVE

.82

.84

.78

.79

.85

.84

.85

.82

.76

.75

.78

.77

√AVE

.91

.92

.88

.89

.92

.91

.87

.88

Note. aThe list of items described in Table 2 corresponds to model 2, which presented the most parsimonious goodness of fit. bStrategy of items parceling: SP = Statistical Parceling; RP = Random Parceling.

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Paidéia, 25(62), 307-315 Table 3 Results of Phi Correlation Among ATPH Latent Factors Considering Different Items Parceling Strategies C

.21 (.21)

.39 (.40)

.25 (.26)

.27 (.27)

.48 (.47)

-.01 (.00)

.35 (.36)

.42 (.42)

.41 (.43)

.46 (.46)

E .67 (.68) .44 (.43) .39 (.40) .37 (.38) .43 (.45) Note. Values outside the parentheses correspond to model 1, with statistical parceling, while the values within parentheses correspond to model 2, with random parceling. All the coefficients were significantly different from zero at p < .001, except between the R and S types for both the items parceling strategies adopted.

Discussion The grouping of items found with exploratory factor analyses (Table 1) almost entirely reproduces the results presented in the single prior study that assessed ATPH’s internal structure (Mansão & Noronha, 2011). The items that describe the following characteristics were grouped in factor 1: greater conformism, control and efficiency in structured tasks, identification with power, valorization of material possessions and social position, inflexibility, rigidity and limited creativity (e.g., item 18. Review accounting of a company), which represents the Conventional (C) type. Items 92 “Working with insurance, social security and health insurance” and 100 “Working with sales” were originally developed to represent S and E types, respectively, were grouped into the C type, types that are adjacent on the hexagonal prototypical structure proposed by Holland (1997). Factor 2 grouped items that describe interests using feelings, emotions, intuition, imagination and creativity to deal with daily situations, solving problems by expressing tastes, thoughts, imagination and feelings through artistic conceptions and realizations (e.g., item 5. Working with artists [musicians, writers or painters]), which corresponds to the Artistic (A) type. Items provided to other types, but which are related to type A characteristics, were also grouped in this set, for instance: item 57(E). Managing leisure and tourism activities; item 131(R) Repairing clothing; and item 132(R) Taking care of gardens. Even though these items were theoretically developed to cover types E, R and R, respectively, for this study’s sample, they were seen in the context of careers that enable the expression of feelings and emotions, such as designer, costume designer, and decorator, corroborating the configuration and interpretations for type A as presented by Mansão and Noronha (2011). Factor 3 grouped items that deal with preferences for activities focused on observable, concrete and manual realizations, which require more prominent motor skills and a greater preference for dealing with concrete problems rather than abstract problems (e.g., item 42. Working in an auto repair shop), corresponding to the Realist type (R). Factor 4, in turn, grouped items that represent the Social (S) type, describing interests in careers that enable social interaction

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and engagement and the expression of characteristics, such as extroversion, sensitivity, solidarity, verbal and interpersonal skills (e.g., item 47. Working with the rehabilitation of children, adults, and elderly individuals with physical or emotional problems). Item 28 “Know the functions of foods and develop menus”, originally provided for type I, was added to factor 4. Considering the cultural meaning of food in Brazil, it may be interpreted in type S as an activity related to concern with health, to the preparation and delivery of food to people, activities normally performed by nutritionists and professionals involved in gastronomy, for instance. Factor 5 grouped items that correspond to the Investigative (I) type, the interests of which are directed to intellectual exploration, introversion, analytical skills, the ability to critique and perfectionism (e.g., item 82. Seeking solutions to scientific problems). This factor describes people who like to think more than act and have a greater ability to deal with abstract ideas and words, with organizational capacity, independence and originality. Item 37 (Understanding the biological mechanisms of cosmetic products), originally developed to represent the R type, was grouped in factor 5 accompanying the remaining items that describe intellectual curiosity, typical of the I type. Finally, factor 6 grouped items related to enthusiastic, impulsive and extroverted people, who prefer activities in which they can dominate, persuade, and lead others (e.g., item 61. Leading a team to success at work), corresponding to the Enterprising type. Few variations were found in this study regarding the grouping of items in comparison to the factor configuration reported by the only study that assessed the internal structure of the ATPH (Mansão & Noronha, 2011). The aforementioned study did not report complex items and retained 142 “pure” items in the instrument. In this study, a total of 154 items were retained, 28 of which presented considerable cross-loads (≥ .30) in at least two factors. Complex items were retained in the factors with stronger loadings, a methodological decision based on the results from Mansão and Noronha (2011); in 15 of these, items were grouped in the same factors that were retained in this study. Other variations involved the migration of a few items (eight in total) among factors adjacent to the hexagonal model of Holland (1996, 1997), which were relatively

Meireles, E., & Primi, R. (2015). Validity and Reliability for the RIASEC Model.

well-accommodated by the theoretical hypotheses, since congruence and correlations of greater magnitude among close types are expected (Holland, 1996, 1997; Tracey et al., 1997). Another potential explanation for these variations may be the different ways data were treated: (1) loading saturation was the criterion used to keep items in the factors (≥ .30 in this study, while ≥ .40 was considered in the other study); and (2) type of correlation matrix used for EFA (in this study, polychoric correlation was used, while Pearson’s correlation was used in the other study). These small differences, though, are not enough to produce theoretical-semantic violations that harm the valid representation of RIASEC types in both studies. The factor structure found when performing EFA (Table 1) was appropriately replicated in the confirmatory analysis (Table 2). The random parceling of items of the same factor in the confirmatory test of this factor structure generated more satisfactory and parsimonious goodness of fit indexes compared to the statistical parceling of items. In regard to the results obtained concerning the internal consistency for the ATPH factors, Cronbach’s alphas ranged from .94 to .96, providing evidence of reliability for the measurement. Additionally, the indicators of Composed Reliability (CR) and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) for the ATPH latent factors (Table 2) were also above the values recommended by the literature (Hair et al., 2010), indicating that the items parcels presented satisfactory internal consistency (CR ≥ .92) and appropriate converge to represent their respective latent factors (AVE ≥ .75). Taken together, these results show evidence of the reliability and validity based on the ATPH internal structure. Another important piece of evidence of validity, established based on the results, refers to the specificity of each career type modeled in the confirmatory factor analysis. When comparing the roots of average variance extracted for each factor (Table 2) to the phi (Φ) correlations among factors (Table 3), the √VME indicators were superior to the (Φ) correlations for all the factors. This means that, even though some types present strong correlations among them, the specific variance, explained by each latent factor, is higher than the variance of this factor that is shared with the remaining factors. That is, there is evidence of discriminant validity for each of the six career types, ratifying its specificity and theoretical and practice relevance that justifies keeping the six factors in the structure model (Farrell, 2010). In regard to the results that enable assessing the hypotheses of circularity and congruence among career types obtained through linear association analysis (phi correlations) and non-linear analysis (MDS), we can say that these hypotheses were reasonably ratified. The results summarized in Table 3 indicate that the hypotheses of association among pairs of career types were partially confirmed, since results theoretically expected for most pairs of empirically observed associations were obtained. Higher magnitudes of association (≥ .40) were found for adjacent pairs E-C; A-S; R-I; I-A and C-R compared to the magnitude of relationships observed for the pairs of alternate types S-C; C-I; R-A; E-R, which ranged from .30 to .40. In turn, the smallest correlations were obtained for the pairs of opposite types C-A and R-S, while

for the last pair this relationship was practically null and without statistical significance. For other pairs of career types, however, (S-E, I-A, I-S, A-E, I-E and C-A), the magnitude of relationships obtained contradict the theoretical expectations (Holland, 1997; Rounds & Tracey, 1996; Tracey et al., 1997). From the point of view of non-linear relationships among career types, assessed using MDS projection (Figure 1), a hexagonal clockwise conformation is observed, characterizing the acronym RASIEC. Even though the exact same ordering of RIASEC types was not observed as postulated by Holland (1996, 1997), we can say that the hypothesis of circular configuration was partially confirmed, as the position of the I type in the two-dimension space diverges from the expected prototypical position. It is wise to conclude that the ATPH is an instrument in the phase of studies seeking evidence of different types of validity to enable a valid and accurate interpretation of its scores. This paper is the second empirical study in which reliability and validity evidence is reported, based on ATPH’s internal structure, to represent career types measured by the ATPH. This study, is however, the first to consider evidence of validity of the hypotheses of circularity and congruence among career types; evidence that partially confirms these hypotheses was found. Considering that the validation process of a measuring instrument involves a number of studies reporting varied types of evidence of validity, aligned with specific contexts and purposes, caution should be used when interpreting congruence among the career types based on the findings presented here. Future studies should verify whether the results reported here, which conflict with theoretical expectations, are in fact characteristics of the Brazilian people or can be attributed to factors and biases such as acquiescence, specificities of the sample used or limitations of the measuring instrument. Further research assessing the impact of acquiescence, as well as whether there is an impact of differential item functioning (DIF) between men and women and respondents from different Brazilian regions, can be useful to clarify the issue of congruence among types proposed by Holland, enriching the debate over the assessment of careers types by using the ATPH.

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edu.pe/index.php/R_PSI/article/view/308/19 Mansão, C. S. M., Noronha, A. P. P., & Ottati, F. (2011). Interesses profissionais: Análise correlacional entre dois instrumentos de avaliação [Professional interests: Correlational analysis between two assessment instruments]. Revista Brasileira de Orientação Profissional, 12(2), 175-184. Retrieved from http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/pdf/rbop/v12n2/05.pdf Mansão, C. S. M., & Yoshida, E. M. P. (2006). SDS Questionário de Busca Auto-Dirigida: Precisão e validade [SDS - Self-Directed Search Career Explorer: Precision and validity]. Revista Brasileira de Orientação Profissional, 7(2), 67-79. Retrieved from http://pepsic. bvsalud.org/pdf/rbop/v7n2/v7n2a07.pdf Messick, S. (1980). Test validity and the ethics of assessment. American Psychologist, 35(11), 1012-1027. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.35.11.1012 Nauta, M. M. (2010). The development, evolution, and status of Holland’s theory of vocational personalities: Reflections and future directions of counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57(1), 11-22. doi:10.1037/ a0028213 Noronha, A. P. P., Mansão, C. S. M., & Nunes, M. F. O. (2012). Interesses profissionais e personalidade: Análise correlacional a partir do ATPH e BFP [Professional interests and personality: Correlational analysis from BFP and ATPH]. Actualidades em Psicología, 26(113), 73-86. doi:10.15517/ap.v26i113.2167 Noronha, A. P. P., & Ottati, F. (2010). Interesses profissionais de jovens e escolaridade dos pais [Youth’s professional interests and their parents’ education]. Revista Brasileira de Orientação Profissional, 11(1), 37-47. Retrieved from http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/pdf/rbop/v11n1/v11n1a05.pdf Nunes, M. F. O., Noronha, A. P. P. (2009). Relações entre interesses, personalidade e habilidades cognitivas: Um estudo com adolescentes [Relationships between interests, personality and cognitive abilities: A study with adolescents]. Psico-USF, 14(2), 131-141. doi:10.1590/ S1413-82712009000200002 Pässler, K., Beinicke, A., & Hell, B. (2015). Interests and intelligence: A meta-analysis. Inteligence, 50, 30-51. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2015.02.001 Primi, R., Bighetti, C. A., Munhoz, A. H., Noronha, A. P. P., Polydoro, S. A. J., Di Nucci, E. P., & Pelegrini, M. C. K. (2002). Personalidade, interesses e habilidades: Um estudo correlacional da BPR-5, LIP e do 16PF [Personality, interests and abilities: A correlational study of BPR-5, LIP and 16PF]. Avaliação Psicológica, 1(1), 61-72. Retrieved from http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/pdf/avp/ v1n1/v1n1a07.pdf Primi, R., Mansão, C. S. M., Muniz, M., & Nunes, M. F. O. (2010). SDS - Questionário de busca auto-dirigida para psicólogos: Manual técnico da versão brasileira [SDS Self-Directed-Search Questionnaire for psychologists: Technical manual of the Brazilian version]. São Paulo, SP: Casa do Psicólogo. Primi, R., Moggi, M. A., & Casellato, E. O. (2004). Estudo correlacional do Inventário de Busca Auto-Dirigida

Meireles, E., & Primi, R. (2015). Validity and Reliability for the RIASEC Model.

(self-directed-search) com o IFP [Correlational study of the Self-Directed Search with the IFP]. Psicologia Escolar e Educacional, 8(1), 47-54. doi:10.1590/S141385572004000100006 Primi, R., Muniz, M., Nunes, M., & Mansão, C. M. (2008). Avaliação dos Tipos Profissionais de Holland - ATPH [Assessment of Holland’s professional types - ATPH]. Unpublished Technical Report. Rounds, J., & Tracey, T. J. (1996). Cross-cultural structural equivalence of RIASEC models and measures. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43(3), 310-329. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.43.3.310 Sartori, F. A., Noronha, A. P. P., & Nunes, M. F. O. (2009). Comparações entre a ESP e SDS: Interesses profissionais em alunos do ensino médio [Comparisons between EAP and SDS: Professional interests in middle school students]. Boletim de Psicologia, 59(130), 17-29. Retrieved from http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/pdf/bolpsi/ v59n130/v59n130a03.pdf Sartori, F. A., Noronha, A. P. P., Godoy, S., & Ambiel, R. A. M. (2010). Interesses profissionais de jovens de ensino médio: Estudo correlacional entre a Escala de Aconselhamento Profissional e o Self-Directed-Search Carrier Explorer [Professional interests of high school students: A correlational study between the Escala de Aconselhamento and Self-Directed-Search Career Explorer]. Estudos de Psicologia (Campinas), 27(2), 215-225. doi:10.1590/S0103-166X2010000200009 Staggs, G. D., Larson, L. M., & Borgen, F. H. (2007). Convergence of personality and interests: Meta-analysis of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire and the Strong Interest Inventory. Journal of Career Assessment, 15(4), 423-445. doi:10.1177/1069072707305760 Tien, H.-L. S. (2011). An exploration of adult career interests and work values in Taiwan. Asia Pacific Education Review, 12(4), 559-568. doi:10.1007/s12564-011-9157-x Tracey, T. J. G., Watanabe, N., & Schneider, P. L. (1997). Structural invariance of vocational interests across Japanese and American cultures. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44(4), 346-354. doi:10.1037/00220167.44.4.346 Van Iddekinge, C. H., Roth, P. L., Putka, D. J., & Lanivich, S. E. (2011). Are you interested? A meta-analysis of relations between vocational interests and employee performance and turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(6), 1167-1194. doi:10.1037/a0024343 Yang, W., Stokes, G. S., & Hui, C. H. (2005). Cross-cultural validation of Holland’s interest structure in Chinese population. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 67(3), 379396. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2004.08.003

Received: Dec. 4, 2014 1st Revision: Mar. 26, 2015 Approved: Apr. 22, 2015

Everson Meireles is a Professor at the Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia, and a Ph.D. candidate in Psychology at the Universidade São Francisco.

How to cite this article: Meireles, E., & Primi, R. (2015). Validity and reliability evidence for assessing Holland’s career types. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 25(62), 307-315. doi:10.1590/198243272562201504

Ricardo Primi is a Professor at the Universidade São Francisco.

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Paidéia, 25(62), 307-315

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Paidéia sep-dec. 2015, Vol. 25, No. 62, 317-324. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201505

Article

Evidence of Validity for the Portilho/Banas Teaching Style Questionnaire1 Giovani de Paula Batista2 Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, Curitiba-PR, Brazil

Evelise Maria Labatut Portilho Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, Curitiba-PR, Brazil

Sueli Édi Rufini Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina-PR, Brazil

Abstract: The use of instruments with evidence of validity in education research brings advances to the production of knowledge. This article reports the stages of a survey of teaching style and the evidence for its validity. One thousand teachers participated in a study of different levels of education. An exploratory factor analysis indicated a structure of four factors in which 55 items had a factorial load greater than .30. The correlation steps made it possible to identify how the four factors are related to each other. As a final result, the questionnaire was composed of 40 items, distributed into groups of 10 items organized by teaching style. Evidence of factorial validity and internal consistency of the items that make up the instrument was seen. Analysis of variance indicated that the scale is sensitive to individual differences in the comparison among the four different teaching styles and the gender and teaching level variables. Keywords: scaling (testing), factor analysis, teaching, education, teachers

Evidências de Validade do Questionário Portilho/Banas de Estilos de Ensino Resumo: A utilização de instrumentos com evidências de validade para a pesquisa no campo da educação resulta em avanços na produção de conhecimentos. O objetivo deste estudo foi buscar evidências de validade fatorial e consistência interna dos itens que compõem o Questionário Portilho/Banas de Estilos de Ensino. Participaram da pesquisa 1000 professores de diferentes níveis de ensino. A análise fatorial exploratória indicou uma estrutura de quatro fatores, aos quais se agruparam 55 itens com carga fatorial superior a .30. O trabalho de correlação permitiu identificar o quanto os quatro fatores estabelecem relação entre si. Ao final, o questionário ficou composto de 40 itens, distribuídos em 10 para cada estilo de ensino. Foram encontradas evidências de validade fatorial e consistência interna dos itens que compõem o instrumento. A ANOVA indicou que a escala foi sensível a diferenças individuais na comparação entre os quatro estilos de ensino e as variáveis gênero e nível de ensino. Palavras-chave: escalas, análise fatorial, ensino, educação, professores

Evidencias de Validez del Cuestionario Portilho/Banas Estilos de Enseñanza Resumen: La utilización de instrumentos con evidencias de validez para investigaciones en el campo de la educación resulta en avances en la producción de conocimientos. La finalidad en este estudio fue conocer evidencias de validez factorial y consistencia interna de los ítems componentes del Cuestionario Portilho/Banas de Estilos de Enseñanza. Participaron de la investigación 1000 profesores de diferentes niveles de enseñanza. El análisis factorial exploratorio indicó una estructura de cuatro factores a los que se agruparon 55 ítems con carga factorial superior a .30. El trabajo de correlación permitió identificar cómo los cuatro factores establecen relación entre sí. Como resultado final, el cuestionario consta de 40 artículos, divididos en 10 para cada estilo de enseñanza. Se observaron evidencias de la validez factorial y consistencia interna de los ítems que componen el instrumento. El ANOVA indicó que la escala era sensible a las diferencias individuales cuando se comparan los cuatro estilos de enseñanza y las variables de género y nivel de educación. Palabras clave: escalas, análisis factorial, enseñanza, educación, profesores

This study describes a literature search on psychometric properties using an instrument assessing teachers’ teaching

Article based in the master’s thesis by the first author under the advice of the second and third authors, defended in 2014 in the Graduate Program in Education at the Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná. Support: National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq - Protocol no. 473599/2009).

Correspondence address: Giovani de Paula Batista. Secretaria de Estado da Educação do Paraná. Rua Araucária, 493, casa 08, Jardim Guraituba. CEP 83410-080. Colombo-PR, Brazil. E-mail: giovanip_batista@hotmail.com

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

style. Evidence of validity was obtained to analyze the accuracy and relevance of a given interpretation proposal; this allowed us to define and determine the type of population that this instrument applies to (Cardoso & Baptista, 2014; Primi, 2010; Primi, Reppold, & Gurgel, 2014; Urbina, 2007), as well as to adjust for or even exclude items that, for any reason, do not meet the proposed objective. We found few pedagogical instruments on teaching styles and no specific assessment measures for this construct. In correlated areas, such as the teacher’s motivating style, we identified studies on validity evidence (Figueiredo, 2014; Rufini, & Boruchovitch, 2004), scales that evaluate teachers’

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Paidéia, 25(62), 317-324

views on the quality of student-teacher relationships (Petrucci, Borsa, Barbosa, & Koller, 2014), studies that identified teachers affected by burnout syndrome (Mallar & Capitão, 2004), and scales evaluating social skills (Major & Santos, 2014). Among the studies of theories on teaching style are the studies of Bennet (1979), who defined teaching style as “features revealed in teachers’ behavior during classes from his/her interaction with pupils” (p. 27). The emphasis on the behavior also appear in studies by Heimlich and Norland (2002), who defined teaching style as “personal features found in teacher’s behavior during his/her classes as a result of a set of beliefs and habits influencing his/her way of thinking and acting” (p. 34). On the basis of the aforementioned studies, teaching style can be defined as a set of attitudes and procedures adopted by teachers that are triggered at each phase of teaching process and highlight a specific manner to conduct classes: i.e., they are particular behaviors the teacher shows when working with students that characterize his/her way of practice. The most recent studies on teaching style have been shown the need for teachers to employ a variety of approaches to respond to the needs of diverse learners and promote different ways of learning in the classroom (Hernández Valbuena & Abello Camacho, 2013; Pupo, 2012). These authors highlight the diversity of learners in the classroom, which requires that teachers adopt different ways to conduct classes in order to offer equal learning opportunities to all students. This study sought to identify, using statistical analyses, the elements that indicate evidence of validity of the Portilho/Bana Teaching Style Questionnaire. The aim is to provide teachers with a tool to be used in research situations (in order to enhance knowledge in the area), training, and continuing education of teachers.

Method This study for the evidence of the validity of the Portilho/Banas Teaching Style Questionnaire used a correlational and exploratory approach because we did not seek to compare, control or calculate any data, but rather aimed to research evidence of validity of pedagogical instruments with self-report features. Selfreport is a technique that attempts to determine individuals’ judgments and statements about themselves. This technique is fundamental to the cognitivist perspective, in which orientation is assumed as conscientious and accessible to the individual. In a given item or hypothetical situation, the participant reports his/her beliefs, indicating the level of correspondence of personal agreement with the construct or subjacent concept (Fulmer & Frijters, 2009). Participants We included 1,000 teachers (730 women and 270 men aged 19 to 67 years (M = 38.9, SD = 9.4). Of these, 159 worked in private school, 833 worked in public primary/secondary school and high schools, and 8 worked in institutions of higher education. A total of 167 institutions from the municipality of

318

Curitiba/Paraná were included (152 state schools, 10 private schools and 5 private higher education institutions). We used a convenience sample (non-probabilistic). Participants in this study were teachers who agreed to answer the questionnaire and those authorized by their institution director/supervisor. Teachers were informed that the study was confidential and that, to dispel any discomfort completing the questionnaire, they could do so without any penalties. Instrument The Portilho/Banas Teaching Style Questionnaire has not been previously validated. This is the first attempt to verify the psychometric validity of this assessment instrument. We evaluated each one of the four teaching styles (dynamic, analytical, systematic, and practical). The assessment had 15 items based on 5-point Likert scale (5 = always, 4 = often, 3 = sometimes, 2 = rarely, 1 = never). As mentioned above, teaching styles are linked to pedagogical procedures used by teachers in the classroom. Teachers’ degree of agreement was related to each set of items, or subscales, which corresponded to their personal teaching style. Some examples are as follows: question 3 - “I try to select different teaching strategies for each content area”, thought to reflect the dynamic teaching style; question 40 “I use didactic resources that enable students to do detailed analyses of situations”, which belongs to the analytical teaching style; question 44 - “I plan my classes foreseeing the control of the class, to avoid discursion”, reflecting the systematic teaching style; and question 34 - “I use teaching strategies that promote construction of practical and fast solutions”, from the practical teaching style. Procedure The search for evidence of validity of the Portilho/Banas Teaching Style Questionnaire was done in five steps, based on model proposed by Pasquali (2010): application planning, application and collection, dimensionality, instrument precision and establishment of norms. The step referent to application planning is featured by two relevant points: the definition of the sample and instruction on how to apply the instrument. The sample was clearly delimited in terms of its specific characteristics, according to the objective for which the instrument was constructed. Data collection. Application and information collection for different teaching styles occurred between June and July 2013 following precautions recommended by Pasquali (2010). All participants were accommodated in a given classroom that had been previously scheduled. Mean duration of questionnaire administration was roughly 20 minutes by teachers’ group. Data analysis. Data were coded and transformed to the Stastitic8 Program for planned analyses. To seek evidence of validity of the instrument, a factorial exploratory analysis was done with extraction of main components, internal consistency analysis using Cronbach’s alpha and Pearson’s correlation. The analysis of variance was used to analyze differences in participants’ performance.

Batista, G. P., Portilho, E. M. L., & Rufini, S. É. (2015). Validity of the Teaching Style Questionnaire.

Ethical Considerations This study followed national and international ethical and legal aspects of research on human subjects and was approved by the Ethical and Research Committee of the Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná (CAAE no. 03851312.1.0000.0020).

Results By using extraction of main components, 32 factors were initially found to correspond to the number of questions

in the test. From this procedure, 14 factors appeared with self-value over 1 that explained part of the variability in the total. However, four factors were considered to have higher self-value that corresponded to four subscales with theoretical relevance explaining the variance of 32.6% of the set. In our analysis, a cut-off point of 30 was established in order to enable the loading of an item to a factor. According to Pasquali (2010), this is an acceptable value, and this would explain at least 9% of total variance. For this reason, five items of the original structured were excluded; Table 1 (part one and part two) shows the location of each item in the respective factors.

Table 1 Placement of Items With Saturation > .30 in Each of the Four Factors (Part 1) Item

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4

1. I plan my class considering the possibility of making changes in the discipline program.

.36

2. I try to make an objective, coherent and structured class plan.

.55

3. I try to select different teaching strategies for each content area.

.46

5. I tend to prioritize teaching strategies with group work.

.54

6. I dedicate more time than planned to work some specific contents.

.32

7. I tend to not follow the planning; I more often improvise. 8. I use teaching strategies that promote constructive discussion.

.32 .44

9. I insist that my students review exercises before handing them back to me.

.38

10. In assessments, I prioritize open-ended and lengthy questions.

.41

11. In assessment activities, I demand well-supported answers.

.62

12. I plan my classes in order to cover all details of the content.

.49

13. I notice that my student learned when he/she masters the logic sequence of content worked. 14. When planning my classes, I seek to articulate theory and practice.

.30

.37

.45

15. I notice that my student learned based on fair results achieved in formal grades.

.34

16. I plan my classes foreseeing chill-out moments of the groups.

.53

17. I plan my classes to provide plenty of time for students to develop experience with content given.

.58

19. I prioritize students’ autonomy when they are doing the proposed activities.

.44

20. I plan my classes seeking to give meaning to content according to students’ routine.

.52

21. I enable students to discuss the content given.

.59

22. I use discussion as a teaching strategy, but ideas should be based on previous studies.

.55

23. In tests I recommend students to give short, precise and direct answers.

.32

.56

25. I plan my classes prioritizing teaching strategies that favor the detailed analysis of content.

.35

26. I seek to work with content by contextualizing subjects and the author, regardless of the discipline.

.32

.35

27. I give priority to teaching strategies that enable students to search for “reasons” that explain his/her ideas.

.46

.41

28. I plan my classes prioritizing teaching strategies that promote thought.

.54

.31

29. I work with content always integrating it to a broader theoretical milestone.

.33

.37

30. I prefer teaching strategies that promote individual work.

-.38

.54

.34

Note. Factor 1 - Dynamic Teaching Style, Factor 2 - Analytical Teaching Style, Factor 3 - Systematical Teaching Style, Factor 4 - Practical Teaching Style. Elaborated by Batista, 2014.

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Paidéia, 25(62), 317-324 Table 1 Placement of Items With Saturation > .30 in Each of the Four Factors (Part 2) Item

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4

31. In assessed activities, I promote competitiveness.

.44

34. I use teaching strategies that promote construction of practical and fast solutions.

.54

35. I promote discussion of subjects, problems and/or real situations.

.54

36. I try to not spend too much time with theoretical explanations.

.43

37. I perceive that my student learned when they study the content outside of the classroom.

.33

38. I prefer group work in my classes.

.57

39. I use listening as the basis for thinking about learned subjects.

.51

40. I use didactic resources that enable students to do detailed analyses of situations.

.39

.37

41. I use class activities in the classroom that require, from my end, structure and objectivity.

.50

42. I prefer, during my classes, activities that enable students to work with observation and detailing of the proposed subject.

.33

43. In tests, I seek to include fewer questions.

.41 .47

44. I plan my classes foreseeing the control of the class, to avoid discursion. 45. I use teaching strategies that promote solving of daily life problems.

.40 .44

46. In handouts, I try to give clear instructions concerning procedures to be done.

.34

47. I never assign another activity until all analysis and arguments of possibilities of the present topic have ended.

.44

48. During tests, I request that students answer questions in a logical and coherent manner.

.65

49. In assessment activities, I prefer to elaborate summaries with clear concepts.

.64

50. I give plenty of time for students to complete tests.

.47

51. I notice that my student learned when he/she can formulate examples based on the theory.

.51

52. In tests, I consider it relevant when the student argues about a point of view.

.30

.48

53. I notice that my student learned when he/she could transfer the content to a practical situation.

.38

.32

54. In tests, I create questions that require detailed analysis of contents presented in the classroom.

.55

55. I substitute explanation for practical activities.

.37

56. I use teaching strategies that work with experience and activities related to the students’ environment.

.60

57. I stimulate students to participate in presentations and discussions.

.62

58. In tests, I prioritize practical questions.

Four items – Items 4: “I perceive that my student learned when he/she shows the ability to solve problems”, 18: “I plan to begin the year by reviewing content worked on in the previous year”, 24: “ I notice that my student learned when he/she did good work, showing its practical usefulness”, 32: “I notice that my student learned when he/she expressed deep and detailed ideas” and item 33: “I’m not favorable to improvising activities” – did not achieve a factorial load of at least .30 for any factor. Observing the content of the items grouped around each item of one of the four factors, we found that factor 1 corresponded to the dynamic teaching style subscale, factor 2 corresponded to the analytical teaching style subscale,

320

.46

.60

59. In tests, I demand that students answer questions directly and briefly. 60. I seek to diversify didactic resources used in classes.

.30

.58 .51

and factor 3 corresponded to the systematic teaching style subscale, thereby meeting the initial expectation of the learning style questionnaire. From this point on, factors will be mentioned by the corresponding teaching style. The factorial load analysis related to the four factors showed that some of them loaded simultaneously in more than one factor, indicating that they were not representative to styles that they were originally elaborated and therefore were excluded. This is the case with the following items: item 15 - “I notice that my student learned based on fair results achieved in formal grades,” initially thought to belong to the systematic style, which presented a factorial load of .32 for the systematic teaching style and in .34 for

Batista, G. P., Portilho, E. M. L., & Rufini, S. É. (2015). Validity of the Teaching Style Questionnaire.

the analytical style; item 25 - “I plan my classes prioritizing teaching strategies that favor detailed analysis of content”, which was originally thought to belong to the systematic style but presented a factorial load of .35 for the analytical style and .54 for the practical style; item 26 - “I seek to work with content by contextualizing subjects and the author, regardless of the discipline”, which originally belonged to the systematic style but had a factorial load of .32 for the dynamic style and .35 for the analytic style; item 27 - “I give priority to teaching strategies that enable students to search for ‘reasons’ that explain his/her ideas”, which initially belonged to the systematic style and presented a factorial load of .46 for the dynamic style and .41 for the analytic style; item 28 - “I plan my classes prioritizing teaching strategies that promote thought”, which originally belonged to the analytical style and presented a factorial load of .31 in analytical style and .54 for the dynamic style; 29 - “I work with content always integrating it to a broader theoretical milestones”, which originally belonged to the dynamic style; item 40 - “I use didactic resources that enable students to do detailed analyses of situations”, which originally belonged to the analytical teaching style and presented a factorial load of .39 for the dynamic style and .37 for the practical style; item 42 - “I prefer, during my classes, activities that enable students to work with observation and detailing of the proposed subject”, which initially belonged to the analytical style and had a factorial load of .33 for the respective analytical style and of .41 for practical style; item 52 - “In tests, I consider it relevant when the student argues about a point of view”, which originally belonged to the analytical style and presented a factorial load of .48 for the teaching style and .30 for the dynamic style; 53 - “I notice that my student learned when he/she could transfer the content to a practical situation”, which initially belonged to the practical teaching style and presented a factorial load of load of .38 for the dynamic style and .32 for the analytical style; item 54 “In tests, I create questions that require detailed analysis of contents presented in classroom”, originally belonging to the analytical style, which presented a factorial load of .37 for the dynamic style and .46 for the systemic style; and, finally, item 55 - “I substitute explanations for practical activities”, which originally belonged to the practical style and presented a factorial load of .37 for the dynamic style and .46 for the systematic style. Of the 15 items created, item 57 was the most representative for the dynamic teaching style, item 10 had the greatest factorial load for the analytical style, item 43 seemed to be the most representative for the systematic teaching style, and item 2 was the most representative for the practical teaching style. When items loaded in the analytical teaching style, items 25 and 42 also had similar loads in the practical teaching style, but items 28 and 51 had fair factorial load in the dynamic style. In relation to systematic teaching style, of the 15 items created, 48 had greater factorial load for the analytical teaching style, items 18 and 33 did not achieve sufficient factorial load in any factor, item 2 had the greatest factorial load for the practical teaching style and any initial items created for the systematic teaching style had fair factorial load.

Finally, of 15 items created for assessment of factors for the practical teaching style, items 23, 34, 36, 58, and 59 had great factorial load for the systematic teaching style and item 53 loaded in the dynamic style and analytical style, but items 14, 17, 20, 45, 55, and 56 had great factorial load for dynamic style. Similar to what occurred with the systematic teaching style, no items initially created for the practical teaching style obtained fair load in that factor. Therefore, the factorial analysis showed that of 55 items that comprised the assessment instrument of teaching styles, 17 belonged to the dynamic teaching style, only 6 belonged to the dynamic and analytical styles, 1 belonged to the dynamic and systematic styles, and 1 belonged to the dynamic and practical styles, totaling 25 items (30% of items that composed the questionnaire). In addition, we observed that 12 items belonged to the analytical teaching style, only 6 belonged to the dynamic and analytical style, 1 belonged to the systematic and analytical styles, and 2 belonged to the analytical and practical styles, totaling 21 items (21.4% of questions in the instrument). In relation to the systematic style, of 55 items that composed the questionnaire, 9 were placed in this factor; among them, 1 also belonged to the dynamic style, 1 to the analytical style, and 1 to the practical style. In the set, they represented 12%, and the lower percentage of items that composed the instrument. In addition, we found 11 items that represented factorial load for the practical style. Among them, 1 also presented fair factorial load for the dynamic style, 2 for the analytical style and 1 for the practical style, explaining, in the set, 16% of the scale. In addition to exploratory factorial analysis, we searched for evidence of validity by using correlational analysis; results are presented in Table 2. Table 2 Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient Among Means Obtained in the Four Subscales Organized According to Factorial Analysis Results Variable ED

Factor 1

Factor 2

Factor 3

Factor 4

EA2

.59

ES3

.24

.42

.51 .70 .37 1 EP Note. 1Dynamic Teaching Style, 2Analytical Teaching Style, 3 Systematic Teaching Style, 4Practical Teaching Style. 4

In the first analysis, we searched for correlations among four factors configured according to results of the exploratory factorial analysis. As shown in Table 2, we found positive and significant correlations among means obtained by participants in the dynamic style assessment with those obtained in assessment of the analytic style with the practical style; the systematic style had means positively and significantly correlated with the analytical style; and a large positive and significant correlation was found between

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the means obtained in the assessment of the practical style with the dynamic style. In another analysis line, using the analysis of variance test, we sought to compare differences in

participants’ performance according to personal and socioenvironmental variables, such as sex, formal education, chain of teaching and age.

Table 3 Statistical Data Comparing Means Obtained by Participants in Subscales of Dynamic, Analytical, Systematic and Practical Teaching Style in Relation to Sex Sex Female

Male

729

4.02

.43

269

3.94

.47

6.44

.01

729

3.93

.48

270

3.96

.46

0.83

.36

729

3.07

.57

269

3.14

.57

2.74

.09

730

3.93

.47

270

3.87

.49

3.07

.07

Note. 1Dynamic Teaching Style, 2Analytical Teaching Style, 3Systematical Teaching Style, 4Practical Teaching Style.

Results presented in Table 3 indicate that a significant difference was found in participants’ performance on the dynamic teaching style assessment (F = 6.44, p = .01) and sex that revealed large means among women. Table 4 also shows the comparison among means obtained in four subscales and education level variable for teacher work,

and we found significant difference in the dynamic teaching style (F = 3.48), analytical teaching style (F = 7.70) and systematic teaching style (F = 9.14) (p = .00 for all). Close to these values we found practical teaching style (F = 2.64), with a significance level of p = .02.

Table 4 Comparison Among Means Obtained by Education Level and Dynamic, Analytical, Systematical and Practical Teaching Style Children’s Education

Primary School

High School

Primary/High School

Children’s Higher Education Education/Primary School

4.19

.39

3.98

484

.42

131

.49

3.99

290

.45

3.97

.26

3.86

3.48

.00

3.7

.53

3.91

484

.48

4.01

131

.48

4.03

291

.42

3.75

.32

3.68

.49

7.7

.00

2.89

.55

3.04

484

.58

3.17

131

.53

3.21

291

.54

2.3

.43

3.02

.36

9.14

.00

3.85

.51

3.9

484

.49

3.96

132

.47

3.95

291

.46

3.43

.47

3.82

.45

2.64

.02

Note. Dynamic Teaching Style, Analytical Teaching Style, Systematical Teaching Style, Practical Teaching Style. 1

A Tukey analysis indicated that teachers who worked in primary, secondary and high schools simultaneously had higher means in relation to other dynamic styles compared with teachers who worked in college education and children’ education and primary education simultaneously (significance level considered was p < .05). Related to the analytic teaching style, the Tukey analysis revealed significant differences in significance level (p < .05) between those who worked in primary school, high school and primary school and high school, simultaneously. Results also pointed out significant differences in performance in the assessment of the analytical teaching style; the same was observed for the dynamic style. Concerning the systematic teaching style, in addition to these four levels, this analysis showed significant differences in higher education;

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however, the Tukey test did not reveal statistically significant differences among teachers who worked in children’s education and primary education. The fact that Tukey analysis shows that teachers from different teaching levels prioritize the dynamic, analytical and systematic styles that is one more clue of validity evidence, particularly because this finding is close to the theory it supports. However, this analysis did not determine significant differences concerning the practical teaching style and education levels, showing causality between this variable and teaching style. Regardless of the arbitrariness in the choice of indices, starting from 5% to indicate significant differences avoids statistical errors to a reasonable extent (Rufini & Boruchovitch, 2004). This finding leads us to the hypothesis of correlation occurring in a casual manner

Batista, G. P., Portilho, E. M. L., & Rufini, S. É. (2015). Validity of the Teaching Style Questionnaire.

as the one that occurred with professors who worked with children’s education and primary education in relation to the systematic style. We emphasize that the results presentation in the analysis can vary in many participants because some of them left one or more items blank.

Discussion This study sought to determine evidence of factorial validity and internal consistency of items making up the Portilho/Banas Teaching Style Questionnaire. Statistical analyses identified four main teaching styles (dynamic, analytical, systematic and practical), and the coefficients of internal consistency of assessment subscales (Cronbach’s alpha coefficient) are above the cutoff point often recommended (.70) (Bzuneck & Guimarães, 2003; Fontes & Azzi, 2012; Leal, Miranda, & Carmo, 2012; Reeve, Bolt, & Cai, 1999). However, it is prudent to emphasize that our study is the first to seek evidence of validity using the Portilho/ Banas Teaching Style Questionnaire; for this reason, further studies are warranted to refine this instrument. Bearing this qualification in mind, the main findings will be discussed. After the analysis of main components, we opted to keep four factors that obtained higher self-value meeting the initial expectation for Portilho/Banas Teaching Style Questionnaire version. The first one was the dynamic teaching style, followed by the analytical, the systematic, and the practical teaching styles. In particular, the dynamic teaching style referred to behaviors of the teacher who, during classes, did not always follow a planned content schedule but instead preferred to create space for real discussions, favoring collaborative work with students and opting to work with broader questions. However, the analytical teaching style is used by teachers who week to impart all content in detail, invest more time than planned with specific content, and give students time to review the content. The systematic teaching style revealed a teaching practice that prioritizes the coherence and structure of working content by using teaching strategies that promote debate and incentivize the creation of supported answers from students. Finally, the practical teaching style is present among teachers who reserve time for students to experience the learned content, who seek teaching strategies that promote construction of practical and fast solution and who opt to work in class with problems from students’ routine (Banas, 2013). The correlation analysis between performance in assessment of the four teaching styles indicated positive and significant correlation between analytical and practical styles, a result that indicated correspondence between the content of the two subscales or between the two constructors. For the others, correlations were weak and moderate, which indicate that they were different constructors. As a complement, by using analysis of variance, we could verify the sensibility of the instrument to catch individual differences; identifying a high score among women for the dynamic teaching style suggested that in their practice they tend to prioritize students’ autonomy to solve activities, to

use group work, and to promote competition and activities involving broader issues. We could perceive the presence of the four teaching styles in children’ education, primary education, high school education and college education. After the analyses were done, we observed that the systematic and practical teaching styles had fewer items than the dynamic and analytical teaching styles. Therefore, of 60 initial items in the instrument, after the performance of steps suggested in the literature, we opted to keep those that showed better representativeness of teaching styles based on factorial loads. As the final result, the Portilho/Banas Teaching Style Questionnaire was composed of 40 items, distributed in 10 items for each teaching style (dynamic, analytical, systematic and practical). The several analyses performed in this study indicated evidence of the validity of the Portilho/Banas Teaching Style Questionnaire. With the exception of items 4, 18, 24, 32 and 33, the other items are coherent with the theoretical proposition that support and show the acceptable psychometrical proprieties. Researchers in the area of teaching styles will have a new assessment instrument available to be used with other samples in order to refine thoughts in this area. In addition, this represents a contribution that deepens the theoretical basis. Educational implications of teaching styles are an important and a topical issue. Studies are warranted to expand the knowledge in the area and enhance assessment instruments.

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How to cite this article: Batista, G. P., Portilho, E. M. L., & Rufini, S. É. (2015). Evidence of validity for the Portilho/Banas Teaching Style Questionnaire. Paidéia (RibeirãoPreto), 25(62), 317-324. doi: 10.1590/1982-43272562201505

Paidéia sep-dec. 2015, Vol. 25, No. 62, 325-332. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201506

Article

Evidence of Validity of the Job Crafting Behaviors Scale1 Renata Silva de Carvalho Chinelato2 Universidade Salgado de Oliveira, Niterói-RJ, Brazil

Maria Cristina Ferreira Universidade Salgado de Oliveira, Niterói-RJ, Brazil

Felipe Valentini Universidade Salgado de Oliveira, Niterói-RJ, Brazil

Abstract: Job crafting behavior refers to the changes made by workers in their job context for adjusting their activities to their preferences. We sought to adapt and collect validity evidences of the Job Crafting Behaviors Scale for the Brazilian context, in a sample of 491 workers, with a mean age of 26.7 years. Factor analysis revealed that the final instrument consisted of three dimensions (increasing structural job resources, increasing social job resources, increasing challenging job demands), which showed good internal consistency indexes. These dimensions showed low or moderate correlations with work engagement, positive psychological capital, positive job affect, and in-role performance. The scale showed evidence of validity, the use of which is recommended for future research on the changes that people make in their jobs. Keywords: statistical validity, positive psychology, organizational behavior

Evidências de Validade da Escala de Comportamentos de Redesenho do Trabalho Resumo: Os comportamentos de redesenho do trabalho dizem respeito às mudanças efetuadas pelos trabalhadores em seu contexto laboral para ajustar suas atividades às suas preferências. Buscou-se adaptar e reunir evidências de validade da Escala de Comportamentos de Redesenho do Trabalho para o contexto brasileiro, em uma amostra de 491 trabalhadores, com idade média de 26,7 anos. As análises fatoriais confirmatórias revelaram que o instrumento final se compôs de três dimensões (aumento dos recursos estruturais, aumento dos recursos sociais, aumento das demandas desafiadoras), que apresentaram bons índices de consistência interna. Tais dimensões apresentaram correlações positivas moderadas ou baixas com o engajamento no trabalho, o capital psicológico positivo, os afetos positivos no trabalho e o desempenho intrapapéis de trabalho. Concluiu-se que a escala demonstrou evidências de validade, o que recomenda seu uso para futuras pesquisas sobre as mudanças que os indivíduos realizam em seu trabalho. Palavras-chave: validade estatística, psicologia positiva, comportamento organizacional

Evidencias de Validez de la Escala de Conductas de Rediseño del Trabajo Resumen: Comportamientos de rediseño se refieren a los cambios realizados por los trabajadores en su contexto de trabajo para ajustar sus actividades a sus preferencias. El estudio buscó adaptar y reunir evidencias de validez de la Escala de Comportamientos de Rediseño del Trabajo para el contexto brasileño, en una muestra de 491 trabajadores, con una edad media de 26,7 años. Los análisis factoriales confirmatorios demostraron que el instrumento final consistió en tres dimensiones (aumento de los recursos estructurales, aumento de los recursos sociales, aumento de las demandas desafiantes), que presentaron adecuados índices de consistencia interna. Estas dimensiones demostraron correlaciones bajas o moderadas con el engagement en el trabajo, el capital psicológico positivo, los afetos positivos en el trabajo y el desempeño in-rol. La conclusión es que la escala mostró evidencias de validez, que recomiendan su uso para investigaciones futuras sobre los cambios que las personas hacen en su trabajo. Palabras clave: validación estadística, psicologia positiva, conducta organizacional

The emergence of Positive Organizational Psychology has increased the interest in the investigation of positive results related to work, to the extent that such a perspective attempts to give greater emphasis to the study of traits, states and manifest positive behaviors in the organizational context (Luthans &

Article derived from the doctoral dissertation of the first author, under the supervision of the second, subject to qualification at the Graduate Program in Psychology of the Universidade Salgado de Oliveira. Support: Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ - Protocol no. E-26/102 870/2013).

Correspondence address: Renata Silva de Carvalho Chinelato. Rua Carlota Malta, 122/302, Centro. CEP 36016-240. Juiz de Fora-MG, Brazil. E-mail: resilvajf@gmail.com

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

Youssef, 2007). One such phenomenon is job crafting behaviors, characterized by change of actions in which employees engage in order to adjust work activities to their preferences, motivations and passions (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). Job crafting behaviors have been shown to be positively associated with performance, proactive personality, personal initiative, the degree of control over work, satisfaction, resilience and job demands (Tims & Bakker, 2010; Tims, Bakker, & Derks, 2012). Job crafting has also been studied as an independent variable (Tims et al., 2012), as well as a dependent variable explained by work engagement (Parker & Griffin, 2011). The absence of a measuring instrument with evidence of validity for assessing the behavior of job redesign (Tims

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Paidéia, 25(62), 325-332

& Bakker, 2010) led to the recent development and search for evidence of the validity of the Job Crafting Scale (JCS) in Netherlands sample (Tims et al., 2012), in which the scale showed good psychometric characteristics. Scales focused on the assessment of this construct were not found in Brazil, which justified additional research on the validity of the scores interpretation of the JCS scale in the Brazilian context, providing a measure that contributes to the diagnosis of this phenomenon by Brazilian organizational researchers. In this sense, the present study aimed to adapt and gather initial evidence of the validity of the JCS in a sample of Brazilian workers. Work design can be understood as a process in which the organization creates its workstations and seeks knowledge and skills in the individuals, specific to the execution of tasks and roles. These tasks and roles are structured, promulgated and modified, generating impacts on individuals, groups and organizations (Grant & Parker, 2009). Job redesign, in turn, consists of changing tasks or working roles by individuals (Tims & Bakker, 2010), based on the interactions integrated into the every day work life (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). Such changes appear especially in periods of greater job demands, through initiatives taken by the employees themselves, without the intervention of the organization (Tims & Bakker, 2010). Job redesign has two dimensions: relational and proactive. Relational reflects the fact that working roles are aggregated into larger social systems, therefore being associated with existing relationships between co-workers and suppliers / customers. Proactive, in turn, emphasizes the individual dimension of the job redesign. It is concerned to the employee’s initiative to anticipate and create changes in the manner in which the work is performed, based on increased uncertainty and dynamism. In this sense, when the work processes become unpredictable and the individuals are dynamic, they can take preventive action, creating changes in how tasks are executed (Demerouti & Bakker, 2014). Thus, job crafting behaviors lead individuals to promote physical and cognitive changes in their tasks and labor relations. Physical changes are related to changes in the shape and the number of tasks or working relationships, while cognitive changes refer to alterations in how the individual performs his work (Bakker, Rodríguez-Muñoz, & Derks, 2012; Demerouti & Bakker, 2014). In summary, the main characteristics of job crafting behaviors is that individuals change their tasks or other aspects of the design of their work environment on their own initiative, which leads to changing the meaning and identity of work (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). In this sense they contribute to maintenance of high levels of employee motivation and well-being, which usually result in higher levels of productivity for the organization (Tims & Bakker, 2010). The study of job crafting behavior is based on the theory of job demands and resources (JD-R), which classifies the working conditions in two broad categories: job demands and job resources. Job demands constitute an aspect of the work context that requires physical and / or psychological exertion by employees, and consequently generates physical and psychological costs (Bakker, Demerouti, & Sanz-Vergel,

326

2014). Such demands can be classified as challenges or hindrances (Crawford, Lepine, & Rich, 2010). The hindrance demands are characterized as stress factors in the work environment that usually frustrates personal growth, learning and goals achievement. The challenge demands, on the other hand, are related to aspects of the work context that are stressful, but that have the potential to promote personal growth or future earnings. Thus, the decrease in hindrance demands and increase in challenge demands can lead to positive results for the employee (Crawford et al., 2010). The resources of the work, in turn, refer to the aspects of the work context that are functional in terms of working goals, stimulating personal growth, learning and the development. Such resources are able to mitigate the negative effects of the demands leading to positive work results, even when the demands are high (Crawford et al., 2010). Supported by the JD-R theory, Tims et al. (2012) propose that job crafting behaviors refer to changes that employees make in their work demands and resources, according to their capacities and needs, in order to enhance the meaning of their work. According to the authors, these behaviors are structured in three dimensions: increasing job resources, increasing challenging job demands, and decreasing hindering job demands. Based on this classification, Tims et al. (2012) developed and validated a scale for assessing that construct in three studies conducted in the Netherlands (N = 1,181). Initially, the authors constructed a pool of 42 items, reflecting the three job crafting dimensions. The results of exploratory factor analysis led to the elimination of 21 items, adopting the criteria to retain only the items with factor loadings above .35 of the expected factor, and to delete the items with factor loadings above .35 in unexpected factors as well as factors with just one or two items. Thus, the final version of the scale included 21 items distributed in four factors, rather than the three factors originally designed. These factors were labeled as: increasing challenging job demands (five items, alpha = .75), decreasing hindering job demands (six items, alpha = .79), increasing structural job resources (variety of resources, opportunities for the development and autonomy, five items, alpha = .82), and increasing social job resources (social support, training and feedback received from supervising, five items, alpha = .77). The three factors model explained 54.2% of the variance of the items. The validity of the construct of the scale was demonstrated by positive correlations between the four dimensions of job crafting behavior and proactive personality, assessed by the Proactive Personality Scale (Bateman & Crant, 1993), obtaining results equal to .46; .23; .55 and .17, respectively; and among the three dimensions of such behavior (increasing structural job resources, increasing social job resources, and increasing challenging job demands) and the personal initiative, assessed by the scale of Frese, Fay, Hilburger, Leng, and Tag (1997), in which results equal to .57, .37 and .61 were obtained, respectively. Likewise, negative correlations were observed between cynicisms, assessed by a subscale of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Schaufeli, Leiter, Maslach & Jackson, 1996), and three dimensions of job crafting behavior (increasing

Chinelato, R. S. C., Ferreira, M. C., & Valentini, F. (2015). Job Crafting Behaviors Scale.

structural job resources, r = -.24; increasing social job resources, r = -.17; increasing challenging job demands, r = -.16), and decreasing hindering job demands was positively correlated with cynicism (r = .35). In support of criterion validity, the results indicated that self-report of job crafting behaviors correlated positively with the classifications of co-workers on the engagement levels (estimated by Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, Schaufeli, Bakker, & Salanova, 2006); increasing structural job resources, r = .46; increasing social job resources, r = .31; increasing challenging job demands, r = .41; decreasing hindering job demands, r = -.19) and job performance (estimated by Williams and Anderson scale (1991), increasing structural job resources, r = .40; increased social job resources, r = .23; increasing challenging job demands, r = .37; decreasing hindering job demands, r = -.10) (Tims et al., 2012). The aim of this study was to adapt and gather validity evidence of the Job Crafting Scale (JCS) in a sample of Brazilian workers. Validity evidences were studied by confirmatory factor analysis, as well as correlation among the JCS, positive (work engagement, in-role performance, positive affect at work, positive psychological capital at work and self-referential ratings) and negative (negative affect at work and neuroticism) attitudes towards job and life. Work engagement is a positive and work-related state, characterized by vigor, dedication and absorption (Demerouti, Mostert & Bakker 2010; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2010). The job crafting behaviors should present moderate positive correlations (above .30) with work engagement (Hypothesis 1). In-role performance refers to nonvoluntary but expected behaviors as part of the formal requirements of the organization (Anderson & Williams, 1991). Thus, job crafting behavior would show moderate positive correlations with in-role performance (Hypothesis 2). Positive affects at work are related to emotions of pleasure, excitement and comfort (Warr, 2007). Thus, they would present moderate positive correlations with job crafting behavior (Hypothesis 3). The positive psychological capital, in turn, consists of an individual state associated with feelings of selfefficacy, optimism, hope and resilience (Luthans & Youssef, 2007). Thus, it would present moderate positive correlations with job crafting behavior (Hypothesis 4). The negative affects are concerned with emotions of displeasure, anxiety and depression (Warr, 2007). Thus, moderate negative correlation would be expected between negative emotions at work and job crafting behavior (Hypothesis 5). Neuroticism is also associated with negative emotions such as depression and anxiety (Penley & Tomaka, 2002). Thus, moderate negative correlations between this personality factor and job crafting behaviors would exist (Hypothesis 6).

Method Participants A non-probabilistic sample, composed of 491 Brazilian workers of both sexes (54.2% females) was used in this study. The age of respondents ranged from 17 to 61 years old,

average of 26.7 years (SD = 7.8). With regard to education, the majority of the sample (80.4%) had incomplete higher level education. The current working time of the respondents ranged from 1 to 29 years, average of 3.6 years (SD = 4.4). The total working time ranged from 1 to 38, with a mean of 8.8 years (SD = 7.7). The only inclusion criterion for the sample was to have been working for at least one year at the time of study initiation, since the aim of the research was to investigate the variability of feelings about the job. Instruments The Job Crafting Scale (JCS) (Tims et al., 2012) was used to assess the behavior of work redesign. The JCS consists of twenty-one items to be answered using a five point scale, ranging from one (never) to five (always). One example of an item is: “I try to develop my capabilities”. In the original study, the four dimensions of the scale achieved reliability equal to: increasing challenging job demands (five items, alpha = .75); decreasing hindering job demands (six items, alpha = .79); increasing structural job resources (five items, alpha = .82); increasing social job resources (five items, alpha = .77). The scale was initially translated and adapted to Portuguese by three professionals and then back translated into English by a bilingual teacher, as recommended by Borsa, Damasio and Bandeira (2012). Subsequently, the equivalence between items was verified by two judges, with minor changes in some of the items for adjustment to the original scale. The Brazilian version of the Positive Psychological Capital Scale, adapted from Luthans, Avolio, Avey and Norman (2007), was used to measure the psychological capital at the workplace. The instrument is composed of twenty-four items, which must be answered using a six point scale, ranging from one (I strongly disagree) to six (I strongly agree). One example of an item is: “I feel confident helping to set targets/goals in my work area”. The internal consistency of the scale, measured by Cronbach’s alpha, was equal to .82 in this study. The measurement of positive and negative affects at work was performed using the short version of the Work Affect Scale (Ferreira, Silva, Fernandes, & Almeida, 2008). The instrument is composed of twenty items, that must be answered with a five-point scale, ranging from one (never) to five (always). One example of an item is: “I am able to face the problems at work”. The internal consistency of both scales (positive and negative affects), calculated by Cronbach’s alpha, and was equal to .70 in this study. The short version of Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-9), adapted from the instrument developed by Schaufeli et al. (2006), was used to measure work engagement. The instrument consists of nine items in a six-point response format, ranging from zero (never) to six (always). One example of an item is: “My job inspires me”. The internal consistency of the scale, measured by Cronbach’s alpha, was equal to .91 in the current investigation. The In-Role Work Performance Scale (Williams & Anderson, 1991) was adopted in order to assess the work performance. It has seven items using a five point response

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Paidéia, 25(62), 325-332

format, ranging from one (I strongly disagree) to five (I strongly agree). One example of an item is: “I perform tasks that are expected of me”. The internal consistency of the scale, measured by Cronbach’s alpha, was equal to .70 in this study. As a measurement of neuroticism, one of the scales of the Big Five Inventory were used, written by John, Donahue and Kentle (1991) and adapted to Brazilian samples by Andrade (2008). The neuroticism subscale contains six items, with a five point response format, ranging from one (I easily disagree) to five (I easily agree). One example of an item is: “I see myself as someone who easily gets nervous”. The internal consistency of the scale in the current research, measured by Cronbach’s alpha, was .76. All the instruments, except the Work Role Performance Scale had previous evidence of validity within the Brazilian context, obtained by the authors who performed the translation and adaptation of these scales. Procedure Data collection. The applications of the instruments occurred in groups or individually, in the classroom or other locations on the campus of a private university in Minas Gerais, according to the inclusion criteria for the sample. The participants read the instructions prior to completing the data collection. Respondents were informed about the voluntary nature of the research, and the anonymity of their responses. Data analysis. Collected data were tabulated using SPSS software (version 21). The confirmatory factor analyses were performed using the MPlus software (version 7.1). Whereas the data did not show a normal multivariate distribution, the Weighted Least Squares Mean and Variance Adjusted (WLSMV) parameters estimation method was used, setting the observed variables as categorical (ordinal). The goodness of fit indexes were evaluated in accordance with the recommendations of Hox and Bechger (1998): c²/gl < 5; CFI > .95; TLI > .95; RMSEA < .05. For reliability assessment of each scale, the internal consistency indices were calculated using Cronbach’s alpha. The investigation of relationships between the JCS scale and other constructs was performed by Pearson’s correlation calculation. Ethical Considerations

Relationships With Other External Variables Table 2 shows the means, standard deviations and correlation coefficients between the different scales used in the study. The data revealed that the three dimensions of job crafting behavior (increasing structural job resources, increasing social job resources, increasing challenging job demands) had low or moderate positive correlations with work engagement (r between .23, and .37; p < .01), inrole performance (r between .13, and .34; p < .01) positive affect in the work (r between .25, and .34; p < .01) and the positive psychological capital (r between .25, and .44; p < .01), which permitted the partial confirmation of the hypotheses 1 to 4, respectively. Furthermore, small negative correlation of increasing structural job resources were obtained with the negative affects in the work (r = -.13, p < .01) and neuroticism (r = -.09, p < .05) scales, which also showed a small negative correlation with increasing challenging job demands (r = -.13, p < .01). These results partially confirmed hypotheses 5 and 6.

Discussion

This project was approved by the Ethics Committee in Research with human beings of the Universidade Salgado de Oliveira (Protocol no. 465548). Ethical principles of voluntary participation and anonymity of responses were respected.

Results Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Job Crafting Scale Adopting confirmatory factor analysis, a model with four first order factors and a general second order factor was initially tested. However this model did not fit the data (c² (185) = 644.317; c²/gl = 3.48; TLI = .86; CFI = .87; RMSEA = .07 (.06-.08). In addition, the factor decreasing hindering job demands did not show satisfactory factor loadings.

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An alternative model of three first order factors and a general second order factor was tested, in which the factor decreasing hindering job demands was deleted. This model obtained better goodness of fit indices: c² (74) = 226.365; c²/ df = 3; TLI = .94; CFI = .95; RMSEA = .06 (.05-.07). However, the item five of the increasing structural job resources factor presented R² = .001 (p > .05), and was excluded from the instrument. Non-standardized parameters of model two are presented in Table 1, in which it can be seen that, with a confidence interval of 95%, there is no zero value, as well as the fact that all critical ratio values are greater than 1.96, suggesting that the parameters are significantly different from zero and can be useful to the model. The standardized factor loadings are shown in Figure 1. The internal consistency indexes, calculated using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, were equal to ‘increasing structural job resources’ = .71; ‘increasing social job resources’= .78; ‘increasing challenging job demands’ = .77. The composite reliability, in turn, is equal to: increasing structural job resources = .81; increasing social job resources = .81; increasing challenging job demands = .80.

This study aimed to adapt the JCS to the Brazilian context and collect validity evidence of the scores, regarded to the internal structure and relationship with other external variables. The data collected were analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis and scale correlations with other constructs related to the job crafting behaviors. The confirmatory factor analysis tested an initial model consisting of four first order factors, with a general second order factor. As this model did not meet the recommendations of fitting proposed by Hox and Bechger (1998), a second model was tested, which was composed of three first order factors with a general second order factor, in which the dimension decreasing hindering job demands was removed. In addition, one item of the dimension, increasing structural

Chinelato, R. S. C., Ferreira, M. C., & Valentini, F. (2015). Job Crafting Behaviors Scale. Table 1 Non-Standardized Parameters of Confirmatory Factor Analysis Non-standardized parameters Parameters

Coefficient

Standard error

Critical Ratio

95% CI

→

IStrJR

.05

7.75

[.30, .50]

→

ISocJR

.35

.04

8.08

[.27, .43]

→

ICJD

.55

.06

9.56

[.43, .66]

IStrJR

→

Item 01

IStrJR

→

Item 02

.92

.08

11.41

[.76, 1.07]

IStrJR

→

Item 03

.94

.08

12.2

[.78, 1.13]

IStrJR

→

Item 04

.88

.07

11.92

[.74, 1.02]

ISocJR

→

Item 12

ISocJR

→

Item 13

1.19

.06

17.91

[1.07, 1.30]

ISocJR

→

Item 14

1.05

.06

16.17

[.93, 1.17]

ISocJR

→

Item 15

1.17

.07

17.35

[1.03, 1.31]

ISocJR

→

Item 16

.07

11.94

[.66, .94]

ICJD

→

Item 17

ICJD

→

Item 18

1.04

.07

14.43

[.90, 1.18]

ICJD

→

Item 19

1.07

.07

[.93, 1.21]

ICJD

→

Item 20

1.02

.08

13.23

[.86, 1.17]

→ ICJD Item 21 1.15 .08 14.43 [.99, 1.30] Note. CB = Crafting behavior; IStrJR = Increasing structural job resources; ISocJR = Increasing social job resources; ICJD = Increasing challenging job demands. c²(gl) = 226.365 (74); TLI = .94; CFI = .95; RMSEA (CI 90%) = .06 (.05-.07).

Job Crafting

.54

.52

.72

.22

Increasing structural job resourses

.76 CB1

.88

.70 CB2

.72 CB3

Increasing social job resourses

.67 CB4

.65

.77

CB12 CB13

.68 CB14

Increasing challenging job demands

.76

.52

CB15 CB16

.62

.65

CB17 CB18

.73

.63

.71

CB19

CB20

CB21

Figure 1. Second order model of the Job Crafting Behaviors Scale. CB = Item of Job Crafting Behavior.

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Paidéia, 25(62), 325-332 Table 2 Mean, Standard Deviations, Cronbach’s Alpha and Correlation Coefficients Among the Scales M

IStrJR (1)

4.48

.50

.71

ISocJR (2)

3.09

.92

.78

.20**

ICJD (3)

3.41

.83

.77

.33**

.36**

PPC (4)

4.50

.58

.82

.37**

.25**

.44**

PA (5)

3.85

.71

.90

.33**

NA (6)

2.63

.78

.90

WE (7)

3.79

1.23

I-RP (8)

4.23

.54

.25**

.34**

.59**

-.02

.27**

.45**

.91

.23**

.28**

.37**

.58**

.73**

.30**

.70

.29**

.13**

.34**

.39**

.23**

.24**

-.13

.26**

NEU (9) 2.53 .84 .76 -.09* -.07 -.13** -.35** -.32** .42** -.27** -.19** Note: IStrJR = increasing structural job resources; ISocJR = increasing social job resources; ICJD = increasing challenging job demands; PPC = positive psychological capital; PA = positives affects; NA = negatives affects; WE = work engagement; I-RP = in-role performance; NEU = Neuroticism. *p < .05, (two-tailed). **p < .01, (two-tailed).

job resources was also eliminated. This model resulted in the final scale version consisting of 14 items, which fitted well to the data. These results partially confirmed the findings of Tims et al. (2012). They also tested three different models and chosen the second order model with four primary factors. The reliability indicators obtained in this sample (Cronbach’s alpha) indicated, in general, that the estimated scores with the JCS scale are minimally precise (free from the measurement error due to lack of internal consistency). These results support the original study of Tims et al. (2012), which also found evidence of reliable scores. In summary, the results associated with the instrument structure showed that the scores of the Brazilian version of the JCS presented evidence of internal structure validity as well as acceptable internal consistency reliability. However, evidence did not corroborate the four factors model of the original scale, consisting of 21 items, with four first order factors and a general second order factor. The Brazilian version was composed of fourteen items, with only three first order factors (increasing structural job resources, increasing social job resources, increasing challenging job demands) and one second order factor (job crafting behavior). One explanation for the fact that the job demands reduction subscale was not replicated in the Brazilian sample may be that, according to Bakker and Demerouti (2007), different occupations show specific configurations of job demands and resources, which implies that their job crafting behavior may also differ. In this sense, Berg, Wrzesniewski and Dutton (2010) observed differences between the types of job crafting behavior demonstrated by more skilled and less skilled workers. Considering that most of the sample (80.4%) in this study had not yet completed higher level education, while, in the original study on scale development (Tims et al., 2012) the majority of the sample (about 70%) already had college degrees, these samples distinction also might be associated with occupational differences, which may have interfered with their perceptions of job demands that should be redesigned.

330

Cultural differences may also have interfered with the fact that subscale of decreasing job demands was not replicated in the Brazilian sample. Erez (2010) argues that cultural patterns influence job crafting behavior. Thus, the JCS was originally developed and tested in the Netherlands, a country characterized by working relationships that prioritize the system of autonomous groups, encourage flexibility and the use of one’s own abilities (Erez, 2010). On the other hand, working relationships in Brazil are marked by great concentration of power and authority in the leaders’ hands, which often hinders the development of autonomy and selfactualization of employees (Tanure, 2004). It is possible, therefore, that these cultural differences have exercised influence on the way the redesign of job demands have been performed in both countries. The three dimensions of job crafting behaviors exhibited moderate or low positive correlations with work engagement and the in-role performance. These results are consistent in part with the study of Tims et al. (2012), which also obtained moderate positive correlations with increasing challenging job demands, increasing social job resources and increasing structural job resources with such constructs. However, the values of correlations obtained by those authors were slightly higher than the values obtained in this study, especially in the dimension of increasing structural job resources. Such differences may be due to the fact that in the study by Tims et al. (2012) the evaluation was performed by an employee colleague, whereas in this study the evaluation was performed through self-report. Moderate or small positive correlations were found between increasing challenging job demands, increasing social job resources, and increasing structural job resources, with positive psychological capital and the positive affects in the work. Although the latter two constructs are not included in the study of Tims et al. (2012), they have conceptual similarities to work engagement, according as all factors consist of affective and emotional states that individuals experience in their job context, when the workplace

Chinelato, R. S. C., Ferreira, M. C., & Valentini, F. (2015). Job Crafting Behaviors Scale.

conditions are in favor of its demonstration. In this sense, the data obtained now extend the results previously obtained by Tims et al. (2012), about the fact that the job crafting behavior designated to increase resources or the challenging demands tends to produce positive job results. The dimension of increasing structural job resources was negatively correlated with negative affect in the work, although this correlation was small. The dimensions of increasing structural job resources and increasing challenging job demands also had a negative correlation with neuroticism, but those results were also small. These results are consistent with the study of Tims et al. (2012), which also found a low negative correlation between the dimensions of increasing structural job resources, increasing social job resources, increased challenging job demands, and cynicism. According to the JD-R model (Bakker et al., 2014), job well-being is associated with a motivational process triggered by job environments in which job resources and challenging demands are high, while job stress derives from a process prejudicial to health caused by job environments in which the hindering demands are high. Such differences in psychological processes can explain the different results between the crafting behaviors aimed to increase job resources and challenging demands, as well as the positive and negative affective states. Such model would expect, as occurred in almost all cases, moderate positive correlations between such crafting behavior and positive affect states, as they are subjacent to the same psychological process of a motivational nature. However, the correlation among resources, the challenging job demands and negative affect states w would be unlikely, which explain the small correlation observed among these constructs in this work. With regard to the limitations of the study, the use of a convenience sample eventually restricts the diversity of subjects. Furthermore, the use of only one personality factor (neuroticism) reduced the assessment of the nomological construct, especially with regard to its relationship with other personality features. In addition, due the fact that some of the correlations between the JCS and certain constructs were small, although significant, it is recommended caution in the analyses of such results. The results also support the conclusion that the JCS scores showed early evidence of validity and reliability in Brazilian samples. Therefore, the JCS can be used in the diagnosis of job crafting behaviors, as a way of supporting intervention actions related to the implementation or improvement of such behaviors within the job context. Future research should be conducted in order to enhance validity evidence of the of the scale in Brazil. Further studies should investigate if the structure of three factors remains invariant in other cultures and in different professional activities. Studies could also verify the correlation of these factors with other personality features, such as, proactive personality, initiative capacity, and openness to experiences. Moreover, experimental research could investigate the cause and effect relations among crafting behavior, attitudes and organizational behaviors not covered in this study. These investigations might contribute to the raising of the nomological network of the job crafting construct.

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How to cite this article: Chinelato, R. S. C., Ferreira, M. C., & Valentini, F. (2015). Evidence of validity of the Job Crafting Behaviors Scale. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 25(62), 325-332. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201506

Paidéia sep-dec. 2015, Vol. 25, No. 62, 333-342. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201507

Article

Normative Study of Rorschach (Parisian School) for Brazilian Adolescents1 Maria Luísa Casillo Jardim-Maran Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil

Sonia Regina Pasian2 Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil

Erika Tiemi Kato Okino Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil

Abstract: Among the projective methods of psychological assessment, the relevance of the Rorschach method stands out in the investigation of personality, albeit without normative references in the Parisian School for adolescents in Brazil. This study addresses this gap by developing normative standards of the Rorschach method (Parisian School) for this age group, evaluating specificities of production associated with sex, age and school system. The Rorschach tests were individually administered to 180 students aged from 15 to 17 years old, with typical signs of development. Data considering the 54 Rorschach’s variables were descriptively and inferentially examined. The main average results were: (a) productivity: R = 17.7; (b) modes of apperception: G = 35.0%, D = 33.4%, Dd = 30.3% and Dd = 1.1%; (c) determinants and formal indexes: F% = 54.5%, F+% = 55.6% and F+ext% = 57.3%; (d) predominant content: A% = 51.0% and H% = 20.9%; (e) Ban = 17.0%. Specificities of production according to sex, age and school system were identified, which supports the analysis and interpretation of Rorschach’s variables with contemporary Brazilian adolescents. Keywords: Rorschach test, test norms, adolescents, projective techniques, personality

Padrões Normativos do Rorschach (Escola de Paris) em Adolescentes do Brasil Resumo: Dentre os métodos projetivos de avaliação psicológica, a relevância do Rorschach destaca-se na investigação da personalidade, embora sem referenciais normativos na Escola de Paris para adolescentes no Brasil. Esse estudo atende a essa lacuna, construindo padrões normativos do Rorschach (Escola de Paris) para essa faixa etária, analisando-se especificidades da produção associadas a sexo, idade e origem escolar. O Rorschach foi administrado individualmente a 180 estudantes de 15-17 anos de idade, com sinais de desenvolvimento típico, examinando-se descritiva e inferencialmente dados de 54 variáveis do método. Os principais resultados médios foram: (a) produtividade: R = 17,7; (b) modos de percepção: G = 35,0%, D = 33,4%, Dd = 30,3% e Dbl = 1,1%; (c) determinantes e índices formais: F% = 54,5%, F+% = 55,6% e F+ext% = 57,3%; (d) conteúdos predominantes: A% = 51,0% e H% = 20,9%; (e) Ban = 17,0%. Foi possível identificar especificidades de produção em função de sexo, idade e origem escolar, embasando análise e interpretação das variáveis do Rorschach em adolescentes do Brasil no contexto contemporâneo Palavras-chave: teste de Rorschach, normas do teste, adolescentes, técnicas projetivas, personalidade

Estudio Normativo del Rorschach (Escuela de Paris) Para Adolescentes Brasileños Resumen: Entre los métodos proyectivos de evaluación psicológica, la relevancia del Método de Rorschach se destaca en la investigación de la personalidad, aunque la ausencia de normas para la Escuela de Paris para adolescentes en Brasil. Este estudio desarrolló normas del Rorschach para este grupo de edad y evaluó la producción asociada con el sexo, la edad y la escuela. Fueron evaluados individualmente por Rorschach (Escuela de Paris) 180 estudiantes de 15-17 años de edad, con signos típicos de desarrollo, examinando descriptivo y por inferencia de datos 54 variables del método. Los principales resultados medios fueron: (a) rendimiento: R = 17,7; (b) modos de percepción: G = 35,0%, D = 33,4%, Dd = 30,3%, Dbl = 1,1%; (c) determinantes y índices formales: F% = 54,5%, F+% = 55,6%, F+ext% = 57,3%; (d) el contenido predominante: A% = 51,0%, H% = 20,9%; (e) Banalidades = 17,0%. Fueran encontrados patrones específicos de respuesta como una función de el sexo, la edad y la escuela y, a partir de los resultados, es posible el interpretación de Rorschach en adolescentes en Brasil en el contexto contemporáneo. Palabras clave: test de Rorschach, normas de test, adolescentes, técnicas proyectivas, personalidad

Among the projective projects of psychological tests used in Brazil and around the world, the Rorschach test Paper derived from the doctoral dissertation of the primary author under the supervision of the second author, defended in 2011, in the Graduate Program in Psychology at Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto of the Universidade de São Paulo.

2 Correspondence address: Sonia Regina Pasian. Programa de Pós-graduação em Psicologia. Departamento de Psicologia, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto da Universidade de São Paulo. Av. Bandeirantes, 3900, Monte Alegre. CEP 14040901. Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil. E-mail: srpasian@ffclrp.usp.br

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

has achieved indisputable importance. This instrument to assess personality figures among those most frequently used on all continents, as its history shows with a sizeable and diverse body of research (Brando, Valera, & Zarate, 2008; Jordão & Ramires, 2010; Meyer, Erdberg, & Shaffer, 2007; Meyer, Viglione, Mihura, Erard, & Erdberg, 2011; Mihura, Meyer, Dumitrascu, & Bombel, 2013; Nascimento, 2010). In addition to its international recognition in different fields of application, Rorschach presents evidence of validity in various sociocultural contexts and its potential to contribute scientifically to the understanding of the psychological

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structure and functioning of individuals is practically incontestable (Azoulay et al., 2007; Hisatugo & Yazigi, 2014; Ikiz et al., 2010; Mihura et al., 2013; Nascimento, 2010; Pasian & Loureiro, 2010; Viglione, Meyer, Mihura, Erard, & Erdberg, 2012; Weiner, 1998/2000; Yazigi, 2014). The Rorschach test method helps access conscious and observable characteristics of personality but also reviews repressed and unconscious aspects (Rausch de Traubenberg, 1970/1998). It permits assessing individuals’ current and latent resources, as well as vulnerable aspects. This global understanding can support psychological counseling, the prescription of therapies, or evolutionary prognosis (Chabert, 1998/2004). Despite this sort of evidence, Meyer et al. (2007) acknowledge that the search for normative Rorschach references is a critical aspect in the processes of psychological assessment because of the empirical difficulties faced by studies of this nature in various countries. The development of normative studies addressing the diverse age ranges and theoretical approaches of Rorschach is essential and necessary to continually improve the test, and update positive indicators of validity and reliability. A review of the scientific literature in the field performed in the last ten years, however, revealed there is a lack of Brazilian normative studies based on the Rorschach Parisian School (Chagnon, 2013), especially those addressing the period of adolescence. Given changes in the sociocultural context over the course of recent decades, changes in terms of psychological dynamics are expected, which shows the importance of developing studies to update normative references to enable appropriate analyses of Rorschach indicators (and of other psychological assessment methods), specifically in this stage of human development. According to Weiner (1998/2000), the proper use of the Rorschach method is necessarily based on updated empirical evidence derived from results obtained from reference groups, data that support the analysis and proper interpretation of the variables of this projective instrument for the particular individual results. Nascimento (2010) asserts that, in order to respond to Rorschach cards, one uses motivation derived from drive (individual aspects) and, at the same time, orientation and control, so that the expression is legitimate and in accordance with the standards of a given culture. Hence, the professionals using this method should be prepared to understand both individual personality and sociocultural elements that impact the pattern of one’s responses. To conduct a review of the scientific literature including normative studies concerning the Rorschach test developed at the beginning of the 21st century, the PsycInfo, Pepsic and Lilacs databases were consulted for the period from 2000 to 2011 with the indexers Rorschach and Norms. A total of 38 studies were identified, the main theme of which was the development of norms for the Rorschach Method and among the different assessment systems, the Comprehensive System stood out. A concern of researchers from various countries was observed for the development of normative references to specific populations from various age ranges, which confirms the relevance of this type of scientific investigation to support

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appropriate clinical practice with the use of Rorschach tests. It is worth noting, however, that of the 38 studies found, only four address the specific period of adolescence; two of them (Lis, Salcuni, & Parolin, 2007; Van Patten, Shaffer, Erdberg, & Canfield, 2007) were published in the Journal of Personality Assessment and were based on the Rorschach Comprehensive System, while the other two (Azoulay et al., 2007; Ikiz et al., 2010) were published in Psychologie Clinique et Projective and follow the Parisian School’s theoretical framework. The remaining studies focused on the results of children or adults, while none was developed in Brazil or involved adolescents. The peculiarities of the cognitive and affective development of adolescents, of the transition in the way they relate to family in regard to achieving incisive social gain, are linked to intensive body changes and may or may not culminate in adaptive difficulties (Carvalho & Novo, 2014; Knobel, 1981; Outeiral, 1994; Paladino, 2005). The search to construct an identity tends to be central at this point, since they need to ensure greater independence and autonomy. At the same time, according to Paladino (2005), the adolescent does not have substantial emotional experience and may seek isolation and let reason prevail as a way to protect his/her affections. The use of psychological assessment instruments to investigate affective experiences and internal movements experienced by adolescents, though complex and directly linked to the individuals’ sociocultural context, can contribute to the understanding of this stage of development and enable the identification of traits and characteristics of adolescence. Given this context and the lack of Brazilian studies addressing adolescents according to the Parisian School and the growing clinical demand for specific normative references, this study intends to help fill in this gap. Its main objective is to develop normative standards for the Rorschach method according to the assessment system of the Parisian School, addressing Brazilian adolescents to characterize their pattern of responses to this projective method (productive indexes; distribution of locations, determinants and content of responses; and types of affective experiences) in order to enable the appropriate use of this instrument in psychological assessment processes in the current context, in addition to meet the guidelines of the Brazilian Federal Council of Psychology (CFP, 2010) and Primi (2010).

Method Participants A total of 180 adolescents, of both genders, aged between 15 and 17 years old, regularly enrolled in public or private schools in the interior of São Paulo, Brazil participated in the study. According to the objectives, adolescents with typical developmental indicators, in both physical and psychological terms, were assessed through an interview and the application of a questionnaire addressing personal history that was developed by the researchers and answered by the parents. Exclusion criteria were: academic delay, apparent

Jardim-Maran, M. L. C., Pasian, S. R., & Okino, E. T. K. (2015). Rorschach for Brazilian Adolescents.

and/or reported sensory disabilities, symptoms or signs of psychiatric or psychological disorder in the last year. Participation was voluntary and authorized by the parents or legal guardians. The individuals were equally distributed according to age, gender, and pattern of socioeconomiccultural experiences (based on school system: public or private), as recorded in Table 1. Table 1 Characterization of the Sample of Adolescents (N = 180), According to Sex, Age and School System School System

Public School

Private School TOTAL

Female

Male

Female

Male

15 years old

16 years old

17 years old

TOTAL

180

Age

A convenience sample was composed of volunteers from schools that authorized the study on their premises and was numerically sufficient to meet the study’s objectives. Note that sex, age, and school system are important variables in the production indicators in the Rorschach Method, as stressed in the scientific literature (Weiner, 1998/2000), and were, therefore, considered in the sample composition in order to enable the appropriate analysis of empirical data. Instruments Informative Questionnaire (IQ). Developed for this study, with questions addressing the students’ personal and academic development. The questionnaire was delivered to the parents of the potential participants to support the process of selecting volunteers. Rorschach Method (Parisian School). Applied and assessed according to Anzieu (1970/1986) and Rausch de Traubenberg (1970/1998), with the use of standardized cards, record sheets, and location of responses. This approach has positive psychometric indicators as reported by Pasian (2000) in Brazil, by Azoulay et al. (2007) in France and Ikiz et al. (2010) in Turkey. Procedure Data collection. Data collection was conducted by five psychologists with prior experience in psychological assessment and the Rorschach Method (Parisian School), in order to ensure the homogeneity of procedures and case analysis. This methodological caution enhanced accuracy and met international guidelines for research using the Rorschach Method (Weiner, 1998/2000). The primary author invited the adolescents to participate in the study during school hours in the respective teaching institutions, the occasion during which the study’s objectives and data collection were presented. Those who showed interest received free and informed consent forms and an

Informative Questionnaire to be filled out by themselves and/or their parents or legal guardians. Data were collected during school hours with the consent of teachers in adapted classrooms (in terms of lighting and privacy) provided by the respective schools. The Rorschach Method was applied individually in one session of approximately 60 minutes after instructions as standardized by the Parisian School (Rausch de Traubenberg, 1970/1998) were provided. Data analysis. The classification of responses provided to the Rorschach Method was performed according to the technical standards of the Parisian School (Anzieu, 1970/1986; Azoulay et al., 2007; Ikiz et al., 2010; Rausch de Traubenberg, 1970/1998) and the normative reference by Pasian (2000). Given the accuracy of coding and the fact that this stage of the study had the collaboration of nine psychologists, specific training was provided for the classification of responses. After obtaining the necessary level of agreement among the nine evaluators, each Rorschach protocol was then independently assessed by the examiners. After the protocols’ coding process was finalized, the index of accuracy among the study examiners was calculated in accordance with Fensterseifer and Werlang (2008) and Weiner (1998/2000). For that, 36 protocols were selected from the sample (20% of the total of cases) and the percentage of agreement among the independent examiners was calculated by dividing each response into four categories of classification: location, determinant/formal quality, content and banality. The following agreement was reached: (a) Locations = 96%; (b) Determinants = 88%; (c) Content = 92%; (d) Banalities = 92%. Note that the index of agreement among the independent evaluators was greater than 80%, which is considered satisfactory by Weiner (1998/2000). The final coding of the protocols of Rorschach Psychodiagnostic tests were inserted in a database developed in Microsoft Office Excel 2007. Spreadsheets compatible with the procedures PROC REG, PROC LOGISTIC and PROC FREQ available in the Statistical Analysis System (SAS), version 9.1, were developed to verify the potential effects of sociodemographic variables (sex, age and school system). This procedure enabled descriptive and inferential analysis in which a level of significance at p ≤ .05 was adopted. The following analyses were conducted: 1. Descriptive statistics, i.e., mean, standard deviation, median, and minimum and maximum values of the main variables of the Rorschach test according to the Parisian School were calculated for a set of participants (N = 180) (general profile of results): R, RA, Refusal, Denial, mean elapsed time (TLm) and mean Reaction time (TRm) (variables related to productivity and rhythm); G, D, Dd, Dbl, Di (modes of apperception); F+, F+/-, F-, ΣF, K, kan, kp, kob, Σk, FC, CF, C, FE, EF, E, FClob, ClobF, Clob (determinants); A, (A), Ad, (Ad), ΣA, H, (H), Hd, (Hd), ΣH, Anat, Sex, Sg, Bot, Geo, Nat, Pais, Obj, Arq, Art, Simb, Abst, Elem, Frag (content); Ban (banalities). 2. A simple linear regression model was used to verify the potential effects of sex, age, and school system in the results obtained by the adolescents in the Rorschach psychodiagnostic test (to investigate the effect of only one of

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Paidéia, 25(62), 333-342

these factors on the Rorschach dependent variables) and then an adjusted multiple model was applied (to assess potential effects of the interactions among sex, age, and school system). The variables associated with location, determinants, content and banalities were examined in their relative proportions in regard to the total number of responses to the protocol (R), considering the binomial distribution of results.

de São Paulo (CEP-FFCLRP Protocol no. 347/2007 – 2007.1.1888.59.3). The researchers implemented ethical and technical guidelines necessary to ensure work progress and to guarantee the rights of the participants and their freedom to choose whether to participate or not in the study.

Results

Ethical Considerations

Given the multiplicity of Rorschach variables (Parisian School), we opted to present descriptive data together with the inferential analysis, though with specific highlights for the interpretation of findings.

This study was submitted to and approved by the Institutional Review Board at the Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto of the Universidade

Table 2 Descriptive and Inferential Results of Adolescents (N = 180) in Rorschach variables (Parisian School) Mdn

15.5

17.7

8.4

7.0

49.0

Publ > Priv

0.57

1.3

13.0

Rec

0.46

0.9

4.0

M>F

Den

0.13

0.4

2.0

18.4

21.2

17.0

18.4

97.0

33.7

35.5

19.9

33.7

131.1

17 > 16 > 15

6.0

6.2

3.1

35.0

1.0

18.0

M > F; Priv > Publ

5.0

5.9

3.6

33.4

20.0

F>M

4.0

5.3

4.7

30.3

24.0

F>M

Dbl

0.2

0.5

1.1

3.0

TLm

TRm

M (%)

Minimum

Maximum

Statistically significant differences between subgroups in this studyb

Variables

F+

5.0

5.3

3.2

30.2

17.0

M>F

0.2

2.0

F-

3.0

4.2

3.7

24.0

21.0

ΣF

9.0

9.6

6.1

54.5

30.0

M > F; Publ > Priv

0.5

0.8

1.1

4.8

6.0

F > M; Priv > Publ; 17 > 16 > 15

Kan

1.0

1.4

1.7

8.2

11.0

Priv > Publ

Kob

0.1

0.2

0.6

2.0

16 > 15 > 17

0.1

0.5

0.9

4.0

Σk

1.0

1.7

1.9

9.8

12.0

Priv > Publ

2.0

2.1

1.9

12.2

12.0

1.0

1.9

11.1

0.9

9.0

15 > 17 > 16

F+-

0.2

0.3

11.0

0.4

0.7

4.1

4.0

17 > 16 > 15

0.7

1.0

2.6

6.0

1.0

0.1

2.0

FClob

1.0

0.1

2.0

ClobF

Clob

0.03

1.0

6.0

6.7

3.7

37.9

1.0

21.0

15 > 16 > 17

0.6

0.9

3.7

5.0

A (A)

continued...

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Jardim-Maran, M. L. C., Pasian, S. R., & Okino, E. T. K. (2015). Rorschach for Brazilian Adolescents. ...continuation

Variables

Mdn

M (%)

Minimum

Maximum

Statistically significant differences between subgroups in this studyb

1.4

1.8

8.2

10.0

(Ad)

0.1

0.4

1.0

2.0

ΣA

8.0

9.0

4.8

51.0

1.0

27.0

15 > 17 > 16

1.0

1.5

8.5

7.0

16 > 17 > 15

(H)

0.6

0.8

3.8

3.0

1.0

1.3

1.6

7.5

8.0

(Hd)

0.1

0.4

0.9

2.0

3.0

3.7

2.9

20.9

18.0

16 > 17 > 15

Anat

0.9

1.3

5.2

7.0

Publ > Priv

0.2

0.3

2.0

Sex

0.1

0.4

0.5

1.0

3.0

Priv > Publ; 17 > 15 > 16

Obj

1.4

1.8

8.3

9.0

Art

0.1

0.3

0.6

2.0

Arq

0.2

0.5

1.1

4.0

Priv > Publ

Simb

0.2

0.5

1.1

4.0

Abs

0.3

0.4

3.0

Bot

0.6

0.9

3.7

5.0

15 > 16 > 17

Geo

0.4

0.9

2.6

5.0

M>F

Nat

0.2

1.0

Pais

0.1

0.4

0.9

3.0

16 > 17 > 15

Elem

0.1

0.4

0.8

1.0

3.0

Frag

0.3

0.7

1.7

4.0

Publ > Priv

Ban

3.0

1.4

17.0

7.0

Priv > Publ

ΣH

Note. aExpressed in seconds. bSubgroups of adolescents: Publ = Public schools; Priv = Private schools; M = Male; F = Female; 15 = 15 years old; 16 = 16 years old; 17 = 17 years old.

In terms of Rorschach productivity, the adolescents presented an appropriate average number of responses (R = 17.7), accompanying parameters considered to be typical in the field’s scientific literature. We also verified rapidity in the reaction processes and elaboration of responses in the cards, which were examined by verifying the mean elapsed time (TLm) and mean response time (TRm). Additional responses (RAs), refusals, and denials were not expressive, indicating that the adolescents did not experience important emotional impact in the face of stimuli, which would have altered the task’s productive possibilities. Analysis of the location of responses revealed a predominance of global responses (G = 35.0%), followed by Detail responses (D = 33.4%) and finally, by Small Detail (Dd = 30.3%) responses. In this way, each mode of apperception achieved about one third of the responses identified among the adolescents. Location on the white background (Dbl) was little used by the participants (1.1%); Di location (inhibitory detail) was not verified among the responses. These indexes indicate a tendency, on the part of the participants, for an initially global apperception of reality, accompanied by attention to practical and relevant elements of the context, including an analysis of the environment’s intricacies.

In regard to the determinants, more than half of the responses provided by the adolescents were reported as determined solely by stimuli’s formal aspects (F = 54.5%). Next, the determinants of the responses associated with color (23.6%), movement (14.6%) and shading (6.7%) appeared. Such a result indicates that the adolescents presented reasonable manifestation of affective and imaginative elements in their responses, focusing, however, on the stimuli’s formal elements. The analysis of responses determined only by the form, still in comparison to the total number of responses, though focusing on formal quality (F+, F+-, F-), indicated a predominance of responses coded as F+ (30.2%), followed by F- (24.0%) and then, an inexpressive number of coding F+/(0.2%). In turn, the structural indexes of Rorschach Parisian School, linked to the general level of the accuracy of logical analyses (F+% and F+ext%), reached the following values: F+% = 55.6 and F+ext% = 57.3. These indexes signaled reasonable formal adequacy and perceptive accuracy in the responses provided by the adolescents, since these values are similar to those found by Pasian (2000) for adults (F+% = 58.5 and F+ext% = 66.6, respectively). The proportion between

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Paidéia, 25(62), 333-342

responses of positive (F+) and negative (F-) formal quality indicated reasonable perceptive accuracy of reality on the part of the adolescents, despite their commitment and effort to learn reality using primarily reason and thinking (F% = 54.5); here the table of formal quality by Pasian (2000) was used. In regard to the determinants related to movement, there was a predominance of small synesthesia over large synesthesia [(kan + kob + kp = 9.8%) > (K = 4.8%)]. Data indicate that internal resources focused on imagination and creation are still developing (predominance of small synesthesia), which matches the period of development of the study’s participants. In regard to the determinants associated with color, again proportional to the total of responses (N = 3,191), a predominance of FC (12.2%) on CF (11.1%) and C (0.3%) was found. There was however, a considerable frequency of CF responses when compared to FC responses, suggesting that aspects related to the adolescents’ affectivity may manifest as failures in rational control, without however, characterizing emotional imbalance, indexes that are also compatible with the period of adolescence. Finally, the responses determined by the cards’ shading elements were not very frequent. Again, the responses primarily determined by form and secondly by shading (coding FE = 4.1%), overlapped EF (2.6%) and E (0.1%) responses, suggesting suitable logical continence of potential distressful experiences. In regard to the distribution of content in the set of answers, there was a clear predominance of animal content (A% = 51.0%), followed by human content (H% = 20.9), totaling 71.9% of the responses produced by the participants. It follows therefore, that there will be a concentration of theoretically expected content (A% + H%), however, with room for diversified interpretations [(A% + H%) < 75%]. This complementary diversity of content, as shown, was associated with responses of object content (8.3%), including the subcategories of food, mask and clothing, anatomical (5.2%), botanical (3.7%), geographic (2.6%) and fragmented (1.7%), that is content that is not very developed, which somehow, signalizes distressful experiences. The remaining content presented frequency close to 1.0% of the total of responses, therefore, is not expressive in terms of collective interests for the adolescents’ age range. The analysis of the subclasses of animal and human responses revealed a predominance of intact percepts [A, (A), H, (H)], especially in the responses of animal content. Similar proportions of H (8.5%) and Hd (7.5%), however, suggest a search for constitution and integration of identity on the part of the students, a movement that is closely related to the period of adolescence in psychodynamic theoretical terms. It is important to note that the fact that the number of responses of animal content is much greater than that of human content suggests a certain immaturity in terms of contact with reality, since animal content is related to a more intuitive apperception and less cognitive and emotionally developed. The last descriptive variable of the general profile of results obtained by the group of adolescents in the Rorschach test is the “banality” (Ban) response type. Of the total sample of responses, 17% were banal, indicating a similar level of participation in the collective level on the part of the participants, considering the normative parameter preliminarily (Pasian, 2000).

338

The analysis of the potential effect of sex, age, and school system on the codified variables of the Rorschach test is presented in Table 2 with the synthetic results of inferential statistical analyzes performed with the set of 54 variables of Rorschach Parisian School. A predominance of G over D and Dd responses, in addition to the high index of responses exclusively determined by form (F% = 54.5), was verified. The most frequent content was animal and human, accompanying theoretical estimates of identification with alive and dynamic elements from reality. It is worth noting, however, that these normative references should be cautiously analyzed, in order to enable valid and consistent interpretations. This inferential statistical analysis conducted with the 54 variables presented by Rorschach enabled observing 26 variables with productive specificities according to sex, age or school system. This empirical evidence suggests that, in clinical practice, psychologists carefully examine these variables in which significant differences were recorded. Proper interpretation of Rorschach results should always be based on a set of variables and not only on isolated ones. They assume, therefore, clinical meanings more than as indicators of the need to develop normative references for subgroups of adolescents, taking into account the considerations discussed so far in this paper. It is important to note that this initial description of results enables us to observe, more broadly, some general guidelines concerning the production of adolescents aged from 15 to 17 years old in response to Rorschach testing (Parisian School). After this initial analysis of results (related to locations, determinants, and content), we considered presenting the proportions among the variables of the Rorschach Method associated with emotional experience to be relevant. Table 3 presents these data based on affective formulas of the Parisian School, namely: Type of Intimate Resonance (TRI) first affective formula that expresses the relationship between human synesthesia and color responses; Latent Tendencies (TL - Complementary Formula FC) - second affective formula that expresses the relationship between non-human synesthesia and shading responses; and the Third formula (Reactivity to color = RC), which expresses the relationship between number of responses provided to inkblot cards (VIII, IX, X) in relation to the total number of responses. Table 3 Distribution (in Simple Frequency and Percentage) of Adolescents (N = 180) according the Function of Affective Formulas of Rorschach Parisian School Affective formula Affective type

Firsta

Secondb

Thirdc

Extratensive

143

79.4

44.4

21.1

Introversive

11.6

30.0

25.6

Ambiguous

1.6

53.3

Coartative

7.2

23.9

TOTAL 180 100.0 180 100.0 180 100.0 a Note. Intimate Resonance Type (TRI). bLatent tendecies (TL). c Reactivity to color (RC), emotional reactivity.

Jardim-Maran, M. L. C., Pasian, S. R., & Okino, E. T. K. (2015). Rorschach for Brazilian Adolescents.

Analysis of the Intimate Resonance Type (TRI) yields the observation that the adolescents revealed to be predominantly extratensive (79.4%). Hence, they presented an affective orientation with openness to the environment, favoring practical intelligence, focused on external reality, as well as occasional emotional instability, especially the pure extratensive types. These characteristics can be considered to be theoretically associated with expectations of affective functioning in this age range, since adolescents tend to signal an intense need for bonding with peers and others, and may experience important variations of mood, with a lower signalization of reflexive movements (which characterize the introversive type of affective experience). Still focusing on the TRI analysis, we observed that the experiences of the introversive affective type marked the responses of few adolescents (11.6% of the sample), suggesting that the marks of introspection and selfexamination did not seem to characterize this age range. The coartative types, in turn, are even a smaller proportion of the adolescents (7.2%), showing that marks of affective restriction do not predominate at this point of life. The ambiguous type presented an inexpressive frequency in the set of results concerning affective experience styles (only three adolescents, representing 1.6% of the sample). The analysis of the Complementary Formula (FC), the second Affective Formula, also known as the Latent Tendencies Formula (TL), also indicated a predominance of the extratensive type (44.4% of the adolescents), confirming the interpretative hypothesis previously identified in the TRI analysis. In other words, the adolescents showed that their affective resources were primarily associated with opening emotional manifestations in the environment, tending to favor interpersonal contact and potential affective labiality. The introversive type appeared in 30.0% of the adolescents as the second affective formula, slightly below the frequency of coartative types (present in 23.9% of the cases), suggesting enriched affective resources of reflection and complementary to the predominant style of affective experience. Again, the ambiguous type reached inexpressive frequency in the set of results concerning affective experience styles (only three adolescents). Most of the adolescents (53.3%) presented the ambiguous affective experience type in the Third Formula (RC), revealing equilibrium between the two types of experience (introversive and extratensive). Considering that the third formula may signify expectations in regard to the current time in life, this information reveals an important element related to a desire to adapt to the environment in an emotionally balanced way.

Discussion As previously shown, it was possible to compare current data and that found in the sample of adolescents and young adults assessed by Azoulay et al. (2007) in France and that from adolescents assessed by Ikiz et al. (2010) in Turkey. It is important to keep in mind that these studies are the most recent works of a normative nature of the Rorschach Parisian School, which is internationally acknowledged.

In regard to the productivity of the Rorschach method, the adolescents in this study presented an average of 17.7 responses (R = 17.7), therefore, fewer than was found in the French (R = 25.8) and Turkish (R = 19.0) studies. It was possible, however, to perceive in the three studies that card X is the one that elicits the greater number of associations. According to Azoulay et al. (2007), this finding may be related to the multiplicity of colors and dispersion of the inkblot, which enable greater perceptive activity. Still considering the productivity of Rorschach testing, the additional responses, refusals and denials, which indicate emotional impact in the face of Rorschach stimuli, were infrequent in comparison to the total of responses. The adolescents in this study presented an average of 0.46 refusals, while the adolescents and young adults in France (Azoulay et al., 2007) presented an average of 0.18 refusals, and the Turkish adolescents presented an average result of 0.59 refusals (Ikiz et al., 2010). The analysis of refusals showed that cards IV and VI received the most relevant reaction among Brazilian adolescents, which can be also found in the studies of Anzieu (1970/1986) and Rausch de Traubenberg (1970/1998). In the studies conducted by Azoulay et al. and Ikiz et al., cards IX and II generated a higher number of refusals. In turn, card I and V were those with the lowest number of rejections in the three normative studies of the Rorschach method. In regard to modes of apperception, some peculiarities were observed in the three studies previously mentioned and compared. Verifying the results obtained with Brazilian adolescents, the average proportions of G, D and Dd responses were very similar (35.0%, 33.4%, and 30.3%, respectively). Indexes of G = 43.3%, D = 43.6% and Dd = 10.2% were found in the French study, therefore, showing similarity in the number of responses classified as G and D. Among Turkish adolescents, however, the number of responses classified as D (66.0%) was larger, while the responses in G and Dd presented 28.1% and 3.4%, respectively. These results indicate that, among Brazilian and French adolescents, an important number of associations were made based on a general perception of stimuli (responses G), performing a more generalist, and perhaps, a more superficial analysis of stimuli, with reduced elaboration of thought. In the face of this type of evidence, Azoulay et al. (2007) wondered whether this increased number of G responses in comparison to D responses could be related to a passive attitude of young individuals in response to a context saturated with visual information, implying a lower susceptibility to discrimination and selection of data. They also stated they had captured this tendency to increased global responses to Rorschach tests in studies conducted in other countries. Another aspect requiring explanation is the high rate of Dd responses among Brazilian adolescents, suggesting a potential thoroughness and attention to small details, which may result in an analytical strategy to deal with the complex existing reality. This greater proportion of Dd and lower proportion of D found in Brazil, however, may hinder appropriate connection to relevant elements of the context, due to an excessive attention to details,

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generating analyses permeated with logical immaturity. These hypotheses, however, could not be properly tested or demonstrated, given the findings’ observational nature, without a typical experimental design. Thus, understanding that these peculiarities in the Rorschach production are useful elements in the process of interpreting cases remains, specifically in adolescence, both in France and Brazil. Still in regard to other modes of apperception of stimuli, the reduced number of Dbl responses, that is, demarcated in the Rorschach cards’ white background, was verified in the studies conducted in the three countries. This study conducted in Brazil showed a proportion of 1.1% of responses, while in Turkey (Ikiz et al., 2010) this index reached 2.0% of Rorschach interpretations. In France, however, even though this is also the mode of apperception less frequently used, there was an occurrence of 9.2% of responses located in Dbl areas. These data may suggest marks of a more critical psychological functioning on the part of the French, which would deserve a proper empirical investigation to support. The low expressiveness of this technical indicator in relation to the set of data, limits its interpretative value as a whole. We can only say, that in general, the adolescents addressed in this study were not very willing to observe Rorschach stimuli focusing on the background (white), paying attention to the figure itself (inkblots), marking a reduced oppositionist tendency in their analyzes of reality. It also appeared to have happened in the other groups assessed Azoulay et al. (2007) and by Ikiz et al. (2010). In regard to the responses with purely formal determinants, the opposing results of the three studies at this point present a relatively important difference. The average percentage presented here for the formal determinant (F%) was of 54.5%, 55.6% for F+%, and 57.3% for F+ext%. Azoulay et al. found average values corresponding to 61.3%, 65.2% and 66.0%, respectively, while Ikiz et al. found that F% = 62.0; F+% = 76.5 and F+ext% = 77.2. These data indicate that the adolescents in the three contexts tried to keep control of affective content, resorting to the stimuli’s formal elements, though less frequently than those in the Brazilian context. This tendency of the adolescents addressed in this study could be considered a resource of greater spontaneity in the interpretation of reality, as well of a greater projection of effective and imaginative elements, compared to the individuals in France and Turkey. Therefore, specific standards of rational investment to respond to Rorschach tests were observed, indicating the typical involvement of individuals of that group to interpret their environment, suggesting the sensitivity of this projective method to capture peculiarities of human development in varied contexts, once more justifying regional investigations of these patterns of responses to the instrument. In regard to the content of Rorschach interpretations, a prevalence of animal (A = 51.0%) and human (H = 20.9%) content was verified among the adolescents assessed here. The same occurred with the studies conducted in France and Turkey, in which the average percentages were: A = 44.5% and H = 16.0% in France; A = 41.0% and H = 13.7% in Turkey. These results indicate that, despite considerable

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frequency of animal and human content, the adolescents made associations and interpretations with other content, suggesting a diversity of interest and richness in their contact with the environment. Another four category of content, also present in this study, deserved to be highlighted, namely: Object (8.3%); Anatomic (5.2%); Botanic (3.7%); and Geographic (2.6%). That is, the adolescents also expressed signs that suggest interest for content that reveals experience of certain distress, perhaps marking their stage of development. The remaining Rorschach content reached very low average proportions, below 1% of responses, not expressing consistent data for an analysis of a normative nature, except in relation to its low incidence. In regard to the types of affective experience, Azoulay et al. (2007) and Ikiz et al. (2010) report only the results of the Rorschach Third Formula (Reactivity to color = RC%). The values found in this affective Third Formula were: RC% = 35.0 for the adolescents addressed in this study; RC% = 34.6% for the French adolescents and RC% = 37.0 for the Turkish adolescents. Therefore, the adolescents of the three contexts presented an experience, based on the Rorschach Third Formula, classified as ambiguous, revealing the presence of introspective and reflexive resources, as well as the need for contact and proximity with the external world. This is, therefore, another indicator that suggests a resource on the part of the adolescents in contact with themselves and the environment: interest and flexible affective sensitivity susceptible to varied manifestation depending on the external context. In the face of the possibility of using the Rorschach method in different contexts and with populations of different ages, the data presented here reveal the importance of conducting normative studies with specific populations. In this sense, Pasian and Loureiro (2010) point out that the assessment of the results of individuals in a psychological assessment instrument, in this case a Rorschach test, needs to be transformed into a relative measure (technical indicators), obtained with groups of individuals to enable the verification of the relative position of the individual within the group, as well as to compare the production of individuals in different assessment techniques. Hence, norms enable locating the performance of an individual in a distribution of a group that is considered to be a reference. In this sense, Resende and Argimon (2010) also discuss the assertion of Weiner (1998/2000) that the Rorschach method would be a universal instrument possible to be used in different cultures. The argument used by these authors involves the idea of considering culture as an aspect of the context for the functioning of personality, but not an exclusive determinant of its structure and dynamics. Hence, personality would be, under this view, a universal phenomenon. They defend the view that professionals using Rorschach tests should keep in mind that this instrument, at the same time as it enables accessing characteristics of personality that are universally applied, also reveals peculiarities that are inherent to the individuals’ context of life. Therefore, the psychological functioning of these individuals, as well as their respective personal adaptation skills, demand analysis within their specific social, educational, occupational, family and interpersonal contexts. Therefore, even though

Jardim-Maran, M. L. C., Pasian, S. R., & Okino, E. T. K. (2015). Rorschach for Brazilian Adolescents.

Rorschach testing is considered a method that is free from culture, it is also sensitive to cultural differences because it captures the modes of expression inherent to the individuals, which demands familiarity of the evaluator with the culture of that specific individual being assessed in order to seek an appropriate interpretation of the test (Nascimento, 2010). The relevance of studies with the objective to develop normative references of the Rorschach method per regions and specific stages of human development, therefore follows. Resende and Argimon (2010) also discuss normative studies, stressing that these studies should be regularly conducted, because globalization tends to weaken popular traditions, generating increased modernization with its respective implications, such as expressive demographic changes and multi-acculturation, elements that reflect on the results obtained by individuals in psychological assessment instruments. Specifically in relation to Brazil, Pasian and Loureiro (2010) stress that obtaining representativeness of Rorschach normative studies is critical, since it refers to a country of continental proportions, which implies significant cultural diversity among the population. Therefore, the authors recognize the technical limitations of the studies available, which to be feasible address convenience samples, as well as the impossibility of generalizing results in a way that enables different sociocultural contexts to be considered in psychological assessment processes. They highlight, however, the importance of studies of this nature and encourage researchers for the various regions in the country to work on multi-center studies to help improve the work of the professionals involved in the field of psychological assessment in Brazil, since these professionals frequently refer to results reported in research to base their professional practice.

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Weiner, I. B. (2000). Princípios da interpretação do Rorschach [Principles of Rorschach’s interpretation]. São Paulo, SP: Casa do Psicólogo. (Original work published 1998) Yazigi, L. (2010). Fundamentação teórica do método de Rorschach [Theoretical fundamentation of Rorschach´s method]. In S. R. Pasian (Org). Avanços do Rorschach no Brasil [Advances of Rorschach in Brazil] (pp. 7-29). São Paulo, SP: Casa do Psicólogo. Maria Luísa Casillo Jardim-Maran is a Ph.D. in Psychology from Universidade de São Paulo and a Professor at the Centro Universitário de Franca. Sonia Regina Pasian is a Professor at the Universidade de São Paulo. Erika Tiemi Kato Okino is a Ph.D. and a Psychologist from Universidade de São Paulo. Received: Apr. 9, 2015 1st Revision: June 11, 2015 Approved: July 21, 2015

How to cite this article: Jardim-Maran, M. L. C., Pasian, S. R., & Okino, E. T. K. (2015). Normative study of Rorschach (Parisian school) for Brazilian adolescents. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 25(62), 333-342. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201507

Paidéia sep-dec. 2015, Vol. 25, No. 62, 343-351. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201508

Article

Impact of the Worst School Experiences in Students: A Retrospective Study on Trauma1 Paloma Pegolo de Albuquerque2 Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos-SP, Brazil

Lucia C. A. Williams Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos-SP, Brazil

Abstract: The literature indicates damage to students’ mental health in cases of school violence. The aim of this retrospective study was to evaluate the psychological impact of school victimization in university students, and to analyze the association between PTSD symptoms and variables related to school victimization. 691 University students responded to the Portuguese version of the Student Alienation and Trauma Survey (SATS). Clinically significant scores in the subscales ranged from 4.7% (somatic symptoms) to 20% (hypervigilance), with frequent symptoms described in the literature resulting from school victimization, such as depression, hopelessness, cognitive difficulties, and traumatic event recollection. Additionally, 7.8% of participants presented PTSD symptoms after suffering their “worst school experience”. Associations were found between PTSD symptoms and the level of distress after the experience, as well as the perceived benefits after the event, and duration. The results confirm the potential detrimental effects of school victimization, and may be useful to further investigations on this topic. Keywords: school violence, emotional trauma, post-traumatic stress disorder

Impacto das Piores Experiências Escolares em Estudantes: Um Estudo Retrospectivo Sobre Trauma Resumo: A literatura indica a existência de danos para a saúde mental de estudantes em casos de violência no contexto escolar. O objetivo deste estudo retrospectivo foi avaliar o impacto psicológico da vitimização escolar em estudantes universitários e analisar a associação dos sintomas de TEPT com variáveis relacionadas à vitimização. No total, 691 estudantes universitários responderam à Escala sobre Experiências Traumáticas em Estudantes. Escores clinicamente significativos nas subescalas variaram de 4,7% (sintomas somáticos) a 20% (hipervigilância), sendo frequentes sintomas descritos na literatura resultantes de vitimização, como: depressão, desesperança, dificuldades cognitivas e rememoração do evento traumático. Adicionalmente, 7,8% apresentaram sintomas de TEPT após a sua pior experiência escolar. Foram encontradas associações entre os sintomas de TEPT e o incômodo sentido após a experiência, benefícios percebidos após o evento e duração do mesmo. Tais dados indicam o potencial nocivo das experiências de vitimização escolar, podendo contribuir para futuras pesquisas em tal área. Palavras-chave: violência escolar, trauma emocional, transtorno de stress pós-traumático

Impacto de las Peores Experiencias en la Escuela en Estudiantes: Un Estudio Retrospectivo Sobre Trauma Resumen: La literatura indica que casos de violencia en el contexto escolar causan daños a la salud mental de los estudiantes. El objetivo de este estudio retrospectivo fue evaluar el impacto psicológico de la victimización escolar en estudiantes universitarios y analizar la asociación de los síntomas de TEPT con variables relacionadas a la victimización. Un total de 691 estudiantes universitarios respondieron a la Escala de Experiencias Traumáticas en los Estudiantes. Puntuaciones clínicamente significativas en las subescalas oscilaron entre el 4,7% (síntomas somáticos) y el 20% (hipervigilancia), y se encontraran síntomas frecuentes descritos en la literatura resultante de victimización, tales como: depresión, desesperanza, problemas cognitivos y recuerda excesiva del evento traumático. Además, el 7,8% tenía síntomas de TEPT un mes después de su peor experiencia escolar. Se encontraran asociaciones con los síntomas de TEPT y el malestar que se siente después de la experiencia; beneficios percibidos después del evento y su duración. Los resultados indican el potencial nocivo de las experiencias de victimización escolar y pueden contribuir a investigaciones futuras. Palabras clave: violencia escolar, trauma emocional, transtorno por estrés postraumático

Violence is present in schools in different ways, ranging from serious assaults to acts of incivility (Cubas, 2007). Such Support: São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP - Protocol no. 2010/01379-5).

Correspondence address: Paloma Pegolo de Albuquerque. Rua Guatemala, 166, Vila Brasília. CEP 13566-720. São Carlos-SP, Brazil. E-mail: palomanier@yahoo.com.br

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

acts may involve various school agents, such as students, employees, administrators, and teachers. The literature suggests that school peer victimization is a risk factor for the development of psychosocial problems, such as: academic problems (Orpinas & Horne, 2006) or cognitive difficulties (Houbre, Tarquinio, Thuillier, & Hergott, 2006); loneliness (Orpinas & Horne, 2006); decreased self-esteem (Orpinas & Horne, 2006) or negative self-concept (Houbre et al., 2006);

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behavioral problems or aggression (Houbre et al., 2006); and feeling unsafe at school (Felix, Furlong, & Austin, 2009). Furthermore, victimized individuals are more likely to present: psychosomatic symptoms (Fekkes, Pijpers, Fridriks, Vogels, & Verloove-Vanhorick, 2010; Gini & Pozzoli, 2009; Houbre et al., 2006); internalizing mental health problems (Luukkonen, Rasanen, Hakko, & Riala, 2010), as anxiety (Bond, Carlin, Thomas, Rubin, & Patton, 2001; Houbre et al., 2006; Luukkonen et al., 2010), and depression (Bond et al., 2001; Felix et al., 2009; Luukkonen et al., 2010); as well as psychiatric symptoms in general (Houbre et al., 2006). While there are still few studies evaluating the consequences of long-term peer victimization or its long-term effects (Idsoe, Dyregrov, & Idsoe, 2012), research shows it to be a risk factor for the development of long-term consequences, such as psychiatric symptoms in general (Sourander et al., 2009), depression (Hemphill et al., 2011), and suicidal ideation (Schafer et al., 2004). In addition to peer victimization, students may also suffer victimization by teachers or school staff, although there are fewer studies on this topic. In terms of the Brazilian reality, Stelko-Pereira, Santini and Williams (2011) collected data on 396 students from two public schools in a vulnerable neighborhood, finding that, in the six months prior to the survey, 1.6% of students responded that they had suffered physical abuse by staff at one school, and 12.2% identified the same type of victimization in the second school. Victimized students had a higher proportion of females who were bullies and victims of bullying, with higher rates of depression than students not physically victimized by teachers. Besides the commonly described symptoms, the literature has shown that individuals victimized by peers may also develop Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder symptoms (PTSD) (Albuquerque, Williams, & Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Affonseca, 2013; Crosby, Oehler, & Capaccioli, 2010; Idsoe et al., 2012; Storch & Esposito, 2003). However, there are few studies clarifying how the relationship between these two variables occurs (Idsoe et al., 2012; McKenney, Pepler, Craig, & Connoly, 2005; Mynard, Joseph, & Alexander, 2000). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV and DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2002, 2013) identify traumatic events related to the development of PTSD as situations involving threat of death or physical integrity. This definition would exclude school violence victims of presenting PTSD symptoms, a position that has been questioned by clinicians and researchers (Ateah & Cohen, 2009). Overall, there is considerable controversy about the adequacy of PTSD current diagnostic criteria, because there is evidence that everyday events that individuals experience may be potentially traumatic (Kristensen, Parente, & Kaszniak, 2005). Moreover, it is questionable whether the indirect exposure to various types of stressful events, as witnessing episodes of violence, for example, may lead to PTSD (Salter & Stallard, 2008). As a result, the understanding of a traumatic event has been constantly revised and, according to Figueira and Mendlowicz (2003), the emphasis of research has shifted from external to internal or subjective factors, so that the emotional responses to the event receive more attention.

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According to Idsoe et al. (2012), in some cases of peer victimization, children may evaluate the event as threatening to their basic safety, considering it a source of real stress. Ateah and Cohen (2009) add that students may perceive school victimization as an event that causes intense fear, horror and hopelessness, classifying it as uncontrollable (Newman, Holden, & Delville, 2011). Idsoe et al. remind us that school violence may be particularly harmful as it occurs in a period when the brain is forming biopsychosocial systems that regulate behavior. Some studies have investigated the relationship between peer victimization and the development of PTSD symptoms, indicating the correlation between those events: Idsoe et al. (2012) conducted a study with 963 Norwegian students of grades 8-9 finding that 33.7% of students who had experienced bullying showed significant scores for PTSD. Crosby et al. (2010) conducted a study with 244 10 to 14 year-old students in the United States. The results showed that physical, verbal and relational victimization were positively correlated to post-traumatic stress symptoms. Additionally Storch and Esposito (2003) investigated the development of PTSD symptoms after peer victimization in 205 children with a mean of 10.8 years in the same country, realizing that direct and relational victimization were significant and positively associated to PTSD symptoms. Mynard et al. (2000) conducted a study in England with 331 children and adolescents, aged 8-11 years, and the data suggest that about one third of the children who had suffered bullying may present significant levels of post-traumatic stress. McKenney et al. (2005) surveyed 1041 students, with a mean age of 11.9 years in Canada, noting that the likelihood of having significant symptoms of PTSD in those who reported any victimization was 2.23 times higher than in those without victimization. Additionally, the likelihood of having significant symptoms of PTSD for students who reported severe victimization was 13.98 times greater than for those without victimization. Regarding retrospective studies involving school victimization and PTSD, Ateah and Cohen (2009) conducted a survey with 1007 US University students and 210 Canadian students who responded to the instrument Student Alienation and Trauma Survey (SATS), by Hyman and Snook (2002), realizing that about 8% of the Canadian sample and 10% of the American reached DSM-IV criteria for PTSD. Almost 0.5% of each sample obtained extreme scores for PTSD. Verbal and relational aggression were the events most remembered as worst school experiences, indicating that they may lead to profound negative effects on mental health. In a similar study conducted with 1007 American, and 373 English University students using the SATS instrument, Kay (2005) realized that 2.9% of participants from the United States and 3.9% from England showed significant scores for PTSD; additionally, 5.3% from the United States, and 2.8% from England had above average scores, which is considered risk for the development of PTSD. McGuckin, Lewis, Cummins and Cruise (2011) conducted a study using the SATS with 154 University students, aged 17 to 55 years (mean 24.2 years), in Ireland,

Albuquerque, P. P., & Williams, L. C. A. (2015). A Retrospective Study on School Trauma.

investigating negative school experiences and their arising symptoms. The main result was that 25.6% of participants had scores above the cut-off scores for PTSD: 19.4% had high scores, and 6.2% had clinically significant scores. All authors of studies using the SATS instrument concluded that severe cases of school victimization may precede or be related to PTSD, and many school children may experience school victimization as a traumatic event. Considering the absence of data on school victimization and trauma symptoms in the Brazilian literature, the aim of this study was to evaluate the psychological impact of school victimization in a sample of university students. To this end, we sought to investigate the student proportion that had traumatic symptoms in general, and, in particular, those who have attained PTSD criteria after the Worst School Experience (WSE). Additionally, we sought to examine the association of PTSD symptoms to variables related to the WSE, namely: distress level after the worst school experience, perceived benefits of the negative experience, duration of the worst experience, and school victimization in general.

Method Participants Participants were 691 students from a public University in a mid-size city in Brazil. The sample constituted 9.4% of the 7,369 students enrolled in undergraduate courses at the University in the semester in which the study was conducted. A fair representation of participants was attempted, taking in consideration all courses from different areas of the University, involving at least one course from each of the 34 undergraduate available programs. Approximately 95% of the students invited to participate accepted to take part of the study. Participants had a mean age of 21.1 years, ranging from 17-61 years (SD: 3.48); 54.8% were female and 45.2% male. Regarding ethnicity, 77% of students identified themselves as white; 4.3% as black; 12.3% brown; 5.5% Asian; 0.6% chose the option “other”; and 0.3% did not answer. Participants rated their family income as thus: 43% considered themselves “Slightly better than most”; 33.1% “Similar to other homes”; 20.7% “Much better than most”; 2.6% “Slightly worse than most”; and only 0.6% “Much worse than most”. These questions are part of the SATS-R instrument and provide a subjective assessment of income. Instruments The Student Alienation and Trauma Survey - R (SATS-R) is an American retrospective instrument developed by Hyman and Snook (2002). The version used in the present study was translated and adapted (content validity) to Brazil by Albuquerque and Williams (2014), being subsequently named Escala sobre Experiências Escolares Traumáticas em Estudantes (ExpT) or School Traumatic Experience in Students Scale. The instrument’s initial questions provide for the collection of socio-demographic data, such as: gender, ethnicity, income and parental education level. Then the

SATS-R is divided into two parts. Part I contains a list of 58 traumatic events that may occur at school, information of the frequency they occurred, and questions about the WSE. Part II of the instrument is comprised of a list of 105 possible symptoms associated with stress developed after the worst experience, and, for each of these symptoms, their frequency and duration is identified, in a six unit Likert scale, ranging from Never to All the time. The manual for the SATS instrument (Hyman & Snook, 2002) presents 11 subscales, which generate scores and allow the indication of clinically significant symptoms, four of which were items based on the DSM-IV Manual (American Psychiatric Association, 2002), corresponding to the criteria for PTSD diagnosis: Impact of the event (IMPACT) - describes agitated and disorganized behaviors that are often observed in young people who have experienced trauma; Re-experience of the Trauma (REEX); Avoidance and Numbing (AVOID) - avoidance of places where the traumatic event occurred, avoidance of the stimuli associated with the event, thoughts and feelings about the experience; Increased Arousal (AROUS) - increased physiological arousal, interfering with the ability of concentration and relaxation. The other symptom subscales assess the presence and intensity of stress-related symptoms: Depression (DEPR); Hopelessness (HOPELS); Somatic Symptoms (SOM) - such as stomach problems, loss of appetite and others; Oppositional Conduct (OPP) - a recurring pattern of oppositional behavior, defiant, disobedient and hostile behavior toward authority figures; Hypervigilance (HYPER) - state of excessive alert, which manifests itself in a constant investigation of environment to detect danger signals; Dissociation and Dreams (DISSOC) dissociative lapses, disturbing dreams or temporary alteration of consciousness not due to organic mental illness; and General Maladjustment (MAL) - which refers to the variety of clinical symptoms that may occur in traumatized youngsters. In addition to these subscales, the manual provides norms to PTSD suggestion. Procedure Data collection. The instrument application was collectively performed at the University during classes. The instructions given to participants were standardized. Data collection lasted about 40 minutes per class and was conducted by the first author. Data analysis. A database was compiled after data collection. Descriptive statistics were used to identify participant’s demographics data, the WSEs, as well as their duration and frequency, and the symptoms developed after the WSE. The correction and interpretation of the SATS-R generate a Total Score (TOTAL), which is a global measure, involving all symptoms of stress experienced by the participant, as well as a summary of the stress symptoms. The indication of categories according to the scores on the traumatic symptoms subscales involve: low, average, and above average scores, and PTSD symptom suggestion (clinically significant; high indication; and extreme value). The programs Statistical Analysis System (SAS) and

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Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) were used to perform statistical analysis (X² Association Test and Multivariate Analysis of Variance - MANOVA). The significance level used in the tests was 5% (p < .05). Ethical Considerations The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Universidade Federal de São Carlos (Certificate no. 277/2010). Participants had the option of providing an email address and/or telephone number for researchers to contact them, if needed. Thus, severe clinical cases of PTSD or depression received an individual session with the first author, after data analysis, and were referred to psychological services.

Results Worst School Experiences (WSE) The percentage of victimization modalities reported was: relational violence (at least one item reported by 85.2% of participants); verbal violence (77.7%); physical violence (50.8%); unfair discipline (43.1%); property damage (33.4%); witnessing violence (27.9%); and sexual violence (21.4%). Most students (84.8%) identified their worst experience, divided into the categories: relational violence (indicated by 35.7%); verbal violence (27.4%); physical violence (12.9%); unfair discipline (10.8%); witnessing violence (4.8%); sexual violence (2.4%); damage to property (2.2%); and others (3.8%). About the duration of the WSE, 32.1% said that the “worst experience” lasted only “one day”; 19.4% “days or weeks”; 22.6% “months”; 8.4% “one year” and 10.5% reported that it had endured “years” (ranging from 2-8 years); and 6.5% did not answer this question. Further details on the worst experiences and other related variables might be found in Albuquerque (2014).

Symptoms Developed After the Worst School Experience (WSE) Most participants (383 or 55.4%) reported having been “Greatly disturbed” by the WSE; 246 (35.6%) were “Somewhat disturbed”; 47 (6.8%) were “not disturbed”; and 15 (2.2%) did not answer the question. With regards to the subscales, Table 1 summarizes the most frequent items of the instrument identified by participants. The item most often identified was “I tried to stay away from the person who hurt me”, pointed out by 53% of participants. The SATS Manual (Hyman & Snook, 2002) indicates PTSD symptom levels according to the scores on the traumatic symptoms subscales: low, average, above average and PTSD symptomatology indication (clinically significant, high indication and extreme value). The distribution of participants with PTSD symptom indication, according to the scores obtained on each of the subscales was: Somatic Symptoms (4.7%), Impact of the Event (5%), Oppositional Conduct (5.1%), Re-experience of the Trauma (6.1%), General Maladjustment (6.7%), Depression (7.1%), Increased Arousal (7.6%), Hopelessness (8.6%), Dissociation (8, 7%), Avoidance and Numbing (12.1%) and Hypervigilance (20%). Regarding the development of PTSD symptoms after the WSE, the SATS Manual (Hyman & Snook, 2002), provides norms based on criteria from the DSM-IV (stressful and shocking event for the individual, re-experiencing symptoms, avoidance and numbing, and increased excitability), according to the scores obtained. Among participants, 280 (40.5%) obtained “very low levels”; 117 (17%) “below average”; 165 (23.9%) “average values”; and 75 (10.8%) were “above average”. A total of 54 participants (7.8%) had PTSD indication; 33 (4.8%) had “clinically significant” scores; 14 (2%) had “high indication” for PTS, and 7 (1%) showed “extreme value” for PTSD. Furthermore, 10.8% presented above average rates, a concerning factor according to the Manual, as these individuals would be at risk for

Table 1 SATS Items More Frequently Presented by Participants Symptoms Subscales

Items

Avoidance and Numbing

I tried to stay away from the person who hurt me

Hypervigilance

I got very nervous about things

52.1

Increased Arousal

I kept an eye on others so I wouldn’t get hurt again

48.9

Depression

I was not as happy as I used to be

Oppositional Conduct

I got very angry for no reason

36.3

Re-experience of the trauma

I thought about what happened even though I didn’t want to

32.6

Hopelessness

I thought I was not as good a kid as I used to be

31.5

Impact of the Event

I found it hard to keep my mind on a task

25.3

Dissociation and Dreams

I had trouble making up my mind

Somatic Symptoms

I was more tired than I used to be

19.2

General Maladjustment

I wished I were a little kid again

15.5

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Albuquerque, P. P., & Williams, L. C. A. (2015). A Retrospective Study on School Trauma.

future development of PTSD. Participants who had clinically significant scores indicated that such symptoms had lasted more than a month, which is a needed criterion to assess PTSD symptomatology (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

of variance was performed (MANOVA). As there was difference in group size and larger deviations were found in the lower group, Pillai's trace was employed as the statistical test. To identify in which types of victimization the difference between means was significant, multiple comparison tests were conducted using the Bonferroni correction. Table 2 shows the mean comparison and standard deviations of participants for groups with PTSD symptoms and without PTSD symptoms, as well as the differences between the means and the p-value. A statistical significance at 5% level for differences between groups was found, and the group of individuals with PTSD presented higher means in all types of victimization (F (7) = 15.714, p < .001).

Other Variables Associated With PTSD An association between PTSD symptoms and level of distress reported by the participant after the WSE was found, in which as the distress level increased after the WSE, so did the likelihood of PTSD symptoms presentation (X² (4) = 119.207, p < .001). Among individuals who had low PTSD scores: 4.8% said they were not disturbed after the WSE; 28.5% felt somewhat disturbed, and 22.3% felt greatly disturbed. In contrast, among those who had high scores, and thus, indicative of PTSD, all participants felt disturbed (0.2% “somewhat disturbed” and 7.4% “greatly disturbed”). Additionally, participants responded to a question regarding whether they had obtained gains after the WSE, describing such gains if affirmative. Of a total of 313 participants, (45.3%) said they obtained something positive after the WSE, describing mainly that they had matured and gained learning experiences. A statistical analysis was performed to find out if there was a significant relationship between presenting PTSD symptoms and benefits perceived by students after the WSE. It was observed that participants who had more benefits after the WSE had fewer symptoms of PTSD (X² (2) = 13.808, p <. 001). An association between PTSD symptoms and the WSE duration was also found: as the experience duration increased, it was more likely for participants to display PTSD symptoms (X² (4) = 88.544, p < .001). For example, among individuals who experienced the WSE for days, 1.3% had PTSD symptomatology; among those who lived for years, 5% had PTSD symptoms. Finally, regardless of the WSE, individuals with PTSD symptoms presented more victimization experiences in general (relational, verbal, physical, and sexual violence, property damage, witnessing violence, and unfair discipline; aspects measured by the part I of instrument) than those without PTSD symptoms. To confirm that the differences between groups were significant, a multivariate analysis

Discussion In terms of the impact of the WSE for the students, participants described many psychological or psychiatric symptoms resulting from their victimization. The percentage of participants with clinically significant scores on the subscales ranged from 4.7% (somatic symptoms) to 20% (hypervigilance). Many of the resulting symptoms presented by participants after their WSE are commonly described in the literature as results from school victimization, such as: Depression (Bond et al, 2001; Felix et al, 2009; Luukkonen et al, 2010); hopelessness (Ateah & Cohen, 2009; Mynard et al., 2000); psychosomatic symptoms (Fekkes et al, 2010;. Gini & Pozzoli, 2009; Houbre et al., 2006); academic problems (Orpinas & Horne, 2006); cognitive difficulties (Houbre et al., 2006); aggression (Houbre et al., 2006); suicidal ideation (Schafer et al., 2004); and recalling the traumatic event (Storch & Esposito, 2003; Williams, D’Affonseca, Correia, & Albuquerque, 2011). Data from the present study point to the potential trauma of aversive experiences at school and it is, therefore, important to pursue investigations on how common everyday events may have traumatic impact (Elklit & Petersen, 2008; Salter & Stallard, 2008). Among the total of 691 participants, 7.8% reported PTSD symptoms. This result reinforces data from studies that argue that school victims may also develop PTSD

Table 2 Comparison of Groups With and Without PTSD Symptoms in Terms of the Mean Occurrence of Victimization Modalities Victimization modality

Without PTSD (n = 637)

With PTSD (n = 54)

Mean difference between groups

Relational violence

4.14

3.03

8.46

3.74

-4.323

.000

Physical violence

3.13

3.07

5.76

4.4

-2.633

.000

Verbal violence

2.39

1.5

3.74

1.66

-1.356

.000

Sexual violence

0.36

0.65

0.91

0.98

-0.544

.000

Unfair discipline

1.54

1.42

2.02

1.61

-0.488

.016

Witnessing violence

0.54

0.83

0.91

1.2

-0.367

.003

Property damage

0.32

0.47

0.48

0.5

-0.160

.017

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symptoms (Crosby et al., 2010; Idsoe et al., 2012; Storch & Esposito, 2003). In the PTSD literature, in general, albeit not specific on school violence, there are prevalence studies that may be useful to compare with the present data. Research investigating the prevalence of this disorder in the United States showed that 8% of the adult population is affected by PTSD (American Psychiatric Association, 2002). In the review of Ozer, Best, Lipsey and Weis (2003), the authors state that an epidemiological study performed by Kessler, Sonnega, Bromet, Hughes and Nelson (1995) showed that 7.8% of the population have PTSD at some point in life. When the focus is youngsters, according to Lipschitz, Rasmusson, Anyan, Cromwell and Southwick (2000), the PTSD prevalence indicated in the literature among adolescents and young adults ranges from 2% to 9.1%. Elklit and Petersen (2008) also defend that adolescence is a risk period with considerable exposure to stressful events, and because 6-20% of the population will suffer from PTSD at some point in life, it is important that mental health professionals learn to identify adolescents at risk, and offer intervention when necessary. Unfortunately, there are no epidemiological data about PTSD in the general population in terms of Brazil. Comparing the data obtained in this study with data from retrospective research that used the same instrument to measure school victimization impact (7.8% of the sample showing symptoms of PTSD), present results were similar to those from other countries, such as the United States, Canada, Ireland and England with regards to the development of traumatic symptoms in school violence victims. For example, Ateah and Cohen (2009) showed that approximately 8% of the Canadian sample and 10% of the American sample reached the criteria for PTSD; and almost 0.5% of each respective samples obtained extreme scores for PTSD. Similarities were also found to the data presented by McGuckin et al. (2011), in which 6.2% of the Irish sample showed clinically significant scores for PTSD. Nevertheless, as the instrument’s authors point out, the resulting scores should not be used as a definitive PTSD diagnosis, but as part of its assessment (Hyman & Snook, 2002). According to Schaefer, Kristensen and Wolf (2012), a clinical assessment should not focus on the PTSD diagnosis per se, but on the intensity and frequency of symptoms (because symptomatology occurs on a continuum), assessing, thus, the level of functioning, suffering and the social and occupational impact to the individual. Regardless of the diagnosis, high scores of PTSD indicate damage to individuals and the need for psychological support. The data also suggest that, among all the participants, those who showed PTSD symptoms, compared to those without symptoms, had a more negative perception of their WSE: they were greatly disturbed by the experience and did not perceive benefits derived from them. Recent literature on trauma has identified that despite the suffering associated with it, there are people who report benefits - and such condition is described as post-traumatic growth. Joseph (2011) points out that although people with PTSD report a drop in quality of life, they may also experience post-traumatic growth, defined by him as a transformation process of life meanings

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and changing of priorities, resulting in a new sense of self and of your own capabilities, with deepening of interpersonal relationships, as there is more proximity to relevant persons. According to this author, research shows that traumatic growth is related to fewer mental health problems, low levels of depression and suicide, and high levels of positivity in a variety of trauma survivors. Data from this study also indicate that participants with PTSD symptoms experienced its WSEs for a significantly longer period compared to individuals without symptoms. This fact is in accordance with literature data, which point to the influence of duration or chronicity of school aversive events on the traumatic effects thereof (McKenney et al., 2005; Sourander et al, 2009), as the consequences for victims may have cumulative features (Craig & Pepler, 2003). According to McKenney et al. (2005), in cases of school victimization, many individuals with PTSD can recover on their own, but most need help or have symptoms for longer periods, suggesting the importance of routinely considering the variable “duration” of victimization in school context interventions. In addition, compared to individuals without PTSD symptoms, those with symptoms had higher rates of school victimization in general (including relational, verbal, physical, and sexual violence, property damage, unfair discipline and witnessing violence). Such statements point out to the importance of studies investigating polyvictimization in the school context to clarify its influence on traumatic symptoms (Finkelhor, Turner, & Hamby, 2012). According to Felix et al. (2009), polyvictimized students, when compared to individuals who have experienced only one type of victimization or were not victimized at all, are more likely to experience depression, feeling unsafe at school, and poor academic performance. These data demonstrate that, in addition to investigating WSEs, other variables are relevant for understanding the development of PTSD symptoms in school violence victims, such as relevant individual aspects encompassing psychological vulnerabilities (Elwood, Hahn, Olatunji, & Williams, 2009), and other features, as personal beliefs about the world and about traumatic events, and the role of resilience (Newman et al., 2011). Therefore, a limitation of this study is the use of only one instrument for data collection, precluding analysis of such individual variables. This study neither addressed traumatic and stressful experiences in students’ home and their family support system. It would be important, thus, for future studies to investigate the various factors that could influence PTSD development or maximize its impact. The sample is not representative of the Brazilian general population of University students, making it difficult to generalize the data. Future studies could use an objective measure of income to facilitate interpretations from such variable. In addition, this was a retrospective study, a methodology that may favor memory biases (forgetfulness, memory distortions). On the other hand, retrospective studies offer the opportunity to investigate long term effects of a traumatic event, providing information on how adults perceive their school experience and how they perceive their impact (Schafer et al., 2004), issues often ignored by

Albuquerque, P. P., & Williams, L. C. A. (2015). A Retrospective Study on School Trauma.

prospective studies (Kendall-Tackett & Becker-Blease, 2004). It is also argued, as Brewin, Andrews and Valentine (1993) do, that there is evidence that memories of significant and harmful experiments remain accurate over many years. Memories may be more easily evoked if they were unique (different from everyday content) and unexpected, and people recall more experiences with emotional content with important consequences (Brewin et al., 1993). Despite these limitations, the data presented by this study may be useful for enriching the literature on school victimization impact. Although it is known that such victimization may cause many harmful effects, little research has described such effects and its prevalence among the victims, especially in Brazil. By indicating the main traumatic symptoms developed by students after victimization in school on the years preceding University, and their perception of distress after such victimization, the study draws attention to the phenomenon of school violence (Williams & StelkoPereira, 2013), and the need to create or expand educational policies to address the issue. In addition, the results may contribute to the development of prevention and intervention programs focused on school violence, specifically for victims, which may be used in training programs to raise awareness of educators and administrators on the harmful consequences of school victimization. It was possible to identify in the present study, relevant variables associated with traumatic symptoms (the distress level and benefits generated after the experience, the importance of the event’s duration, and the modality of school victimization), aspects that could contribute to a better understanding of the Brazilian school violence context.

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Albuquerque, P. P., & Williams, L. C. A. (2015). A Retrospective Study on School Trauma.

Williams, L. C. A., & Stelko-Pereira, A. C. (Orgs.). (2013). Violência nota zero: Como aprimorar as relações na escola. [Violence grade zero: Enhancing relations at school]. São Carlos, SP: EdUFSCar/FAPESP. Williams, L. C. A., D’Affonseca, S. M., Correia, T. A., & Albuquerque, P. P. (2011). Efeitos a longo prazo de vitimização na escola. [Long-term effects of victimization at school]. Gerais: Revista Interinstitucional de Psicologia, 4(2), 187-199. Paloma Pegolo de Albuquerque has a Ph.D. in Psychology from Universidade Federal de São Carlos. Lucia C. A. Williams is Professor of Psychology at the Universidade Federal de São Carlos. Received: Aug. 13, 2014 1st Revision: Mar. 4, 2015 Approved: Apr. 7, 2015

How to cite this article: Albuquerque, P. P., & Williams, L. C. A. (2015). Impact of the worst school experiences in students: A retrospective study on trauma. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 25(62), 343351. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201508

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Paidéia sep-dec. 2015, Vol. 25, No. 62, 353-361. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201509

Article

Discriminant Profile of Young Internet Dependents: The Role of Family Relationships1 Michele Terres-Trindade2 Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, São Leopoldo-RS, Brazil

Clarisse Pereira Mosmann Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, São Leopoldo-RS, Brazil

Abstract: International studies have shown effects of family relations on Internet addiction in young people. This research aimed to outline a discriminant profile of young people classified as dependent and not dependent on the Internet regarding to sociobiodemographic variables to parenting practices, parent-child conflict and interparental conflict. The sample consisted of 200 students (152 girls and 48 boys), between 15 and 24 years of age, 85.5% reside in Rio Grande do Sul and 14.5% in other Brazilian states. Participants responded individually to the protocol available online. The results showed that interparental conflict, parentchild conflict and the educational practice of supervision of paternal behavior discriminate dependents on Internet. The educational practice of maternal emotional support was the only discriminating variable for non-dependents. These national findings corroborate the international context studies and reinforce the importance of including the family in promotion and prevention of mental health of young people. Keywords: Internet (addiction), parenting style, parent child relations, marital conflict, family relations

Perfil Discriminante de Jovens Dependentes de Internet: O Papel das Relações Familiares Resumo: Estudos internacionais têm apontado repercussões das relações familiares na dependência de internet em jovens. Esta pesquisa buscou traçar um perfil discriminante de jovens classificados como dependentes e não dependentes de internet em relação às variáveis sociobiodemográficas, práticas educativas parentais, conflito pais-filho e conflito interparental. A amostra foi constituída por 200 jovens, com idades de 15 a 24 anos, 85,5% residentes no Rio Grande do Sul e 14,5% em outros estados brasileiros. Os participantes responderam individualmente ao protocolo disponível on-line. Os resultados mostraram que o conflito interparental, o conflito pais-filhos e a prática educativa de supervisão de comportamento paterno discriminam os dependentes de internet. A prática educativa de apoio emocional materno foi a única variável discriminante para os não dependentes. Esses achados do contexto nacional corroboram estudos internacionais e reforçam a importância da inclusão da família nas ações de promoção e prevenção à saúde mental dos jovens. Palavras-chave: Internet (dependência), estilo parental, relações pais-criança, conflito conjugal, relações familiares

Perfil Discriminante de Jóvenes Dependientes de Internet: el Papel de las Relaciones Familiares Resumen: Estudios internacionales señalan las repercusiones de las relaciones familiares en la dependencia de Internet en jóvenes. Esta investigación trazó un perfil discriminante de jóvenes clasificados como dependientes de Internet en relación a variables sociobiodemográficas, prácticas educativas parentales, conflicto padres-hijos y el conflicto interparental. La muestra fue compuesta por 200 jóvenes (152 niñas y 48 niños), con edad de 15 a 24 años, 85,5% con domicilio en Rio Grande Del Sur y 14,5% en otras provincias brasileñas. Los participantes respondieron individualmente al protocolo disponible online. Los resultados mostraron que el conflicto interparental, el conflicto padres-hijos y la práctica educativa de supervisión de comportamiento paterno discriminan los dependientes de Internet. La práctica educativa de apoyo emocional materno fue la única variable discriminante para los dependientes. Estos hallazgos del contexto nacional corroboran estudios internacionales y refuerzan la inclusión de la familia en las acciones de promoción y prevención de la salud mental en jóvenes. Palabras clave: Internet (dependencia), estilo parental, relaciones padres-niños, conflicto marital, relaciones familiares

Paper derived from the first author’s master’s thesis under the second author’s supervision, defended in 2014 in the Graduate Program in Clinical Psychology at Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos. Support: Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES).

Correspondence address: Michele Terres-Trindade. Avenida Iguaçu, 119/405, Petrópolis. CEP 90470430. Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil. E-mail: micheleterres@hotmail.com

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

Nowadays, the Internet is undoubtedly a widely used tool for network communication that has reached practically all social classes and age ranges (Center for Studies on Information and Communication Technologies [CETIC], 2013). In addition, it has offered countless political, economic and social benefits. Paradoxically, the benefits related to the increased access to the Internet have acted as facilitators for the harmful use of this technology, appointing the emergence of a new psychopathological condition. The main

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characteristics that can indicate dependence or problematic use of the Internet include the excessive or uncontrolled concern with the Internet (need to stay connected to the net), making the person suffer and/or compromising his/her social, professional activities or other important areas (Ang, Chong, Chye, & Huan, 2012; Young & Abreu, 2011). As it is not acknowledged in any diagnostic classification system and as there is no consensus among the authors about the terminologies related to the harmful use of the Internet, different terms have been used in the literature to designate that condition (Abreu, Karam, Góes, & Spritzer, 2008; Araújo et al., 2010). The following can be highlighted: Internet addiction (Young, 1998), problematic Internet use (Shapira et al., 2003), Internet use disorder (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2012), among others. Nevertheless, the expression Internet addiction is the most commonly used (Byun et al., 2009), and was therefore adopted in this research. Conceptually, Internet addiction is an obsessivecompulsive spectrum disorder that covers the connected and/ or disconnected computer use (Dell’Osso, Altamura, Allen, Marazziti, & Hollander, 2006). Although Internet addiction is not officially considered a psychopathology, different studies have been conducted to characterize and identify its prevalence in the population. Weinstein and Lejoyeux (2010) undertook a research in the databases Medline and PubMed to review the international literature published between 2000 and 2009 about the diagnosis, the phenomenology, the epidemiology and the treatment in Internet addiction. The results include articles with different established criteria for the diagnosis of Internet addiction and a prevalence rate in the European and North American population ranging between 1.5% and 8.2%. In the Far East, where technology access is more intense and which concentrates most research on the theme, prevalence rates between 5.52% and 20.3% were appointed in young people. As predictive variables, the reviewed studies indicated personality traits, alcohol use, social anxiety and family factors. Another study undertaken in 11 European countries, involving 11,956 adolescents with a mean age of 14.09 years (SD = 0.89) aimed to assess the prevalence of the problematic (Internet addiction) and maladaptive (considered as harmful Internet use in the study, but without some criteria sufficient to classify it as dependence) use among the adolescents. The results indicated a prevalence rate of 4.4% for problematic use and 13.5% for maladaptive use, according to the criteria of the Internet Addiction Diagnostic Questionnaire (Young, 1998). Among the female adolescents, higher rates were found for maladaptive use than among the male adolescents, who indicated a higher percentage for problematic use. The factors associated with Internet dependence were: low parental involvement, unemployment of parents/caregivers and living without one of the biological parents (Durkee et al., 2012). In view of the divergences appointed in the literature, the reason why most of the international studies are still aiming to define the criteria that best describe this phenomenon is perceived, as well as its prevalence in the population (Beard & Wolf, 2001; Shapira et al., 2003). In countries like South Korea and China, however, research has advanced beyond

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the diagnosis and prevalence, aiming to consider the factors involved in the emergence and treatment of Internet addiction, which is increasing in these countries’ youth population (Yen, Yen, Chen, Chen, & Ko, 2007). In that sense, in view of the lack of conceptual precision in the definition of Internet addiction, a theoreticalmethodological heterogeneity is identified in the investigation of the phenomenon, which particularly advocates the psychopathology and justifies research in Brazil focused on the aspects involved in the establishment of Internet addiction, as precise prevalence data in the Brazilian population remain unknown. In addition, considering that Internet addiction is associated with countless emotional and social losses, especially in the adolescent and young adult phase, it becomes even more relevant to study the variables involved in dependence in this population, which is the most exposed to Internet use (Yen et al., 2007; Young & Abreu, 2011). Surveying and characterizing the risk and protection factors for the development of psychopathologies in childhood and adolescence involves the study of family relations. A consensus exists in the literature that the family can act as a protection as well as a risk factor in the child development process (Mosmann, Wagner, & Sarriera, 2008). Research indicates that, in the long term, high levels of marital and family conflicts, in addition to punitive, coercive and inconsistent educational practices among the parents are associated with internalizing and externalizing symptoms in children and adolescents (Cummings & Davies, 2011; Wagner, 2011), making it pertinent, in a causal link, to question whether these marital and family variables are also associated with Internet addiction in young people. Among the family variables related to the parentschild dimensions, conflict basically emerges in the literature to indicate two different types of results. On the one hand, there are results that highlight the favorable aspects of this interaction, demonstrating that the parents-child conflicts have a positive function and can contribute to gain autonomy, exchange experience and increase tolerance among generations (Bernedo Muñoz, Fuentes Rebollo, & Fernández Molina, 2005; Jiménez & Delgado, 2002; Wagner, Falcke, Silveira, & Mosmann, 2002). On the other hand, the conflicts are considered negative when they imply the emergence of emotional, social or behavioral problems and reduce the level of satisfaction and family cohesion (Goulart & Wagner, 2013; López Larrosa, Sánchez Souto, & Ruíz de Alda, 2012; Luna Bernal, 2012). In the same way as the parents-child conflict can be associated with positive and negative outcomes in the children’s adjustment, the parents’ educational practices reflect in the young people’s psychosocial development and can permit the acquisition of competences that are necessary and important for this phase or, on the opposite, can be associated with the emergence of different emotional and behavioral problems. The literature appoints that the educational practice that predict externalizing problems, with positive practices – such as emotional support and incentives towards autonomy – serving as protection factors and negative practices – such as intrusiveness and punitive

Terres-Trindade, M., & Mosmann, C. P. (2015). Discriminant Profile of Young Internet Dependents.

control – serving as risk factors for these problems (García Linares, Cerezo Rusillo, de la Torre Cruz, de la Villa Carpio Fernández, & Casanova Arias, 2011; Paiva & Ronzani, 2009). Besides the family variables related to the parents-child dimensions, the marital variables, especially marital conflict, have been significantly associated with the children’s psychological symptoms (Wagner, 2011). When investigated from the children’s perspective, this dimension is called interparental conflict. According to Cummings and Davies (2011), the children are the most reliable information sources about the constructive or destructive form of the marital conflict when compared to the parents. Destructive conflicts, characterized when the children perceive that the parents do not reach any agreement, have been the most studied, as their negative impact on the family relations is stronger (Goulart, 2012). The literature demonstrates that interparental conflicts greatly affect the children, as they entail more punitive and coercive educational practices, as well as higher levels of conflicts between parents and children (Benetti, 2006; Erel & Burman, 1995; Mosmann, 2007; Mosmann et al., 2008). This effect can be explained by the so-called spillover hypothesis (Erel & Burman, 1995) – which is based on the idea of a positive relation between the quality of the marital relationship and the relationship between parents and children. Thus, the way the marital relations are established entail consequences that spillover and affect the relation between parents and children. In addition, in view of unsolved marital conflicts between the parents, the children can take a position of confrontation as well as distraction. In the attempt to deviate the parents from their focus of tension, they become the center of their attention, displaying symptoms. The children’s movement in the attempt to mitigate or deviate the focus of the marital conflicts is called triangulation and has been classically described in Minuchin (1990). In general, some of the variables associated with these interactions have appeared in international studies, indicating a relation with Internet addiction in young people, specifically parental practices, conflict between parents and adolescents, communication, cohesion and family violence (Chen, Weng, Su, Wu, & Yang, 2003; Parque, Kim, & Cho, 2008). Some international studies also appoint relations between specific parenting practices for Internet use and Internet addiction (Lin, Lin, & Wu, 2009; Liu & Kuo, 2007). In a study undertaken in the Netherlands among 4,483 public and private school students between 11 and 15 years of age, which was aimed at investigating the correlation between specific parenting practices for Internet use and compulsive Internet use among adolescents, the results indicated that the quality of the parents’ communication about the use of the web is an effective tool to avoid its compulsive use. In addition, it was appointed that parents who pay attention to their children’s Internet use can impede the development of compulsive Internet use (van Eijnden, Spijkerman, Vermulst, van Rooij, & Engels, 2010). Thus, although some aspects of the family relationships, such as parenting practices, the child-parent relationship and the parental marital relationship figure in the international context, demonstrating relations with Internet addiction, the

limited Brazilian research is not focused on this aspect, but on the psychopathological phenomenon and its treatment (Abreu et al., 2008; Conti et al., 2012; Pujol, Alexandre, Sokolovsky, Karam, & Spritzer, 2009). Similarly, no consensus has been reached on the identification of what family variables are more expressive in these interactions, as well as the role of each variable. Also, it is observed that the studies found measure the family variables globally. Without the investigation of specific variables, the results presented are imprecise and lack further research (Li, Garland, & Howard, 2014). In that sense, as Internet access and use among young people are increasing day by day and considering that different dimensions of the family relations are involved in Internet addiction in this population in other cultural contexts, the goal in this study was to outline a discriminant profile of young people classified as dependent and non-dependent on the Internet, considering the socio-biodemographic variables, educational parenting practices, parent-child conflict and interparental conflict.

Method This is an exploratory, descriptive and comparative quantitative and cross-sectional study. Participants The participants were 200 young people (152 girls and 48 boys) between 15 and 24 years of age (Brasil, 2005) who lived with at least one of their parents. In this group, 85.5% (n = 171) lived in the state of Rio Grande do Sul and 14.5% (n = 29) in 12 other Brazilian states. Instruments Socio-biodemographic questionnaire. Information was collected with regard to age, sex, education, number of siblings, family configuration, among others. Internet Addiction Diagnostic Questionnaire. The IADQ (Young, 1998, translated by Young & Abreu, 2011) consists of eight questions that conceptualize the diagnostic criteria for Internet addiction and assess the non-essential use of the computer/Internet (involving work/study) in the course of the last six months. The criteria are assessed using yes or no answers, resulting in a score between zero and eight. The scoring method of the questionnaire classifies the gravity of the Internet dependence in three distinct dimensions: nondependent (0-2 points), risk of dependence (3-4 points) and Internet dependent (5-8 points) (Durkee et al., 2012). The internal consistency analysis of the tool in an international study (Dowling & Quirk, 2009) indicated α = .72 and, in this study, the coefficient of the total IADQ was α = .60. Scale of Parenting Practices (EPP). Developed by Teixeira, Oliveira and Wottrich (2006), the scale aims to identify the educational parenting practices as the children perceive them and consists of 27 items and six dimensions, measured on a five-point Likert scale. In this study, Cronbach’s alpha for the complete EPP corresponded to .93.

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Parent-Child Conflict Scale (PCC). Originally developed by Buehler and Gerard (2002) and adapted by Mosmann (2007) to assess the level of marital conflict. In this study, the tool was adapted to assess the level of the subjects’ conflict with their parents, answered separately for the father and mother. The subscale called Conflicts-disagreements consists of six items that refer to how frequently the subjects experienced disagreements from their parents and are measured on a six-point Likert scale. Higher scores represent high levels of conflict (Buehler & Gerard, 2002). Cronbach’s alpha for the total PCCS in this study corresponded to .75. Children’s Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale (CPIC). This scale (Grych, Seid, & Fincham, 1992), translated and adapted by the Dynamic Research Group of Family Relations at Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, was developed to assess the children’s opinions about different aspects of their parents’ marital conflict. It consists of 50 items, measured on a five-point Likert scale, subdivided in nine subscales, which describe the dimensions of the marital conflicts as perceived by the children, the children’s reaction or interpretation of the conflicts and, finally, the probability of the child’s involvement in the marital conflict. Cronbach’s alpha for the CPIC in this study equaled .94. Procedure Data collection. The data were collected between March and June 2013. To access the sample, two methods were used, practiced according to the participants’ age. To select the participants over age (18 years or older), the snowball sampling technique was used (Faugier & Sargeant, 1997), which involves successive indications of participants. In this study, the technique was applied through e-mail invitations and a social network. To get access to the participants under age, the convenience choice criterion was adopted, through invitations in schools located in Metropolitan Porto Alegre (RS). To collect data from the participants over 18 years of age, a link to the website with research information was disseminated by e-mail and through the social network Facebook, using the contact list of the researchers responsible for the study. As different social network users shared the research link, the snowball effect was achieved. When they clicked on the on-line link, the participant had access to the presentation of the research and researchers, information on ethical aspects, the inclusion criteria and how to participate in the research. Users who accepted to participate in the study should confirm their participation by informing an e-mail address, in order to receive a copy of the Informed Consent Form (ICF), and by clicking on a button to declare their acceptance to participate in the research. On the next screen, the participants accessed the electronic form that contained the questions from the research tool. Participants under age (between 15 and 17 years) were accessed through contact with public and private schools located in Metropolitan Porto Alegre/RS. The researchers contacted the school boards and presented the research, objectives and how the target students would participate. After the schools accepted, the classes were visited and the

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students were invited to participate in the study. Students who accepted were asked to have one of the parents/responsible caregivers sign the Informed Consent Form (ICF). Only those students who returned the ICF signed received a password and the website to answer the research tool on-line. The site to collect data from the participants under age was identical to the participants over age, except that the password was added. Participants who answered the tool but did not comply with the inclusion criteria were excluded from the database. Data analysis. The analyses were developed in the software SPSS Statistics (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) version 18.0 and significance was set at 5% (p ≤ .05). The psychometric properties (reliability and convergent validity) of each tool were assessed. The statistical treatment of the data consisted of descriptive analyses (means, standard deviations and percentages). Discriminant analysis is used when the dependent variable is dichotomous, in this case the groups dependent and not dependent on the Internet, and aims to understand the differences between the groups and forecast the probability of participants being driven towards one or the other group (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 2005). Ethical Considerations This study received approval from the Research Ethics Committee at Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos (UNISINOS) under protocol no. 187.637, and complied with all guidelines and regulatory standards for research involving human beings.

Results First, descriptive analyses were applied to characterize the participants and their families, as well as to identify the participants belonging to the group characterized as dependent on the Internet. The young people were classified according to the IADQ score as dependent and not dependent, excluding those with a score indicating risk of dependence on the Internet. This procedure was adopted in view of the research objective and the criteria of the scale, which classify the risk of dependence as a set of indicators that is not sufficient yet to be considered either dependent or not dependent. After the exclusion, the sample distribution was organized as follows: 84.3% of the participants not dependent on Internet (n = 123) and 15.7% dependent (n = 23). Among the young people who participated in this study (N = 146), 77% were female (n = 112) and 23% male (n = 34) and the mean age found was 20.25 (SD = 2.73). The participants’ education level was distributed among: 71% undergraduate (n = 104), 23% secondary school (n = 34) and 6% graduate (n = 8), with 82% coming from private (n = 120) and 18% from public institutions (n = 26). Concerning the participants’ family characteristics, 66% had one or two siblings (n = 96), 18% were an only child (n = 27) and 16% had three or more siblings (n = 23). The family constitution was distributed as follows: 66% nuclear families (n = 96), 21% single-parent families (n = 31), being 91%

Terres-Trindade, M., & Mosmann, C. P. (2015). Discriminant Profile of Young Internet Dependents.

female and 9% male, 8% extended family (n = 12) and 5% reconstituted families (n = 7). The perceived social class the participants informed was classified as 49% middle (n = 71), 26% upper middle (n = 38) and 25% lower middle (n = 37). Next, discriminant analysis was performed, considering the youth’s socio-biodemographic data (sex, age and education) as independent variables and the dimensions of the educational parenting scales (EPP), parent-child conflict (PCC) and perceived interparental conflict (CPIC), assessed separately for father and mother. As the dependent variable, the groups of dependent and non Internet dependent children were considered. These variables produced a discriminant function for the maternal data and another for the paternal data, analyzed separately. Function 1 (Maternal) showed an eigenvalue 0.329, canonic correlation 0.497, λ Wilks 0.753, X² 38.079 and p = .009. Function 1 (Paternal) indicated an eigenvalue 0.289, canonic correlation 0.473, λ Wilks 0.776, X² 33.993 and p = .026. The final capacity of the function to correctly classify the subjects in their group is also important from the statistical viewpoint (Hair et al., 2005). In that sense, the function obtained for the maternal variables correctly classifies 80.1% of the participants in their respective groups and the parental discriminant function distributes 75.3% of the cases. Thus, as there are two discriminant groups (dependent and not dependent on the Internet), the expected correct random classification corresponded to 50% for each group. Hence, 80.1% for the maternal and 75.3% for the paternal variables appoint satisfactory predictive classification indices, showing that more than half of the young people in this sample were correctly classified in the discriminant profile, considering both the maternal and paternal variables. Next, Table 1 presents the structural matrix that indicates what variables have a higher weight in the ability to discriminate between the participants dependent and not dependent on the Internet (function 1), with regard to the most relevant maternal and paternal variables. The variables are ranked in absolute correlation order in the structural

matrix, with the cut-off point superior to 0.20 (Hair et al., 2005). The signal in the correlations indicates the favorable sense for one group or the other.

Discussion The young people who participated in this study are predominantly female, taking undergraduate programs at private universities, belonging to nuclear families (consisting of father-mother-children), middle class, living in cities in Rio Grande do Sul. According to data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics [IBGE] (2012), almost half of the Brazilian families (49.4%) consist of couples with children, indicating that the research sample presents this characteristic close to what is found in the general population. Concerning the larger number of female participants, this can be analyzed based on the way the sample was constituted: through successive indications on a social network. According to data by CETIC (2013) in the Research on the Use of Information and Communication Technologies in Brazil, female youth between 16 and 24 years of age are the majority among Internet users who participate in relationship sites, such as Facebook. The prevalence of Internet addiction among the participants is noteworthy (15.7%) and can be compared to rates in Far Eastern countries reaching 20.3%, to the detriment of Europe and the United States, with rates between 1.5% and 8.2% (Weinstein & Lejoyeux, 2010). As most of the sample is taking undergraduate programs, the literature appoints that Internet use for academic ends places higher education students in the risk population category to acquire Internet addiction related behaviors (Young & Abreu, 2011). When specifically considering the prevalence data in this sample, however, it should be highlighted that the results found here cannot be discussed in comparison with other Brazilian data, as no other research presenting this information was found. The analyses permit the achievement of the main

Table 1 Structural Matrix of Function 1: Correlations Among Maternal and Paternal Discriminant Variables and Standardized Discriminant Function Function 1 Variables Maternal Feeling of Threat of Interparental Conflict

Paternal

.413

Conflict-disagreements (mother)

.357

Educational Emotional Support Practice (mother)

-.332

Perceived Content of Interparental Conflict

.272

Triangulation in Interparental Conflict

.246

Feeling of Threat of Interparental Conflict

.441

Conflict-disagreements (father)

.405

Perceived Content of Interparental Conflict

.291

Educational Practice of Behavior Supervision (father)

.264

Triangulation in Interparental Conflict

.262

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objective, outlining a discriminant profile of the young people classified as dependent and not dependent on the Internet. According to the children’s perception of their conflicts with their parents, educational parenting practices and interparental conflict, different functions were obtained, which included variables specifically related to the mother, the father and the couple. When analyzing the so-called maternal variables only, conflict/disagreements between mother and child are discriminant for Internet addiction, indicating agreement with the literature that appoints high rates of conflict between parents and children among the Internet addicts (Yen et al., 2007). It is known that, in the adolescent and young adult phase, conflicts between parents and children increase, mainly those related to the children’s daily activities, such as housework and studying (Jiménez & Delgado, 2002; Luna Bernal, 2012). This increase in disagreements with the mother can emerge because she is still generally appointed as the main responsible for family care activities, especially for the children (Wagner et al., 2002). The educational practice maternal emotional support was the sole discriminant variable for the participants who were not dependent on the Internet and seems to serve as a protection factor against dependence. This result reflects the observations in the literature about externalizing problems, which are negatively associated with positive educational parenting practices (Mosmann et al., 2012). In addition, this information supports other studies in which the children appoint the mothers as closer and more affective when compared to the fathers (Linares et al., 2011; Wagner et al., 2002). Among the specifically paternal variables, the educational parenting practice of behavioral supervision was a discriminant variable for Internet addicts and, differently from the behavior of the variable in the original study (Teixeira et al., 2006), this educational practice seems to have acted more negatively for the research participants. It can be hypothesized that this practice is more associated with paternal control than with supervision, in view of the participants’ mean age, who are entering the young adult phase (Ministério da Saúde, 2007). In addition, the father’s educational practice of behavioral supervision could be associated in this case with high levels of the requirement construct (characterizing an authoritarian educational style), due to the family environment permeated by high family conflict rates, as observed through the different conflict variables that discriminate Internet addicts, in line with the study by Goulart (2012). The conflicts/disagreements with the father equally play a discriminant role for Internet addiction. Nowadays, studies indicate greater paternal involvement with the children (Wagner, 2011). When compared to the mothers, however, the fathers still have a more peripheral position towards the children (Wagner et al., 2002) and, therefore, may display less skills to cope with conflict situations, showing less flexibility or adopting more coercive attitudes, mainly in more traditional families (when the father is more engaged in providing for the family and the mother in the other responsibilities linked to the children), which could explain

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the increase in conflicts and disagreements between fathers and children. In addition to the parent-child conflicts, other conflicts linked to the parents’ marital relationship also played a discriminant role for the Internet dependents. Specifically the feeling of threat dimension of the interparental conflict, characterized according to the CPIC when the child feels threatened by the interparental conflicts and fears the end of marriage as an outcome and, consequently, what his/her future will be like in view of this fact (Grych et al., 1992). As the research participants’ mean age is about 20 years and as they belong to nuclear families, their parents’ marriage may go back a long period; nevertheless, the hypothesis is raised that marital satisfaction levels are low, in view of the perceived threat of divorced according to the children. These results appoint that the conflicting relations between the parents of the study participants can be understood based on the spillover hypothesis, as their negative reflexes spill over to the children’s mental health (Erel & Burman, 1995). Another variable associated to the marital relationship is the perceived content of interparental conflicts, characterized when the children perceive themselves as the reason why the parents fight (Grych et al., 1992). This result supports the findings by Goulart (2012) that disagreements about the children are the most prevalent, besides financial reasons according to the adolescents’ perspective. In addition, the children’s perception about them being the reason for the parents’ conflict may indicate that contents supposedly exclusive to the marital relationship are not restricted to this subsystem, demonstrating fuzzy limits between the subsystems (Minuchin, 1990; Wagner, 2011). Finally, the triangulation in the interparental conflict supports the role of the other triad variables in discriminating the youth’s Internet addiction in this study. These results indicate that, according to the young people, their parents present high levels of marital conflict, often about them, which can happen because the unsolved disagreements between the couple can deviate towards the relation with the child. Thus, Internet addiction can indicate the youth’s perceived existence of an underlying marital conflict, expressed by disagreements about the children. This conflict, if explicit between the couple, could destabilize the marital union even further, which justifies these young people’s feeling of threat that the parents will divorce. Hence, the tension the marital conflict produces loses its focus and centralizes in care for the child, which becomes the focus of attention, deviating from the original conflict (Minuchin, 1990). Consequently, the child’s symptom causes an increase in educational practices with low levels of responsiveness and high levels of coercive control, provoking the increase in the levels of parent-child conflict, which longitudinally entails further symptoms, leading to further disagreement between the couple (Buehler & Gerard, 2002; Erel & Burman, 1995), with feedback to marital and family dynamics with low functionality levels. The research results, based on a sample of young Brazilians, support international findings about the impact of family relations on Internet addiction especially the parents’ marital relationship. Although most participants are in the young

Terres-Trindade, M., & Mosmann, C. P. (2015). Discriminant Profile of Young Internet Dependents.

adult phase, the fact is highlighted that the children still feel influenced by their parents’ conflicting marital relations. Studies involving the marital relations’ repercussions in the children’s emotional and behavior problems are mostly focused on children. Nevertheless, these research results suggest that the effects seem to remain stable in the course of development. In addition, despite knowing that personal and personality factors are involved in young people’s Internet addiction, these findings sustain the importance of preventive action, with a view to understanding and treating this possible new psychopathological condition, involving the entire family. Future studies in the Brazilian population can contribute to a more precise understanding of this complex and multifaceted phenomenon, taking into account other relevant variables, such as co-parenthood. Qualitative research designs could offer indepth analyses of the young people’s perceptions.

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Terres-Trindade, M., & Mosmann, C. P. (2015). Discriminant Profile of Young Internet Dependents.

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How to cite this article: Terres-Trindade, M., & Mosmann, C. P. (2015). Discriminant profile of young internet dependents: The role of family relationships. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 25(62), 353-361. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201509

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Paidéia sep-dec. 2015, Vol. 25, No. 62, 363-372. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201510

Article

Evidences of Factorial Structure and Precision of Phonemic Awareness Tasks (TCFe)1 Dalva Maria Alves Godoy2 Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis-SC, Brazil

Hugo Cogo-Moreira Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brazil

Abstract: To assess phonological awareness - a decisive skill for learning to read and write - it is necessary to provide evidence about an instrument construct to present trustworthy parameters for both empirical research and the development of educational intervention and rehabilitation programs. In Brazil, at this moment, there are no studies regarding the internal structure for tests of phonological awareness. This article shows the factorial validity of a test of phonological awareness composed by three subtests: two tasks of subtraction of initial phoneme and one of phonemic segmentation. The multidimensional confirmatory factorial analysis was applied to a sample of 176 Brazilian students (Mage = 9.3 years) from the first to fifth grade of elementary school. Results indicated a well-adjusted model, with items of intermediate difficulty and high factor loadings; thus, this corroborated the internal structure and well-designed theoretical conception. Keywords: phonological awareness, test validity, literacy

Evidências da Estrutura Fatorial e Precisão de Tarefas de Consciência Fonêmica (TCFe) Resumo: Para avaliar a consciência fonológica, habilidade determinante para a aprendizagem da leitura e da escrita, é necessário prover evidências acerca do construto que um dado instrumento se propõe a mensurar de modo a fornecer parâmetros confiáveis tanto para a pesquisa empírica como para o desenvolvimento de programas de intervenção educacional e de reabilitação. No Brasil, até o momento, não há estudos de evidências de validade com base na estrutura interna para testes de consciência fonológica. Este artigo apresenta os resultados para a validade de um teste de consciência fonológica constituído por três sub-testes: duas tarefas de subtração do fonema inicial e uma de segmentação fonêmica. A análise fatorial confirmatória multidimensional foi aplicada a uma amostra de 176 estudantes brasileiros (Midade = 9,3 anos) de 1º ao 5º ano do ensino fundamental. Resultados indicaram modelo bem ajustado, com itens de dificuldade mediana e cargas fatoriais altas; corroborando a estrutura interna e concepção teórica adequadas. Palavras-chave: consciência fonológica, validade do teste, alfabetização

Evidencias de la Estructura Factorial y Precisión de las Pruebas de Conciencia Fonémica (TCFe) Resumen: Para evaluar la conciencia fonológica, habilidad determinante para el aprendizaje de la lectura y escritura, es necesario proporcionar evidencias a cerca del constructo que un dicho instrumento se propone a medir a fin de tener parámetros fiables para la investigación empírica y para el desarrollo de programas de intervención educativa y de rehabilitación. En Brasil, hasta el momento, no hay estudios de evidencia de la validez basada en la estructura interna para pruebas de conciencia fonológica. Este artículo presenta los resultados para la validez de una prueba de conciencia fonológica constituida por tres sub-pruebas: dos de subtración del fonema inicial y una de segmentación fonémica. El análisis factorial confirmatorio multidimensional fue aplicado a una muestra de 176 estudiantes brasileños (Medad = 9,3 años) de 1º a 5º año del enseñanza básica. Los resultados indicarán un modelo bien ajustado, con items de dificuldad mediana y cargas factoriales altas; corroborando la estructura interna y la concepción teórica adecuadas. Palabras clave: conciencia fonológica, validación de test, alfabetización

One of the most relevant findings in the field of reading in the last four decades has indicated phonological awareness Support: This research received financing from Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa e Inovação do Estado de Santa Catarina (FAPESC - T.O. nº 2013 TR 3437). Postdoctoral scholarship granted by Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES - Protocol no. 10770/13-5).

Correspondence address: Dalva Maria Alves Godoy. Centro de Ciências Humanas e da Educação. Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina. Av. Madre Benvenuta, 2007, Campus Itacorubi. CEP 88035-001. Florianópolis-SC, Brazil. E-mail: dalvagodoy@gmail.com

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

as the strongest predictor of success for learning an alphabetic writing system (Castles & Coltheart, 2004; Melby-Lervag, Lyster, & Hulme, 2012; Wimmer, Landerl, Linortner, & Hummer, 1991). The predictive strength in phonological skills for determining reading skills was extensively corroborated through different alphabetic orthographies, both transparent and opaque. It is known that in transparent orthographies, phonological awareness, especially the phonemic level, exerts a strong influence from the beginning of the acquisition process. Such is the case, for instance, of Italian (Cossu, Shankweiler, Liberman, Katz, & Tola, 1988), Spanish (Defior,

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Serrano, & Marín-Cano, 2008), Brazilian Portuguese (Godoy & Pinheiro, 2013), Greek (Rothou, Padeliadu, & Sideridis, 2013), and Germanic orthographies (Wimmer et al., 1991), whereas in more opaque orthographies, such as English, the influence lingers for a longer period (Moll et al., 2014). The contribution of phonological awareness for learning to write has also been observed (Caravolas, 2004; Defior & Serrano, 2011a). In a recent study that indicates contrasts in the varying degrees of orthographic consistency in five European languages (English, French, German, Hungarian, and Finnish), phonological awareness was observed to be the factor that best explains the variance in writing in all of the orthographies (Moll et al., 2014). It has been verified that the lack of phonological awareness, at the phonemic level, is the primary cause of developmental dyslexia in alphabetic orthographies (Defior & Serrano, 2011a; Hulme & Snowling, 2014), whereas phonological awareness, along with the knowledge of grapheme-phoneme correspondence, is considered the most solid pillar for alphabetic teaching (Ehri et al., 2001). Hence, phonological awareness training has been recommended as an important educational and therapeutic resource (Carson, Gillon, & Boustead, 2013). Despite the validity of these results, questions still persist so as to understand when and how the phonological awareness skills exercise their influence on the basic processes of learning written language, and how these skills develop in contact with this learning in different orthographies – that is, in what manner the characteristics of each orthography and phonology of a language influence this development (Caravolas et al., 2012; Caravolas, Lervag, Defior, Málková, & Hulme, 2013; Duncan et al., 2013). Phonological awareness, the ability to reflect on the constituents of speech sounds, is observed by the participant’s conscious and intentional distinction of syllabic, intrasyllabic and phonemic units. This is manifested through the performance of tasks involving the identification and manipulation of parts of a word in terms of rhyming, syllable, and phoneme, which makes it highly complex. This construct, led by metacognitive activity, involves directing attention to, retaining the memory of, and producing answers based on operations of identification of similarity, analysis and/or synthesis, substitution, addition and reversion of sound units. Some of these skills, as is the case of operations with regard to syllables and rhymes, develop in the course of linguistic experience. However, only when one learns an alphabetic writing system can we observe the emergence of phonemic awareness, the highest level of phonological awareness, which, in turn, is an essential skill for learning to read in an alphabetic writing system (Defior & Serrano, 2011b; ScliarCabral, 2002). The assessment of phonological awareness skills is fundamental for planning school activities that aid children (and adults) in learning to read and write. Such assessments further aids in the development of educational programs in that area; for helping the early identification of children who are under a risk of developing difficulties in learning; for guiding the interventions along the rehabilitation process

364

and, lastly, for supporting the expansion of national and international research on the topic. The phonological awareness tasks demands the employment of different cognitive skills (for instance, skills that involve analysis, synthesis or analysis-synthesis). Furthermore, due to its requirement of reflecting on the speech chain, it gathers factors that suggest ease or difficulty, depending on the syllabic structure that composes it. Although phonological awareness is conceived in three different levels – rhyme, syllable and phonemes –, it is known that, depending on the degree of what the task demands, the child may completely fail at the performance of one task while succeeding at another. For example, tasks involving identifying similarities in relation to initial or final phonemes in a set of words, which are known as oddity tasks (Bradley & Bryant, 1983), may be easily accomplished by preschoolers, but they will hardly succeed at performing a task involving the segmentation of a word into phonemes, a metalinguistic task. This is one of the challenges in the assessment of phonological awareness, since it draws a distinction between implicit and explicit skills (Gombert, 2003). In Brazil, according to an investigation of theses and dissertations that used phonological awareness tests between 2000 and 2010, it was observed that many researchers either elaborated their own tests or tasks exclusively conducted for that occasion, or adapted tests by other authors (Godoy, Fortunato, & Paiano, 2014). During this period, two assessment instruments, elaborated by Brazilian researchers, were among the most used. These were Phonological Awareness Test by Oral Production (Prova de Consciência Fonológica por Produção Oral [PCFO], in Portuguese, A. G. S. Capovilla & F. C. Capovilla, 1998, 2000), and Confias (Moojen et al., 2003). Recently, results have been published on the construct validity based on the internal structure of the Phonological Awareness Test by Oral Production (PCFO) concerning observable measures; that is, considering the total or standard composite scores (Dias, Duarte, Macedo, & Seabra, 2012). However, neither one of these instruments present factorial validity results in which the construct is assessed in a structural manner, through factor analysis or latent variable modelling, with the construct here being considered a “synonym of a latent variable and not directly observable” (Urbina, 2014, p. 170). Phonological awareness, a latent trait, is an underlying factor in a set of tasks designated to measure this phenomenon, such as, for instance, segment addition tasks, alliteration, segmentation, etc. In the confirmatory factor analysis, what is assessed is the impact of this latent trait on these items or tasks that were supposedly created to assess it. Phonological awareness, per se, is independent from the items, and the performance in each item is impacted by this latent phenomenon. Thus, a causality route (from cause to effect) that goes from the latent phenomenon (cause) to success or failure in a given task is acknowledged. The confirmatory factor analysis allows testing theories regarding relations between latent factors, which are measures not directly observable, and their manifest indicators (for instance, success or failure in items that constitute a task),

Godoy, D. M. A., & Cogo-Moreira, H. (2015). Factorial Structure of Phonemic Awareness Task.

as one of the three ways of providing evidence concerning construct validity, as indicated by authors (Raykov & Marcoulides, 2011). The relation between manifest indicators (items) and latent factors is particularly relevant when using this analytical technique that, a priori, tests a theory, thus solving a serious problem of infinite solutions emerging from exploratory factor analyses (Raykov & Marcoulides, 2011). An advantage of this kind of analysis is that it allows testing two assumptions by Cronbach’s alpha, whether the model is: (a) congeneric (Green, Lissitz, & Mulaik, 1977) and (b) tau-equivalent (Raykov, 1997, 2001). Frequently, studies that present reliability rates for phonological awareness tests report Cronbach’s alpha; however, formally, these two assumptions have not been tested, which means that such estimates may be underestimated or overestimated (Raykov, 2001). When intending to assess the factors underlying the performance of tasks or items elaborated to measure something that cannot be directly observed, such as the phonological awareness, a complex and multidimensional construct, the confirmatory factor analysis, according to Raykov & Marcoulides (2011), can be used advantageously to solve questions concerning construct validity. This term, construct validity, discussed by the authors (analytically assessed through confirmatory/exploratory analyses) is analogous to the evidence of validity based on the internal structure, in the context of the American Educational Research Association, the American Psychological Association and the National Council on Measurement in Education (2014). This article aims to present the first pieces of evidence resulting from the confirmatory factor analysis of a phonological awareness test on a phonemic level, constituted of three domains: two subtraction tasks and one segmentation task. These results integrate a more extensive research conducted in the scope of Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina, which sought to investigate the contribution of rapid automatized naming, working memory, phonemic-level phonological awareness, and grapheme recognition skills for learning to write words in first to fifth grades of elementary schools. The choice to investigate phonological awareness through phonemic level tasks is only justified, a priori, by the relevance of this skill level for learning the written language. Furthermore, previous studies (Godoy, 2005) have indicated that, upon entering the first year, children deliver good performances in syllabic level tasks and, consequently, for the research in question, this sort of task would be too easy in the following years. According to these results, the phonemic segmentation task is the most important phonemic skill that enables predicting future performances in reading and writing Brazilian Portuguese by the end of the second year (Godoy, Defior, & Pinheiro, 2007). The three phonemic-level sub-tests, object of this analysis, henceforth named TCFe, Phonemic Awareness Tasks (Tarefas de Consciência Fonêmica, in Portuguese), were adapted and/or elaborated by Godoy (2001, 2005). Godoy (2001) adapted the phonological awareness tests from Batterie d’évaluation du langage écrit et de ses troubles (BELEC) developed by Mousty, Leybaert, Alegria, Content, and Morais (1994) to Brazilian Portuguese. This set of tests

is composed of two syllabic level tests (with subtraction and inversion tasks), four phonemic level tests (with subtraction and inversion tasks, with different syllabic structures), and one listening acronyms test (spoonerism). For the present research, only the phonemic subtraction tasks were used, with CVC and CCV syllabic structures. The subtraction task in two different phonological structures is planned with the aim to progressively observe the participants’ performances, because, a priori, it was assumed that the performance of the subtraction of the initial phoneme in the CVC structure would be easier to solve than in the CCV structure. It is important to bear in mind that in Brazilian Portuguese, the vowel is always the obligatory syllable nucleus, as it is also more perceptible, whereas the consonantal group demands better phonological representation of the segments for the accomplishment of the decomposition and subtraction task. As for the phonemic segmentation task, it was adopted from Godoy’s doctorate research (2005), and had been elaborated for the research. The preference for its use has been previously mentioned.

Method Participants The sample comprised 176 students, distributed in the following manner: first grade (n = 31), second grade (n = 40), third grade (n = 26), fourth grade (n = 39) and fifth grade (n = 40). The average age is 9.3 years (SD = 1.54). All the students were enrolled at the same municipal public school. Instruments Phonemic Awareness Tasks (Tarefas de Consciência Fonêmica - TCFe). All the stimuli in all the three tasks applied are pseudowords that generate pseudowords as answers. For each task, students are presented with four training stimuli that encompass all the typical characteristics of the items in the exam. The instruction for performing the task, as well as the training stimuli, was delivered orally by the examiner, and the assessment stimuli were pre-recorded. Segmentation. The task consists of counting and enunciating the segments of the pseudowords presented. It comprises eight items – six monosyllabic words and two disyllabic words, with the following syllabic structure: CV (chó, rá, fi), CVC (gus, bór, fer), and CVCV (rivó, jáfi). Subtraction. The task consists of always mentally subtracting the first phoneme of the presented pseudoword and indicating the remainder. Two tasks are presented: (a) CVC structure – sixteen items (fér, sur, pes, rus, jar, ber, guis, zór, xos, tor, lis, mir, dós, vés, nur, kas); and (b) CCV structure – ten items (prõ, fle, dre, plã, kru, blo, tru, glim, vra, kli). Procedure Data collection. All the stimuli were recorded in the linguistic variation pertaining to the participants’ region. The participants’ answers were recorded and written down on an answer sheet. The application sessions were one-onone, conducted in a room within the school space, and did

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Paidéia, 25(62), 363-372

Ethical Considerations

not exceed 40 minutes. On the occasions in which the child demonstrated signs of tiredness or dispersion, the assessment was interrupted and continued on a different day. More than one assessment session was needed only exceptionally. We sought a playful interaction with the child through a pleasant and enjoyable conversation, but no orthographic clues or support through physical materials were provided for the representation of the stimuli or segments during the performance of the tasks. Data analysis. The three phonemic awareness tasks are understood, a priori, as three domains, due to the different degrees of cognitive demand for the performance of each task. In order to assess the fit of this theoretical, multidimensional model, the confirmatory factor analysis was used through a weighted least squares estimator (weighted least squares with mean and variance, WLSMV); such estimator is a default for the Mplus software when there are categorical indicators. Four fit indexes and their respective cut-points were applied: (a) the c² (chi-square), developed by Jöreskog (1969), in which it is expected that the associated p-value be greater than 0.05; (b) the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), developed by Tucker and Lewis (1973). It compares the lack of fit in a specified model with the lack of fit in the null model (H0). It is recommended that the TLI be greater than .90; (c) the Comparative fit index (CFI), developed by Bentler (1990). It compares the specified model with the null model, which assumes covariances at zero between the variables observed (the items), in which values greater than .95 are indicative of models with good fit; and (d) the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), in which values less than .06 indicate a good fit (Hu & Bentler, 1998). For each domain, total information curves were obtained, which indicate how informative a given domain under assessment is, or how precise certain latent data is, throughout the entire latent spectrum of the same domain. It is expected that a test be very informative throughout the entire latent trait; however, the information from a given latent trait varies over the course of the spectrum.

vra glim

tru

blo

kru

plã

dre

fle

prõ

nur

Figure 1. Multidimensional model for the TCFe.

366

Results Factor analysis, used for confirming the multidimensional structure initially proposed, indicated an inadmissible error, known as empty bivariate cells, in some of the pairs of items. One of the items that constitute that pair had to be removed, namely: one item in the /fi/ phonemic segmentation task, and two items in the CVC phonemic subtraction task (/lis/, /kas/). Such a problem may emerge due to asymmetry in the standard of success/fail answers in each of the tasks (for instance: 95% fail versus 5% success on one given item, 98% versus 2%, and so on). Once due exclusions were made, adequacy rates indicated a well-adjusted model: c²(430) = 469.533, p = .0145; RMSEA = .030; CFI and TLI = .995. It can be noted that the value of c² was less than the cut-point; however, since the model is complex (gl = 430), the p-value associated with this statistical test is being penalised by the referred complexity. In this case, it is worth indicating that it is not just an adequation index that should be considered, but the entire set. The RMSEA index, in this case, already regards the complexity of the model in its formulation. The diagram that represents the conception for the proposed multidimensional model is shown in Figure 1, in which the squares represent the observable variables in the model, also known as manifest variables or items, and the ovals represent the latent factors. The correlation between the latent factors is of the following magnitude and statistical significance: CVC subtraction with segmentation = .830 (p < .001), CVC subtraction with CCV subtraction = .791 (p < .001), and CCV subtraction with segmentation = .743 (p < .001).

Seg

Sub CVC

Sub CCV

kli

This study has been approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (Protocol no. 185/2010) in accordance with the norms and guidelines in Resolution 196/96 by the National Health Council.

vés

dós

mir

tor

xos

zór guis

ber

jar

rus

pes

sur

fér

jáfi

rivó

fer

bór

gus

rá

chó

Godoy, D. M. A., & Cogo-Moreira, H. (2015). Factorial Structure of Phonemic Awareness Task.

As can be seen in Figure 2, the curve information analysis indicates that the most informative domain is the CVC phonemic subtraction (greatest peak of information), followed by the CCV subtraction and, lastly, by the

segmentation domain. The information peaks are observed around zero, indicating that the tasks are more appropriate for participants with moderate skills.

Domains Segmentation Sub CVC Sub CCV

200

Information

150

100

0 -3

-2

-1

Latent trait (theta) Figure 2. Information curves for each of the three domains assessed through TCFe.

Table 1 presents the standardised factor loadings (位) for the three latent factors. The closer to + or -1, the more a given item is correlated to a given factor; on the other hand, the lesser the factor loading (closer to zero) is, the lesser the correlation of the item with the factor. All of the items presented high factor loadings, with an average of 位 = .8822 (the lowest being the CCV subtraction domain item, [pr玫], at 位 = .714). Table 2 presents the threshold for each one of the items assessed, indicating the amount of latent traits that a given participant should possess in order to deliver a correct answer; in other words, it is the amount of skill in a given factor that the participant should have in order to succeed in an item, instead of failing it. It can be noticed that, generally, the necessary threshold for children to succeed in an item is approximately zero, and that represents the average of the trait assessed.

Discussion The phonemic awareness skills have been shown by international research as being essential for learning

an alphabetical system. Its importance has driven the development of programs for the stimulation of these skills in the scope of education, seeking to help and ease the acquisition of reading and writing. Similarly, the stimulation of phonemic awareness appears to be an indispensable instrument for rehabilitation in cases of dyslexia. The assessment of these skills is thus necessary to provide parameters not only for educational activity but also for therapeutic activity and for developing research in Brazil. It has been verified that, till now, there has been no evidence of factorial validity for phonemic awareness testing in national Brazilian territory, and this is the motivating rationale behind this study. In this context of confirmatory factor analysis, this study provided validity rates based on the internal structure of a model constituted of three dimensions in phonemic-level phonological awareness, namely: one phonemic subtraction task with the CVC structure, one phonemic subtraction task with the CCV structure and one segmentation task.

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Paidéia, 25(62), 363-372 Table 1 Standardised Factorial Loadings and Standard Error (SE) for Each Item in Each Domain Domains

Item

Factorial Loadings

Segmentation

CHO

.914

.041

.974

.036

GUS

.793

.047

BOR

.740

.056

FER

.876

.037

RIVO

.814

.043

JAFI

.846

.043

FER

.958

.032

SUR

.852

.045

PES

.924

.033

RUS

.841

.044

JAR

.909

.034

BER

.946

.027

GUIS

.928

.032

ZOR

.904

.038

XOS

.939

.028

TOR

.969

.025

MIR

.984

.021

DOS

.977

.019

VES

.993

.016

NUR

.871

.037

PRÕ

.714

.065

FLE

.745

.065

DRE

.932

.030

PLÃ

.647

.073

KRU

.963

.027

BLO

.897

.040

TRU

.914

.032

GLIM

.691

.062

VRA

.983

.028

KLI

.912

.039

CVC Subtraction

CCV Subtraction

368

Godoy, D. M. A., & Cogo-Moreira, H. (2015). Factorial Structure of Phonemic Awareness Task. Table 2 Threshold and Standard Error (SE) for Each Item Item

Threshold

CHO

-.253

.096

-.484

.099

GUS

.343

.097

BOR

.239

.096

FER

.036

.095

RIVO

.313

.096

JAFI

.283

.096

FER

-.862

.109

SUR

-.583

.101

PES

-.725

.104

RUS

-.468

.099

JAR

-.652

.102

BER

-.688

.103

GUIS

-.706

.104

ZOR

-.688

.103

XOS

-.670

.103

TOR

-.782

.106

MIR

-.801

.107

DOS

-.782

.106

VES

-.744

.105

NUR

-.358

.097

PRÕ

.420

.100

FLE

-.371

.100

DRE

-.291

.099

PLÃ

-.030

.097

KRU

-.436

.101

BLO

-.574

.103

TRU

-.371

.100

GLIM

-.045

.097

VRA

-.591

.104

KLI

-.556

.103

369

Paidéia, 25(62), 363-372

Considering the four adjustment indexes obtained through the factor analysis for the model, it is granted that the TCFe composes a multidimensional construct wherein the tasks are highly correlated to each other. Although good adjustment has been found for the multidimensional model, the indicators per se do not enable future research or therapies, for using the three found domains as subscales. Testing if the child’s domain over segmentation is greater compared to phonemic subtraction is also not recommended, since we do not have evidence of the viability of using these domains as subscales. Multidimensionality does not guarantee that the subscales may provide significant and reliable information on subdomains that are unique and specific, from a general construct, for phonemic awareness (Reise, Bonifay, & Haviland, 2013). For the assessment of the viability of the subscales, general-specific models, also known as bifactorial models, and indexes such as the hierarchical omega will be required (Reise, Moore, & Haviland, 2010). The TCFe tasks have different information functions in terms of precision. Precision informs the accuracy, or adequacy, with which the subdomains (task items) represent what they intend to represent or measure, that is, the latent trait under assessment (Pasquali, 2007). Hence, precision indicates to which levels of latent traits the set of items provides adequate information. It is observed that the TCFe’s most informative domain is represented by CVC subtraction, and the least informative is the segmentation. The information peak for CVC subtraction shifts to the left, pointing to inferior skill levels that are required, compared to the other two domains. It should be pointed out that the information curve, as suggested by Pasquali (2007), shares an interface with both test parameters – validity and precision. Concerning the factorial loadings obtained for the TCFe items, the high values indicate low residual variance (error), while high correlation between latent factors and items have been observed. According to Pasquali, such parameters indicate high determination coefficient values, thus granting validity to the item and indicating whether it is a “good behavioural representation of a latent trait” (p. 141). With regard to the difficulty level (here, assessed by the thresholds – Table 2), in a general manner, the items in all three tasks are of medium difficulty (fluctuating between +1 and -1), and the assumption that the phonemic subtraction task with the CVC structure would be easier than with the CCV structure has not been confirmed. In other words, for the participant to deliver a correct answer during the tasks, they would need a medium amount of latent traits. This is the premier study to provide evidence on factorial structure validity and precision of information for phonemic awareness tasks, which can be considered an advance in relation to the “actual tower of Babel” (Scliar-Cabral, 2002, p. 149) in which the elaboration of several assessment instruments for these skills are found (Godoy et al., 2014). The analysed tasks have indicated the amplitude of latent factors to which they provide adequate information to measure phonemic-level phonological skills; more specifically, a greater precision in information can be observed among children with medium-level skills, since, as

370

observed, the peak of the total information curve is centred around children with medium latent traits (around zero). Such distribution is expected, since, in a general manner, a skill test with a high precision of information throughout the entire latent trait spectrum cannot be obtained. For future research that involves other properties of this model, it will be necessary and imperative to investigate, for instance, the invariance of the model among different population groups: one could ask if the proposed model remains stable with the children’s schooling. Besides the invariance, convergent and divergent validity measures should add more information regarding this instrument’s validation process.

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Dalva Maria Alves Godoy is Full Professor of the Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina. Hugo Cogo-Moreira is a postdoctoral researcher at the Universidade Federal de São Paulo. Received: Nov. 26, 2014 1st Revision: Mar. 9, 2015 2nd Revision: Apr. 16, 2015 Approved: Apr. 26, 2015

How to cite this article: Godoy, D. M. A., & Cogo-Moreira, H. (2015). Evidences of factorial structure and precision of phonemic awareness tasks (TCFe). Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 25(62), 363-372. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201510

Paidéia sep-dec. 2015, Vol. 25, No. 62, 373-381. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201511

Article

Interpersonal Interactions in the Marital Pair and Mental Health: A Comparative and Correlational Study1 Gleiber Couto2 Universidade Federal de Goiás, Catalão-GO, Brazil

Luc Vandenberghe Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás, Goiânia-GO, Brazil Wanessa Marques Tavares Universidade Federal de Goiás, Catalão-GO, Brazil

Abstract: Interpersonal interactions as social processes reflect and influence individuals’ mental health. The aim of the study was to verify how marital interactions relate to mental health, and to investigate evidence for the validity of the Checklist for Interpersonal Transactions II (CLOIT-II). Participants were 169 couples from the southeast of the Brazilian state of Goiás, aged between 18 and 55 years (M = 21; SD = 5.48). They responded to a General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) and the CLOIT-II. Participants with low mental health problem scores in the GHQ (asymptomatic participants) tended to occupy interpersonal positions in the range between Deference/Trust and Affective warmth/Friendliness. In the group with high scores (symptomatic participants), interactions were defined by Coldness/Hostility. Mental health problems were positively correlated with mistrust, coldness and hostility and negatively correlated with positions of Affiliation. These results, in addition to supporting the validity of the CLOIT-II, indicate that the study of interpersonal relationships is relevant for the understanding of mental health. Keywords: test validity, mental health, interpersonal relationships, marital relationships

Interações Interpessoais no Par Conjugal e Saúde Mental: Um Estudo Comparativo e Correlacional Resumo: Interações interpessoais são a base dos processos sociais. Refletem e influenciam o estado de saúde mental dos indivíduos. O objetivo do estudo foi verificar como interações conjugais se relacionam com saúde mental e investigar evidências de validade para o Checklist de Relações Interpessoais-II (CLOIT-II). Participaram 169 casais do sudeste goiano com idades entre 18 e 55 anos (M = 21; DP = 5,48), respondendo ao Questionário de Saúde Geral (QSG) e ao CLOIT-II. Os participantes com baixos escores para problemas de saúde mental no QSG (participantes assintomáticos) apresentaram mais posições interpessoais entre Deferência/Confiança e Calor afetivo/Amigabilidade. No grupo com altos escores (participantes sintomáticos), as interações foram definidas por Frieza afetiva/Hostilidade. Problemas de saúde mental apresentaram correlações positivas com desconfiança, frieza e hostilidade e correlações negativas principalmente com posições Afiliativas. Estes resultados, além de apoiar a validade do CLOITII, mostram a relevância do estudo de relações interpessoais para a compreensão da saúde mental. Palavras-chave: validade do teste, saúde mental, relações interpessoais, relações conjugais

Interacciones Interpersonales en la Pareja Conyugal y Salud Mental: Un Estudio Comparativo y Correlacional Resumen: Interacciones interpersonales son la base de procesos sociales. Reflejan e influyen en el estado de salud mental de los individuos. El objetivo del estudio fue verificar las interacciones maritales y su relación con salud mental e investigar evidencia de la validez para el Checklist de Relaciones Interpersonales-II (CLOIT-II). Participaron 169 parejas del sudeste del estado de Goiás, Brasil, con edades entre 18 y 55 años (M = 21; DE = 5,48), que respondieron al Cuestionario de Salud General (CSG) y al CLOIT-II. Los participantes con puntuaciones bajas para los problemas de salud mental en el CSG mostraron más posiciones interpersonales entre Deferencia/Confianza y Calor afectivo/Amabilidad. En el grupo con puntuaciones altas (participantes sintomáticos), las interacciones fueron definidos por Frialdad afectiva/Hostilidad. Problemas de salud mental mostraron correlaciones positivas con desconfianza, frialdad y hostilidad y correlaciones negativas principalmente con posiciones de afiliación. Estos resultados, además de apoyar la validez del CLOIT-II, muestran la relevancia del estudio de las relaciones interpersonales para comprender la salud mental. Palabras clave: validación de test, salud mental, relaciones interpersonales, relaciones conyugales

Support: Fundação de Apoio à Pesquisa do Estado de Goiás (FAPEG Edital no. 006/2009, Protocol no. 200910267000410).

Correspondence address: Gleiber Couto. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Gestão Organizacional da Universidade Federal de Goiás - Regional Catalão. Av. Dr. Lamartine Pinto de Avelar, 1120, Setor Universitário. CEP 75704-900. Catalão-GO, Brazil. E-mail: gleibercouto@yahoo.com.br

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

The couple’s relationship is perhaps the most typical example of a connection between two individuals. In the past, marriage was strongly related to the idea of procreation, however, soon began to incorporate religious values that continue to influence contemporary marital experiences. At present, couples experience the challenge of maintaining

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traditional values, in a social context that values individuality and professional development (Scorsolini-Comin & Santos, 2010). Following the expansion of democracy and the feminist movement, the questioning of conjugal life culminated, in the second half of the twentieth century, in a crisis, perceived as a decrease in marriages, increasing divorce rates and the appearance of new family forms. New interpersonal relationship patterns are considered necessary to maintain a healthy marriage (Féres-Carneiro & Diniz Neto, 2010). The quality of the marital relationship is associated with the health and psychological and social well-being of the individuals (Sardinha, Falcone, & Ferreira, 2009). According to Kilmann and Vendemia (2013), husbands that feel discomfort with proximity are more aggressive and less cooperative and responsible, with more secure couples being happier than insecure couples. Abandonment anxiety can make husbands less aggressive and controlling and wives more dependent and self-critical, and less competitive. Unsatisfactory marital relationships are also associated with increased risk for diagnosis of psychopathology, car accidents, physical illness, suicide and violence, among others (Dessen & Braz, 2000). Silva (2008) found that problems of adjustment to married life indicate greater health vulnerability, symptoms linked to depression, anxiety and stress. Fink and Shapiro (2013), Whisman (1999) and Whitton and Whisman (2010) also found a relationship between marital dissatisfaction and both depression and anxiety. Furthermore, marital problems have been strongly linked to differences in personality and interpersonal characteristics (Kilmann & Vendemia, 2013). Based on the assumption that marital relationships can be comprehended from interactions between the members of the dyad, it is possible that models constructed to map interpersonal patterns can be applied to this issue. The model proposed by Kiesler (1983) is useful for this purpose. The Interpersonal Circle developed by this author is a comprehensive taxonomy of interpersonal behavior. It consists of 16 interpersonal positions that, together, should represent all possibilities to combine the two fundamental dimensions of interpersonal relationships according to Sullivan’s theory (1953): (a) Power: the Submission-Dominance dichotomy, and (b) Affiliation: the Friendliness-Hostility dichotomy. Each sector groups attitudes that are characterized by a certain quality (e.g.: cold, controlling, friendly, etc.). Each position is defined by a certain degree of power with a certain degree of affiliation. And every position groups a “prototypical” class of acts, which means that there is a defining quality that is decisive for the inclusion or exclusion of a certain behavior. For an act to be part of a class, it needs to have similarity with typical examples of this class, characterizing a set of interpersonal arrangements or attitudes. The work of Kiesler (1983) was influenced by his participation in the historical study of the Kaiser Foundation on effects of psychotherapy, led by LaForge, which he attended as an undergraduate student. It was one of the first major projects intended to clarify how psychotherapy could profoundly transform the patient’s personality, and produced, as a byproduct, the Interaction circle, later popularized by

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the work of Leary (1957). The Interaction circle defines the personality as the totality of the consistent patterns of the transactions that a person has with others. These transactions are the attitudes and their interpersonal consequences. According to Sullivan (1953), individuals turn more frequently to interpersonal strategies that resolved their needs in salient relationships in the past. Thus, these attitudes and their consequences give form and content to their personality. Mental health is characterized by different sets of strategies used in a relatively flexible and moderate way. Psychopathology is characterized by the rigidity and intensity of the interpersonal strategies. Rigidity: the more pathological the personality, the less variety of interpersonal positions the individual uses. Intensity: psychopathology is characterized by extreme and exaggerated forms of some interpersonal patterns (Sullivan, 1953). After some decades of research, the circumplex model has shown satisfactory predictive capacity in the assessment of interpersonal characteristics. For example, Slaney, Pincus, Uliaszek and Wang (2006) found high interpersonal profile elevation in individuals with maladaptive perfectionism. Salzer et al. (2008) found interpersonal rigidity in patients with generalized anxiety. Later, Couto, Vandenberghe, and Brito (2012) related hostility with interpersonal stress. Furthermore, Couto, Vandenberghe, Tavares, and Silva (2012) found relationships between interpersonal traits and social skills, while Cain et al. (2012) showed that these traits can influence the course of depression and delay its remission. Grosse Holtforth et al. (2014) found an association between interpersonal problems, depressive symptoms and the quality of the therapeutic alliance in psychotherapy. Interpersonal traits also predict the effect of treatment in patients with obesity problems (Lo Coco, Gullo, Scrima, & Bruno, 2012). In patients with borderline personality disorder, interpersonal patterns predict interpersonal stress, severity of symptoms and the quality of the therapeutic alliance (Salzer et al., 2013). Clinically relevant differences in antisocial behavior, self-mutilation and suicide attempts were also found to be related to interpersonal profiles (Wright et al., 2013). Thus, the identification of the typical interpersonal positions can contribute to the choice of the best way to approach patients and, consequently, provide greater chances of success in the treatment. Few data are available regarding how this relates to the marital relationship. Although Kilmann (2012) found that marital stress is associated with a pattern of interaction based on interpersonal characteristics of apathy, hostility and dominance, the triangle between the interpersonal pattern, the quality of the couple’s interactions and the mental health needs to be studied in more detail. The aim of this study was to determine how marital interactions are related to mental health and to investigate evidence for the validity of the Checklist for Interpersonal Transactions-II (CLOIT-II). In particular, it was contemplated that correlations between measures of mental health and interpersonal positions assessed by the Brazilian version of the Checklist for Interpersonal Transactions-II (Couto, Vandenberghe, & Van Hattum, 2011) would reveal a source of evidence for the validity of the Checklist.

Couto, G., Vandenberghe, L., & Tavares, W. M. (2015). Couple’s Interactions and Mental Health.

Method Participants This study included 169 heterosexual couples, with 114 married couples and 55 couples in stable relationships, who participated in a project on interpersonal interactions in loving relationships, aged between 18 and 76 years (M = 34 and SD = 12.31). At the time of application, 50% (n = 169) had Complete High School Education, 29.6% (n = 100) Further Education Course, 13.3% (n = 45) Incomplete High School Education and 5.6% (n = 19) Incomplete Elementary Education II. At the time of the data collection no subject had received psychiatric or psychological treatment, nor been recommended such interventions. Instruments Goldberg General Health Questionnaire (GHQ). This instrument was developed to assess an individual’s mental health. The assessment is made based on the estimate that the respondent gives regarding the frequency with which they present observable behavioral indicators that characterize their general state of mental health. It consists of 60 items presented with a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from rather less than usual (0 points) to much more than usual (3 points) when the item expresses a symptom, with the score being reversed when the item expresses normal behavior. The items are arranged in one general factor (α = .93) representing the intensity of mental health problems, and five specific factors, these being: Psychic Stress (α = .89); Death Wish (α = .89); Lack of Confidence in the Performance Capacity (self-efficacy) (α = .89); Sleep Disorders (α = .80) and Psychosomatic Disorders (α = .83) (Pasquali, Gouveia, Andriola, Miranda, & Ramos, 1996). Checklist for Interpersonal Transactions-II (CLOITII). This inventory was constructed to map the interpersonal behavior of targeted people. The Self-classification form should be completed by the target person and contains 96 items that describe actions that may occur in interactions between people. In the form for couples, all the proposals are initiated with “During activities with my spouse...”, which is at the top of each page. Participants are asked to mark the items which match their most frequent behaviors when interacting with their spouse. The proposals are divided into 16 two-dimensional segments labeled by the letters A through P and distributed around the circle in a counterclockwise direction. The scales and alpha values indicated in the Brazilian manual are: Dominant (A, α = .72), Competitive (B, α = .70), Mistrusting (C, α = .74), Cold (D, α = .67), Hostile (E, α = .62), Detached (F, α = .71), Inhibited (G, α = .72), Unassured (H, α = .68), Submissive (I, α = .70), Deferent (J, α = .66) , Trusting (K, α = .64), Warm (L, α = .69), Friendly (M, α = .69), Sociable (N, α = .68), Exhibitionistic (O, α = .74), Assured (P, α = .69). Each sector contains six proposals that describe relationships in two levels of intensity (moderate and high). The raw score ranges from zero to nine and is obtained by adding one or two points,

depending on the proposal selected. The 16 segments can be combined to describe more complex patterns of behavior. For example, by adding pairs of segments the following Octants are formed: PA (α = .80), BC (α = .77), DE (α = .73), FG (α = .79), HI (α = .76), JK (α = .73), LM (α = .79), NO (α = .76). Adding the scales that make up each quarter of the circle gives the Quadrants: Hostile-Dominant (Qdt-HD, α = .88); Hostile-Submissive (Qdt-HS, α = .84); FriendlySubmissive (Qdt-FS, α = .84); Friendly-Dominant (Qdt-FD, α = .83). Furthermore, separate scores are calculated for the four Hemispheres of the circle: Dominant (Hmp-DOM, α = .89); Submissive (Hmp-SUB, α = .84); Friendly (Hmp-FRI, α = .87); Hostile (Hmp-HOS, α = .88). In addition to these, scores are provided that represent the general vector of the target person in each axis of the circle, vertical Control axis (AXS-Control, α = .89) and horizontal Affiliation axis (AXSAffiliation, α = .87), using the trigonometric weight of the scores of a determined protocol (Couto et al., 2011). Procedure Data collection. The collection occurred individually with couples and in small groups in the Psychology office of the community support sector on the university campus, with duration of approximately one hour and thirty minutes. The contacts were made among the participants of the extension project “Clinical Psychology and Marriage Planning”, which aimed to provide care focused on marital relationships, from the network of relationships of the participants of the research group, and also in a meeting of couples promoted by religious communities of southeastern Goiás. Following the first contact, the participants were asked to indicate other couples that might care to participate, according to the procedure known as the snowballing. Those invited that agreed to participate responded to the GHQ and then the selfclassification form of the CLOIT-II. Data analysis. At the end of the application, the descriptive statistics of the responses of the subjects to the GHQ were estimated, followed by those of the CLOIT-II. To achieve the study aims, the total scores of the subjects in the GHQ were used to separate them into two groups. The first, the asymptomatic group, was composed of subjects that presented overall scores of two standard deviations below the sample mean or less. The second, the symptomatic group, was composed of subjects that presented overall scores of at least two standard deviations above the sample mean. Next, the interpersonal positions between the two groups were compared using the one-way ANOVA statistical technique and evaluated for statistically significant differences. The circular statistics and the parameters that compose the structural summary [adjustment index (); displacement (); elevation (e) and amplitude (a)] were also calculated for the circumplex data (Wright, Pincus, Conroy, & Hilsenroth, 2009). Finally, a study was conducted regarding the relationship between the two measures estimating the Pearson correlation coefficients (r) between the subscales of the GHQ and the interpersonal relationship profile of the CLOIT-II. Disattenuated correlations were calculated and then the correction for attenuation was

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applied, using the formula (Osborne, 2003), where is the corrected correlation, is the disattenuated correlation between the two variables, is the reliability of the first measure and is the reliability of the second measure. For the application of the correction for attenuation, from the data of this sample, the reliability coefficients for internal consistency were estimated. The alpha of the CLOIT-II was calculated based on the matrix of tetrachoric correlations, using the R statistical software, version 3. 1. 1, more appropriate for scales composed of dichotomous choice items, and Cronbach’s alpha, suitable for polytomic response scales (Brown, 2002) for the GHQ. Ethical Considerations This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Universidade Federal de Goiás (Protocol no. 065/2010).

Results and Discussion The participants presented means and percentiles [post percentile (pp)] below the indicator for mental health problems. The general pattern of mental health of the sample was (Female: M = 1.81; SD = 0.38; pp < 55) vs. (Male: M = 1.63; SD = 0.25; pp > 45). The results showed no significant differences in relation to gender. However, the men reported fewer symptoms in all the dimensions when compared to the women. The next step was to estimate the more frequent interpersonal relationship characteristics in both groups and compare them. The results of this comparison are presented in Figure 1. It can be noted that, the subjects of the symptomatic group used more characteristics associated with the Dominant Hemisphere to describe their interpersonal interactions, while the subjects of the asymptomatic group used the characteristics of the Friendly Hemisphere more intensively. A (90º) B (112,5º)

P (67,5º)

C (135º)

O (45º)

D (157,5º)

N (22,5º)

E (180º)

M (0º)

F (202,5º)

L (337,5º)

G (225º)

K (315º) H (247,5º)

J (292,5º) I (270º)

Symptomatic

Asymptomatic

Figure 1. Comparison of interpersonal positions between the groups. A = Dominant, B = Competitive, C = Mistrusting, D = Cold, E = Hostilite, F = Detached, G = Inhibited, H = Unassured, I = Submissive, J = Deferent, K = Trusting, L = Warm, M = Friendly, N = Sociable, O = Exhibitionistic, P = Assured.

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When comparing the interpersonal profiles of the two groups, as seen in Figure 1, the asymptomatic group showed higher means in the scales of the Friendly-Submissive Quadrant, with significant differences in the Friendly [F(1, 30) = 2.04; p < .05] and Warm [F(1, 30) = 2.18; p < .04] scales. These results indicate that people who do not present mental health problems generally tend to assume warmer and friendlier interpersonal positions with their partners, characterized by a degree of passivity, compared with people who present more complaints related to their mental health. They feel comfortable in the company of their partners, express their positive affection openly, demonstrate involvement and willingness to help, are not reluctant to place their partners ahead of themselves and are not bothered by doing things their way. Conversely, the symptomatic group presented higher means in the scales of the Hostile Hemisphere, specifically in the Hostile-Dominant quadrant, with a marginal difference found for Competitive [F(1, 31) = -1.94; p < .06], while for the Mistrusting [F(1, 31) = -2.41; p < .02], Cold [F(1, 31) = -3.61; p < .01] and Hostile [F(1, 31) = -3.69; p < .01] scales the differences were significant. These results, especially in relation to hostility, are consistent with those found by Kilmann (2012), and also reinforce the interpretation that mental health characterizes people who more frequently assume interpersonal positions with their partners based on trust, who demonstrate interest in contact and readiness to help, display fewer disputes for attention or centralization of affection, calmly talk about their lives, do not feel cornered or pressured into rules of conduct and are less pessimistic than people who’s mental health is disturbed or compromised. These results are similar to those found by Silva (2008). Table 1 presents the means and the results of the oneway ANOVA, comparing the groups in the derived scales. As can be verified, when the Axis, Hemispheres and Quadrants are examined, the general pattern of the responses shows that the participants of the asymptomatic group avoid positions in which they have to exercise control over their partners, or in which the exercise of their influence is necessary, manipulative and combative attitudes, most frequently assuming complacent positions, considering their partners’ perspectives, when compared to the participants of the symptomatic group. The two groups differed in characteristics related to hostility, which is distinguished by interpersonal positions that make contact with other people exhausting and costly, even when considering passive hostility, more linked to attitudes of isolation, insecurity and inadequacy of beliefs, confirming the results of Couto, Vandenberghe, Tavares et al. (2012) and associated with social inability. When considering active hostility, linked to attitudes of competition, distrust and disregard in contact with other people, this is even more intense. Such hostility characteristics, both active and passive, according to the results of Couto, Vandenberghe and Brito (2012), are related to stress. Similarly, according to Whisman (1999), anxiety and depression characteristics are also linked to marital dissatisfaction. Therefore, it can be speculated that the characteristics present in this group refer to the relationship

Couto, G., Vandenberghe, L., & Tavares, W. M. (2015). Couple’s Interactions and Mental Health. Table 1 Means (Standard Deviations) and ANOVA Between the Groups in the Derivative Scales Symptomatic

Asymptomatic

Control-Axis

2.31 (10.59)

-4.82 (5.99)

-2.27

.03*

Affiliation-Axis

4.84 (12.24)

17.29 (8.26)

3.26

.00*

Hmp-DOM

20.14 (7.41)

13.72 (7.47)

-2.36

.03*

Hmp-FRI

22.78 (7.73)

26.26 (10.13)

1.06

.30

Hmp-SUB

17.83 (5.36)

18.54 (7.74)

0.29

.77

Hmp-HOS

17.94 (8.25)

8.97 (5.88)

-3.43

.00*

Qdt-FD

18.56 (5.20)

17.40 (7.69)

-0.48

.63

Qdt-FS

17.21 (6.72)

22.28 (7.69)

1.92

.06

Qdt-HS

12.92 (6.09)

8.92 (5.55)

-1.88

.07

Qdt-HD 16.80 (7.71) 7.97 (6.19) -3.46 .00* Note. Hmp-DOM = Dominant hemisphere; Hmp-FRI = friendly hemisphere; Hmp-SUB = submissive hemisphere; Hmf-HOS = hostilite hemisphere; Qdt-FD = friendly-dominant quadrant; Qdt-FS = friendly-submissive quadrant; Qdt-HS = hostile-submissive quadrant; Qdt-HD = hostile-dominant quadrant. *p < .05.

problems with their partners. Furthermore, the two groups differed in passive “friendliness”, distinguished by positions linked to displays of affection and willingness to help in interpersonal contact, which are also associated with a broader social skills repertoire, according to Couto, Vandenberghe, Tavares and Silva (2012). These results suggest a two-way route relating the impairment of mental health to difficulties in healthy interaction. The greater the impairment of mental health, the more frequent the appearance of rigid interpersonal positions, or vice versa. When observing the differences of the two groups in the various characteristics of interpersonal positions, it can be asked, what would be the typical actions of the subjects in each group? The most accurate way to provide an answer to this question, according to Wright et al. (2009), is to use the method of structural summery for circumplex data. Therefore, the structural summary parameters were calculated, checking the position of each subject within the circle to formulate an estimate of the interpersonal position assumed by the group from the individual estimates of these relationships. Also, in order to refine this interpretation and verify possible overlaps between interpersonal positions of the individuals in the groups, the circular statistics and other parameters of the structural summary were calculated, which are presented in Table 2. The results showed that, when analyzing the value of R2, the two groups presented “interpersonal prototypicality”, especially evident for the symptomatic group. Such prototypicality, according to Wright et al. (2009), refers to the fact that the group can be described as conforming to a specific interpersonal theme and is reinforced by the amplitude coefficient, since the two measures presented correlations close to .70. In the case of the results observed by the angular displacement, it should be noted that for the asymptomatic group the peak of the curve can be located in the border position between Deferent-Trusting [JK] and Warm-Friendly [LM], while for the symptomatic group the peak was in the Cold-Hostile [DE] scale. The last two

Table 2 Comparison of Interpersonal Positions Between the Groups Asymptomatic

Symptomatic

Structural Summary R2

0.76

0.87

329.73º

167.48º

Elevation

-0.9

0.23

Amplitude

0.30

0.66

316.98º

183.47º

Variance

66.04º

60.53º

95% CI

283.55º - 350.40º

152.85º - 214.11º

Displacement

Circular Statistics

scales represent diametrically opposed points on the circle, allowing the interpretation that the better the mental health of the subjects, the more displays of affection and friendship are expressed in relationships with their partners, with the opposite also being true. The symptomatic group was found to be more strongly characterized by the use of interpersonal positions of coldness and hostility. When the elevation is analyzed, the values show the presence of more interpersonal stress in this group. Furthermore, the circular statistics show that there is no overlap of subjects in the two groups. The mean of the angular positions places the symptomatic group in the position of coldness and hostility, as seen in other indicators, and the confidence intervals show that there are subjects in this group that can be characterized as assuming positions from distrust and competition up to isolation and inhibition (data of Table 2 in Figure 1). On the contrary, the asymptomatic group is characterized by interpersonal positions between trusting and warm, which are balanced in JK. When the confidence intervals are observed, it can be said that a variety of interpersonal positions exist in the asymptomatic group

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Paidéia, 25(62), 373-381

extending over the entire Friendly-Submissive quadrant. Thus, although there is prototypicality in both groups and they can be described based on interpersonal themes that are specific and distinct from each other, it can be considered that there is greater interpersonal diversity in the asymptomatic group than in the symptomatic group. This finding extends the theoretical propositions about psychopathology suggested by the model by Leary (1957) and previously by Sullivan (1953) to the realm of marital problems. The next step was to calculate the Pearson correlation coefficients for the types of mental health problems and interpersonal marital positions. This was followed by the values of internal consistency for the precision indices being estimated for the general score and for each subscale of the two tests. Finally, the correlation value was calculated after applying the attenuation correction. The results for the main and derived scales are presented in Table 3, with the reliability index value in parentheses next to the name of each variable or scale. In the columns the disattenuated correlation coefficients are presented in parentheses, with the correlation indexes after attenuation correction shown outside the parentheses. Significant correlations, after correction ranged between r = -.38 and r = .45 for the derived scales and between r = -.23, r = .41 for the main scales (Table 3). When the derived scales were examined, it was found that significant and positive correlations of moderate intensity were more frequent with the scales of the Hostile Hemisphere, specifically of the HostileDominant Quadrant, while significant and negative correlations were more frequent among the scales of the FriendlySubmissive Quadrant. Significant negative correlations were more prominent with the Affiliation Axis, demonstrating that the more interpersonal positions based on friendly contact with the partner, the better the mental health (Table 3). This result suggests that the more frequent hostile interpersonal positions (more specifically, hostile and domineering), the lower the overall mental health (especially tension experiences, irritation, overload and hopelessness about the future, but also lack of confidence in one’s capacity, insomnia and complaints of weakness, pains and chills). On the one hand, the more dominance characteristics outweigh submission characteristics (especially hostile dominance), the worse the symptoms of stress and the lower the allocation of value to the individual’s own life. On the other hand, the more friendly characteristics outweigh hostile characteristics, the fewer complaints of stress and psychosomatic problems, the better the outlook on life and greater the belief in the individual’s own ability. In general the coefficients tended to be highest among interpersonal positions which characterize certain interaction difficulties. For example, the Mistrusting, Cold and Hostile scales presented moderate positive correlation with the General Mental Health problems indicator and especially with the Psychic Stress scale, the relationship with the other mental health problem indicators was present, however less intense (Table 3). The Detached, Inhibited and Unassured scales significantly correlated with General Mental Health and with almost all the specific indicators. In particular, a

378

moderate correlation was observed between the Detached scale and the Psychic Stress and Death Wish indicators, and between the Inhibited scale and Psychosomatic Disorders. Thus, in a two-way direction, people who feel useless or experience life as a constant, exhausting and miserable struggle, tend to present evasive interpersonal positions, expect negative intentions from the partners, are insensitive, hostile and rigid, or, on the contrary, the negative interpersonal positions lead to an unhappy life experience. These results are consistent with those found by Couto, Vandenberghe, and Brito (2012), which showed the relationship between interpersonal positions of this type and stress, and are also similar to the results of Couto, Vandenberghe, Tavares et al. (2012), which showed a relationship between these positions and low social skills. Conversely, the Deferent and Trusting scales showed significant negative correlations with Psychic Stress and Death Wish, respectively, while the Warm scale showed significant negative correlations with all the indicators of problems, except for Sleep Disorders; and the Friendly scale showed significant negative correlations with General Mental Health, Psychic Stress and Death Wish. This result reinforces the interpretation proposed, showing that interpersonal positions based on consideration for the partner, trust, warmth, demonstrations of affection and understanding are more common in people who complain less and have a more positive perspective regarding life. In an attempt to explain this result, it was noted that, firstly, socially appropriate interactions necessarily require a certain degree of willingness for interpersonal contact. Secondly, a broader set of mental health problems, in addition to all the subjective discomfort caused for the individual, also impact directly on the ability of these people to develop more positive interaction patterns. Therefore, feelings of overload, tension and irritability, beliefs of inability to solve problems, psychosomatic complaints and also a pessimistic perspective regarding the future, give the subject a more intense and less qualified level of interpersonal activity. This was seen in the difference in the value of the elevation coefficient and the intensity of the scores of the scales of the dominant hemisphere, especially the hostile dominant quadrant, when compared to the group of subjects experiencing few or none of these problems. On the contrary, people that present a more positive life experience, without the experience of discomfort and subjective suffering, show less internal pressure for interpersonal contact and present lower intensity of activity and better skills in the interactions, more frequently adopting interpersonal positions based on warm, friendly and confident contact with their partners. The aim of this study was to determine how marital interactions are related to mental health and to investigate evidence for the validity of the Checklist for Interpersonal Transactions-II (CLOIT-II). When analyzing the results, it was observed that the interpersonal positions of the participants assumed with their respective partners vary according to their mental health profile, demonstrating that healthier people present more suitable interaction patterns. For example, in the asymptomatic group a greater presence

Couto, G., Vandenberghe, L., & Tavares, W. M. (2015). Couple’s Interactions and Mental Health. Table 3 Reliability and Attenuated Correlations (Disattenuated) Between Interpersonal Interactions and General Health

General Mental Health (α =.93)

Stress (α =.87)

Death wish (α =.87)

Self-efficacy (α =.85)

Sleep disorders (α =.79)

Psychosomatic disorders (α =.78)

A (α = .76)

.20 (.17)**

.26 (.21)**

.10

.11

.10

.12

B (α = .71)

.22 (.18)

.30 (.24)

.20 (.16)

.18 (.14)

C (α = .77)

.38 (.32)

.41 (.33)

.38 (.31)

D (α = .65)

.35 (.27)**

.36 (.27)**

E (α = .74)

.38 (.31)**

F (α = .72)

.05

.11

.29 (.23)

.23 (.18)

.26 (.20)**

.31 (.23)**

.24 (.18)**

.28 (.20)**

.34 (.24)**

.40 (.32)**

.34 (.27)**

.33 (.26)**

.16 (.12)*

.24 (.18)**

.20 (.16)

.22 (.17)

.18 (.14)

.08

.07

.09

G (α = .55)

.25 (.18)

.23 (.16)

.10

.09

.10

.32 (.21)**

H (α = .44)

.25 (.16)**

.31 (.19)**

.30 (.18)**

.25 (.15)*

.06

.04

I (α = .64)

-.00

.00

.02

-.07

.05

-.07

J (α = .55)

-.10

-.19 (-.13)

-.07

-.06

-.03

K (α = .70)

-.08

-.07

-.02

-.05

L (α = .66)

-.22 (-.17)

M (α = .75)

** **

-.11

-.23 (-.18)

-.03

-.21 (-.16)

-.22 (-.17)

-.23 (-.17)

-.04

-.18 (-.13)*

-.14 (-.12)*

-.18 (-.15)*

-.08

.02

-.09

N (α = .71)

-.01

.01

-.10

.03

O (α = .67)

.23 (.19)

P (α = .51)

.10

.01

.29 (.23)

.22 (.17)

.15 (.12)

.12

.01

.08

-.02

.17 (.13)

.23 (.17)**

.20 (.13)*

.05

Qdt-HD (α = .91)

.39 (.34)

.43 (.37)

.34 (.29)

.29 (.25)

.22 (.18)

.28 (.23)**

Qdt-HS (α = .86)

.30 (.25)**

.31 (.25)**

.26 (.21)**

.20 (.16)*

.16 (.12)*

.20 (.15)*

Qdt-FS (α = .87)

-.16 (-.14)*

-.18 (-.15)*

-.22 (-.18)**

-.12

-.03

-.11

Qdt-FD (α = .84)

.11

.17 (.14)

.01

.09

.17 (.13)

Hmp-DOM (α = .90)

.30 (.26)**

.36 (.31)**

.22 (.19)**

.23 (.19)**

.21 (.17)**

.23 (.18)**

Hmp-SUB (α = .83)

.02

.03

-.01

.03

.00

Hmp-FRI (α = .83)

-.07

-.06

-.17 (-.14)

Hmp-HOS (α = .91)

.41 (.36)

AXS-Cont. (α = .90)

.26 (.23)**

-.04

.02

.08

-.04

.45 (.38)

.37 (.31)

.31 (.26)

.24 (.19)

.33 (.26)**

.32 (.27)**

.22 (.19)**

.23 (.19)**

.17 (.14)**

.21 (.17)**

-.40 (-.34)**

-.27 (-,22)**

-.15 (-,12)**

-.28 (.22)**

AXS-Afil. (α = .83) -.37 (-.32)** -.38 (-.32)** Note. The bold values highlight the moderate correlations. *p < .05. **p < .01. was noted of interpersonal patterns and friendly attitudes, such as the demonstration of tenderness, affection and willingness to help, as well as interest in the well-being of the people with whom they interact. In the group with more compromised mental health, the people more frequently presented cold and hostile interpersonal positions. In particular, the results can be considered a source of evidence for the validity of the CLOIT-II, as the interpersonal variables measured by it were found to be related to variables that they should theoretically be related to. As expected, negative interpersonal interaction patterns presented positive correlations with mental health impairment indicators, and positive interpersonal positions presented negative correlations with these indicators. Furthermore, our comprehension of interpersonal dynamics is strengthened

by the observation that the negative correlations are stronger than the positive ones, as previously discussed. An important consideration is the fact that the sample combined people who sought help in a program of assessment and guidance regarding interpersonal behavior in marital relations and participants who did not seek help, however, accepted an invitation by the researchers. It is believed that the group that sought help suffered less influence of social desirability, a commonly recognized element in the results of self-report instruments. Taking into account the diversity of the sample, the results can be considered to be a reasonable descriptions of the phenomena studied. Further studies are suggested that attempt to replicate these results and also that use different methods to improve the observations regarding the psychological dimensions studied.

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Paidéia, 25(62), 373-381

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Couto, G., Vandenberghe, L., & Tavares, W. M. (2015). Couple’s Interactions and Mental Health.

Whisman, M. A. (1999). Marital dissatisfaction and psychiatric disorders: Results from the national comorbidity survey. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108(4), 701-706. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.108.4.701 Whitton, S. W., & Whisman, M. A. (2010). Relationship satisfaction instability and depression. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(6), 791-794. doi:10.1037/a0021734 Wright, A. G. C., Pincus, A. L., Conroy, D. E., & Hilsenroth, M. J. (2009). Integrating methods to optimize circumplex description and comparison of groups. Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(4), 311-322. doi:10.1080/00223890902935696 Wright, A. G. C., Hallquist, M. N., Morse, J. Q., Scott, L. N., Stepp, S. D., Nolf, K. A., & Pilkonis, P. A. (2013). Clarifying interpersonal heterogeneity in borderline personality disorder using latent mixture modeling. Journal of Personality Disorders, 27(2), 125-143. doi:10.1521/pedi.2013.27.2.125 Gleiber Couto is an Associate Professor of the Universidade Federal de Goiás. Luc Vandenberghe is a Professor of the Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás. Wanessa Marques Tavares is a M.S. candidate in Organizational Management of the Universidade Federal de Goiás. Received: Oct. 27, 2014 1st Revision: Apr. 1, 2015 Approved: Apr. 13, 2015

How to cite this article: Couto, G., Vandenberghe, L., & Tavares, W. M. (2015). Interpersonal interactions in the marital pair and mental health: A comparative and correlational study. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 25(62), 373-381. doi:10.1590/198243272562201511

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Paidéia sep-dec. 2015, Vol. 25, No. 62, 383-391. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201512

Article

Executive Functions: Influence of Sex, Age and Its Relationship With Intelligence1 Larissa de Oliveira e Ferreira2 Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás, Goiânia-GO, Brazil

Daniela Sacramento Zanini Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás, Goiânia-GO, Brazil

Alessandra Gotuzo Seabra Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, São Paulo-SP, Brazil

Abstract: The Tower of Hanoi is a tool used to evaluate executive functions. However, few studies describe what functions are evaluated in this test. This study investigates the executive functions, evaluated by the Tower of Hanoi (ToH), and the influence of gender, age and its relationship with intelligence. We evaluated 55 children and adolescents, between the ages of ten and 16, without diagnosed neuropsychiatric disorders. The results showed that the performance and time in to complete the Tower of Hanoi have no discriminative power when comparing age groups and sex; there was also no significant correlation found between the ToH and the execution quotient of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Third Edition (WISC III), perceptual organization and the speed of processing. Only the subtest coding were positively related to the ToH, demonstrating that these instruments may be measuring related aspects of intelligence and executive functions, namely intelligence and working memory. Keywords: intelligence, children, adolescents

Funções Executivas: Influência do Sexo, Idade e Sua Relação com Inteligência Resumo: A Torre de Hanói é um instrumento utilizado para avaliação das funções executivas. Contudo, são escassos os estudos que descrevem quais são as funções avaliadas pelo teste. O objetivo deste estudo é investigar as funções executivas, avaliadas pela Torre de Hanói, verificando a influência de sexo, idade e sua relação com inteligência. Foram avaliadas 55 crianças e adolescentes entre 10 e 16 anos, sem diagnóstico de transtornos neuropsiquiátricos. Os resultados demonstraram que o desempenho e o tempo de realização do teste não têm poder discriminativo na comparação entre grupos etários e sexo, e tampouco se observou correlação significativa entre a ToH e o coeficiente de inteligência de execução do WISC III, a organização perceptiva e a velocidade de processamento. Apenas o subteste códigos relacionou-se positivamente com a ToH, demonstrando que esses instrumentos podem medir aspectos relacionados à inteligência e funções executivas, a saber, a inteligência e a memória de trabalho. Palavras-chave: inteligência, crianças, adolescentes

Funciones Ejecutivas: Influencia del Sexo, la Edad y Su Relación con la Inteligencia Resumen: La Torre de Hanoi es una herramienta utilizada para evaluar las funciones ejecutivas. Sin embargo, hay pocos estudios que describen las funciones evaluadas en esta prueba. Este estudio investiga las funciones ejecutivas, evaluados por la Torre de Hanoi, la influencia del sexo, la edad y su relación con la inteligencia. Se evaluaron 55 niños y adolescentes entre diez y dieciséis años, sin diagnóstico de trastornos neuropsiquiátricos. Los resultados mostraron que el rendimiento y el tiempo en la Torre de Hanoi no tienen poder discriminativo cuando se comparan grupos de edad y sexo. Tampoco hubo correlación significativa entre ToH y el coeficiente de ejecución del WISC III, la organización perceptiva y la velocidad de procesamiento. Sólo el subtest códigos se relacionó positivamente con ToH, demostrando que estos instrumentos pueden medir aspectos semejantes de la inteligencia y las funciones ejecutivas, a saber, la inteligencia y la memoria de trabajo. Palabras clave: inteligencia, niños, adolescentes

Executive functions include responsible processes for focus, directing, regulating, managing and integrating cognitive functions related to everyday life tasks, as well as new and complex problems (Lezak, 1995; Miyake & Friedman, 2012). These involve selection and integration of current information to those previously memorized, such as planning, monitoring and cognitive flexibility (Mourão Júnior & Mello, 2011). Article derived from the master’s thesis of the first author, under the supervision of the second author, defended in 2013, in the Graduate Program in Psychology at the Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás.

Correspondence address: Larissa de Oliveira e Ferreira. Rua t-36, nº 3273, apto.101, Setor Bueno. CEP 74223-055. Goiânia-GO, Brazil. E-mail: larissaoliveira10@hotmail.com

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

Because executive functions involve complex mental processes, several authors have suggested the need for identification of each of their components (Malloy-Diniz, Sedo, Fuentes, & Leite, 2008;. Miyake et al, 2000) and, among them: working memory, inhibitory control, planning, decision-making, cognitive flexibility, categorization and fluency. However, due to the lack of consensus on the components of executive functions, studies have been conducted in an attempt to identify them (Toplak, West, & Stanovich, 2012). One of the most currently accepted models is the empirical study by Miyake et al. (2000), which divided it into simple (with three components: inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility and working memory) and complex

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functions (involving two or three simple components). The authors evaluated 137 college students in 14 tests, with three tests for each single component of executive functions and five for complex components. Thus, three simple executive functions, with their respective instruments, Plus-minus, Number-Letter and Local-Global, were analyzed to assess cognitive flexibility; Keep Track, Tone Monitoring, Letter Memory for working memory, and the Anatisaccade, StopSignal, and Stroop for inhibitory control. Tasks of complex executive functions were also used, including the: Wisconsin Card Test, Tower of Hanoi, Random Number Generation, Operation Span and Dual Task. The results indicated that: (a) three simple components of executive functions were moderately related, but clearly separable, suggesting unity and diversity of executive function; and (b) each of the three components differently contribute to complex task performance. Specifically, performance measured by the Wisconsin Card Test is more associated with cognitive flexibility, and the ToH with inhibition. The results of this research show the importance of recognizing both the unity and diversity of executive functions. Significant differences are observed in executive functions according to sex. O’Brien, Dowell, Mostofsky, Denckla and Mahone (2010), for example, evaluated four components of executive functions (working memory, planning, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility) of girls and boys with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), aged between eight and 14. In the study, three to four instruments were administered to measure each component of executive functions. The instruments used for working memory were: Conflicting Motor Response, PANESS Total Overflow, Go / No-Go, D-KEFS Color Word Interference for inhibitory control; WISC-IV Digit Span Backwards, Cantab Between Errors, D-KEFS Color Word Interference, WISC-III -PI Spacial Span Backwards; Cantab Spatial Working Memory Strategy Score, D-KEFS Tower, D-KEFS Trail Making for planning; D-KEFS Color - Word Interference, D-KEFS Trial Making, PANESS Total TIMED, Go / No-go Coefficient of Variability were used for cognitive flexibility. In the control group without ADHD, the results showed differences between sexes: girls were faster in performing the proposed tasks, but the boys had better accuracy in all evaluated components. In another study, Sagrilo and Ferreira (2013) evaluated executive functions of children aged between six and seven years, comparing boys and girls, based on the working memory component, using verbal and visual span as instruments. The results showed that girls tended to have better performance in the verbal span, and boys in the visual span. In the study by Sant’Anna, Quayle, Pinto, Scaf and Lucia (2007), assessing executive functions of adolescents from 13 to 16 years, using the ToH, the girls had better performance. Although these three studies show divergent data regarding sex, they were performed with different ages and instruments, which could explain the difference observed between sexes. This study used the Tower of Hanoi (ToH), an assessment instrument for complex executive functions. According to Lezak (1995), the ToH evaluates planning, but also

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working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility, supporting the idea that this is a complex tool for executive function assessment. According to Diamond (2013), planning, the main construct evaluated by this test, can be considered part of the high level executive functions. Parallel to planning, this author also considers problem-solving and reasoning to be components of high level executive functions. Fluid intelligence can be understood as related to executive functioning, and therefore to planning. In fact, both executive functions as well as intelligence are crucial for success in many everyday tasks (Brydges, Reid, Fox, & Anderson, 2012). Therefore, recent studies have tried to differentiate them, or even understand the relationship between them. Intelligence is one of the most studied constructs within psychology, which probably hinders consensus on what it is and how to measure it (Primi, 2002). Theories suggest a multifactorial structure, considering that intelligence should be evaluated in various aspects and capabilities, as proposed by the Cattell-Horn-Carroll - (CHC) model. McGrew (2009) represents the cognitive abilities of two layers. The two layers consists of two general factors of intelligence, such as: fluid reasoning, quantitative reasoning, short-term memory, visual processing, auditory processing, storage and long-term associative recovery, cognitive processing speed, decision speed, reading and writing. The first layer has the specific factors: speed of reasoning, working memory, spatial analysis, fluency of words, ease to naming, spelling ability, among others. Schneider and McGrew (2012) had a broader intelligence classification that describes new general skills such as the domain of general independent abilities, acquired knowledge, specific sensory motor skills, and overall speed. In the new model, fluid intelligence is inserted in the group of general capabilities, and crystallized intelligence in the group of acquired knowledge or understanding/knowledge. The relationship between fluid and crystallized intelligence with executive functions was widely researched by Friedman et al., (2006), as well as Brydges et al., (2012), who used the structure of the executive functions model of Miyake et al. (2000). There were 215 children tested, between seven and nine years. The results suggest that the development of fluid and crystallized intelligence and executive functions is enhanced according to the age, namely, older children performed better than younger children. In addition, the authors found that fluid and crystallized intelligence are highly associated with executive functions, particularly in childhood. Godoy, Dias, Trevisan, Menezes, and Seabra (2010) found that research shows a correlation between intelligence and executive functions in general. However, the authors indicate a greater correlation between fluid intelligence and some components of executive functions, such as working memory and inhibitory control. These data confirm the McGrew and Flanagan (1998) postulations on the relationship between fluid intelligence and executive functions. For these authors, both involve mental operations that the individual performs when facing new situations. In the Arffa (2007) investigation, which aimed to verify the relationship between intelligence and executive function,

Ferreira, L. O., Zanini, D. S., & Seabra, A. G. (2015). Executive Functions, Sex, Age and Intelligence.

three groups of children and adolescents aged between six and 15 years were evaluated. The author administered the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Third Edition (WISC III) and five neuropsychological tests to assess executive functions (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Trail Making Test, Stroop Test, Word Fluency Test, and Design Fluency Test) and four neuropsychological tests of other nonexecutive skills (Rey Complex Figure Test, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Wide Range Achievement Test in Math). The results showed that the Stroop, Word Fluency, Design Fluency and Rey Complex Figure tests had significant correlations with intelligence, as measured by the WISC III. The WISC III is still the most used instrument (Lopes, Farina, Wendt, Esteves, & Argimon, 2012) to assess intelligence in children and adolescents. The WISC III is divided into two scales, verbal and performance, with 13 subtests. It is a reference tool for intelligence assessment of children and adolescents, extensively used by clinical psychologists and researchers. Today, however, this instrument is under review and a new revised edition (WISC IV) has just arrived within the Brazilian market. The new instrument has subtests for fluid intelligence evaluation, in order to provide a better measure of this component of intelligence. During the WISC III test, time is a factor of extreme importance, because it is used as predictor of better or worse score, especially on the performance scale, which is a fundamental measure for assessing intelligence. Similar to what occurred in the assessment of intelligence, time was also used as a criterion for scoring measurement in executive functions evaluation, for example, in the Stroop or Trails tests (Lezak, 1995;. Malloy-Dinizet et al., 2008). The WISC III can be cited as an example because, despite it being an assessment test of intelligence, some of its action can be used to measure executive functions (Simões, 2002). The ToH, the object of this study, is another instrument used to evaluate executive functions which uses both time and correct answers for evaluation. As the ToH is an instrument that is not yet standardized, most studies (Bishop, Aamodt-Leeper, Creswell, McGurk, & Skuse, 2001; Wood, Oak, Rothe-Neves & Haase, 2001) do not consider time during their administration, although it is checked and qualitatively accounted for within the analysis of results (Sant’Anna et al., 2007). The aim of this study is to investigate executive functions, assessed by the ToH, checking the influence of gender, age and its relationship with intelligence. The number of movements and runtime measurements were used, that is, how many movements and how much time is needed for the children or adolescents to solve the proposed task, considering the influence of gender and age and its relationship with intelligence.

Method Participants Participants were selected according to convenience criteria, and recruited in nine public and 11 private schools of elementary degree and high school. Parents or guardians were required to agree and sign the Terms of Free and Informed

Consent for their children to participate in the study. The inclusion criteria was: aged 10-16 years and 11 months, attending elementary or high school, enrolled in a school. Exclusion criteria were: developmental delay complaints, cognitive dysfunction, neuropsychiatric disorders, and historical or current consumption of psychotropic medication, alcohol or drugs, as reported by the parents. According to these criteria, 55 children and adolescents were included in the survey; 26 boys and 29 girls, aged between 10-16 years and 11 months (M = 13.33, SD = 1.84), as shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Distribution (Frequency and Percentage) of Participants According to Sex and Age Age

Boys f

Girls

Total

3.8

3.4

3.6

23.1

6.9

14.5

30.8

13.8

21.8

15.4

13.8

14.5

15.4

13.8

14.5

3.8

20.7

12.8

7.7

27.6

18.3

Total

100.0

Instruments Questionnaire of socio demographic data. Containing questions related to type of school (public or private), family income, number of people living in the house, dominant hand of participants, and use of medications. Tower of Hanoi Test. Instrument of wood with rectangular base and three pins of 12cm, 4 square pieces of different sizes and colors, which should be placed from the biggest size to the smallest and from the bottom to the top. The instructions are: “We will perform a task called the Tower of Hanoi. In this task you will transpose the parts that are on this pin (pointing to) to the latter pin in here (pointing to). For this, you must follow these rules: you can move only one disk at a time and you can use all the pins, since the smaller disk always must be on top. It is not allowed for there to be a large disc on top of a small disk. You need to solve this challenge with the smallest number of moves you can make. Any questions? Let’s start!” Two items were presented in this task, one item with three pieces, and the other with four pieces. The child should begin with the left three pieces transposing them to the right pin; she could use the center pin. The timer was triggered when the movement of pieces began. Each correct movement was counted as one point (Sant’Anna et al., 2007). The timer was

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reset and the first attempt was finished at the completion of the correct movement of the pieces, when changing them from the right pin to the left. Similarly, the timer was reset with the second and third attempt for all administrations (cases). The movement of a piece without a pin removal was not counted as a movement. The movement was defined as the removal of a piece and its transposition onto another pin. Errors, such as putting a larger piece above a smaller one, keeping two pieces in one’s hand, or leaving a piece on the table were not considered. The child was instructed to return the piece to the previous position, when the error occurred, and the clock continued to measure time. Thus, the score corresponded to the sum of all the correct movements in all three trials (including the times that the attempt had to be restarted due to error) and the time equivalent to the mean of the total time used in the three attempts. After three attempts with three parts, the child performed the task again with four pieces, in accordance to the prior rules. Likewise, scores were calculated for the total (sum of all the correct movements even when it was necessary to restart) and time (mean time in three attempts). WISC III Performance Scale. This is a widely used test to assess intelligence both in the clinical area and in research (Wechsler, 2002). Its use is restricted to psychology professionals and was approved by the Federal Council of Psychology (CFP Resolution No. 002/2003.) in November, 2003. Recognized in several studies, it has good psychometric qualities (Lopes et al., 2012; Simões, 2002 ). Although international studies are already being conducted with the WISC IV, since 2003 (Watkins & Smith, 2013), until the time of this data collection, only the WISC III was available for use in Brazil. The WISC III consists of 13 subtests divided into verbal and performance scales. The performance scale consists of seven subtests (picture completion, coding, picture arrangement, blocks, object assembly, symbol search, and mazes). The verbal intelligence quotient (VQ), performance quotient (PQ), and the overall quotient (OQ) are obtained with subtests scores. In addition to the measurement of intelligence quotients (IQ), the performance scale provides indexes associated with specific skills such as verbal understanding (information, similarities, vocabulary, and comprehension), perceptual organization (picture completion, picture arrangement, object assembly, and blocks) resistance to distraction (arithmetic and digits) and processing speed (coding and symbol search). The performance scale subtests used were, respectively: (a) picture completion - attention to the environment, concentration and relationship of whole to part perception; (b) coding - measures the ability to associate numbers and symbols, with the correct memorization of associations, evaluates the processing speed, ability to follow directions under pressure related to time, mental flexibility, capacity for learning, and mental efficiency; (c) picture arrangement evaluates the ability to integrate and organize in a logical way; (d) block - examines organizational skills and visual-spatial processing. (e) object assembly - measures the capacity for synthesis, which provides for strategy observation and

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problem solving; (f) symbol search - evaluates perceptual discrimination ability, working memory, short term memory concentration; (g) mazes - examines the ability for anticipation and planning, which requires visual-spatial strategy in working memory (Wechsler, 2002). Procedure Data collection. Data collection was performed in the school attended by the students, in a large, airy room separate from the classroom. Participants individually had the ToH test administered in two steps, with three and four pieces, setting up three attempts at each step to get to the solution. The time spent was timed for all attempts, beginning with the first movement and reset only at the end of each attempt. Later, participants had seven subtests of the WISC III Performance Scale administered, in an individual way, according the guidelines for WISC III subtest application, contained in the manual. The performance IQ (PQ) calculation was based on the five subtests that comprise it, as stated in the manual. Data analysis. All dependent variables in this study exhibited a normal distribution, according to the KolmogorovSmirnov test, which allowed the use of parametric statistics. The student’s t-test was performed to compare means in order to assess whether there was a significant difference between the number of movements performed in each attempt, and time spent to perform the ToH (with three or four pieces), between boys and girls and between the two age groups. The Cohen’s d technique (Maroco, 2010) was used to calculate the effect-size. A Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to verify the relationship between the number of movements for each attempt and the time spent to perform the ToH (with three or four pieces), as well as the number of movements and time to perform the ToH and the WISC III subtest execution, IQ execution, perceptual organization, and processing speeds. All analyses were performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software for Windows (SPSS) version 20.0, with a confidence interval of 95%. Ethical Considerations After approved by the Ethics Committee of the Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás (Protocol 0056.0.168.000-11), contact with institutions and a school (private and public) was established. The Terms of Free and Informed Consent were signed by parents or guardians, after necessary clarifications about participation. Data collection was scheduled only after the signed Terms were returned to the researcher.

Results Comparison of mean analyses and correlations between sociodemographic variables and the performance on the WISC III Performance Scale and ToH were conducted. Differences or significant relationships for any evaluated sociodemographic variables (type of school, family income, and number of people living in the house, dominant hand of

Ferreira, L. O., Zanini, D. S., & Seabra, A. G. (2015). Executive Functions, Sex, Age and Intelligence.

participants and use of medications) were not found. As a consequence, the remaining analyses were conducted without the controlled influence of these variables. Possible differences between groups, in relation to sex and age, were verified by Student’s t-tests. In comparing ages, the sample was clustered into two groups, according to age. The clustering followed the proportionality of participants,

as well as the development of theories. So, participants aged between 10-13 years were classified as group 1, and participants aged between 14-16 years, as group 2. Table 2 shows the comparison between sex and the two age groups for each of the three attempts with three or four pieces, as well as the mean number of movements per attempt, and the time, in minutes, for the ToH, as well as the effect-size analysis by Cohen-d.

Table 2 Comparison Between Sex and Different Age Groups for Attempts and Time (Minutes) for the ToH With Three and Four Pieces (Mean) Groups Sex

Age

Boys

Girls

Student t

Cohen d

Group 1 (10-13a)

Group 2 (14-16a)

Student t

Cohen d

M (SD)

t p

d r

M (SD)

t p

d r

32.06 (11.09)

27.64 (8.78)

1.60 .12

0.44 .22

31.54 (19.77)

27.66 (8.86)

1.46 .15

0.25 .13

2.78 (5.84)

1.34 (0.97)

1.25 .19

0.34 .17

2.68 (5.47)

1.23 (0.72)

1.43 .16

0.37 .18

72.30 (17.78)

64.90 (29.62)

1.14 .26

0.30 .15

73.43 (28.95)

62.37 (17.38)

1.74 .86

0.46 .23

3.63 (2.10)

5.55 (11.05)

- 0.92 .37

-0.24 -.12

5.45 (9.59)

3.68 (3.43)

0.87 .39

0.25 .12

3 pieces

4 pieces

Note. M = movement; T = time.

No significant difference between sex and age groups was observed for any measure, either in terms of mean number of movements or in relationship to mean time, in minutes, for completion of the ToH test, either with three or four pieces. The effect-size analysis presented d values between -.24 and .46, indicating a small to moderate effect, which means that the results were lightly or moderately influenced by the sample size. A Pearson’s correlation analysis was conducted to assess whether there was a correlation between the time and the performance of the ToH, in terms of number of movements. The data indicated no significant relationship for this sample, showing that the time spent to achieve

the evidence did not influence the number of movements performed (Table 3). The Pearson’s correlation was used to analyze the relationship between performance in the ToH test, in terms of mean number of movements and time spent for three and four pieces, and the performance on the WlSC III Performance Scale, including PQ, perceptual organization scales and processing speed, as well as gross and weighted scores for each subtest. Significant correlations with performance on the IQ (PQ) or scales were not observed. Regarding the subtests, only Coding showed a significant correlation. For this reason, only this subtest is presented in Table 3, in addition to PQ data, perceptual organization and processing speed.

Table 3 Pearson Correlation Coefficients (r) Between Number of Movements and Time for the ToH With Three and Four Pieces and IQ Performance, Perceptual Organization, Speed Processing and WISC III Coding WISC III Perfromance Scale 3 pieces

3 pieces 4 pieces

4 pieces

Perceptual organization

Speed processing

Coding* (Gross score)

Coding* (weigted score)

QI Performance

.01

.24

-.08

-.14

-.18

.05

-.39

.03

.01

.17

.19

.09

.08

-.06

-.21

.24

.17

.20

-.11

-.04

-.18

-.28*

-.27*

T -.07 .19 .20 -.09 .21 .18 -.05 -.09 Note. M = movement; T = time. *Although all subtests that comprise the WISC III Performance Scale were applied, only the Coding subtest showed a significant relationship with the ToH. So, for reasons of space, only the results for this subtest are displayed.

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Discussion This study aimed to investigate the executive functions, evaluated by the ToH, by verifying the influence of sex, age and its relationship with intelligence. According to the study by O’Brien et al. (2010), results suggest a difference between the boys’ and girls’ performance in the number of movements and the ToH runtime, with the boys showing more movement and less runtime than girl. However, no significant differences were observed between boys and girls in this study, and the effect size analysis showed that the sample size had a light or moderate influence on the results (Maroco, 2010). Lynn and Kanazawa (2011) indicate a variation in the overall development of boys and girls in early adolescence, but with a tendency toward equivalence, through the years, which could explain the data found in this study for Group 2, aged 14 - 16, but not for Group 1, aged 10 - 13 years. However, St. Anna et al. (2007) in their research with adolescents of 1316 years, found significant differences between sexes. This general principle of sex differences related to maturation rate can be applied to the development of cognitive skills, according to Flores-Mendoza, Mansur-Alves, Lelé, and Flag (2007) and, consequently, of executive functions. However, considering that this study had a small sample (N = 55) and a wide dispersion of age (10-16 years), with a concentration in the 13 year olds (M = 13.33), these results should be taken with caution and they cannot be generalized. Studies using the ToH to evaluate executive functions of children and adolescents with normal development in the age group studied are scarce in Brazil, complicating associations related to the results. There are foreign studies, conducting comparisons with groups of children with disorders (O’Brien et al., 2010), seeking standardization of the ToH test (Sant’Anna et al., 2007), or a relationship with fluid intelligence (Brydges et al., 2012). No significant differences were found in execution time and number of movements in the different age groups (10-13 and 14-16 years), different from previously reported studies in the literature. The results of research by Friedman et al. (2006), suggested that the development of executive functions, fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence is enhanced according to age; so, age interferes with the performance of executive and cognitive functions. Also, Shing, Lindenberg, Diamond, Li, and Davidson (2010) showed that working memory and inhibition increase with age in children aged 4-14, and Bishop et al. (2001), comparing the ToH performance between groups of children and adolescents, aged between 7-15 years and adults, found significant differences between groups. However, the application form was not the same as in this research. The presented data of this study, in general, showed improvement in performance according to the age when the mean was observed. However, there was no significant difference in comparing age groups. However, these findings should be further explored in future studies with a larger group of participants, as well as different age groups. Some research showed high correlations between the

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ToH testing and fluid intelligence (Batista, Adda, Miotto, Lucy, & Scaff, 2007; Colom, Rubio, Shih, & Santacreu, 2006; Zook, Davalos, Delosh, & Davis, 2004). The results for Zook et al., (2004) indicate that performance on ToH is influenced by fluid intelligence, working memory and inhibitory control, namely, by two components of executive function and fluid intelligence. Colom et al., (2006), in a study with 229 participants, with a mean age of 28 years, related fluid intelligence and executive functions and more specifically, working memory. The authors demonstrated that the relationship between executive functions (measured by ToH) and fluid intelligence (measured by a computerized test called Trasi, similar to Raven) is greater than the ratio between fluid intelligence and working memory, specifically. Arffa (2007) conducted a study aiming to investigate the relationship between intelligence and executive function in children and adolescents aged between 6-15 years, using the WISC III as a measure of intelligence, and five neuropsychological tests to assess executive functions (Categorization Wisconsin Cards Sorting, Trail Making, Stroop, Word Fluency and Design Fluency tests). The author pointed out that results in the Stroop, Word Fluency and Rey Complex Figure tests had significant correlation with intelligence measured by the WISC III. An international theoretical study was conducted by Batista et al., (2007), comparing cognitive and methodological aspects involving the ToH and the Tower of London. In preschool groups, fluid intelligence, working memory and inhibitory control, when observing the two towers, only the ToH showed these three components as predictors. Batista et al., (2007), Colom et al., (2006), and Zook et al., (2004) found significant correlations between performance in the ToH and fluid intelligence. This study did not find relationships between intelligence and performance of the ToH; this may be because the test was used for evaluation. Perhaps, using a more specific test for fluid intelligence could show higher correlation with performance in the ToH, which may represent a limitation of this study. However, although it is understandable that there is no relationship between intelligence, as measured by the WISC III performance scale, and executive function, as measured by the ToH, a greater correlation with factor levels or performance in specific subtests should be expected, which did not occur in this study, as only the Coding subtest showed significant relationship with the ToH. However, there are no studies that could negate or support this result. The Coding subtest measures the ability to memorize associations, and evaluates the mechanical learning capacity (Simões, 2002), the working memory and inhibitory control. The working memory and inhibitory control are components of executive functions which, according to most studies are measured by the ToH, which may explain the significant relationship between the two tests. In the Coding subtest, for example, the child should memorize the data from the tasks, writing them, and in the ToH, she must memorize the correct movement for achieving the goal. This type of working memory, more linked to the implementation of concrete tasks and little

Ferreira, L. O., Zanini, D. S., & Seabra, A. G. (2015). Executive Functions, Sex, Age and Intelligence.

to abstract reasoning, can be a type of more specific memory. Therefore, comparison studies are suggested, especially in age groups similar to this research who have normal development, in order to corroborate the findings. Finally, analysis of the influence of time on performance, in terms of the number of movements in the ToH, did not show a significant relationship, indicating that, for this sample, the time spent in testing does not interfere with the test performance, concerning the number of movements performed and therefore, showing a greater accuracy in testing. This fact brings into discussion the importance of time in evaluating intelligence performance and executive functions. Further studies with different methodological designs and with probability samples could further elucidate these findings. In summary, this research revealed that the number of movements and the measurement of time to complete the ToH, performance scale with children from 10-16 years, had no discriminative power, when comparing the groups of t1013, and 14-16 years and between the sexes. Consequently, the runtime of ToH performance is not a discriminating factor, according to the data collected, in the case of children from 10-16 years, according to data from this study. However, this data should be taken with caution and cannot be generalized. The small number of participants (55 subjects), and the age dispersion, prevented a more detailed analysis of human development, and were factors that hindered detailed and accurate data. Absence of consensus on the processes involved in the ToH performance (Batista et al., 2007) is another issue. Some studies use the ToH as a measure of executive function in general (Colom et al., 2006), others, as a measure of working memory (Batista et al., 2007), inhibitory control (Batista et al., 2007; Brydges et al., 2012), cognitive flexibility and planning (Bishop et al., 2001; O’Brien et al., 2010; Sant’Anna et al., 2007). Contrary to what was expected, data showed that the ToH is not related to the PQ in accordance with WISC III, either when comparing the number of movements or the time required for completion. However, the literature suggests that the ToH can be a good measure of working memory and intelligence, particularly because it was significantly correlated with the Coding subtest that evaluates these components. However, more research needs to be conducted to confirm this hypothesis. Therefore, further studies on the importance of the ToH in the evaluation of executive functions, the influence of age and sex on the executive functions, and the relationship of intelligence to executive functions involving larger samples and children with normal development must be conducted.

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Ferreira, L. O., Zanini, D. S., & Seabra, A. G. (2015). Executive Functions, Sex, Age and Intelligence.

Larissa de Oliveira e Ferreira is a Professor at Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás. Daniela Sacramento Zanini is a Professor at Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás. Alessandra Gotuzo Seabra is a Professor at Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie. Received: Sep. 30, 2014 1st Revision: Feb. 6, 2015 Approved: Mar. 25, 2015

How to cite this article: Ferreira, L. O., Zanini, D. S., & Seabra, A. G. (2015). Executive functions: Influence of sex, age and its relationship with intelligence. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 25(62), 383-391. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201512

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Paidéia sep-dec. 2015, Vol. 25, No. 62, 393-401. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201513

Article

Effects of a Brief Meditation Training on Negative Affect, Trait Anxiety and Concentrated Attention1 Carolina Baptista Menezes2 Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil

Lisiane Bizarro Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil

Abstract: Meditation has been associated with positive psychological outcomes, but few studies have investigated brief interventions. This randomized controlled pilot study assessed the effects of five days of focused meditation on positive and negative affect, state and trait anxiety, as well as concentrated attention in a nonclinical sample distributed in two groups (experimental = 14, 51.8% female, Mage = 23.9; control = 19, 62% female, Mage = 24.9). The instruments used were the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Scale, State and Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Concentrated Attention Test. The meditation group reduced negative affect and trait anxiety, and also improved correct responses on the attention test, relative to controls. These preliminary findings indicate that even short focused meditation training may help improve some psychological variables. It is discussed that the early manifestation of these benefits may be especially relevant to strengthen the motivation to continue and practice regularly. Keywords: meditation, anxiety, affection, attention

Efeitos de um Treino Breve de Meditação no Afeto Negativo, Ansiedade Traço e Atenção Concentrada Resumo: A meditação tem sido associada a desfechos psicológicos positivos, mas intervenções curtas ainda são pouco investigadas. O objetivo deste ensaio piloto, randomizado e controlado, foi avaliar os efeitos de cinco dias de meditação focada no afeto positivo e negativo, na ansiedade estado e traço, bem como na atenção concentrada em uma amostra não clínica distribuída em dois grupos (experimental = 14, 51,8% mulheres, Midade = 23,9; controle = 19, 62% mulheres, Midade = 24,9). Utilizou-se a Escala de Afeto Positivo e Afeto Negativo, o Inventário de Ansiedade Traço e Estado e o Teste de Atenção Concentrada. O grupo da meditação reduziu o afeto negativo e a ansiedade traço, assim como aumentou as respostas corretas do teste de atenção concentrada, comparado ao grupo controle. Estes achados preliminares indicam que mesmo um treino breve de meditação focada pode ajudar a melhorar algumas variáveis psicológicas. Discute-se que a manifestação precoce destes benefícios pode ser especialmente relevante como uma forma de reforçar a motivação para a continuidade e regularidade da prática. Palavras-chave: meditação, ansiedade, afeição, atenção

Efectos de un Breve Entrenamiento de la Meditación en el Afecto Negativo, la Ansiedad Rasgo y la Atención Concentrada Resumen: La meditación se ha relacionado con resultados psicológicos positivos, todavía intervenciones breves son poco investigadas. Este ensayo piloto controlado yaleatorio evaluó el efecto de cinco días de la meditación focalizada en el afecto positivo y negativo, en el ansiedad estado y rasgo, así como en la atención concentrada en una muestra no clínica distribuida en dos grupos (experimental = 14, 51,8% mujeres, Medad = 23,9, control = 19,62% mujeres, Medad = 24,9). Se utilizó la Escala de Afecto Positivo y Afecto Negativo, el Inventario de Ansiedad Rasgo y Estado, y la prueba de Atención Concentrada. La meditación ha reducido el afecto negativo y el ansiedad rasgo, así como ha aumenta do las respuestas correctas de la prueba de atención concentrada, en comparación con los controles. Estos hallazgos preliminares indican que incluso un breve entrenamiento con la meditación focalizada puede ayudar a mejorar algunas variables psicológicas. Se argumenta que la manifestación temprana de estos beneficios puede ser espe-cialmente relevante como una manera de fortalecer la motivación para práctica regular. Palabras clave: meditación, ansiedad, afección, atención

Article derived from the doctoral dissertation of Carolina B. Menezes, under the supervision of Lisiane Bizarro, defended in 2012 in the Graduate Program in Psychology of the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. Support: National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq - Protocol no. 140796/ 2009-6).

Correspondence address: Carolina B. Menezes. Curso de Psicologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas. Av. Duque de Caxias, 250, Fragata. CEP 96030-001. Pelotas-RS, Brazil. E-mail: menezescarolina@hotmail.com

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

Meditation has been increasingly studied and integrated into the field of Psychology and health care in general, as research has indicated its contribution to outcomes associated with greater physical and mental health (Sedlmeier et al., 2012). If on the one hand continuity and regularity in its practice favor the scale of these benefits (Menezes & Dell’Aglio, 2010; Soler et al., 2014), on the other, it is evidenced that one difficulty inherent to meditation is the potential lack of motivation for adhering to these parameters,

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which can impair the success of the anticipated results. From the behavioral point of view, it is possible to conjecture that the positive effects resulting from its practice could assist in reinforcing this behavior. As a result, it is important to assess whether brief training in meditation is capable of producing beneficial changes, bearing in mind that these could function as reinforcing stimuli for maintaining the practice. According to systematic review and meta-analysis studies (Chiesa, Serretti, & Jakobsen, 2013; Goyal et al., 2014; Sedlmeier et al., 2012), among the main benefits of meditation one finds the improvement of psychological variables which characterize healthier and more adaptive emotional regulation. In nonclinical samples, effect sizes were larger (medium to large) for the change of emotional variables, in particular negative ones, such as negative affect, state and trait anxiety, as well as stress; moderate (medium) for measures of attention; and weaker (small to medium) for other cognitive variables (Sedlmeier et al., 2012). For clinical samples, on the other hand, the results for stress, positive mood and attention are more inconsistent, in particular when the interventions based on meditation are compared with an active control group (Goyal et al., 2014). Although, in these reviews, the interventions are considered to be medium and long-term, with 30 days being the shortest duration analyzed, studies evaluating short-term training – such as that lasting a few days – have also found encouraging results (Creswell, Pacilio, Lindsay, & Brown, 2014; Ding, Tang, Tang, & Posner, 2014; Tang et al., 2007; Zeidan, Johnson, Gordon, & Goolkasian, 2010). It is worth emphasizing that there is no consensus in the literature in relation to the use of the terms “short-term” and “brief ”, as these have been used for designating different quantities of practice, such as a single session of 10 minutes (Dickenson, Berkman, Arch, & Lieberman, 2012), five days (Tang et al., 2007), two weeks (Cavanagh et al., 2013), and experience of up to five years (Sukhsohale & Phatak, 2012). As a result, it is emphasized that in the present article the terms “short-term” and “brief ” will be used in the context of practices lasting a few days, varying between three and seven. When allusion is made to other formats of training, this will be accompanied by specification of the duration assessed. There are only isolated studies, whose results seem to be in consonance with the meta-analysis of Sedlmeier et al. (2012), in particular regarding the effect on the emotional variables and attentional processes (Tang et al., 2007; Zeidan, Johnson, Diamond, David, & Goolkasian, 2010; Zeidan, Johnson, Gordon, et al., 2010). Nevertheless, it is also possible to observe divergences among some of these findings. For example, two meditation training programs focusing on respiration with healthy young adults produced a significant reduction in the general rate of negative mood, compared with the control group (Tang et al., 2007; Zeidan, Johnson, Gordon, et al., 2010), but this effect was not observed in a study which found significant effect in only one component of negative mood, namely, fatigue (Zeidan, Johnson, Diamond, et al., 2010). In relation to anxiety, two studies with a nonclinical sample of young adults found greater reduction of state anxiety after finishing an

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intervention with respiration meditation, in relation to the control condition (Zeidan, Johnson, Diamond, et al., 2010; Zeidan, Johnson, Gordon, et al., 2010), but in only one of these (Zeidan, Johnson, Gordon, et al., 2010), as well as in a separate study (Zeidan, Gordon, Merchant, & Goolkasian, 2010), did the state anxiety reduce significantly only at the end of each meditation session. Another study found that, compared with the control group, the university students of one nonclinical sample who participated in an intervention with mindfulness meditation presented greater reduction of symptoms of anxiety, it being the case that this benefit was greater for the participants who had reported moderate baseline levels (Chen, Yang, Wang, & Zhang, 2013). Moreover, one shortterm intervention termed Integrative Body-Mind Training (IBMT) also produced improvements in the reporting of positive affect and negative affect of healthy university students (Dinget al., 2014). Other findings derive from studies in which emotional responses were assessed experimentally through biological parameters. For example, it was demonstrated that only those people (healthy university students) who participated in an IBMT intervention – rather than relaxation – significantly reduced the levels of cortisol which had increased through stress induction with arithmetic (Tang et al., 2007). However, during the induction of stress through social evaluation, significant differences were not found in the levels of cortisol and blood pressure in the group of healthy adults who undertook mindfulness meditation, although the meditators did report a lesser perception of stress in relation to the stressor situation (Creswell et al., 2014). It is important to highlight that these divergent results derived from distinct protocols. For example, Tang et al. (2007) used cortisol as a parameter of recovery from the stress response, as this was assessed in the period following the induction. In the study by Creswell et al. (2014), on the other hand, cortisol was measured only during the induction of stress. Arterial pressure also did not show significant changes during a normal post-test evaluation (without induction of stress), the objective of which was to measure the effects of brief training on autonomic variables (Zeidan, Johnson, Gordon, et al., 2010). However, this (Zeidan, Johnson, Gordon, et al., 2010) and another study (Tang et al., 2009) showed that cardiac frequency was significantly lower in the post-test in the group which participated in training in meditation, in comparison with the control groups. A smaller quantity of studies also investigated the effect of short training programs on some attentional processes. A few days’ practice seems to have positively influenced executive attention, measured with a conflict resolution task (Tang et al., 2007), as well as sustained attention, such as indexed by working memory tasks (Zeidan, Johnson, Diamond, et al., 2010). Furthermore, two studies showed an increase in the scores for dispositional mindfulness, obtained through the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory, whose construct means the experience of being alert and aware regarding the present moment (Zeidan, Gordon, et al., 2010; Zeidan, Johnson, Diamond, et al., 2010).

Menezes, C. B., & Bizarro, L. (2015). Meditation, Negative Affect, Anxiety, Attention.

Many of these studies evaluated training programs using mindfulness meditation, which emphasizes the awareness of the present moment through the maintenance of a state of alertness and vigilance which must be accompanied by an experience of acceptance and nonjudgment (Chen et al., 2013; Creswell et al., 2014; Zeidan, Johnson, Diamond, et al., 2010; Zeidan, Johnson, Gordon, et al., 2010). Others tested an intervention termed Integrative Mind-Body Training (IMBT; Dinget al., 2014; Tang et al., 2007), which can also be simply termed integrative meditation. This training combines practices of bodily relaxation, respiration, guided imagination and mindfulness meditation, all accompanied by background music, seeking to facilitate the occurrence, without effort, of a greater control and greater awareness of internal processes. This study’s objective was to evaluate the effects of five days of focused meditation (also known as concentrative) on positive and negative affect, on state anxiety and trait anxiety, as well as on concentrated attention, in a nonclinical sample distributed in two groups: focused meditation and waiting list control group. Regarding positive and negative affect (for a review of the construct, see Giacomoni, 2004), it was sought to assess whether focused meditation can be equally capable of contributing to the increase in the positive affect and reduction of the negative affect. In the focused meditation technique, the practitioners train sustained and concentrated attention on a single focus in a more systematic way, so as to develop the skill of more easily not becoming engaged, or of disengaging oneself from the usual mental processes, which are often automatized and dysfunctional (Lutz, Slagter, Dunne, & Davidson, 2008). This meditation has already been tested in one study, evaluating a six-week intervention, whose results showed a reduction in the self-reporting of negative affect and of trait anxiety, and an improvement in the performance of attention in healthy university students (Menezes et al., 2013).

Method Participants This was a pilot study, undertaken through a randomized and controlled trial with university students of the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), who were invited to participate in the study via email and posters placed in the University’s three campuses. A total of 120 students showed interest in participating. Of these, the following were excluded: those who were not aged between 20 and 40 years old; who did not have normal or corrected vision; who reported some psychiatric or neurological disorder; who reported the use of psychoactive medication; who were undergoing psychotherapeutic treatment; and/ or who reported previous experience with meditation or yoga. Initially, 46 eligible participants were randomly and equally distributed in two groups (focused meditation (FM), and waiting list control group (CG), but the final sample encompassed 33 participants [FM: n = 14, 51.8% women, 100% single, Mage = 23.9 years (SD = 4.45); CG: n = 19, 62% women, 88% single, Mage = 24.9 (SD = 5.1)].

These variables did not differ between groups (p ≥ .05), and neither was there a significant difference in the attrition rate [χ²(1) = 3.4, p = .09]. All the losses in the meditation group occurred because the participants stopped attending the training sessions. In the control group, on the other hand, all the losses represent participants who did not attend the second evaluation. In spite of there being no difference in the attrition rate, it is worth emphasizing that throughout the week of the meditation training, the weather conditions were characterized by intense cold and heavy rain, as expected for July in Southern Brazil. It is believed, therefore, that this may be a possible explanation for the greater loss observed in the meditation group. Supporting this supposition, of the 19 participants of the control group who later received this intervention, only one desisted from the training. Instruments Sociodemographic questionnaire. Developed for the present study with the aim of investigating sociodemographic variables, as well as the other variables referent to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Self-Report Questionnaire - SRQ (Mari & Williams, 1986). The SRQ consists of 20 questions investigating the presence of minor psychiatric symptoms, and in three questions investigating the presence of psychotic symptoms through binary responses of yes or no. The new version validated in Brazil (Mari & Williams, 1986) presented coefficients of sensitivity and specificity of 83% and 80%, respectively. So as to exclude participants who could potentially meet the criteria for some psychiatric diagnoses, the cut-off points adopted for men and women were, respectively, seven and six positive responses. Adult Self-Report Scale - ASRS (Mattos et al., 2006). The ASRS consists of 18 items covering attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adult life. The responses are provided on a five-point Likert scale (0 = never, 1 = rarely, 2 = sometimes, 3 = frequently, 4 = very frequently). Positive responses include frequently and very frequently, and sometimes for some questions (items 3, 4, 5 and 9 for part A; items 2, 7, and 9 for part B). The cut-off point for a possible diagnosis includes a minimum of six symptoms in at least one domain (inattention: items 1 - 9 in part A; hyperactivity: items 1 - 9 in part B), or in both. A score above 24 is considered highly suggestive of diagnosis. As this is a scale which seeks to viabilize the diagnosis of ADHD through a list of symptoms in accordance with the criteria of the DSM-IV, its evaluation parameters cover the rates of sensitivity (56.3%), specificity (98.3%) and accuracy of classification (96.2%), all being satisfactory. This scale was used both in the tracking, in order to exclude possible cases of ADHD, as also in the pre-test, in order to compare the number of symptoms between the groups in the baseline. In the event of there being some difference between the groups, this variable would be controlled in the analyses of the test of attention. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory - IDATE (Pasquali, Pinelli Júnior, & Solha, 1994). This inventory is made up of two

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scales, each one with 20 questions which separately measure state anxiety and trait anxiety. In the state anxiety, the questions refer to how the person feels at the time the assessment is being undertaken; the questions for the trait anxiety represent how the person normally feels. The responses indicate the levels of anxiety in these two contexts through the use of a four-point Likert scale varying from not at all to a lot. The higher the score, the higher the level of anxiety. The Brazilian version presents Cronbach alphas of .89 for the scale of state anxiety and .88 for trait anxiety (Pasquali et al., 1994). The Concentrated Attention Test - AC (Cambraia, 2003). The AC is a Brazilian psychometric test which assesses concentrated attention. Its test-retest coefficient is .73. Using pencil or pen and a response sheet, the participants have up to five minutes to mark the highest number possible of previously-established formats of triangle, which are distributed randomly amongst other types of triangles. This test’s evaluation includes the rates of correct responses, errors, omissions, and total score. The Positive and Negative Affect Scale - PANAS (Zanon, Bastianello, Pacico, & Hutz, 2013). This scale, adapted for Brazil, consists of 20 descriptors for each category of affect: positive (e.g.: enthusiastic; α = .88) and negative (e.g.: fearful; α = .86). Using a five-point Likert scale varying between very little and extremely, the participants must evaluate the degree to which they have recently experienced these affects. The scores for positive affect and negative affect are created separately, it being the case that the higher the score, the greater the report of the affect. Assessment of the Training. In the posttest, the participants evaluated how satisfied they were with the training (1 = not at all satisfied, 2 = little satisfied, 3 = indifferent, 4 = satisfied, 5 = very satisfied) and how useful they had found the techniques (1 = not at all useful, 2 = little useful, 3 = indifferent, 4 = useful, 5 = very useful). Procedure Data collection. After the publicizing of the study, those volunteers interested in participating answered the tracking questionnaires in an online format using the Survey Monkey platform. The eligible participants were randomly distributed to one of the groups and were then contacted for arranging the visit to the laboratory for the pre-test evaluation. The two evaluations (pre-test and post-test) took place during the two weeks which preceded and followed the intervention, respectively, in the Institute of Psychology, Experimental Psychology, Neuroscience and Behavior Laboratory (UFRGS). The meditation training included five consecutive daily meetings which lasted approximately 90 minutes. The participants were instructed regarding the importance of participating in all five days, as missing one or more meetings would result in their exclusion from the study. The participants in the control group had no activity during this period, but received the same training at the end of the study. Training was conducted by the first author, a psychologist with experience in group work and 11 years of practice in

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yoga and meditation. The meetings had a structure which always proceeded in the following order of activities: group conversation involving doubts, difficulties and reports of experiences; information and instructions for the practices; diaphragmatic breathing exercises; formal practice; and closing, with more time for conversations and exchanging experiences. In the first two meetings, the formal practice lasted 15 and 20 minutes, respectively. In the remaining three meetings, the practice lasted 30 minutes. The participants could sit cross-legged on a mat, or on a chair without resting their backs on it, and with their feet firmly supported on the ground. Regardless of whether they were on the ground or on a chair, the participants could change their seating option when they wanted to. In the event of discomfort, the participants could move to make their body more comfortable, but were instructed to be discreet and silent so as not to inconvenience the others. In the breathing exercises, all were instructed to pay attention to the respiration and to the abdominal movements which accompany both inspiration and exhalation, trying to lightly prolong exhalation. In the meditation, it was emphasized that no particular effort should be made for breathing. However, so as to characterize the focused attention meditation, as well as to make it possible for the participants to maintain the focus of their attention on breathing, the same were instructed to mentally count each exhalation (it is noted that other types of focus, such as mantras, were not used, in order to avoid any link with philosophical or spiritual traditions). In the first three days, the counting covered cycles from one to ten, and in the last two days, the participants undertook a regressive count from 100 to one (always with one number per exhalation). In both counts, the participants were instructed to restart the cycle from the beginning (number one, or number 100), if they perceived that they had been distracted or had lost count. They were not requested to undertake additional practices in the periods between each meeting. Data analysis. In the pre-test, a one-way ANOVA was used to compare each one of the outcomes, separately, between the groups. In the post-test, the General Linear Model (GLM) for repeated measures was used to compare each one of the outcomes separately, taking into account the factors of group (FM vs CG) and time (pre-test vs post-test). The ANOVA and polynomial contrasts were later used when necessary. In the post-test, the Pearson Partial Correlation test was also used, to evaluate the relationship between the outcomes within each group, controlling the scores of each outcome in the pre-test. For all the analyses, a level of significance of 0.05 was adopted, and SPSS version 20.0 was used. Ethical Considerations This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Institute of Psychology at the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, under registration number 25000.089325/2006-58. All the participants provided informed consent prior to the assessments.

Menezes, C. B., & Bizarro, L. (2015). Meditation, Negative Affect, Anxiety, Attention.

Results Pre-Test There was no significant difference for any outcome between the groups in the pre-test (p ≥ .05; means and standard deviations can be observed in Table 1). In addition to this, the groups did not differ in relation to the ASRS score [F(1, 44) = -.24, p = .80] and, for this reason, it was not necessary to control this variable in the subsequent analyses of the AC. Post-Test Both the sociodemographic variables and the data regarding the outcomes of the pre-test were compared among the participants who completed the study and the participants who dropped out. No significant difference was found (p > .05). All the participants of the meditation group evaluated the techniques as useful (40%) and very useful (60%), there being no responses for not useful at all or little useful. In the same way, all reported medium (40%) and high satisfaction (60%) with the training, there being no responses of dissatisfaction or neutral responses. Table 1 shows descriptive data for all the outcomes evaluated. In relation to the positive affect, there was a main effect for time [F(1, 31) = 4.39, p = .04, η² = .12] , but no interaction between group vs time [F(1, 31) = .62, p = .43, η² = .02]. For the negative affect, there was both a main effect for time [F(1, 31) = 37.7, p < .001, η² = .54], with an interaction for group v time [F(1, 31) = 4.88, p = .03, η² = .14]. In the meditation group, the reduction of the negative

affect between the pre- and post-test was greater [F(1, 13) = 41.65, p < .001, η² = .76], in comparison with the control group [F(1, 18) = 7.60, p = .01, η² = .29]. In relation to the state anxiety, there was a main effect for time [F(1, 31) = 5.61, p = .02, η² = .15], without any interaction between group vs time [F(1, 31) = 1.31, p = .26, η² = .04]. For the trait anxiety, there was main effect for time [F(1, 31) = 4.90, p = .03, η² = .13], as well as interaction between group vs time [F(1, 31) = 4.05, p = .04, η² = .12]. The meditation group presented a significantly greater reduction of the trait anxiety trait between the pre- and the post-test [F(1, 13) = 6.01, p = .02, η² = .31], in comparison with the control group [F(1, 18) = 0.3, p = .86, η² = .00]. Referent to the test of concentrated attention, there was a main effect for time for the rate of correct answers [F(1, 31) = 13.30, p =.001, η² = .30], as well as an interaction between group vs time for this rate [F(1, 31) = 4.21, p = .05, η² = .10]. The meditation group presented a significantly greater increase of correct responses between the pre- and the posttest [F(1, 13) = 14.77, p = .002, η² = .53], in comparison with the control group [F(1, 18) = 1.9, p = .18, η² = .09]. Significant responses were not found for the other rates of the AC (error, omission or total score: p > .05). Correlations Only in the meditation group was there significant correlation between the scores of post-test negative affect and correct responses of the AC, even controlling for the scores of the pre-test for these outcomes (FM: r = -.63, p = .02; CG: r = -.08, p = .73).

Table 1 General Linear Model (GLM) for Repeated Measures: Interaction of the Outcomes Between Time (Pre- vs. Post-Test) and Group (Meditation vs. Control); Single-Factor ANOVA: Post-Hoc Comparison of the Outcomes (Mean and Standard Deviation) Between Pre- and Post-Test for Each Group ANOVA FM

GLM

Pre-test (n = 23)

Post-test (n = 14) M(SD)

Post-test (n = 19)

M(SD)

2.69(.53)

2.82(.50)

2.40(.63)

2.03(.46)

1.96(.39)

1.85(.51)

η²

M(SD)

Positive

1.31

.62

.02

2.90(.62)

3.17(.58)

Negative

1.31

4.8

.29*

2.21(.52)

1.43(.29)

State Anxiety

1.31

1.3

.04

1.96(.45)

1.65(.29)

Trait Anxiety

1.31

4.0

.12*

2.06(.46)

1.79(.58)

.31*

2.27(.43)

2.26(.45)

.00

Correct responses

1.31

3.1

.10*

108.0(22.5)

120.1(21.0)

.53*

112.3(23.6)

116.5(23.3)

.09

Errors

1.31

.12

.06

.71(1.06)

.29(.61)

.53(.90)

.21(.53)

Omissions

1.31

.34

.05

9.50(5.7)

7.00(7.7)

13.63(12.9)

9.26(7.6)

Questionnaires

η²

Pre-test (n = 23)

η²

Affect .76**

.29*

Anxiety

Concentrated Attention

Total score 1.31 1.2 .08 97.86(23.8) 113.7(21.7) 98.26(28.2) 107.0(25.2) Note. GLM = General Linear Model for repeated measures; ANOVA = single-factor variance analysis; FM = focused meditation; CG = waiting list control group. *p ≤ .05. **p < .001.

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The same pattern was observed for the correlation of the scores of post-test negative affect and trait anxiety, in which the scores of the pre-test for these outcomes were also controlled (FM: r = .86, p = < .001; CG: r = .36, p = .15).

Discussion This pilot study investigated the effect of brief training of focused meditation, in which practices with a mean duration of 20 minutes were undertaken for five consecutive days, on the outcomes of affect, anxiety and concentrated attention in a nonclinical sample. The results showed that in comparison with a waiting list control group, the meditation training produced significant and positive changes, in particular the reduction of the self-reported scores for negative affect and trait anxiety, as well as better performance in the concentrated attention tests, as indicated by the greater rate of correct responses. There was also an inverse relationship between the scores of post-test negative affect and the correct responses in the concentrated attention test, and a positive relationship between the scores of post-test negative affect and trait anxiety. Furthermore, all the participants evaluated the techniques as useful or very useful (nobody responded not at all useful, a little useful or little use), and all reported medium or high satisfaction with the training, there being no dissatisfied or neutral responses. These findings support other studies which also evaluated emotional and attentional variables following short interventions varying between three and seven days (Chen et al., 2013; Ding et al., 2014; Tang et al., 2007; Zeidan, Johnson, Diamond, et al., 2010; Zeidan, Johnson, Gordon, et al., 2010). The results also corroborate a study which evaluated a six-week version of the same training of focused meditation, particularly in relation to the fact that in both interventions there was a reduction in the negative affect, although no significant change was observed in the positive affect, as well as reduction of trait anxiety (Menezes et al., 2013). In addition to this, the results found complement the literature regarding short training programs, demonstrating that positive effects can also occur through an intervention using focused meditation. There are discussions and evidence that concentrative meditation (also called focused attention) and mindfulness meditation (also described as open monitoring meditation) can involve some specific and distinct processes and mechanisms (Lutz et al., 2008; Tang & Posner, 2013). For example, there is the proposition that concentrative meditation is more related to the increase in mental stability, while practices of mindfulness are more associated with the production of insights regarding the nature of mental processes (Lutz et al., 2008). However, from a psychological point of view, either cognitive, emotional, social or behavioral, different modes of practice seem to generate equivalent changes, such as the reduction of negative emotions and an increase in attentional capacity (Sedlmeier et al., 2012). In addition to this, the variable “type of meditation” did not moderate the superior effect that experienced practitioners had regarding dispositional mindfulness scores, in comparison with non-practitioners (Soler et al., 2014). In a phenomenological

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perspective, therefore, it is suggested that different types of meditation, in particular sitting and silent, share a common objective, namely, to learn to develop greater awareness of mental patterns, without experiencing the reactions that these would normally evoke. For this reason, the use of an anchor (e.g. breathing) is usually used, both for helping to stabilize the mind, and to allow a broader awareness that mental activity is constantly characterized by fluctuations. As a result, through the exercise of always returning awareness to the present moment, one improves the capacity to disengage attention from the process of automatically associating and reacting to thoughts, emotions, feelings and other internal experiences. Regardless of the type of meditation, one variable which seems to favor the skills developed with practice is its duration, in particular time (in months or years) and weekly frequency (Menezes & Dell’Aglio, 2010; Soler et al., 2014). In consonance with these findings, it has been observed that some patterns of responses, such as the control of the processing of distracting stimuli, differ when beginners and experienced persons are compared, both in relation to the attentional domain and to the emotional domain (Brefczynski-Lewis, Lutz, Schaefer, Levinson, & Davidson, 2007). Nevertheless, there are data which help one to consider why a five days training is already able to produce positive changes, such as those observed in the present study, namely, reduced negative affect and trait anxiety, as well as improved concentrated attention. One hypothesis is the possible increase in dispositional mindfulness, considered a type of mental activity which is less reflexive and conditioned, and which involves greater attention to, and awareness of, the present moment, as well as greater acceptance (Brown & Ryan, 2003). It was demonstrated that a few days of training in meditation produced an increase in the scores for dispositional mindfulness, and that these scores were negatively correlated with the scores for state anxiety (Zeidan, Gordon, et al., 2010). In addition to this, people with a lower score for dispositional mindfulness had greater reactivity to a stressful situation that was induced experimentally (Creswell et al., 2014). It seems, therefore, that this mental quality may help to lower reactivity to negative stimuli. Indeed, “non-reactivity” encompasses one of the facets which make up the construct of mindfulness in a multifactorial perspective. Moreover, “non-reactivity” and “observation” were the facets which presented the difference with the greatest effect size between practitioners experienced in meditation and non-practitioners (Soler et al., 2014). In this same direction, it is suggested that the possible increase of mindfulness could also help in reducing the bias for negative stimuli, reducing a process which privileges negative emotions. In consonance with the reduction of negative affect in the present study, people who undertook a single 15-minute session of meditation prior to a verbal learning test – with words that had negative, positive and neutral valence – remembered a significantly lower quantity of negative words in the delayed recall task, compared with a control group which did not undertake meditation (Alberts & Thewissen, 2011). As a result, based on the proposition of a common objective underlying meditation practices, it is

Menezes, C. B., & Bizarro, L. (2015). Meditation, Negative Affect, Anxiety, Attention.

possible to speculate that an increase in mindfulness may be related to a better attentional regulation, helping in the skill of avoiding the engagement of mental resources in negative stimuli, or facilitating disengagement from this class of stimuli. Supporting this proposition, it was observed that the greater recruiting of the areas involved in attentional processes â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the parietal and pre-frontal structures â&#x20AC;&#x201C; in people who had been meditating for the first time for 10 minutes, compared to people who had left their mental activity free, was moderated by a greater level of dispositional mindfulness (Dickenson et al., 2012). Despite not having specific data for mindfulness, the present study found an improvement of concentrated attention after the five-day training, and this was significantly correlated with the lower reporting of negative affect in the meditation group. However, it is known that bias for perception and processing of negative stimuli can be significantly influenced by high levels of anxiety (Bishop, 2007). In the present study there was a significant correlation between lower trait anxiety and reduced negative affect only in the meditation group. Therefore, bearing in mind that dispositional mindfulness is related both to attention (Dickenson et al., 2012) and anxiety (Zeidan, Gordon, et al., 2010), and considering that dispositional mindfulness was not an outcome directly measured in this study, it is important that future investigations aim to test mediational models with these variables. The possible influence of increased dispositional mindfulness, as well as of better attentional regulation in reducing bias for negative stimuli may be mediated or moderated by the effect of anxiety; alternatively, these variables may produce additive effects on the bias. Another potential explanation for the benefits of brief training is the idea that even with only a few days, meditation helps to reduce the harmful effect of the depletion of cognitive resources. For example, this relationship was investigated in an experimental context in which a selfcontrol task was to be undertaken by two distinct groups, one which had previously undergone induction of depletion of resources with an emotional suppression task (that is, a task which also required self-control), and another which had not undergone the depletion. This study had two main findings. In a general sample, unrelated to meditation, the people who suffered depletion of resources had significantly worse performance in the subsequent self-control task. In another sample made up of people who had learned meditation for three days, the people who undertook a meditation session after undergoing depletion performed in the subsequent task as well as the participants from the general sample who had not undergone depletion (Friese, Messner, & Schaffner, 2012). One hypothesis, therefore, is that meditation helps to restore these resources, or to minimize the harm that results from the depletion. Although the initial stages of meditative practice require more effort and greater use of mental resources (Brefczynski-Lewis et al., 2007; Kozasa et al., 2012), it is known that the attentional cognitive pattern underlying the practice of meditation is distinct from the pattern observed in analytical cognitive tasks, such as self-referential processes

(Farb et al., 2007). This distinction supports experimental cognitive investigations, which demonstrate an inverse pattern of susceptibility to distraction for conditions of high attentional demand and high cognitive demand (Lavie, 2005). In particular, higher attentional demand prevents the interference of distractors, while the opposite is observed when there is a high cognitive load, such as a major demand on working memory. Therefore, even though the beginning of training in meditation may be associated with greater activation of some cerebral areas, in comparison with practitioners with greater experience (Brefczynski-Lewis et al., 2007; Kozasa et al., 2012), it is proposed that this type of practice involves a mechanism which opposes the depletion of resources, and can function as a tool for preventing or reducing the harmful effect of the depletion deriving from other activities. In conformity with this propositions, there is evidence that depletion of cognitive resources is significantly related to greater negative affect and fatigue (Hagger, Wood, Stiff, & Chatzisarantis, 2010), whose outcomes presented improvement after different brief training programs in meditation (Ding et al., 2014; Tang et al., 2007; Zeidan, Johnson, Diamond, et al., 2010; Zeidan, Johnson, Gordon, et al., 2010). Finally, it is also possible to suggest that at the base of all the hypotheses discussed, one can find the effects of neurophysiological mechanisms. For example, some short training programs produced better regulation of specific autonomic parameters, such as lower cardiac frequency and skin conductance (Tang et al., 2009; Zeidan, Johnson, Gordon, et al., 2010). The fact that these rates were measured in normal conditions of evaluation (comparing pre- and post-test), and not as an immediate response to a session of meditation, is suggestive that the findings represent a change in the basal level of functioning. From this perspective, these findings help to explain the effect which we observed in trait anxiety, as this evaluates the levels of anxiety in relation to general functioning, and not at a single, specific point. In addition to this, the greater recruitment of attentional circuits during a single 10 minutes meditation session -focused breathing - relative to a free mental activity (Dickenson et al., 2012), indicates that even the initial stages of practice have the potential to stimulate the plasticity of neural mechanisms underlying attention . As a result, it is suggested that this plasticity underlies the relationship between meditation and better attentional regulation and helps to explain why better attentional regulation can be generalized to other activities and contexts. In sum, this study presents preliminary data that a training program of five consecutive days, of approximately 20 minutes of focused meditation, was able to generate improvement in some psychological variables, in particular negative affect, trait anxiety and concentrated attention, in a non-clinical sample of university students. As a pilot study, this work presents some important methodological limitations, such as its small sample size, high drop-out rate, the lack of an active control group, and the non-evaluation of the individual effects of the intervention. In addition to this, the sample of healthy university students limits the external validity of the findings. However, it stands out

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PaidĂŠia, 25(62), 393-401

that the changes found presented moderate effect sizes, supporting the internal validity of the results, as well as the fact that the techniques employed were evaluated as useful and satisfactory by the participants. The study also did not use a psychometric measure of mindfulness, and neither did it evaluate neurophysiological responses, such that some hypotheses proposed and discussed must be considered with caution. Furthermore, one limitation of this and of all the studies cited which investigated the effect of brief meditation trainings is the absence of follow-up, not allowing inferences to be made regarding the permanence or durability of the changes observed. However, in relation to this limitation, it is highlighted that the relevance for evaluating the effect of a short-term training program is not owed to the possibility of inferring that a few days of practice can generate sufficient and long-lasting effects. The main rationale is to be able to evaluate whether some benefit can be manifested within few days of training, as early effects could function as motivators, facilitating the maintenance and regularity of the practice, and, consequently, the maintenance of the psychological benefits. It is concluded that the changes observed indicate that meditation trainings have important potential for applicability, justifying its incorporation into different contexts, for example, other educational or work environments, services of mental and physical healthcare, and even in the context of individual interventions, either in the public or private sectors. Finally, it is hoped that this pilot study may contribute to fostering the implementation of such interventions into continuous programs of socio-emotional support offered in the university context.

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system interaction is altered by short-term meditation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(22), 8865-70. doi:10.1073/ pnas.0904031106 Tang, Y.-Y., & Posner, M. I. (2013). Tools of the trade: Theory and method in mindfulness neuroscience. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 8(1), 118-120. doi:10.1093/scan/nss112 Zanon, C., Bastianello, M. R., Pacico, J. C., & Hutz, C. S. (2013). Desenvolvimento e validação de uma escala de afetos positivos e negativos [Development and validation of a positive and negative affect scale]. Psico-USF, 18(2), 193-201. doi:10.1590/S1413-82712013000200003 Zeidan, F., Gordon, N. S., Merchant, J., & Goolkasian, P. (2010). The effects of brief mindfulness meditation training on experimentally induced pain. The Journal of Pain: Official Journal of the American Pain Society, 11(3), 199-209. doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2009.07.015 Zeidan, F., Johnson, S. K., Diamond, B. J., David, Z., & Goolkasian, P. (2010). Mindfulness meditation improves cognition: Evidence of brief mental training. Consciousness and Cognition, 19(2), 597-605. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2010.03.014 Zeidan, F., Johnson, S. K., Gordon, N. S., & Goolkasian, P. (2010). Effects of brief and sham mindfulness meditation on mood and cardiovascular variables. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 16(8), 867873. doi:10.1089/acm.2009.0321 Carolina Baptista Menezes is a Ph.D. in Psychology from Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul and a Professor at Universidade Federal de Pelotas. Lisiane Bizarro is an Associate Professor of the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. Received: Aug. 18, 2014 1st Revision: Jan. 7, 2015 Approved: Jan. 27, 2015

How to cite this article: Menezes, C. B., & Bizarro, L. (2015). Effects of a brief meditation training on negative affect, trait anxiety and concentrated attention. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 25(62), 393-401. doi:10.1590/1982-43272562201513

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Paidéia sep-dec. 2015, Vol. 25, No. 62, 403-407

AD HOC CONSULTANTS - 2015

Adriana Benevides Soares - Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro-RJ Adriana Cardoso Silva - Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro-RJ Alex Eduardo Gallo - Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina-PR Álvaro José Lelé - Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte-MG Ana Carolina Braz - Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos-SP Ana Emilia Vita Carvalho - Centro Universitário do Pará, Belém-PA Ana Loureiro - Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP Ana Raquel Lucato Cianflone - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP André Faro - Universidade Federal de Sergipe, São Cristóvão-SE Andréa Baraldi Cunha - Universidade Metodista de Piracicaba, Piracicaba-SP Andréia Schmidt - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Anita Liberalesso Neri - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas-SP Anna Maria Buehler - Instituto de Educação e Ciências em Saúde, São Paulo-SP Anne Marie Fontaine - Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal Antonia Regina Ferreira Furegato - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP António Abel Pires - Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal Antônio dos Santos Andrade - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Antonio Marcos Tosoli Gomes - Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro-RJ Áurea Fátima Oliveira - Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia-MG Camélia Santina Murgo - Universidade do Oeste Paulista, Presidente Prudente-SP Camila Cruz Rodrigues - Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, São Paulo-SP Camila Ferreira-Vorkapic - Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro-RJ Carla Alexandra Moita Minervino - Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa-PB Carmen Elvira F. Mendoza Prado - Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte-MG Catarina Brandão - Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal Cibelle Formiga - Universidade Estadual de Goiás, Goiânia-GO Clarissa Mendonça Corradi-Webster - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Clarissa Pinto Pizarro Freitas - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS Claudia Maria Simões Martinez - Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos-SP

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

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Cristina Castro-Lucas - Universidade de Brasília, Brasília-DF Daniel Bartholomeu - Centro Universitário FIEO, Osasco-SP Danilo Rodrigues Silva - Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina-PR Débora Maria Befi-Lopes - Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP Deise Matos do Amparo - Universidade de Brasília, Brasília-DF Denise Falcke - Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, São Leopoldo-RS Diana Alves - Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal Divane de Vargas - Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP Edinete Maria Rosa - Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória-ES Edna Maria Marturano - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Edson do Carmo Inforsato - Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho”, Araraquara-SP Elisa Avellar Merçon-Vargas - Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória-ES Elisa Yoshida - Pontíficia Universidade de Católica de Campinas, Campinas-SP Elizabeth Joan Barham - Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos-SP Eloisio Moulin de Souza - Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória-ES Erika Tiemi Kato Okino - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Eucia Beatriz Lopes Petean - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Eva Diniz Bensaja dei Schiro - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS Evely Boruchovitch - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas-SP Fabián Javier Marín Rueda - Universidade São Francisco, Itatiba-SP Fabiano Koich Miguel - Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina-PR Fabio Scorsolini-Comin - Universidade Federal do Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba-MG Felipe Valentini - Universidade Salgado de Oliveira, Niterói-RJ Fernanda Ottati - Universidade São Francisco, Itatiba-SP Fernando Luiz Cardoso - Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis-SC Filipa Mucha Vieira - Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal Flávia Padovani - Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu, Botucatu-SP Francine Náthalie Ferraresi Rodrigues Pinto - Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos-SP Geraldo Romanelli - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Gimol Benzaquen Perosa - Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho”, Botucatu-SP Graziela Nogueira de Almeida - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Helena Agueda Marujo - Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal Heloísa Ferreira - Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos-SP Hilda Morana - Instituto de Medicina Social e de Criminologia de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP Jair Licio Ferreira Santos - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP

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Ad Hoc Consultants 2015.

Jerusa Fumagalli de Salles - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS Joana Cristina Novais Carneiro Pinto - Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Lisboa, Portugal Joanalira Corpes Magalhães - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, Rio Grande-RS Josemberg Moura de Andrade - Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa-PB Juan Ignacio Aragonés - Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Juliana Cerentini Pacico - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS Juliana Cristina dos Santos Monteiro - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Juliana Stefanello - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Katya Luciane Oliveira - Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina-PR Keila Cristiane Deon - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS Latife Yazigi - Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP Lauren Tonietto - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS Léa Bessa - Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP Leila Tardivo - Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP Lelio Moura Lourenço - Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora-MG Liana Fortunato Costa - Universidade de Brasília, Brasília-DF Lília Iêda Chaves Cavalcante - Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém-PA Lisandra Borges Vieira Lima - Universidade São Francisco, Itatiba-SP Luana Flávia da Silva Talmelli - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Lucas de Francisco Carvalho - Universidade São Francisco, Itatiba-SP Lucia Vaz de Campos Moreira - Universidade Católica do Salvador, Salvador-BA Luciana Carla dos Santos Elias - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Maiana Farias Oliveira Nunes - Universidade São Francisco, Itatiba-SP Marcela Abreu Rodrigues - Universidade de Brasília, Brasília-DF Marcia Fortes Wagner - Faculdade Meridional, Passo Fundo-RS Márcia Maria Peruzzi Elia da Mota - Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro-RJ Márcia Stengel - Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte-MG Marcus Eugênio Oliveira Lima - Universidade Federal de Sergipe, São Cristóvão-SE Margarita Antonia Villar Luís - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Maria Angela Mattar Yunes - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, Rio Grande-RS Maria Claudia Brito - Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho”, Marília-SP Maria Fátima Xavier - Faculdades Integradas Einstein de Limeira, Limeira-SP Maria Isabel Pedrosa - Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife-PE Maria Leonor Espinosa Enéas - Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, São Paulo-SP Maria Stella Coutinho Alcantara Gil - Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos-SP

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Marina Greghi Sticca - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Marta Fuentes-Rojas - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Limeira-SP Marta Santos - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas-SP Martha Franco Diniz Hueb - Universidade Federal do Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba-MG Mauricio Robayo Tamayo - Universidade de Brasília, Brasília-DF Mauro Luís Vieira - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis-SC Mauro Silva Júnior - Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém-PA Mayra Silva de Souza - Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rio de Janeiro-RJ Monalisa Muniz - Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos-SP Neide de Brito Cunha - Universidade do Vale do Sapucaí, Pouso Alegre-MG Nelson Hauck Filho - Universidade São Francisco, Itatiba-SP Norma Lottenberg Semer - Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP Olga Maria Piazentin Rolim Rodrigues - Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho”, Bauru-SP Paloma Pegolo de Albuquerque – Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos-SP Patrícia Alvarenga - Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador-BA Patrício Costa - Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal Paula Inês Cunha Gomide - Universidade Tuiuti do Paraná, Curitiba-PR Rachel Shimba Carneiro - Centro Universitário Augusto Motta, Rio de Janeiro-RJ Regina Sonia Gattas Fernandes do Nascimento - Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP Rita Aparecida Romaro - Universidade de São Francisco, São Paulo-SP Rita de Cássia de Marchi Barcellos Dalri - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Roberto Moraes Cruz - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis-SC Rodolfo Augusto Matteo Ambiel - Universidade São Francisco, Itatiba-SP Rosa Ferreira Novo - Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal Roselaine Berenice Ferreira da Silva - Universidade de Santa Cruz do Sul, Santa Cruz do Sul-RS Rubens de Aguiar Maciel - Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP Sabrina Martins Barroso - Universidade Federal do Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba-MG Sandra Adriana Neves Nunes - Universidade Federal do Sul da Bahia, Itabuna-BA Sandra Brant - Universidade de Brasília, Brasília-DF Sandra Ribeiro de Almeida Lopes - Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, São Paulo-SP Sandro Caramaschi - Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho”, Bauru-SP Saul Neves de Jesus - Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal Sheila Gonçalves Câmara - Fundação Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre-RS Silvia Pereira da Cruz Benetti - Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, São Leopoldo-RS Sílvio Yasui - Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho”, Assis-SP

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Ad Hoc Consultants 2015.

Simone Aparecida Capellini - Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho”, Marília-SP Soely Aparecida Jorge Polydoro - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas-SP Solange Muglia Wechsler - Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Campinas, Campinas-SP Sonia Regina Loureiro - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Sonia Regina Pasian - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Susana Gonçalves Coimbra - Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal Suzane Schmidlin Löhr - Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba-PR Sylvia Domingos Barrera - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Tamara Melnik - Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP Tárcia Rita Davoglio - Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS Tatiana Cury Pollo - Universidade Federal de São João Del-Rei, São João Del-Rei-MG Tatiane Lebre Dias - Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, Cuiabá-MT Tatiana Pontrelli Mecca - Centro Universitário FIEO, Osasco-SP Telmo Mota Ronzani - Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora-MG Thais Antunes Baungart - Faculdade Anhanguera de Campinas, Campinas-SP Thaís Thomé Seni da Silva e Oliveira - Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP Vera Silvia Facciolla Paiva - Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP Vicente Cassepp-Borges - Universidade Federal Fluminense, Volta Redonda-RJ Wagner de Lara Machado - Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Campinas, Campinas-SP Zeidi Araújo Trindade - Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória-ES Zenith Nara Costa Delabrida - Universidade Federal de Sergipe, Aracaju-SE

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- Word file with the manuscript; - Declaration of Responsibility and Assignment of Copyright (available in http://www.ffclrp.usp.br/divulgacao/ paideia/ttdaEN-US.pdf, scanned and signed by all authors). Portuguese version available in http://www.ffclrp.usp.br/ divulgacao/paideia/ttda.pdf and Spanish version available in http://www.ffclrp.usp.br/divulgacao/paideia/ttdaES-ES.pdf; - Digital file with IRB approval (when the research involves human beings), in accordance with section III of these guidelines. Manuscripts submitted online received a numerical identification protocol. Paidéia fully adopts the publication standards of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th edition, 2010). It is important to observe some steps before submitting the manuscript: (1) carefully revise the text for grammatical correction, typos and bibliographic errors, also considering the items included in the submission; (2) check whether all requisites of the Publication Guidelines were complied with. When submitting online, the manuscript should be submitted to Paidéia in one of the following languages: Portuguese, English or Spanish. Texts should be formatted as follows: double lining (distance of 1 cm between lines), justified, in font Times New Roman, size 12, across the text, especting the page limit. The manuscript should be number as from the title page, which will receive page number 1. The A4 format should be adopted, with 2.5cm margins (upper, lower, left and right) and indentation of the first line of the paragraph: tab = 1.25cm. The presentation of the papers has to follow a specific order, considering: 1. Title page without personal data, including: 1.1. Full title in Portuguese, not exceeding 12 words; 1.2. Full title in English, compatible with the Portuguese version; 1.3. Full title in Spanish, compatible with the Portuguese version; 1.4. Suggested running title in English, not exceeding 50 characters (including letters, punctuation and spaces). Attention: As the manuscript is submitted to blind review, the authors are responsible for checking that there are no elements capable of identifying them in any part of the text. Paidéia is not responsible for procedures by authors who do not comply with this guideline. The author’s name should be removed from the file properties, using the tool “Properties”, in the file menu of MS Word, and from any other part of the submitted manuscript. No attachments and appendices will be accepted, nor colored illustrations, reproductions of photographs, shadowed tables or footnotes in the text. Reproduction of any part of published Works will only be permitted if accompanied by the authors’ authorization for publication in Paidéia. In case of approval, papers will be published in the full version in English (in print and online). In other words, for publication, the authors have to provide for the translation of the manuscript (as approved) to English and cover the costs of this translation. To guarantee the quality and uniformity of texts translated into English, only accredited translators are allowed to perform these translations. The Committee of Accredited

Translators comprises highly qualified professionals with proven experience in scientific translations. 2. Abstract, in Portuguese. The abstract limit is 150 words. In case of research reports, the abstract should include: a short description of the research problem, purpose, relevant sample characteristics, data collection method, results and conclusions (or final considerations for qualitative studies). Final considerations should present the implications or applications of the produced knowledge. For research reports, the method should provide consistent information about the participants, instruments and procedures used. Only the most important results, which respond to the research purposes, should be mentioned in the abstract. No references should be included. The abstract has to be followed by three to five keywords for indexation, which should accurately classify the paper, permitting a fast recovery with similar papers in case of a bibliographic research. Keywords have to be selected through the instrument available at: http://www.bvs-psi.org. br/ – consult: Terminologies and Psi Terminology, where the Vocabulary of Terms in Psychology is available. Abstracts of systematic literature reviews or theoretical studies should included: topic addressed (in a statement), objective, thesis or construct under analysis or study organizer, used sources (e.g., an observation made by the author, published literature), and conclusions. 3. Abstract.The abstract limit is 150 words. It should comply with the same specifications as the Portuguese version, including the Keywords, in accordance with the Vocabulary of Terms in Psychology. 4. Resumen. The abstract limit is 150 words. It should comply with the same specifications as the Portuguese version, including the Palabras clave, in accordance with the Vocabulary of Terms in Psychology. 5. The text itself. The organization of the manuscript should be easy to recognize, signaled by a system of titles and subtitles that reflect this pattern. The text should start with an introduction and include the following headings: Method, Results and Discussion. As the introduction of the manuscript is easily identified by its place in the text, the heading Introduction is not necessary. In the research reports, the Method section must include the following subheadings: Participants, Instruments, Procedure (the latter subdivided into Data collection and Data analysis) and, finally, the subheading Ethical Considerations, in which the authors should mention the approval of the Research Ethics Committee, the name of the institution the committee is affiliated with and the protocol number. Authors should finish the Discussion section with a well reasoned comment, justifying the importance of the study findings. In this section, the authors should present the main contributions the research offers to the knowledge area within Psychology. Besides the implications and possible applications of the knowledge produced, authors should also point out the limitations of the study and its consequences in terms of prospects for future investigations. Suggested places to include figures and tables have to be indicated in the text. Quotations of other authors have to be done according to APA standards, as exemplified under

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section VII. Full transcriptions of a text have to be delimited by quotation marks and reference to the author, followed by the number of the page referred to. A literal quotation with 40 or more words has to be presented in a single block, starting with a new line, 05 (five) spaces from the border, in the same position as a paragraph. The font size should be 12, similar to the rest of the text. This type of citation should be avoided Authors are fully responsible for the contents and exactness of citations. 6. References. The references used should be coherent with the study’s theoretical-methodological framework. In this sense, literature on the research theme should be recovered, privileging scientific papers to the detriment of other publication modes. References should be up-todate. At least 50% should date back to the last five years, counted from the submission date. Non-compliance with this guideline implies return of the manuscript to the authors. The Editor, with support from the Editorial Board and ad hoc reviewers, can judge special cases that do not strictly fit into this criterion. 7. Figures and Tables should be inserted after the References section. The suggested place of insertion should be indicated in the body of the text though. The words Figure and Table in the texts should always be spelled with the first letter in upper case, followed by the respective number they refer to. Expressions like “the Table above” or the “Figure below” should not be used, as locations can change during the editing process. APA standards do not include the names Charts and Graphs, but only Tables and Figures. Figures and Tables should be presented with their respective legends and titles, one per page. 7.1 Figures, including subtitles, in black and white. As the published version cannot exceed 8.3 cm width for single figures and 17.5 cm width for complex figures, the author should make sure that no subtitle quality is lost in case width reduction is necessary. Reproductions of drawings will not be accepted. The quantity of figures and tables cannot exceed five. 7.2 Tables, including titles and notes, should be produced in black and white, one per page. The published table cannot exceed (17.5 x 23.7) cm (width x length). When preparing them, the author should limit the width to 60 characters for single tables to occupy a printed column, including three character-spaces between table columns, limiting complex tables to a 125-character width to occupy two printed columns. The table length cannot exceed 55 lines, including title and footnotes. For other details, especially for anomalous cases, please refer to APA’s manual. The quantity of figures and tables cannot exceed five units. Numerical and statistical information should be presented in compliance with the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th edition, 2010). For manuscripts written in Portuguese, numerical information should be standardized in line with Carzola, Silva and Vendramini (2009) in the book Publicar em Psicologia: Um Enfoque Para a Revista Científica, which can be accessed free of charge at the following electronic address: http://www.ip.usp.br/portal/ images/stories/biblioteca/Publicar-em-Psicologia.pdf In case of papers written in Portuguese, the authors should solve occasional inconsistencies between APA

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standards and writing in Portuguese, in view of general rules for writing in that language. Formatting of the manuscript, tables, figures and other elements should strictly comply with the APA manual. Before submitting, the authors should assess whether the manuscript complies with the checklist displayed on pages 241-243 of the APA manual. Non-compliance with these elements can represent a reason for the Editorial Board to reject the manuscript. As a complementary source, authors should access online ifnromation on the APA manual at: http://www. apastyle.org/ VII. EXAMPLES OF CITATIONS IN THE BODY OF THE MANUSCRIPT Citation of papers with multiple authors 1. Two authors Authors’ last name is explicit in all citations by using and or & as mentioned below: The method proposed by Siqueland and Delucia (1969) but “The method was initially proposed for sight study (Siqueland & Delucia, 1969). 2. From three to five authors Every author’s last name is explicit in the first citation, as above. From the second citation on, only the first author’s surname is explicit, followed by “et al.” and the year, if it is the first citation of a reference inside the same paragraph: Spielberg, Gorsuch and Luschene (1924) verified that [first citation] Spielberger et al. (1924) observed that [next quote, first in the paragraph] Spielberg et al. verified that [the year is omitted in the following citations when in the same paragraph] Exception: If the abbreviated form results in identitcal references to two papers with different co-authors, authors’ names are mentioned to avoid any mix-up. Hayes, S. C., Brownstein, A. J., Hass, J. R., & Greenway, D. E. (1986) and Hayes, S. C., Brownstein, A. J., Zettle, R. D., Rosenfarb, I., & Korn, Z. (1986) papers are mentioned as follows: Hayes, Brownstein, Hass et al. (1986) and Hayes, Brownstein, Zettle at al. (1986) verified that… In the References section, all names are mentioned. 3. Six or more authors In the text, from the first citation onwards, only the first author’s surname is mentioned, followed by “et al.”, except in case of ambiguities, when the same procedure described above is used. In the References section, all names are mentioned. Citation of papers based on a secondary source The paper uses a reference that discusses another reference, without having fully read the original one (e.g. Flavell’s study, cited by Shore, 1982). This kind of citation

should be avoided and limited to specific cases, which should be informed and justified to the editor in a separate message. In the text, the following citation format should be used: Flavell (as cited by, 1982) adds that those students… In the References, inform the secondary source (in that case, Shore), using the appropriate format. Citation of re-edited century-old publication Author (date of original publication / date of consulted edition), as in Franco (1790/1946). Citation of private communication This type of citation should be avoided, as it does not provide information obtained through traditional methods. If unavoidable, it can appear in the text, but not in the References. C. M. L. C. Zannon (private communication, October 30th 1994) VIII. ORIENTATIONS REFERENCES

FOR

BIBLIOGRAPHIC

References should be arranged according to the following general rules. Papers by a single author and the same authors are ordered per publication year, from older to newer publications. Single-author precedes multiple-author publications if the surname is the same. Papers in which the first author is the same but the co-authors differ are arranged by the co-authors surnames. Publications with the same multiple authorship are arranged per date, from the older to the newer. Papers with the same authorship and data are displayed alphabetically by the title, ignoring the first word if that is an article or pronoun, except when the title itself contains an indication of order; the year is immediately followed by lower-case letters. When repeated, the author’s name should not be replaced by a hyphen or other signs. The formatting of the bibliographic list should be appropriate for review and editing, with double lining and font 12. Each reference should be placed in a new paragraph, with an indentation of half centimeter from the left margin on the second line. Carefully check the Publication Guidelines before preparing the references. The authors are fully responsible for the exactness of references. Below are examples of common reference types. 1. Technical report Birney, A. J., & Hall, M. M. (1981). Early identification of children with written language disabilities (Rep. No. 811502). Washington, DC: National Education Association. 2. Proceedings of meetings and symposia Paidéia does not accept references to studies presented at meetings and symposia, even if they were published in the proceedings. We suggest replacing these references by papers published on the same theme.

3. Doctoral dissertations and master’s theses References to dissertations and theses should be avoided. Instead, the papers they originated, i.e. the indexed publications should be preferred. If no paper was published deriving from the dissertation or thesis, cite another article on the same theme. If the citation of dissertations or thesis is inevitable, they should be available on-line in an institutional or commercial database: 3.1 Master’s thesis available in commercial database McNiel, D. S. (2006). Meaning through narrative: A personal narrative discussing growing up with na alcoholic mother (Master’s thesis). Available from ProQuest Dissertation and Theses database. (UMI No. 1434728) 3.2 Doctoral dissertation available in institutional database Juran, R. (2013). The relationship between perceived thought control ability, mindfulness, and anxiety (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://etd.ohiolink.edu/ If the dissertation or thesis used as a source is not in English, inform the original title, followed by the English title as mentioned in the original document between square brackets: Sá, E. M. M. (2012). Habilidades sociais, bem-estar psicológico e rendimento escolar [Social skills, psychological wellbeing and school performance] (Doctoral dissertation, Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal). Retrieved from http://ria.ua.pt/handle/10773/9222 4. Books Arendt, H. (1998). The human condition (2th ed.). Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. If the book used as a source is not available in English, inform the original title, followed by the translation to English between square brackets: Pitiá, A. C. A., & Santos, M. A. (2005). Acompanhamento terapêutico: A construção de uma estratégia clínica [Therapeutic accompaniment: Building a clinical strategy] (2nd ed.). São Paulo, SP: Vetor. 5. Book chapter Blough, D. S., & Blough, P. (1977). Animal psychophysics. In W. K. Honig & J. E. Staddon (Orgs.), Handbook of operant behavior (pp. 514-539). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. If the book chapter used as a source is not available in English, inform the title of the original chapter, together with the title of the original book, followed by the translation of both titles to English between square brackets: Hoffman, L. W. (1979). Experiência da primeira infância e realizações femininas [Early childhood experience and female achievements]. In H. Bee (Org.), Psicologia do desenvolvimento: Questões sociais [Developmental psychology: Social issues] (pp. 45-65). Rio de Janeiro, RJ: Interamericana.

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6. Translated book Kuhn, T. (1996). A estrutura das revoluções científicas [The structure of scientific revolutions] (B. Boeira & N. Boeira, Trans.). São Paulo, SP: Perspectiva. (Original work published 1970) Salvador, C. C. (1994). Aprendizagem escolar e construção de conhecimento [School learning and knowledge building] (E. O. Dihel, Trans.). Porto Alegre, RS: Artes Médicas. (Original work published 1990) If the translation to Portuguese of a book in another language is used as a source, inform the year of the translation to Portuguese and indicate the publication year of the original work at the end of the reference. In the body of the text, cite the year of the original publication and the year of the translation: (Salvador, 1990/1994). Include the original title, followed by the translation to English between square brackets. 7. Re-edition of century-old publication Franco, F. M. (1946). Tratado de educação física dos meninos. Rio de Janeiro, RJ: Agir. (Original work published 1790) 8. Corporate authorship American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Conselho Federal de Serviço Social. Conselho Federal de Psicologia. (2007). Parâmetros para atuação de assistentes sociais e psicólogos(as) na política de assistência social [Parameters for social workers and psychologists’ performance in the Social Assistance Policy]. Retrieved from http://site.cfp.org.br/publicacao/parmetros-paraatuao-de-assistentes-sociais-e-psiclogosas-na-poltica-deassistncia-social/ For material available online, do not include the access date unless the source of the material changes over time (ex. wikis). 9. Journal article (with and without DOI) If the paper used as a source is not in English, inform the original title, followed by the translation to English as mentioned in the article between square brackets: Dugnani, K. C. B., & Marques, S. L. (2011). Construção e validação de instrumento para prática interventiva na adoção [Construction and validation of an instrument for intervening practices in adoption]. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 21(50), 317-328. doi:10.1590/S0103863X2011000300004 Articles published in bilingual journals, in which English is one of the languages, should be referred to using the title in English: Castaño-Perez, G. A., & Calderon-Vallejo, G. A. (2014). Problems associated with alcohol consumption by university students. Revista Latino-Americana de Enfermagem, 22(5), 739-746. doi:10.1590/01041169.3579.2475

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If the article published on-line does not have a digital object identifier (DOI), inform the URL. Do not inform the access date. Kirst-Conceição, A. da C., & Martinelli, S. de C. (2014). Análises psicométricas iniciais de uma Escala de Empatia Infantojuvenil (EEmpa-IJ) [Initial psychometric analysis of an Child and Youth Empathy Scale (EEmpaIJ)]. Avaliação Psicológica, 13(3), 351-358. Retrieved from http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/scielo.php?script=sci_ serial&pid=1677-0471&lng=pt&nrm=iso 10. Journal article in press Avoid this type of reference. If it is inevitable, do not include the year, volume or number of pages until the article has been published. Respecting the order of names, this should be the final reference to the author. Carvalho, L. F., & Primi, R. (in press). Development and internal structure investigation of the Dimensional Clinical Personality Inventory. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica. 11. Legal documents Decreto No. 3.298. (1999, 20 de dezembro). Regulamenta a política nacional para a integração da pessoa portadora de deficiência, consolida as normas de proteção e dá outras providências [Regulates the national policy for the integration of the disabled person, consolidates norms of protection and other measures]. Brasília, DF: Presidência da República. Lei No. 9.394, de 20 de dezembro de 1996 (1996, 23 de dezembro). Estabelece as Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Nacional [Establishes the Guidelines and Bases of the National Education]. Diário Oficial da União, seção 1. Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil. (1988, 5 de outubro). Recuperado de http://www.senado.gov.br/sf/ legislacao/const/ Communication may be done via Phone: 55 16 3315.3829 or e-mail: paideia@usp.br Paidéia Prof. Dr. Manoel Antônio dos Santos – Editor-in-Chief Psychology Department / FFCLRP-USP Avenida Bandeirantes, 3900 - Monte Alegre CEP 14040-901, Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil

PaidĂŠia Editorial Review Process

The author submits the manuscript to PaidĂŠia

Does the manuscript comply with all the publication guidelines?

The Editorial Board calls for a review

YES The Assistant to the Editorial Board confirms the reception of the manuscript

The manuscript is analyzed by ad hoc consultants

Request for reformulation

The authors reformulate the manuscript Resubmission

Approved

Rejected

The Assistant to the Editorial Board requests the proofreading of the manuscript

Editing process

Abstract and Resumen review

In Print

Bibliographic review

Editorial Board review

Design and composition of the issue

Conversion of the article to the SciELO method

Distribution of print copies to authors, ad hoc consultants and libraries

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