ENVS10003
Constructing Environments Logbook
Paige Collett 698753 pcollett@student.unimelb.edu.au Bachelor of Environments
Lecturer: Clare Newton Senior Tutor: Rebecca Cameron Tutor: Jullian Tuckett Semester 1, 2014
Contents
WEEK1
01 - 05
WEEK2
06 - 10
WEEK3
11 - 17
WEEK4
18 - 22
ENVS10003
Construction Workshop
23 - 25
WEEK5
26 - 32
WEEK6 WEEK7
33 - 38 39 - 43
WEEK8
44 - 49
WEEK9
50 - 57
W E E K 10
58 - 61
Glossary
62 - 64
References
65 - 65
ENVS10003 WEEK1
Key Terms Compression Tension Building Envelope Facade Context Building ‘Systems’ -
01.
Mind Map
02.
Materials: an Introduction
The modern construction industry has vast option when it comes to materials, different execution methods with those materials, and the different components and features that can effect the properties of a certain material. Some of the key basic principles of construction materials are stated, defined and examples are given:
Strength
Different materials have different strength properties - and those different properties also vary based on the ‘type’ of strength being measured a material can have different variations of strength in the context of structural forces such as compression and tension.
Stiffness
Impartial to ‘strength’ - simply an appraisal of flexibility and stiffness
MDF - Medium Density Fibreboard. Made of very fine wood dust particles, glued and compressed together with resin under heat and pressure. - economic - even density - vast availability - good workability
Shape
Can effect all other material properties. Certain materials are Monodimensional, Bidimensional and Tridimensional (Newton, 2014)
Material Behaviours The behabviour of a material in responce to forces. A material is typically Isotropic or Anisotropic (Ref. Glossary for definition)
Economy
Is it economically viable to ascertian that particular material?
Sustainability
The environmental impact of a material is very important in the 21st century. This encompasses not only how the material will last and perform over time, but also the impact of sourcing that particular material The embodied energy (ref. Glossary for definition). The materials long term performance is the longituidy of itslife, the recyclability of it, and how it minimises other services that cause environmentalimpact; such as the required heating/cooling/lighting of a structure. Images: MDF Block Tower displaying compressionpowers, approx. 1700mm tall, balancing a weight of approx 4kg at peak; Paige Collett (2014)
03.
Basic Structural Forces Tension and Compression
The Power of Compression
The two most common and basic structural forces one must familarise themselves with are Tension and Compression. Tension describes a pulling force, in which the material or structure experiences elongation to a certain degree. A common structural example of where tension is evident is in the construction of bridges, where steel wiring under a great deal of tension is often used as a key part of the structure.
Image: Ching ‘Building Construction Illustrated p2.11 (2008)
Compression is the opposite force, in which the material or structure is compressed often due to weight and gravity. Brick structures are a
COMPRESSION
Forces and Scale
TENSION
Images: Stages of MDF block tower construction and destruction; Paige Collett (2014)
Forces and scale can be expressed in the mathematical term of ‘Vectors’. They can represent compression, tension or any other form of ‘movement’ - as is the definition of ‘force’. They also depict the measurable scale of that force. (UOM Department of Mathematics and Statistics, 2014)
04.
Loads: Depiction, Measurements & Types Dead Load is the load of a structure itself; its materials and permenant structure in order for a Structure to stand there must be a balance of equal and opposite forces the earth must be able to support and push up, the weight of the structure being pushed down. The Dead load must also be balanced or able to counterbalance through strength or some other property - this is shown in the sketch of a floating bench:
Dead Load
Image: MDF Block Tower midway through distruction; Paige Collett (2014)
Load Path Above is an image of the MDF block tower built in W1 of Constructing Environments. The image shows a section that was partially destroyed to test the power of compression. The arrows show how the load is distributed throughout the tower and how that distribution changes around the void in the tower. Tarrows show where the load is not spread evenly, however it can be seen that very quickly, the load levels out again throughout the MDF blocks. The more evenly spaced the building materials, (MDF blocks) the more evenly spread the load will be.
Live/Static Load Live load is the applied and often changing load that a structure endures, it is often unbalanced in the structure so the structure must be designed to withstand this change, a bridge is an excellent example with cars as the ‘live’ load.
Image: Bloukrans Bridge, South Africa; ‘Fiona in Monbulk (2012)
05.
ENVS10003 WEEK2 Key Terms Structural Joint Stability Tension Frame Bracing Column Load Distribution -
06.
Mind Map
07.
The Sytem Breakdown:
Structural Systems
Structural Solid Systems
Compression is the key structural force present in this building method, a very early method of construction. E.g. stone, bricks
The Great Pyrimid of Giza, Egypt; Nina (2005)
Enclosure
Shell/Surface Systems
A planar structure relying on compression tension and tensile forces. Typically construced of steel reinforced concrete, coming to popularity post WWII (Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. 2014)
Sydney Opera House, Australia; Unknown (2011)
This is not simply the aesthetic of a structure but also the protective outer layer. The facade, exterior walls, entrance points and roof all make up the external envelope system. It must form a divide creating an internal and external space where the two environments can opperate independent of one another. Weather control, light flooding, temperature control, security and privacy are just some of the systems a building enclosure can effect and regulate.
Mechanical/Services
Frame/Skeletal Systems
The most common form of construction in the 21st century. An efficient way of transfering loads (Newton, 2014) and the structure can be made out of a vast range of materials E.g. wood, steel
The purely practical side to a structure: the mathematics, the physics, the backbone to everything else. Superstructure is the above ground structure of a building, the beams, the columns, loadbearing walls etc. Substructure encompasses is the underground aspect of the structure, the foundations whether it be reinforced concrete slabs, piles, etc.
Vodafone Headquarters, Portugal; Unknown (2014)
The mechanical systems of a structure are the ones that are regarded as necessary for a ‘comfortable’ dwelling - however the sustainability and environmental aspects of a structure can realistically impact the services required, or altar the ‘way’ in which those systems are required. Some of the systems are: water, electricity, heating/cooling, ventilation, sewage (Ching 2014)
Membrane Systems
Efficient and economic. Able to cover large surfaces of area, with the primary force being tension. The membrane is typically thin and flexible such as fabric (Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. 2014)
National Aquatics Centre, Beijing; Unknown (2008)
Hybrid Systems
Newest system to the Construction Industry, a combination of structural systems are used E.g. Skeletal and Membrane Sports Park Stozice, Slovenia; Unknown
08.
Key Considerations in Construction NEED
WANT
It all starts with... and An individual or company requires a building
Aesthetic
Performance
Wanted performances can be things that must fit a use, such as an area to accomodate a certain quantity of people. Need performances tend to be based on location and also building use - fire escape, natural disaster considerations, soil types, sound resistence, ongoing maintenance
Tend to be solely ‘want’. But also effect the way a building can be used. Environmental and neighbourhood context should be taken into consideration
Environmental
Will the Structure be sustainable not only now, but over time? Will the building materials assist in minimal electricity usage? What is the embodied energy of the materials?
Economic
Does it fit the Budget?
It should be noted that this process does not stop when the construction begins, this is a circular processes that will continue to change and evolve throughout the entire construction
Construction Limitations
What are the building codes and regulations? What is the material availability? Are their labourers available with the appropriate qualifications?
09.
Structural Joints
Roller Joint
Allows horisontal movement Ideal for structures with a moving load E.g. bridges Week 2 brought the experimentation of structural joints. A structure is only as strong as its weakest joint. Regardless of the materials used, the joint type, and strength has a paramount effect on the stability and strength of a structure this was first shown in the demonstration of a ‘water tank’ built with straws for columns and pins for joints - although the columns were weak, it must be noted that the failing point in the experiment occurred at the ‘pin’ joints. Following this, students were asked to construct towers with a skeletal frame using balsa wood - A major flaw observed was the lack of stability and support in the footings - at a certain point of height the structure would fail due to becoming unbalanced
Pin Joint
Allows rotational movement Often found within a truss system
Fixed Joint
A complex joint that allows no movement, because of this a lot of pressure can be put on the joint and columns/structure when a load is applied and result in bending (Newton, 2014)
10.
ENVS10003 WEEK3 Key Terms Moment Retaining Wall Pad Footing Strip Footing Slab on Ground Substructure -
11.
Mind Map
12.
Terminology
Masonry units act as a monolithic whole (Newton, 2014)
Beam - experiences both tension and compression - upper side of beam undergoes compression - lower side of beam undergoes tension - idel to be built from materials that can withstand both forces (e.g. timber, steel) Tie - a tension element - hold loads in place
Monolithic Defined in both new and old construction methods and typically used in mass construction due to the strong compression traits and also the size of materials. Monolithic construction materials are typically larger in scale allowing mass construction to occur in a timely manner. Typically weak in tension but made up of durable and hard components.
Strut - a compression element (e.g. a column or truss element)
Monolithic Materials: Modular - components that fit together - Clay Bricks - Mud Bricks - Concrete Blocks - Ashlar Stone
Slab/Plate - distributes loads in more than a single direction - thickening of slab can encourage loads to go in a certain direction - used often when discussing foundations
Non Modular - Concrete - Rammed Earth - Monolith Stone
Panels - wall panels carry load via compression - shear wall panels are there purely for protection from forces that may blow the structure over (wind) Equilibrium - a state of balance - the addition of forces are equal to zero A ‘Moment’ - a measurement of rotation force is equal to Force x Distance M=FxD
When Horizontal Forces = 0 there is no side to side movement When Vertical Forces = 0 there is no up or down movement
Masonry A subset of Mass construction, similar materials are used but at a smaller scale. The smaller components are used due to the smaller scale of the structures (e.g. houses). Masonry Elements: Vertical - walls, columns, piers Horizontal/Curved - Beams, lintels, arches Spanning/Enclosing - Vaults, domes
Image1: Monolithic Concstruction, Pallavi Pengonda, (2012), http://www.livemint.com/Money/3gJH3g3g9gGNjNpRAwEXsI/Good-September-quarter-for-Sintex.html Image 2: Masonry Construction, Dewen Property Builders, (2014), http://dewanpb.com/services-3/
13.
Foundations - Slab on Grade Image 1: Reinforcement (steel) being put in place
The below sketches show the make-up of a Concrete Slab on Grade with a masonry foundation wall, and also a thickened edge slab. Highly compressed soil is ideal if not a requirement of this type of foundation system. The concrete component holds high compression features - the addition of steel reinforcement allows for any tension needs required from the foundations, and prevents cracking when movement occursin the soil. This is an In-Situ form of construction (executed on site).
Image 2: Concrete being poured over steel reinforcement
Image 1: Bamtec, (2010), http://www.prlog.org/10968784-adverse-winter-weather-beaten-by-bamtec-to-deliver-urban-regeneration-development-on-time.html Image 2: Spanwright, (2010), http://www.spanwright.co.uk/concrete-flooring
14.
More Foundations Shallow Foundations: Spread Footings Depicted below are examples of a ‘Strip Footing’ system and a ‘Continuous Footing’ system. The major difference between the two is what they support (foundation wall and columns respectively). Isolated footings are the single spread footing support of a single column/pier (Ching, 2008). The appeal of this foundation system is the greater surface area for loads to be transferred through, and therefore ideal for greater loads. Pile Foundation
Deep Foundations: Pole and Pile Foundations Ideal for various reasons - unstable ground, sloped ground surface, high dead load. Pole Foundations are typically used in timber structures to elevate them above the ground for flood reasons or in the case of sloping ground foundations. Treated timber poles are inserted into the ground at varied depths (determined based on load and slope) and further supported by either a) concrete pads, b) concrete colar or c) concrete backfilling (as opposed to soil backfill). Piles extend through unstable soil until a point where they reach soil suitable to withstand the compression of the structural load above. Piles can be either timber, steel pre-cast or prepressed concrete, or concrete filled pipes - dependant on the load Image 1: Treated Wood Pole awaiting backfilling, Badger Inc, (2014), http://badgerinc.com/hydrovac-application/pole-holes-piling-holes/
15.
Bricks Standard Size: 230x76x110 110mm 76mm 230mm
(Right) Types of Brick Joint Finishes (Below) Brick Joints: Typically 10mm wide
Some Facts: Bricks are shaped clay and water that have been fired at high temperatures. The more iron present in the clay the pinker the colour of the brick becomes, the more Manganese present, the more grey/black the colour becomes. Bricks were originally hand made, then machine pressed, and today are more commonly extruded as a length and wire cut.
Brick Laying: A ‘course’ represents a single row of bricks.
Below (Image 4), lines can be seen going both horizontally and vertically across a brick wall these lines are in fact expansion joints. Due to brick’s permeable nature, they can expand, retract and generally move over time. To prevent damage to the structure, foam inserts are placed in approximately 10mm wide gaps in the brick work (this also prevents water penetration). The spacing and frequency of expansion joints vary and are calculated based on the estimated brick wrythe due to moisture expansion and environmental factors (The Brick Industry Association, 2006)
Image 2: Brick structure close up
Vertical Expansion Joints
Perpends Bed Joints
Horizontal Expantion Joints
Weep holes are common in brick structures because bricks are porous. Bricks wil absorb and expire water throughout their life cycle - weep holes allow ventilation which prevents dampness from occuring within a wall cavity (space between the external and internal walls) and also allow an escape for any condensation that does occurr (refer to Image 3, left). Image 1: Unknown, (2014), http://www.fatherryan.org/page.cfm?p=558 Image 2, 3 and 4: Paige Collett, (2014).
Image 3: Weep Holes in a brick structure at The University of Melbourne, Parkville.
16.
Stone & Blocks Stone
Image 1
Image 2
Igneous - formed when molten lava cools - dense and dark in colour - high compressive strength - ideal for footings of a structure - impervious to water (e.g. Granite, Basalt, Bluestone)
A masonry construction material very similar to bricks but larger. The blocks weigh approximately 11kg (bricks are 3-4kg) and is manufactured with large holes through the brick. These holes help with insulation but also in minimising the weight of the blocks. Image 3
Image 4
Sedimentary - formed by weathering of other stones - softer, less dense - light in colour - easily carved and broken (e.g. Limestone, Sandstone) Metamorphic - formed by high pressure/heat of other stones - dense - translucent in colour - typically used for flooring, cladding and bench tops (e.g. Marble, Slate)
Blocks
Manufactured from cement/sand/gravel/water the slurry is mixed, moulded and ‘cured’ (a chemical process involving hydration). The holes in the blocks are also very useful as they allow reinforcement rods to be used or grout, to further support a block constructed wall.
Image 5
Image 6
Image 1: Basalt Rock, Sandatlas, (2013), http://www.sandatlas.org/2012/12/basalt/ Image 2: Basalt Structure, Bruce Railsback, (unknown), http://www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/BS/BS-Loa.html Image 3: Sandstone Rock, Jon Zander, (2007), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Millet-Seed_Sandstone_Macro.JPG Image 4: Sandstone Wall, Stone Walls, (2013), http://earthmovingstonewalls.com.au/rock-walls/wall-cladding/ Image 5: Marble Rock, US Government, (2005), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MarbleUSGOV.jpg Image 6: Marble Bench, Interiors by Darren James, (2012), http://www.interiorsbydarrenjames.com.au/services/kitchens/inside-your-kitchen
17.
ENVS10003 WEEK4 Key Terms Joist Steel Decking Span Concrete Concrete Plank Spacing -
18.
Mind Map
19.
Span & Spacing, In Situ & Pre Fab Span The distance measured between two structural supports Horizontal members are measured to their vertical supports Vertical members are measured to their horizontal supports Spacing The distance measured between elements Spacing depends on the spanning capabilities of a member and is measured from the centre of each element
In Situ A form of construction that takes place on the construction site itself. Walls, flooring etc are constructed and erected onsite. Non standard structural elements are made In Situ due to their one off nature - this is not to say they cannot be pre-fabricated. E.g. In Situ concrete is poured and moulded on site and in position. All elements involved in the process of concrete curing take place on site such as framework construction, reinforcement, curing and vibration.
Pre Fab Pre fabrication is when construction elements such as, frames, wall sections, flooring sections are fabricated off site and delivered in whole, to be secured in place.
Image 1: In Situ Concrete Slab, Grant Smith, (unknown), http://www.constructionphotography.com/Details.aspx?ID=1653&TypeID=1 Image 2: Pre Cast Concrete Slabs, CW Staff, (2014), http://www.constructionweekonline.com/article-17403-precast-takes-the-lead/
20.
Flooring Systems There are three main types of flooring systems, steel concrete and timber. Steel sheeting is often used as a frame for casting concrete flooring and can remain as part of the structure or be taken down. Steel is also used as structural beams in flooring, as a way to carry loads In concrete flooring systems, slabs of concrete span 1 or 2 (depending on size) directions to structural beams. The beams carry the load of the floor to columns and down. The width of the concrete slab can assist with the span capabilities. The width is typically determined by Span required by slab, divided by 30 Timber flooring is very common in Australia and the USA. It can be used as not only the flooring but also the bearers (primary beams) and joists (secondary beams). Floorboards can typically span between 450-600mm. The Choice of flooring system used is often due to cost but also spanningand load requirements.
Image 1: Steel flooring, Unknow, (2014), http://www.directindustry.com/prod/meiser/shelving-gratings-18604-530096.html Image 2: Concrete flooring, Keith Porter, (2013), http://www.nexus.globalquakemodel.org/gem-building-taxonomy/overview/glossary/precast-concrete-floor-with-reinforced-concrete-topping--fc3 Image 3: Timber flooring, Unknown, (2014), http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-joist-span.htm
21.
Concrete Concrete is made from the binding of Water and Cement through mixing and curing. Cement gravel aggregates are used to form a hard material, the typical recipe is: 1 x Cement (portland, lime) : 2 x fine aggregate (sand) : 4 x course aggregate (crushed rock) : 0.4-0.5 x water During the mixing, the cement and aggregate mixture must be hydrated to form an almost liquid form, too much water will cause the concrete to be weak, too little water and the concrete will not be workable, as concrete should be plastic before it is set. Concrete is put in forms, typically temporary frame work, and then dries hard into the desired shape. The Framework is typically timber, metal or plastic, or a combination. Before setting, the concrete must be supported, but post setting it can support its own weight - this is important to take into consideration when forming concrete floors/ceilings. After 7 days of being poured, the concrete is capable of 75% of its total compressive strength, final testing of the hardened concrete occurs after 28 days typically. Treatment of the concrete is very important during the setting stage, or what is better referred to as the ‘curing’ stage. - both by builders and also by the weather. Moisture is important for the concrete to gain its full strength, cracking can occur when the concrete is too dry and so can shrinking - so ponding can be a technique to ensure the concrete is hydrated appropriately (See image 2). Concrete is very strong in compression however not in tension, under tensile strength it is likely to crack and when the earth moves beneath concrete slabs this can be a problem. Steel Reinforcement is used in conjunction with the concrete to assist in tensile strength. The amount of reinforcement varies in different conditions. Concrete is a cost effective material however expensive environmentally, with high embodied energy. It has a long lifespan as it is a hard material and low in porosity. It is a poor conduction of heat and electricity so works well in hot weather.
Unknown, (2012), http://www.construction-machine.org/2012/03/choosing-the-best-concrete-mixer-for-the-job/ Bill Bradley, (2007), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Curing-concrete.jpg
22.
ENVS10003
CONSTRUCTIONWORKSHOP
23.
The Task The Construction Workshop’s main goal was to construct in groups a structure spanning a distance of 1000mm and put under a point load pressure - and see at what point the structure would fail. This task resembled almost the task a bridge executes, a car travelling along is a form of point load although a moving point load. A bridge must span a given distance and be able to withstand a load from a given point (in a bridge’s case - all points). The bridge is at its most vulnerable in the centre, bracing and trusses can assist in transfering the load back to the edges where the structure is supported. To the right we see how a point load applied to a simple beam and column structure can fail, the load (depending on weight of course) will put the beam under compression and tension forces before it has time to reach the columns and be transferred to the ground. These forces can result in the structure warping and inevitably failing (breaking). The best design in this case (that my group of 3 came to the conclusion of ) would be to design a structure in which the load was directed to the groundings as quickly as possible. It should be noted that the design we chose would be ideal for a point load only positioned at the peak of the structure however.
Sydney Harbour Bridge, Jim, (2010), http://sydney-city.blogspot.com.au/2010/06/sydney-harbour-bridge.html
24.
The Structure The (messy, rushed) Planning Phase For the Structure we were given: 1 x Ply 1200x3.2x90 mm 2 x Pine 1200x42x18 mm
The Construction Phase
The Point Load Test, and Destruction Final failing point: The structure failed at 350kg, with a deflection of 55mm. This was the best result of the class, surprisingly. The structurewas difficult to test due to the unstable peak time constraints meant that we were unable to create a flat surface at the peak to accomodate the load and so the structure would just deflect out of place. The Failing points which can be seen below were the joints - which was consistent through all the participating groups. Any position nails had been used cause weak points in the structure and the splitting of the wood occurred around these areas.
To further support the junctions between the trusses and base of the structure, a cut out was formed to prevent the trusses from sliding out of place when load was applied. Bracing was also applied, but only to one side of the structure due to time delay this was successful in helping the structure remain rigid in its angled shape, but the nails used in the base to secure the bracing became the weak point when the structure failed.
25.
ENVS10003 WEEK5
Key Terms Stud Nogging Lintel Axial Buckling Seasoned Timber -
26.
Mind Map
27.
Wall Systems
Wall systems are a fundamental part of a structure, to create space, as a form of protection, sun light filtration, weather protection, and as a structural support for the roof. Creating an internal and external environment is a key function of the walls (and roof ) of a structure .
Concrete Frame Structural Frames: - Concrete (typically for large scale structures) - Timber (typically for small scale structures) - Steel (used in both large and small scale structures, often in conjunction with other structural elements) Load Bearing Walls: - Concrete (used often in newer apartment buildings) - Masonry (these can be core filled for more structural support) - Brick work (typically double skinned with a cavity space between) Stud Walls: - Light gauge steel frame - Timber frame
Timber Frame
Steel Frame
Image 1: Sentinel Square-Phase 1, Renee Meador, (2009), http://hwablog.com/2009/06/sentinel-square-phase-i-sustainable-secure/ Image 2: Maine Barn Company, (2008), http://www.mainebarncompany.com/ Image 3: Xinguangzheng Steel Structure Co. Ltd. (2010), http://www.steelstructurechina.com/news/news_show_564.html
28.
Stud Frame System Timber Frame: Beam spacing can be quite large
Stud Frames are very common in Australia with a Brick Veneer finish. The internal structural element is the stud frame which consists of some of the elements we see in the sketches (right). Due to the long and slender nature of the studs, ‘noggings’ are required to ensure the stud does not buckle when load is applied, and occasionally bracing also. Bracing can be either temporary timber, permanent steel bracing and can be either diagonal or cross bracing in shape. A cavity is found between the stud frame and external non-structural wall as a further barrier between the internal and external spaces.
Timber Stud Frame: Stud spacing is typically 400mm
Stud Frame Image: Van Damme, (2008), http://tttvandamme.blogspot.com.au/2008/02/on-friday-we-continued-on-with-our.html Timber Frame Image: Timberlast, (unknown), http://www.timberlast.com/Predesignedkits.cfm
29.
From Wood to Timber Timber is a natural material that has many different species, but similarities in all. The centre of a log is called the ‘heart wood’, and rings around this develop annually, alternating from light to dark depending on season - the more rings the older the tree. The grain of the wood can determine its structural performance: A piece of timber is stiff and strong when load is applied parallel to the grain, however when load is applied perpendicular to the grain the timber is weaker. In order to strengthen the timber it must be ‘seasoned’ this is a process in which it is dehydrated of water cells, timber typically has less than 15% water content but this can vary based on different timbers and standards. It takes approximately 6 months - 2 years for 50mm of timber to ‘season’, in order to speed up the process, kilns are often used. Solar kilns are used as a more energy efficient alterative. Softwood: Douglas Fir
Softwood: Pinus Sylvestris
Typically Pine Trees
Hardwood: Jarrah
Hardwood: Oak
Typically Eucalyptus Species in Australia
- Slower to season - Rings can split away - Good for floors/furnishing
- Seasons quickly - Less prone to splitting - Likely to warp/cup
Softwood Douglas Fir, Simon Fraser University, (2007), http://www.sfu.ca/geog/geog351fall07/Group06/Interior%20Douglas-Fir.html Softwood Pinus Sylvestris, Beentree, (2008), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pinus_sylvestris_wood_ray_section_1_beentree.jpg Hardwood Jarrah, Nathan Brown, (2011), http://www.timberfurnituremelbourne.org/2011/11/21/australian-timbers-used-in-furniture/ Hardwood Oak, Design Resource, (2014), http://www.designresource.info/hardwood.html
- Unclear structural properties - Good use of wood - Ideal for weatherboards
30.
Properties: - Hard material - Will not shatter - Plastic and Ductile - In its living state, can be manipulated into shapes - A permeable material - will expand when flooded - Good insulator - Poor conductor of heat - Easily re-used and recycled - Low embodied energy is sourced locally and from renewable forrests - Cost effective typically
Properties & Engineering
Restrictions: - Size of timber can only be as large as the tree it came from - Timber is ‘graded’ based on strength and other specifications - ‘Knots’ which are caused by branches of the tree cause weak points, timber under tension can not have knots, timber under compression can have knots. - when timber fails it will fail parallel to the grain - Timber should be treated for protection against things such as termites and water penetration Engineered Timber: Is done for recycling, strength enhabncement and for more wood to be put to use that otherwise could not (e.g. Chip board) Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) Glue Laminated Timber
- Thin layers of wood glued with adhesive - Grain parallel to long end - Useful for Structural beams and posts
- Dimensional timber layers glued together - Useful for structural members and curved structures
Cross Laminated Timber
- Layered timber, grain runs perpendicular to neighbouring layers - Useful for floors, walls
MDF
Plywood
- Broken down Hardwood/ Softwood into wood fibres - Wax/resin used to glue - non-structural uses
- Made from sheets of wood veneer (wood fibre) - grain runs perpendicular to neighbouring layers - non-structural uses
LVL, Metsawood, (2014), http://www.metsawood.us/products/pages/masterplanklvl.aspx Glue Laminated Timber, A.J. Smith and Son, (unknown), http://www.ajsmith.uk.com/glulam.htm Cross Laminated Timber, Cross Laminated Timber, (unknown), http://www.crosslaminatedtimber.com.au/Benefits.aspx MDF, Kronospan, (unknown), http://www.kronospan.co.uk/kronobuild/products/view/mdf/standard Plywood, Rotor DB, (2007), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plywood.jpg Chip Board, Titus Tscharntke, (2013), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chipboard_texture.jpg
Chip Board
- Wood chips/shavings/ sawdust compressed with resin - bracing/flooring
31.
Tutorial Activity The Tutorial Activity this week involved, as a group, building a structural element of the Oval Pavillion at The University of Melbourne. The Structural element was the structural support system of the Pavillion’s Canopy. Built at 1:20 out of balsa wood.
32.
Key Terms Rafter Purlin Cantilever Portal Frame Eave Soffit Top Chord -
ENVS10003 WEEK6 33.
Mind Map
34.
Roof Systems For centuries stone was used as a structural building material for not only walls but ceilings and roofs too, creating internal spaces. Below are some methods that have been used over time to create stone spaces. Today, the types of primary sheltering structure are more structured and can created larger internal spaces: Below are some examples of these designs.
Gable Roof - angled roof - has ‘gable’ ends
What Type of Roof?
Parapet Roof - Hidden gutter - appears like a box from outsite
Hip Roof - no gable ends - different structural layout
Parapet Roof, Art Grice, (2010), http://blog.buildllc.com/2010/12/smart-flat-roofs-the-craft-of-parapet-detailing/ Gable Roof, Unknown, (2009), http://www.diychatroom.com/f9/question-altering-one-side-gable-roof-shed-roof-53010/ Hip Roof, Unknown, (2010), http://www.diychatroom.com/f9/hip-roof-venting-69970/ Dutch Gable Roof, Colourco, (unknown), http://www.colourco.com.au/single-pergolas-verandahs-05-dutch-gable-roof.html
Dutch Gable Roof - combination of Gable/Hip Roof
35.
Hip Room (above)
Gable vs. Hip Roofs Key Elements of a Roof System (some are exclusive to either Gable or Hip Roof Systems) - Ridge Beam - Wall Beam - Gable End - Fascia - Battens/Purlins - ‘Common’ Rafters - ‘Hip’ Rafters - ‘Valley’ Rafters - ‘Jack’ Rafters - Eaves Gable Roof - Outriggers - Top Chord - Bottom Chord - Soffit Top Chord
Hip Roof
Bottom Chord
Soffit e.g. the underside of an eaves
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Metals Facts: - Steel is one of the most prominant materials in the construction industry - Metals are typically strong in both compression and tension - Typically found in minerals and the metals are extracted - Pure metals - 1 element - Alloys - 2 or more elements - Vary in weight and density - Aluminium is the lightest metal - Good re-use and recycling abilities - Ferrous metals are quick to corrode and rust - Non Ferrous alloys do not contain iron
Galvanic Series Metals take up/give up irons to one another and this effects their corrosion tendencies - Cathodic Metals are less likely to corrode - Anodic Metals are more likely to corrode The further apart 2 metals are on the Galvanic Series, the more likely it is they will corrode if in contact with each other and moisture. The term ‘Galvanised’ means to coat in a layer of zinc. It is a chemical treatment done to metals to help protect them from corrosion.
Image 1: Galvanising Preperation
Image 1: Process Flow, Wuxi Anber Machine Co., (2013), http://www.china-anbermachine.com/Wire-Galvanizing-Line/Hot-Dipped-Wire-Galvanizing-Line.htm Table 1: The Galvanic Series of Metals, AMAC Corrosion, (unknown), http://www.amacgroup.com.au/index.php?ID=12
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Non Ferrous Metals
Ferrous vs. Non Ferrous Ferrous Metals Iron Rods
Iron - good compressive strength - corrodes through rusting Wrought Iron Steel - heated and hammered to desired shape - labour intesive
Copper - conductor of electricity, used for electrical wiring - found naturally in earth - often used as a roofing material, as corrosion resistant - patina develops changing colour from bronze to green (removable by acid, but does strip copper too)
Cast Iron - melted iron poured into moulds to cool - high compressive strength - heavy in weight - comparatively brittle Steel - alloy of iron and carbon
Structural Steel I Beam
Copper Pipes
Zinc - pure form used for roof/wall cladding - thin layers of zinc are applied to steel to protect from rusting (Galvanising) Lead - not used highly due to reacting with water and become toxic to humans
Structural Steel - used for framing
Bronze Sheet Tin - ‘tin roofs’ actually tends to be Galvanised steelas opposed to tin
Hot Rolled Steel - shaped while metal is hot Cold Formed Steel - lighter in weight - folded from sheet steel - used for purlins etc.
Aluminium Can
Aluminium - light weight - high embodied energy, high cost - easily cast (door handles etc.) - sheets are used as cladding - reacts with oxygen in air - created a thin monoxide layer which self protects and prevents further oxidisation - treatments include Powder Coating and Anodise
Titanium - thin material, excellent corrosion resistence - occiasionally used as cladding - high cost Stainless Steel Sheet
Stainless Steel - high quality alloy with chromium - corrosion resistant - used for sheets, plates, wiring, and ideal in harsh environments Steel is often galvanised for protection. It can be used as Roof Sheeting, Reinforcing bars (due to high tensile strength)
Bronze - copper and tin alloy - corrosion resistant - used for hinges, springs etc.
Brass Sheet
Brass - low melting point - malleable therefore easy to cast - used for handles, taps etc.
Iron Bars, unknown, (2014), http://www.indiamart.com/vee-vee-wheels/metal-scraps.html Steel I Beam, Machinery Maintenance Servies, (unknown), http://www.hillssa.com.au/clientwebs/mms/cat.php?catid=50 Stainless Steel Sheet, Taybroh Alloyse, (2009), http://www.taybrohalloys.co.uk/products/Stainless-Steel/index.html Aluminium Can, unknown, (2014), http://www.co.saint-croix.wi.us/index.asp?Type=B_BASIC&SEC=%7BE3C296A5-7173-406B-9693-5D43A54DC530%7DB Copper Pipes, Hutmen S.A., (unknown), http://www.antimicrobialcopper.com/uk/find-products-and-partners/find-antimicrobial-copper-semi-finished-products.aspx Bronze Sheet, Backgroundsy, (2012), http://www.backgroundsy.com/tag/metal Brass Sheet, Metal Off Cuts, 2010, http://metaloffcuts.co.uk/shop/brass-sheet-metal.html
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Key Terms Drip Vapour Barrier Gutter Parapet Downpipe Flashing Insulation Sealant -
ENVS10003 WEEK7 39.
Mind Map
40.
Moisture & Heat Control The internal spaces of structures should be air tight - internal and external spaces should be separate. Heat and Moisture control are key things to control. Strategies For Moisture Control: - planned openings such as windows and doors should be designed so water does not penetrate their gaps - eaves and verandahs can be included to shield openings - sealants should be used in gaps such as window/door frames - break lines - flashing - avoiding pressure variances (high external, low internal - water will want to run internally) - sealants should go inside the barrier to create a Pressure Equilisation Chamber (PEC) - gutters and downpipes Flashing in a Double Skin Wall
Box Gutter with Parapet Wall Capillary Action Water can flow along surfaces despite forces such as gravity
‘Break’ So water can not run under the structure due to ‘capillary action’
Gutter
Down Pipe
Sill in a window or door frame
Sarking Gutter & Down Pipe, Smart Gutter Guard, (unknown), http://www.smartgutterguard.com/guttertypes.htm ‘Break’ line: Paige Collett, (2014) Sarking: PeterH, (2008), http://forum.homeone.com.au/viewtopic.php?f=20&t=19801
Strategies For Heat Control: - heat control is important for cost and energy savings - thermal insulation prevents heat conduction - thermal breaks reduce conduction in high conduction material - double glazing reduces flow of heat - sarking (e.g. reflective foil laminate) assists with water/air leakage from a structure - external shade is ideal to prevent heat penetration - internal shade is ideal to prevent heat loss
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Basement Moisture Control
Agricultural Drainage Pipe
Basements are at high risk of water penetration as the earth around them can become saturated and penetrate the walls of an underground room. ‘Tanking’ is a waterproofing technique for wet sites where the structure is completely covered in a waterproof membrane. In dryer environments where tanking is not necessary, an agricultural drain is apprpriate. This is a drain (pipe) that runs parallel to the surface of the ground for a certain distance. Loose aggregate covers the drain to allow water penetration, holes periodically throughout the pipe will then allow water to penetrate it, and the water will then be carried away through storm water drainage
Holes for water penetration
Basement Tanking
Basement Tanking Image: Damp Proofing London, (2011), http://www.dampproofinglondon.co.uk/tanking-walls.html Agricultural Drainage Image: Polypipe, (unknown), http://www.polypipe.com/wms/products/product-range/ridgidrain-ridgisewer-landcoil/landcoil-land-drainage
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Rubber & Plastic Natural Rubber - from rubber tree sap - low embodied energy - used for seals, floor linings, insulation, hosing and piping
Rubber Sealant around window
Thermo Plastics - polythylene (insulation material around copper pipes) - perspex (popular replacement to glass) - acrylic - PVC (cheap material, bad for environment) - polycarbonate (used for roofing/walling/some insulation) Thermosetting Plastics - can only be shaped once, therefore not reusable - laminex, melamine - polystyrene insulation panels
Artificial Rubber - made in lab - technically a plastic - used for gaskets, control joints, silicone
Elastomers - a synthetic rubber - EPDM (waterproofing roof decks) - neoprene (waterproofing, sealant)
Rubber is highly flexible material, an ideal waterproofer and easily recycled. Rubber is poor conductor of heat/electricity but a very useful insulator
Plastic is a polymer made up of linked monomers, it is easily moulded into different shapes as it is flexible when heated and does not shatter or break. Plastic is waterproof and light weight, reasonably durable but can deteriorate in certain weather conditions (e.g. light). Embodied energy varies, and only certain plastics can be recycled easily.
Rubber Waterproofing Membrane
Rubber Waterproof Membrane
Rubber Waterproofing Membrane: ETRMA, (2011), http://www.etrma.org/rubber-goods/construction/ruwa Polystyrene Insulation: Sally-Ann Norman, (unknown), http://www.constructionphotography.com/Details.aspx?ID=8067&TypeID=1
Polystyrene Insulation
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ENVS10003 WEEK8
Key Terms Window Sash Deflection Moment of Inertia Door Furniture Stress Shear Force -
44.
Mind Map
45.
Window Opening Types
Windows & Doors
Allow: - Openings - Airflows - Entrances/Exits - Composition - Light - Ventilation Door Types: - Sliding - Hinged - Bifold Window Types: Pictured right.
Window Opening Types: Barron’s Real Estate Dictionary, (unknown), http://www.answers.com/topic/window
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Glass Made of: - Silica (sand) - Fluxes (melts at low temperatures) - Stabilizers (helps life span, does not crumble) History: 1 Century BC - Blown Glass XI-XII C - Sheet Glass (sliced from blown glass) XVII C - Lead Glass (lead oxide added to ease cutting) XVII C - Plate Glass (improved optical properties) 1910 - Lamination (celluloid layer between 2 sheets of glass) 1959 - Molten Glass (poured over bath of molten tin and creates an even surface)
Double/Tripple Glazed Gless - Heat insulation properties - Noise Insulation properties
Properties: - non porus - transfers heat/light - does not transfer elextricity - dense, hard material, yet fragile - brittle, but ‘toughening’ prevents this - low ductility, low flexibility - durable and resistant to rusting -recyclable - high embodied energy and carbon footprint - high cost
Float Glass - glass melted and floated onto molten tin to create perfectly flat glass - cheap and simple product - most common form of glass
Laminated Glass - ‘safety glass’ - 2 layers of glass with a plastic interlayer - if broken the glass will not shatter - float glass or toughened glass
Tempered Glass - toughened glass - heated to very high temperatures and cooled rapidly - glass’s tension properties increase - often used for facades of structures
47.
Tutorial Activity This weeks tutorial involves sketching a detail of the Oval Pavilion at a scale of 1:1
Image of Roof/Wall Section at the Oval Pavilion
48.
ENVS10003 WEEK9
Key Terms Sandwich Panel Bending Skirting Shadow Line Joint Cornice Composite Beam -
50.
Mind Map
51.
Construction Details Movement Joints: A horizontal or vertical break wherein a foam strip is inserted to allow for the movement, expansion and contracting of materials such as brick veneer walls
Construction Details are important not only structurally in some cases but also finishings that enable to structure to work efficiently and safely over a long period of time.
1. Details should be easy to construct/assemble 2. Details should be forgiving - inaccuracies are easy to work around 3. Efficient use of available tools, material and labour
Paints and Coatings: High salt levels and industrial polluted air can cause materials to age and deteriorate quicker than otherwise. Matte/Satin finishes tend to age better than gloss surfaces do. Glazed tiles are an exception to this to an extent. Timber naturally turns grey as it ages, stains and coatings can disguise this however.
Cleaning and Repairing Plasterboard is an easily repaird material, skirting is used to prevent damage from shoes at the bottom of walls and to also hide wall/floor joints which allow gaps to be left for movement. Certain buildings require certain cleaning standards such as hostpitals and restaurants. Dimensions According to Building Codes of Australia (Australian Building Inspection Services, 2014). Movement Joints: Paige Collett (2014)
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Composite Materials Fibre Reinforced Concrete Metal alloys - 2 or more metals put together to create a new material Composite - 2 or more materials put together but are dstinguishable Fibre Reinforced Concrete/Cement - Cellulose (glass) fibres, sand, water, cement - Sheet and shape products (tiles and pipes) - fire, water and warping resistant Fibreglass - used for baths, basins, waterproofing - used in insulation - loose or woven fibres - can be transparent or translucent - weatherproof - reasonably strong Aluminium Sheet - aluminium layer on resin core - sandwich panel construction - Can be curved - financially and environmentally inexpencive - roughly thickness of glass, can fit in window frame system
Fibreglass Insulation
Timber Composite with gang nail plates
Timber Composites - joists in domestic construction - efficient use of timber as opposed to solid timber - services run through the web of joists - top/bottom/middle chords, fitted the gang nail plates Fibre Reinforced Polymers - polymer (plastic) with glass/carbon/timber fibres - corrosion resistant
Fibre Reinforced Concrete: Civil Digital, (unknown), http://civildigital.com/fiber-reinforced-concrete/ Fibreglass Insulation: Warm Care Insulation, (unknown), http://www.warmcareinsulation.co.uk/alternative_insulation.html Timber Composite: Mitek, (unknown), http://www.mii.com/site/frameset.aspx?siteid=16&langid=2057&main=%2Fpage%2Fopen%2Easp%3Fpid%3D12255
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Tutorial Excursion
Here we see the external glass cladding that will be craned to the levels above and put into place Temporary structure continues down the side street for material and worker access, the ‘alimak’ is also housed above this space
Temporary structure in place at the front of the Lonsdale st site so pedestrians can still use the street safely while cranes are in use above
A cooling system is being connected to be taken up by crane to the ‘plant room’ where it will provide the high rise with cool air and water
Temporary scaffolding on the ground level
The Crane visible at the top floor of the structure
All Images: Paige Collett (2014)
54.
Tutorial Excursion
Temporary steel scaffolding and stairs give access to workers and materials to the ‘alimak’
All Images: Paige Collett (2014)
Steel sheets make up temporary flooring. The Steel is embossed with a pattern which we can assume is to ensure friction when walking on it
The ‘Alimak’ is a site elevator. A temporary structure that runs along the side of the site building up to the top floors where construction is taking place (levels 19-24)
55.
Tutorial Excursion
The Crane on the 24th floor and the base as it protrudes through the lower levels to its base at the 20th floor where steel planks support the base of the crane
Temporary Railing on the 24th floor
The Pre-cast light weight concrete flooring has been is designed like modules and are slotted together in place on site. Steel reinforcement is then placed in the grooves of the connections and filled in with concrete
56.
Tutorial Excursion
Fire safety is very important in large building with high occupancy. This structure has cross stairs (2 access points from each floor). Fire escapes must meet certain structural requirements to ensure in the event of a fire the structure can remain standing long enough for all occupants to leave. We also see left, structural beams have been sprayed with a fire resistant membrane.
The Structure is steel with timber stud walls and a sustpended ceiling where in all of the facilities such as aircon, electricity are hidden above (see far right image)
57.
Key Terms Shear Wall Soft Storey Braced Frame Life Cycle Defect Fascia Corrosion IEQ -
ENVS10003 WEEK10 58.
Mind Map
59.
Lateral Forces
Lateral Supports are needed in response to forces such as wind and earth quakes. Wind forces take advantage of the exposed surface areas of a structure, and Earthquake forces take advantage of the mass load on the foundations. Wind attacks the top of a structure, Earth quakes the base of structures. - Bracing helps resist horizontal forces by making the structure more rigid - Shear walls resist lateral forces by transfering them into vertical forces - Slabs and Columns with moment joints are ‘moment resisting frames’ - Seismis Base Isolator - metal plates/rubber layer/lead core, helps with lateral forces - Assymetry can be detrimental in earth quakes as parts of a structure may not react the same as others to the lateral forces - the building may then hit against other elements easier - Soft storey is open to the street with structure above, bracing can be used to help support it - re-entrant (internal) corners of buildings can be effected by lateral forces as the 2 wings may react indipendantly - Discontinuous structural members may have issues as the force cannot move directly to the ground
60.
Glossary Alloy: An alloy is a uniform mixture. It is made up of two or more chemical elements, of which at least one is a metal Anisotropic: describes something with physical properties that are different in different directions, e.g. crystals that measure differently along each of two or more axes Arcuate: curved like a bow Axial Load: A load applied along or parallel to and concentric with the primary axis Buckling: the process or an instance of becoming crumpled or warped. Cantilever: a beam, girder, or structural framework that is fixed at one end and is free at the other Composite: Made up of distinct components; compound Compression: the reduction of the volume or mass of something by applying pressure, or the state of having been treated in this way Dead Load: the permanent weight of a structure such as a bridge, exclusive of its load Equilibrium: condition in which all acting influences are canceled by others, resulting in a stable, balanced, or unchanging Faรงade: the face of a building, especially the principal or front face showing its most prominent architectural features Isotropic: having physical properties that do not vary with direction Lintel: a horizontal beam, as over a door or window Live/Static Load: the permanent weight of a structure such as a bridge, exclusive of its load Masonry: Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar; the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves
62.
Glossary Moment: In physics, moment relates to the perpendicular distance from a point to a line or a surface, and is derived from the mathematical concept of moments Monolithic: Architecture . Monolithic architecture, a style of construction in which a building is carved, cast or excavated from a single piece of material Nogging: A short horizontal wooden beam used to strengthen upright posts in the framework of a wall Physics; the stress resulting from a force of tension, or a measure of it Soffit: Technically, a soffit is the underside of any element of a building Span: span 1 (spﾄハ) n. 1. The extent or measure of space between two points or extremities, as of a bridge or roof; the breadth. Strut: A strut is a structural component designed to resist longitudinal compressionTension: the degree to which something such as a wire, string, thread, or muscle is stretched Stud: An upright post in the framework of a wall for supporting sheets of lath, wallboard, or similar material. Torque: force that causes twisting or turning, e.g. the force generated by an internal-combustion engine to turn a vehicle's drive shaft
All defintions gathered from knowledge gained through semester and www. thefreedictionary.com
63.
References Person responsible, A. A. (Role). (Year, Month day). Title [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from web address From <http://www.lib.unimelb.edu.au/recite/citations/apa6/ref25-ElecSourceOnlineAudioPodcast.html?style=1&type=4&detail=6> Ching, F. (2008). Building Construction Illustrated (4th Ed.). USA. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. (2014). Shell Structure. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1385998/shell-structure Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. (2014). Membrane Structure. Retrieved From http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1382569/membrane-structure' Newton, C. (Producer). (2014, March). W02 s1 Structural Systems. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l--JtPpI8uw&feature=youtu.be Newton, C. (Producer). (2014, March). W01 m1 Introduction to Materials. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s4CJ8o_lJbg&feature=youtu.be Newton, C. (Producer). (2014, March). W02 s1 Structural Joints. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kxRdY0jSoJo&feature=youtu.beThe Newton, C. (Producer). (2014, March). W03 _m2 Introduction to Masonry. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DC8Hv8AKQ8A&feature=youtu.be University of Melbourne, Department of Mathematics and Statistics. (2014). MAST10005 Calculus 1: Lecture Slides. Melbourne, University of Melbourne. The Brick Industry Association. (2006). Technical Notes on Brick Construction. Retrieved from http://www.gobrick.com/portals/25/docs/technical%20notes/tn18a.pdf Australian Building Inspection Services. (2014). Balustrades, Handrails & Stairs. Retrieved from http://www.abis.com.au/balustrades-handrails-stairs
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