DESIGN ELEMENTS OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE IN MAHESHWAR FORT

DESIGN ELEMENTS OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX IN MAHESHWAR FORT

ARCHITECTURE SUBMITTED BY PALASH BHATIA

REGISTRATION NUMBER 0809AR141065

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF AR. SHAILJA SONI

SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE IPS ACADEMY, INDORE RAJIV GANDHI PRODYOGIKI VISHWAVIDHYALAYA

ABSTRACT This dissertation is all about understanding the design elements present in Ahileshwar temple complex, Maheshwar fort. Understanding the Origin, Type, Evolution, Constructional stages of the design elements is made through different procedures.

The design elements researched in the Dissertation are limited to Stones, Arches, Shikhara, and stone carvings.

In Stones the properties of stones and its procedure of production is considered into the research part. The old and new methods of quarrying, cutting and finishing any stone project are understood in the dissertation project.

In Arches the research is different than other elements, more research is done on the basis of its origin and evolution in India. Another focus is on arches of Ahileshwer temple complex.

In Shikhara again its different procedure adopted for research, the more focus here is on understanding the basic elements of shikhari temple and types of shikhara analysed by hardy break. Another focus is on shikhar of Ahileshwar temple the type of which is understood through the analysis of hardy break.

In carvings the focus is on constructional stages of stone carving, the tools and techniques adopted today and in early Era. The details of carvings of ahileshwar temple complex are studied in the dissertation.

The analysis part involves the understanding of material, the material which is better for designing of external faรงade. The experimentation involves analysis of simple rectangular faรงade on which the design elements of Ahileshwar temple complex are referred by applying various design principles, of which the further research would be continued in the thesis part.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude towards Prof. AR. MANITA SAXENA, Principal, School of Architecture, I.P.S. Academy who provided us with the opportunity of completing this dissertation with a lot of support and motivation. I am extremely thankful to Ar. SHAILJA SONI for her constant support and guidance towards the completion of this project. This dissertation would not have been possible without her motivation and help. I am thankful to our coordinator Ar. MEGHA SHROTI for her valuable guidance. I would also like to thank all the people of Maheshwar, especially Mr. Maheshwarkar for helping me in the data collection.

Lastly, I would like to express my affection and support that my family has provided my throughout my life. Nothing would have been possible without them.

Finally, I would like to thank all those who have directly or indirectly contributed to the making of the report.

PALASH BHATIA

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY AND ETHICS DECLARATION I declare that research entitled “DESIGN ELEMENTS OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX IN MAHESHWAR FORT” is the bonafide research work carried out by me, under the guidance of AR. SHAILJA SONI, further I declare that this has not been previously formed the basis of awards of any degree, diploma, associate ship or other similar degrees or diplomas and has not been submitted anywhere else. I hereby, give consent for my dissertation, if accepted, to be available for photocopy and inter- library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to other organizations.

Place: INDORE Date: 22/11/2017

PALASH BHATIA

CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “DESIGN ELEMENTS OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX IN MAHESHWAR FORT” is the bonafide work of MR. PALASH BHATIA, in partial fulfilment of the academic requirements for the award of “bachelors of architecture degree”. This work is carried out by him, under my guidance and supervision.

Counter signed guide

PROF. AR. MANITA SAXENA Head of the Department.

School of Architecture, IPS Academy, Indore

Place: INDORE Date: 22/10/2017

AR. SHAILJA SONI

TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .....................................................................................................................

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...............................................................................................

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY AND ETHICS DECLARATION ...........................

CERTIFICATE ................................................................................................................

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ...........................................................................................

SYNOPSIS ..................................................................................................................... 1 AIM ............................................................................................................................ 1 OBJECTIVE .............................................................................................................. 1 SCOPE ....................................................................................................................... 1 LIMITATIONS .......................................................................................................... 2 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................... 2 CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION TO MAHESHWAR FORT ...................................... 3 1.1 BACKGROUND STUDY ................................................................................... 3 CHAPTER 2-STONES .................................................................................................. 7 2.1PROPERTIES OF STONES ................................................................................. 7 2.2PRODUCTION OF STONES ............................................................................... 8 2.2.1Quarrying ....................................................................................................... 8 2.2.2Cutting of stones ............................................................................................ 9 2.2.3Finishing techniques of stones ....................................................................... 9 2.3 BUILDING STONES ........................................................................................ 14 2.3.1 Granite......................................................................................................... 14 2.3.2 Limestone .................................................................................................... 14 2.3.3 Marble ......................................................................................................... 16 2.3.4Slate.............................................................................................................. 17 2.3.5 Sandstone .................................................................................................... 18 2.4 CONSTRUCTIONAL METHOD OF HINDU TEMPLES .............................. 18 2.5 STUDY OF STONE MASONRY IN AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX 19 CHAPTER 3-ARCHES ............................................................................................... 21 3.1 ORIGIN OF ARCHES IN INDIA ..................................................................... 21 3.2 EVOLUTION OF ARCHES IN INDIA ................................................................ 22 3.2.1 BEGINNINGS UNDER THE SLAVE KINGS (A.D.1200-1246) ............. 24 3.2.1.1 House of Balban ....................................................................................... 25

3.2.2THE BUILDINGS OF THE KHALJI DYNASTY (1290-1320) ................ 26 3.2.2.1 Alai darwaza ............................................................................................ 26 3.2.3 THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320-1413) ............................................... 28 3.2.3.1 Tomb of ghiyas-ud-din ............................................................................ 28 3.2.3.2Works of Mohammed Tughlaq ................................................................. 29 3.2.4 MALVA. THE CITIES OF DHAR AND MANDU (15TH CENTURY) ... 30 3.2.4.1 Various phases of buildings at Dhar and Mandu ..................................... 31 3.2.4.1.1 First phase ............................................................................................. 31 3.2.4.1.2 Second phase ......................................................................................... 32 3.2.4.2 Jami Masjid .............................................................................................. 33 3.2.5 THE MUGHAL PERIOD-AKBAR THE GREAT (1556-1605) ............... 33 3.2.5.1 Fortress-palace of Agra-........................................................................... 34 3.2.6 THE MUGHAL PERIOD-SHAH JAHAN (1627-58)-THE REIGN OF MARBLE ............................................................................................................. 35 3.2.6.1 The fort of Delhi- ..................................................................................... 35 3.3 AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX ARCHES ............................................ 38 3.3.1 Type of arch .................................................................................................... 38 Multifoil Arches ................................................................................................... 38 3.3.2 Material ....................................................................................................... 38 3.3.3 Similarities- ................................................................................................. 38 3.3.4-Details of arches in temple complex ........................................................... 38 CHAPTER 4-SHIKHARA .......................................................................................... 42 4.1 BASICS OF SHIKHARA .................................................................................. 42 4.2 FORM AND COMPOSITION OF SHEKHARI TEMPLES ............................ 45 4.2.1 The Roof Plan ............................................................................................. 45 4.3 TYPES OF SHEKHARI .................................................................................... 45 4.3.1 Type 1 ......................................................................................................... 46 4.3.2 Type 2 ......................................................................................................... 48 4.3.3 Type 3 ......................................................................................................... 48 4.3.4 Type 4 ......................................................................................................... 50 4.3.5 Type 5 ......................................................................................................... 50 4.4 STUDY OF SHIKHARA OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE ................................ 52 CHAPTER 5 CARVINGS ........................................................................................... 54 5.1 STAGES OF CARVING ................................................................................... 54 ï‚·

5.1.1 Quarrying ............................................................................................. 54

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5.1.2 Transport .............................................................................................. 54

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5.1.3 Planning and measuring ....................................................................... 55

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5.1.4 Laying-out ............................................................................................ 55

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5.1.5 Carving ................................................................................................. 55

5.2 CARVINGS IN AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX .................................. 57 5.2.1 DETAILS AT 1- VITHOJI CHATRI CARVING DETAILS .................... 59 5.2.2 DETAILS AT 3 CARVING DETAILS OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE .... 62 5.2.3 CARVING DETAILS OF SURROUNDING FAÇADE ........................... 63 CHAPTER 6-OBSERVATION AND ANALYSIS .................................................... 66 6.1 SELECTION OF STONE .................................................................................. 66 6.2 CASE STUDIES ................................................................................................ 69 6.2.1 WORKS OF AR. RAJ REWAL ................................................................. 69 6.2.1.1 State trading corporation, New Delhi ...................................................... 70 6.2.1.2 Standing conference of public enterprises office complex, New Delhi ... 71 6.2.1.4 Sheikh Sarai ............................................................................................. 72 6.3 INFERENCES ................................................................................................... 74 6.3.1 SELECTION OF SANDSTONE AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL FOR EXTERNAL FAÇADE ............................................................................... 74 6.4 EXPERIMENTATION ...................................................................................... 75 6.4.1 FAÇADE 1 .................................................................................................. 75 6.4.2 FACADE2- ................................................................................................. 75 6.4.3 FAÇADE 3- ................................................................................................ 76 6.4.4 FAÇADE 4- ................................................................................................ 76 6.4.5 FAÇADE 5 – ............................................................................................... 76 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 77 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................ 78

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1 FRONT ELEVATION OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX .............. 3 Figure 2 VIEW OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE ............................................................. 5 Figure 3 VITHOBAJI CHHATRI ................................................................................. 5 Figure 4 PLAN AND SECTION OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX ............. 6 Figure 5 TRADITIONAL STONE CHISELS ............................................................. 10 Figure 6 VARIOUS STEPS IN HAND DRESSING THE FACE, BEDS, AND JOINTS OF A ROUGH STONE. ................................................................................ 12 Figure 7 STONE SURFACE FINISHES ..................................................................... 13 Figure 8 SOME COMMON TYPE OF STONE WORK ............................................ 13 Figure 9 USE OF RANDOM RUBBLE MASONRY IN AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX .................................................................................................................. 20 Figure 10 USE OF "RANGE" TYPE STONEWORK IN AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX .................................................................................................................. 20 Figure 11AJMER: THE ADHAI DIN KA JHOMPRA ............................................... 23 Figure 12 TYPES OF ARCHES .................................................................................. 23 Figure 13 TOMB OF BALBAN .................................................................................. 26 Figure 14 TOMB OF ILTUTMISH ............................................................................. 26 Figure 15 ALAI DARWAZA ...................................................................................... 27 Figure 16 TOMB OF GHIYAS UD DIN TUGHLAQ DELHI ................................... 29 Figure 17 KAMAL MAULA MASJID ....................................................................... 32 Figure 18LAT KHAN MASJID .................................................................................. 32 Figure 19 JAMI MASJID MANDU ............................................................................ 33 Figure 20 AGRA FORT ............................................................................................... 34 Figure 21ARCHES IN AGRA FORT .......................................................................... 34 Figure 22 DIWAN-E-KHAS -DELHI FORT .............................................................. 37 Figure 23 PLAN SHOWING VARIOUS DETAIL MARKS IN TEMPLE COMPLEX .................................................................................................................. 39 Figure 24 SURROUNDING FACADE WITH ROW OF ARCHES .......................... 39 Figure 25VIEW OF ROW OF ARCHES IN TEMPLE ............................................... 39 Figure 26 DETAIL OF ARCH .................................................................................... 39 Figure 27 SIMPLE MULTI FOIL ARCH IN TEMPLE COMPLEX ......................... 41 Figure 28 DETAIL OF ARCH IN FRONT FACADE ................................................ 41 Figure 29DETAIL OF ARCH ..................................................................................... 41 Figure 30VIEW OF ARCHES IN SOUTHERN FACADE (LEFT SIDE) ................. 41 Figure 31ARCH AT MAIN ENTRY ........................................................................... 41 Figure 32DETAIL OF ARCH AT AHILESHWAR TEMPLE ENTERANCE .......... 41 Figure 33VIEW OF ARCHES IN SOUTHERN FAÇADE (RIGHT SIDE) .............. 41 Figure 34 TERMINOLOGY OF SHEKHARI ............................................................ 44 Figure 35KEY COMPONENTS AND DYNAMIC COMPOSITION OF SHIKHARI ...................................................................................................................................... 44 Figure 36 COMBINATION OF PROTOSHIKHARI TYPES .................................... 46 Figure 37 DYNAMIC COMPOSITION OF TYPE 1.................................................. 47 Figure 38 GENERIC DEVELOPMENT OF TYPE 1 SHEKHARI ............................ 47 Figure 39AXONOMETRIC VIEW OF TYPE 1 SHEKHARI .................................... 47

Figure 40 TYPE 2 ROOF PLAN AND ITS AXONOMETRIC VIEW ...................... 48 Figure 41 PLAN AND AXONOMETRIC VIEW OF TYPE 3 SHEKHARI .............. 49 Figure 42 PLAN AND AXONOMETRIC VIEW OF TYPE 4 SHEKHARI .............. 49 Figure 43PLAN AND AXONOMETRIC VIEW OF TYPE 5 SHEKHARI ............... 51 Figure 44 SECTION OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX .............................. 52 Figure 45 FRONT ELEVATIONAL DETAIL OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE.......... 53 Figure 46 VIEW OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE SHIKHARA ................................... 53 Figure 47 VIEW OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE SHIKHARA ................................... 53 Figure 48 SIDE ELEVATION DETAIL OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE ................... 53 Figure 49 PLAN SHOWING DETAIL MARKS OF CARVINGS ON DIFFERENT AREAS IN TEMPLE COMPLEX ............................................................................... 57 Figure 50 SOME STONE CARVINGS OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX 58 Figure 51SIDE ELEVATION SHOWING CARVING DETAILS ............................. 59 Figure 52 ELEVATION SHOWING DETAIL MARKS OF CARVINGS ON VITHOJI CHATTRI .................................................................................................... 59 Figure 53 DETAIL AT O............................................................................................. 60 Figure 54 DETAIL AT N............................................................................................. 60 Figure 55 DETAIL AT M ............................................................................................ 60 Figure 56DETAIL AT L .............................................................................................. 60 Figure 57 CARVING DETAIL OF PARAPET ........................................................... 60 Figure 58 ELEPHANT ENGRAVING IN THE SIDE ELEVATION OF VITHOJI CHATTRI .................................................................................................................... 60 Figure 59 CARVING DETAILS ON THE BASE OF THE ENTERANCE STAIRS 60 Figure 60 CARVING DETAILS OF ARCH ............................................................... 61 Figure 61 CARVING DETAILS OF JARUKHA ....................................................... 61 Figure 62 CARVING OF ELEPHANT ....................................................................... 61 Figure 63 SECTION BB' ............................................................................................. 62 Figure 64 SIDE ELEVATION SHOWING CARVING DETAIL MARKS ............... 62 Figure 65 (DETAIL F), DETAIL CARVED AT PARAPET OF THE TEMPLE ...... 62 Figure 66 (DETAIL E) CARVED AT TEMPLE ........................................................ 62 Figure 67 SURROUNDING FACADE SHOWING VARIOUS DETAIL MARKS .. 63 Figure 68 ELEVATION OF TEMPLE ........................................................................ 63 Figure 69 DECORATIVE ELEMENT ON SURROUNDING FACADE OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE........................................................................................... 64 Figure 70 DETAILS OF I J AND K (CARVED PORTALS ON THE FACADE OF THE CORIDOOR) ....................................................................................................... 64 Figure 71(DETAIL G) DETAIL OF THE PARAPET ................................................ 64 Figure 72 CARVING DETAILS OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE ............................... 64 Figure 73 COLUMN DETAIL OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE .................................. 65 Figure 74 STATE TRADING CORPORATION NEW DELHI ................................ 70 Figure 75 STANDING CONFERENCE OF PUBLIC ENTERPRISES OFFICE COMPLEX .................................................................................................................. 71 Figure 76 CENTRAL INSTITUTE OD EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY............. 72 Figure 77 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF IMMUNOLOGY ........................................ 72 Figure 78 SHEIKH SARAI HOUSING ...................................................................... 73 Figure 79 FACADE 1 .................................................................................................. 75 Figure 80 FACADE 2 .................................................................................................. 75

Figure 81 FACADE 3 .................................................................................................. 76 Figure 82 FACADE 4 .................................................................................................. 76 Figure 83 FACADE 5 .................................................................................................. 76

1

SYNOPSIS AIM The main aim of the dissertation is to study various design elements present in “Ahileshwar temple complex, Maheshwar”.

OBJECTIVE 

To understand origin of various design elements in temple complex.



To understand the stages of construction process, in construction of design elements studied in the dissertation.



To understand the use of various tools in construction of the design elements studied in the dissertation.

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To understand the old and new method of construction of the design elements studied in the dissertation.

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To study the evolution of the studied design elements in various centuries in India.

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To study various types of same type of design elements

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To study the type of design element used in Ahileshwar temple complex in the presence of various types of design elements.

SCOPE The dissertation includes the study of various design elements present in Ahileshwar temple complex. The design elements which are studied are mentioned as follows

Stones



Arches



Shikhara



Carvings on stone

The detailed study of these design elements includes the study of their

Origin



Types



Constructional stages



Evolution



Old and new methods of construction

2 

The study of type of design element used in Ahileshwar temple complex.

LIMITATIONS 

This dissertation study is limited to study of stones, arches, shikhara and carvings, which are mentioned as design elemens above.



The study does not include study of every design element present in ahileshwar temple complex, Maheshwar.



The study only includes the study of origin, types, constructional stages, evolution, and old and new methods of construction of these elements.

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The study of each element may differ as per the availability of the data. It may or may not cover all the points of study mentioned above.

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The study limits itself at study of origin, types and evolution of design element in India, it does not cover the origin, types and evolution of these design elements outside the India.



Study limits to the study of only some major types of these design elements.

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It limits itself to evolution of these design elements from 13th century till 18th century.

METHODOLOGY The data collection of various design elements is done through various sources of literature.

The data collection of the “Temple complex” is done through various sources of literature, stories from local residents of the town, live case studies. More emphasis would be laid on first hand observations made on site, with the aid of measured drawings, sketches, photographs and computational mapping tools.

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Figure 1 FRONT ELEVATION OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX

CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION TO MAHESHWAR FORT 1.1 BACKGROUND STUDY On the northern banks of the great river Narmada. Flowing in a broad valley formed by the 1vindhyas to the north and the Satpuras to the south, lies the small town of maheshwar. Ancient pilgrimage, a historical fort town and a traditional weaver’s settlement, Maheshwar has an ecietic, multi-dimensional character. Once called Mahishmati, due to its many buffaloes (Manisha in Sanskrit), Maheshwar was one of the twin capitals of Avanti (6th century BC), the other being Ujjain. Later, Maheshwar was one of the foremost cities in the 9th century, when malwa was taken over by the paramaras, but lost prominence following the dynasty’s decline. Ahmad I of Gujrat captured the town in 1422 and maheshwar came under Akbar’s rule in 1601.

Following Mughal decline, the Marathas took control of the malwa region. The best known of Maheshwar’s Maratha rulers was the queen Ahilya Bai Holkar, who made maheshwar her capital in 1767. During her reign of 28 years, Maheshwar became an important centre of politics, commerce, and art.

The massive Maheshwar fort stands on a hill overlooking the Narmada to its south and the modern town of maheshwar to its north. A fort existed here in ancient times, as

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FORTS OF MADHYA PRADESH p.85

4 evidenced in archaeological finds, but there are varying opinions about who first fortified the maheshwar hill. Some historians attribute its construction to the paramaras, some to Akbar, Others stretch the fort’s antiquity to the 4th -5th centuries AD, or even to the Mauryan period (322-1855 BC). Documented history states that Malhar Rao Holkar captured the fort in 1733 and undertook some repairs and limited reconstruction. Later, his daughter-in-law, Ahilya Bai Holkar, rebuilt the fort as we see it today. Ahilya Bai commissioned two architects from Rajasthan to redesign and construct parts of the Maheshwar Fort.

The architect brothers Bhujdar and Gajdar turned the Maheshwar Fort into a Rajasthani palace, complete with arches, balconies and oriel windows.

The fort walls vary in height from 12m to the north and east, to an astounding 30.8m on its southern edge, where it overlooks the Narmada. These formidable walls are pierced with five gates, of which two are most frequently used: Kamani Darwaza and Ahilya Dwar (earlier Gadi Darwaza), which is the largest of the gates. Breaking the monotony of the high walls are 20 massive bastions, built along the ramparts at regular intervals, of which2 the most imposing are Fateh Burj and Bangali Burj. All these bastions are topped with platforms which once held cannons.

From Ahilya Dwar, a road leads to a smaller gateway, beyond which lies the royal palace, popularly called Rajwada, a simple, wooden building that reflects the austere lifestyle of Maheshwar’s famed queen, Ahilya Bai. Near its main entrance are wooden statues of an elephant, a horse and bull. The elephant signifies the grandeur of the Holkar kingdom, the horse its military might, and the bull, or Nandi, is the divine vehicle of Shiva, the tutelary deity of the Holkars.

The Rajwada’s central courtyard is surrounded by pillared verandahs on all sides. At the centre of the courtyard is a small pool with a platform for the Tulsi tree on one end and an image of Lord Krishna flanked by bulls on the other. Ahilya Bai’s prayer room, Devpuja, also in the palace. Its centrepiece is a small swing made of gold on which rests a golden image of Krishna as a child. A gateway near the Rajwada’s main entrance leads downwards to the blue Narmada, via the Ahilya Ghats, the largest of

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Figure 3 VITHOBAJI CHHATRI

Figure 2 VIEW OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE

Maheshwar’s many Ghats, dotted with lingas, Nandi’s, dreadlocked sadhus and temples, both old and new.The Ahileshwar temple complex was built in early 19th century This whole temple complex took almost 40years to complete. There are mainly two main structure in the complex. One is Ahileshwar Temple and second is Vithobaji Chattri. The complex is approached from the Narmada River through a massive arched gateway, approached by a long flight of stairs. On the top of the gateway are sculptured figures of musicians.

The gateway leads to a open courtyard housing a couple of memorials or cenotaphs of the members of the Holkar family. They are locally known as chattris. At the centre of the courtyard or the cenotaph complex is a rather Islamic looking beautiful doomed structure. This is the 3chattri or cenotaph of Vithoji Rao This memorial was built in memory of Yeshwant Rao Holkar’s elder brother who was executed under an elephants foot by order of Peshwa Bajirao-II.The elephant carved on the plinth are handmark of Holkar architecture.

Facing the Cenotaph of Vitoji Rao, is a short flight of steps leads to the Cenotaph of Ahilya Bai. The chhatri built by her daughter Krishna Bai resembles more of a temple than a cenotaph. It is also known as Ahileshwar Shivalaya, as its garbhagriha (inner sanctum) contains a shivalinga, along w ith a statue of Ahilya Bai. Built in Nagar style the black curvilinear tower of the cenotaph is capped with a brass finial.The Cenotaph of Ahilya Bai, has a pillared mandapa and is built on a high platform, with beautiful floral and geometric friezes on its side. It took 34 years to complete. The Garbh griha consists of Ahilya Bai’s Statue

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Figure 4 PLAN AND SECTION OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX

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CHAPTER 2-STONES 2.1PROPERTIES OF STONES Prior to the twentieth century, stone was the predominant in major building construction. It was not only the structural material, but also the exterior and interior finish, and often the flooring and roofing as well. The term “masonry” at one time referred exclusively to stonework, and the “architects” of medieval castles and cathedrals were actually stone masons. Because of its massive weight and the resulting foundation requirements, stone is seldom used today as a structural element in contemporary architecture. It is, however, still widely used as a facing or veneer; in retaining walls, steps, walks, paths, and roads; as a floor finish; ’ and is enjoying renewed popularity as a roofing material. Despite their abundant variety, relatively few types of stone are suitable as building materials. In addition to accessibility and ease of quarrying, the stone must also satisfy the requirements of strength, hardness, workability, porosity, durability, and appearance The strength of a stone depends on its structure, the hardness of its particles, and the manner in which those particles are interlocked or cemented together. Generally, the denser and more durable stones are also stronger, but this is not always true. A minimum compressive strength of 5000 psi is considered adequate for building purposes, and the stones most often used are many times stronger in compression than required by the loads imposed on them. Failures from bending or uneven settlement are not uncommon, however, since 4stone masonry is much stronger in compression than in flexure or shear. Stones of the same type may vary widely in strength, those from one quarry being stronger or weaker than those from another. In modern building construction, shearing strength in stone is not nearly so important as compressive strength. The allowable unit stress of stone in shear should not be taken at more than one-fourth the allowable compressive unit stress. In tension, a safe working stress for stone masonry with Portland cement mortar is 15 psi.

Hardness of stone is critically important only in horizontal planes such as flooring and paving, but hardness does have a direct influence on workability. Characteristics may 4

STONE WORK P.90

8 vary from soft sandstone which is easily scratched, to some stones which are harder than steel. Both strength and hardness are proportional to silica content. Workability in this instance refers to the ease with which a stone may be sawed, shaped, dressed, or carved, and will directly affect the cost of production. Workability decreases as the percentage of siliceous materials increases. Limestone, for instance, which contains little silica, is easily cut, drilled, and processed. Granite, however, which consists largely of quartz, is the most difficult stone to cut and finish.

Porosity, the percentage of void content, affects the stone's absorption of moisture, thus influencing its ability to withstand frost action and repeated freeze-thaw cycles.

Pore spaces are usually continuous and often form microscopic cracks of irregular shape. The method of stone formation, and the speed of cooling of the molten material, influence the degree and structure of these voids because of compaction and the possibility of trapped gases. Thus, sedimentary rock, formed in layers without high levels of pressure, is more porous than rock of igneous or metamorphic origin. Closely linked to this characteristic are grain and texture, which influence the ease-with which stones may be split, and for ornamental purposes contribute to aesthetic effects as much as colour.5 Durability of stone, or its resistance to wear and weathering, considered roughly analogous to silica content. This is perhaps the most important characteristic of stone because it affects the life span of a structure. The stones traditionally selected for building construction have exhibited almost immeasurable durability compared to other building materials.

2.2PRODUCTION OF STONES 2.2.1Quarrying Stone is quarried from its natural bed by various techniques, depending on the nature of the rock. The most basic, and the oldest method is drilling and splitting. With stratified material such as sandstone and limestone, the process is facilitated by natural cleavage planes, but also limited in the thickness of stone which can be produced. Holes are drilled close together along the face of the rock, and plugs and wedges are then driven 5

STONE WORK P.91

9 in with sufficient pressure to split the rock between holes. For stratified rock, holes are drilled only on the face perpendicular to the bed, but non- stratified material must be drilled both vertically and horizontally. Channeling machines are often used on sandstone, limestone, and marble, but cannot be used with granite or other very hard stone. Wire saws are now used by most stone producers to cut a smoother surface, reduce the required mill finishing, and subdivide large blocks of stone for easier transport, handling, and finishing.

2.2.2Cutting of stones The first stones cut from the quarry are large, with rough, irregular faces. These monolithic pieces are cut or split to the required rough size, then dressed at the mill with power saws and/or hand tools. Finished stone surface textures may vary from a rough rock face to a more refined hand-tooled or machine-tooled finish. For thin facings of marble or granite, gang saws cut several slabs from a block of stone at the same time.

Although the sawing is a slow process, the surface it produces is so even that much work is saved in later dressing and polishing. Other saws, such as chat saws, shot saws, and diamond saws, are used 6to cut rough blocks of stone to required dimensions. Each type of saw produces a different surface texture.

In the 1970s the Italian stone industry developed new technology that enabled them to produce thin-sliced marble and granite panels which were light enough to clad high-rise buildings and inexpensive enough to dress the lobbies of speculative office buildings.

Diamond-studded cables were devised to cut large blocks of stone from the quarry with little waste.

2.2.3Finishing techniques of stones In addition to sawed finishes, stone may also be dressed with hand or machine tools.

Planing machines prepare a surface for hammered finishes, for polished finishes, and for honed or rubbed finishes. A carborundum machine, used in place of a planer, will produce a very smooth finish. Honing is accomplished by rubbing the stone surface with an abrasive such as silicon carbide or sand after it has been planed, while a water spray is used to control dust. Larger surfaces are done by machine, smaller surfaces and

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STONE WORK P.92

10

Figure 5 TRADITIONAL STONE CHISELS

1.

2-3” Wide drove chisel

2.

3.5-4.5” Wide boaster or bolster tool

3.

19th century tooth chisel

4.

16th century Italian tooth chisel

5.

19th century narrow chisel

6.

Splitting chisel

7.

1.75”t-tooth chisel

8.

1.5” chisel

mouldings by hand. Polished surfaces require repeated rubbing with increasingly finer abrasives until the final stage, which is done with felt and a fine polishing material.

Only granite, marble, and some very dense limestones will take and hold a high polish.

Power-driven lathes have been developed for turning columns, balusters, and other members that are round in section.

Hand-tooling is the oldest method of stone dressing. Working with pick, hammer, and chisels, the mason dressed each successive face of the stone, giving it the desired finish and texture. The drawings in illustrate the various steps in dres7sing the face, beds, and joints of a rough stone. Other hand-applied finishes include the bush-hammered, patent

7

STONE WORK P.93

11 hammered, pick-pointed, crandaled, and peen-hammered surface. Many of these finishes are now applied with pneumatic rather than hand tools, resulting in a more uniform surface. Ornate c8arving is still done by hand, both for new construction and for restoration and rehabilitation projects, although it is sometimes aided by pneumatic chisels.

Another finishing technique which produces a roughened surface is called flame-cut, or thermal-finished. A natural gas or oxyacetylene flame is passed over a polished surface that has been wetted. The water that has been absorbed by the stone changes to steam and breaks off the surface, leaving an irregular finish. This finish can be selectively applied to portions of a stone surface to provide contrast.

A polished finish, by providing some measure of sealing of the stone pores, helps protect the surface of the stone from deterioration by atmospheric weathering agents.

A thermal finish, frequently used on granite, reduces the effective thickness by about 1/8 in. Bush-hammered and other similar surface finishes also reduce the effective thickness. For l.25 in. veneers, a reduction in thickness of 1/8 in. reduces bending strength by 20 to 30% and increases the theoretical elastic deflection under wind loads by 37%.

Stone is used for masonry construction in many forms and is available commercially as rubble stone, flagstone, dimension stone, thin veneers, and tile. Rubble includes rough fieldstone and irregular stone fragments with at least one good face. The stone may be either broken into suitable sizes, or roughly cut to size with a hammer. Some common types of stonework, as shown in Figure, include rough fieldstone, random mosaic, coursed field- stone, and cut-stone ashlar of various patterns. Flagstone consists of thin slabs from to 2 in. thick in either square or irregular shapes. Surfaces may be slightly rough, smooth, or polished. Flagstone is used on the exterior for walks, paths and terraces, and on the interior as stair treads, flooring, coping, sills, and so on. Dimension stone is delivered from fabricators cut and dressed to a specific size, squared to dimension each way, and to a specific thickness. Surface treatments include a rough or natural split-face, smooth, slightly textured, or polished finishes. Ashlar is a

8

STONE WORK P.93-94

12 type of flat-faced dimension stone, generally in small squares or rectangles, with sawed or dressed beds and joints. Dimension stone is used for interior and exterior surface veneers, prefabricated panels, bearing walls, toilet partitions, arch stones, flooring, copings, stair treads, sills, and so on.

(GFRC) panels, or9 to prefabricated steel truss panel Thin stone may also be incorporated into stick built or unitized metal curtainwall systems. Stone tile is generally limited to interior surfaces as wall and floor finish systems. Thin stone veneers arc a type of dimension stone, cut to a thickness of less than 2 in. Unlike conventionally set dimension stone which is mechanically anchored to a backing system at the project site, thin stone may be anchored directly to precast concrete panels, to glass fibre reinforced concrete.

Figure 6 VARIOUS STEPS IN HAND DRESSING THE FACE, BEDS, AND JOINTS OF A ROUGH STONE.

9

STONE WORK P. 95

13

Figure 8 SOME COMMON TYPE OF STONE WORK

Figure 7 STONE SURFACE FINISHES

14

2.3 BUILDING STONES Some of the natural stones that satisfy the requirements of building construction are granite, limestone, sandstone, slate, and marble. Many others, such as quartzite and serpentine, are used locally or regionally, but to a much lesser extent.

2.3.1 Granite Granite has been used as a building material almost since the beginning of history.

Because of its hardness, it was first used with exposed, hand-split faces. As tools and implements were improved, the shapes of the stone became more sophisticated. With the development of modern technology and improved methods of sawing, finishing, and polishing, granite was more readily available in the construction market and more competitive with the cost of other, softer stones.

Granite is an igneous rock composed primarily of quartz, feldspar, mica, and hornblende. Colours vary depending on the amount and type of secondary minerals.

Feldspar produces red, pink, brown, buff, grey, and cream colours, while hornblende and mica produce dark green or black. Granite is classified as fine-, medium-, or coarse-grained. It is very hard, strong, and durable, and is noted for its hard-wearing qualities. Compressive strength may range from 7700 to 60,000 psi, but ASTM C615, while the hardness of the stone lends itself to a highly polished surface, it also makes sawing and cutting very difficult. Granite is often used for flooring, panelling, veneer, column facings, stair treads, and flagstones, as well as in landscape applications.

Carving or lettering on granite, which was formerly done by hand or pneumatic tools, is now done by sandblasting, and can achieve a high degree of precision.

2.3.2 Limestone Limestone is a sedimentary rock which is durable, easily worked, and widely distributed throughout the earth’s crust. 10It consists chiefly of calcium carbonate deposited by chemical precipitation or by the accumulation of shells and other calcareous remnants of animals and plants. Very few lime stones consist wholly of calcium carbonate. Many contain magnesium carbonates in varying proportions, sand or clay, carbonaceous matter or iron oxides, which may color the stone. The most

10

STONE WORK P.98

15 “pure” form is crystalline limestone, in which calcium carbonate crystals predominate, producing a fairly uniform white or light gray stone of smooth texture. It is highest in strength and lowest in absorption of the various types of limestone dolomitic limestone contains between 10% and 45% magnesium carbonate, is somewhat crystalline in form, and has a greater variety of texture. Oolitic limestone consists largely of small, spherical calcium carbonate grains cemented together with calcite from shells, shell fragments, and the skeletons of other marine organisms. It is distinctly non-crystalline in character, has no cleavage planes, and is very uniform in composition and structure.

The compressive strength of limestone varies from 1800 to 28,000 psi depending on the silica content, and the stone has approximately the same strength in all directions.

Limestone is much softer, is more porous, and has a higher absorption capacity than granite, but is a very attractive and widely used building stone. Although soft when first taken from the ground, limestone weathers hard on exposure. Its durability is greatest in drier climates, as evidenced by the remains of Egyptian and Mayan monuments.

Impurities affect the color of limestone. Iron oxides produce reddish or yellowish stones while organic materials such as peat give a gray tint. Limestone textures are graded as A, statuary; B, select; C, standard; D, rustic; E, variegated; and F, old Gothic. Grades A, B, C, and D come in buff or gray, and vary in grain from fine to coarse. Grade E is a mixture of buff and gray, and is of unselected grain size. Grade F is a mixture of D and E and includes stone with seams and markings.

When quarried, limestone contains groundwater (commonly called quarry sap) which includes varying amounts of organic and chemical matter. Gray stone generally contains more natural moisture than buff- colored stone. As the quarry sap dries and stabilizes, the stone lightens in co11lor and is said to “season.” Buff stone does not normally require seasoning beyond the 60 to 90 days it takes to quarry, saw, and fabricate the material. Gray stone, however, may require seasoning for as long as six months. If unseasoned stone is placed in the wall, it may be very uneven in color for several months, or even as long as a year. No specific action or cleaning procedure 11

STONE WORK P 99

16 will notably improve the appearance during this period, nor can it reduce the seasoning time. Left alone to weather, the stone eventually attains its characteristic light neutral color. No water repellents or other surface treatments should be applied until after the stone is seasoned.

Limestone is used as cut stone for veneer, caps, lintels, copings, sills, and mouldings, and as ashlar with either rough or finished faces. Naturally weathered or fractured fieldstone is often used as a rustic veneer on residential and low-rise commercial buildings. Veneer panels may be sliced in thicknesses ranging from 2 to 6 in. and face sizes from 3 X 5 ft. to 5 X 14 ft. When the stone is set or laid with the grain running horizontally, it is said to be on its natural bed. When the grain is oriented vertically, it is said to be on edge.

Travertine is a porous limestone formed at the earth’s surface through the evaporation of water from hot springs. It is characterized by small pockets or voids formed by trapped gases. This natural and unusual texturing presents an attractive decorative surface highly suited to facing materials and veneer slabs.

The denser varieties of limestone, including travertine, can be polished and for that reason are sometimes classed as marble in the trade. Indeed, the dividing line between limestone and marble is often difficult to determine 2.3.3 Marble Marble is a crystallized, metamorphosed form of non-crystalline limestone or dolomite. Its texture is naturally fine, permitting a highly polished surface. The great color range found in marbles12 is due to the presence of oxides of iron, silica, mica, graphite, serpentine, and carbonaceous matter in grains, streaks, or blotches throughout the stone. The crystalline structure of marble adds depth and lustre to the colors as light penetrates a short distance and is reflected back to the surface by the deeper lying crystals. Pure marbles are white, without the pigmentation caused by mineral oxides. Brecciated marbles are made up of angular and rounded fragments embedded in a colored paste or cementing medium. Marble often has compressive strengths as high as 20,000 psi, and when used in dry climates or in areas protected

12

STONE WORK P. 99-100

17 from precipitation, the stone is quite durable. Some varieties, however, are decomposed by weath-ering or exposure to industrial fumes, and are suitable only for interior work.

Marbles are classified as A, B, C, or D on the basis of working qualities, uniformity, flaws, and imperfections. For exterior applications, only group A, highest-quality materials should be used. The other groups are less durable, and will require maintenance and protection. Group B marbles have less favourable working properties than group A, and will have occasional natural faults requiring limited repair. Group C marbles have uncertain variations in working qualities; contain flaws, voids, veins, and lines of separation; and will always require some repair (known as sticking, waxing, filling, and reinforc-ing). Group D marbles have an even higher proportion of natural structural variations requiring repair, and have great variation in working qualities.

Marble is available as rough or finished dimension stone and as thin veneer slabs for wall and column facings, flooring, partitions, and other decorative surface work.

Veneer slabs may be cut in thicknesses from 3/4 to 2 in. Light transmission and translucence diminish as thickness increases.

2.3.4Slate Slate is also a metamorphic rock, formed from argillaceous sedimentary deposits of clay and shale. Slates containing large quantities of mica are stronger and more elastic than clay slates. The texture of slate is fine and compact with very minute crystallization. It is characterized by distinct cleavage planes permitting easy splitting of the stone mass into slabs in. or more in thickness. Used in this form, slate provides an extremely durable material for flooring, roofing, sills, stair treads, and facings.

Small quantities of other mineral ingredients give color to the various slates.

Carbonaceous materials or iron sulphides produce dark colors such as black, blue, and gray; iron oxide produces red and purple; and chlorite produces green tints. “Select” slate is uniform in color and more costly than “ribbon” slate, which contains stripes of darker colors.13

13

STONE WORK P.100

18 2.3.5 Sandstone Sandstone is a sedimentary rock formed of sand or quartz grains. Its hard-ness and durability depend primarily on the type of cementing agent present. Cemented with silica and hardened under pressure, the stone is ig t in color, strong, and durable. If the cementing medium is largely iron oxide, the stone is red or brown, and is softer and more easily cut. Lime and clay are less durable binders subject to disintegration by natural weathering. As a reflection of these varying compositions, minimum compressive strengths are 2000 psi, 10,000 psi, and 20,000 psi, respectively. When first taken from the ground, sandstone con-tains large quantities of water, which make it easy to cut. When the mois-ture evaporates, the stone becomes considerably harder.

Sandstones vary in color from buff, pink, and crimson to greenish brown, cream, and blue-gray. It is traces of minor ingredients such as feldspar or mica which produce the range of colors. Both fine and coarse textures are found, some of which are highly porous and therefore low in durability. The structure of sandstone lends itself to textured finishes, and to cutting and tooling for ashlar and dimension stone in veneers, mouldings, sills, and copings. Sandstone is also used in rubble masonry as fieldstone.

Flagstone or bluestone is a form of sandstone split into thin slabs for flagging.

2.4 CONSTRUCTIONAL METHOD OF HINDU TEMPLES 14

The constructional methods of the Hindus, not unlike those of the Greeks, were of a

simple but effective order, showing little inventiveness, or any serious attempt to solve structural problems. No effort was made to apply in their building productions the principles of the equilibrium of forces in action by means of the arch, vault, or other mechanical devices, which, instituted by the Romans, were by this time, being put into universal practice by the architects of the western world. Instead, the Indian craftsman, clinging to his own traditional technique and unmoved by the progress being made elsewhere, achieved his purpose solely by the judicious observance of the laws of gravity, strength being obtained by mass supporting mass, and stability by the solid resistance of weights acting only vertically, all pressure being transmitted directly downwards. In these circumstances mortar was unnecessary because it would have been of no use for distributing the pressure between the courses of the structure: 14

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE BY PERCY BROWN P.65-66

19 it was therefore very rarely employed, with the result that all Hindu masonry is described as of the “dry” order. The Indian builder knew architecture as a fine or liberal art/ but not as a mechanical art. Heseems to have resembled the master mason of the Middle Ages in Europe, rather than the architect of the Greeks.

As a rule the Indian masons prepared their building material not on the site of the structure, but in the quarry itself, often some considerable distance away. Here the rough mass of stone, after being won from the living rock, was made into suitable sizes and shapes by cleavage. A groove was sunk along the line of the required division, and holes jumped along this a few inches part. Into the holes thus formed wooden wedges were driven, which, on being wet, swelled, and the blocks split off in this manner. The facing of these blocks was obtained by hammer-dressing, surfaces also being levelled by chiselling parallel lines with a large iron tool, afterwards with a finer one. The presence of numerous fragments of carving in Courses, and put the finishing touches to the joints in the sculpture. Such a process would necessitate detailed and accurate measurements being made available, while an early record shows that models to scale were also sometimes prepared.15

2.5 STUDY OF STONE MASONRY IN AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX 

The most of the part of temple complex complex consist of “Range” masonry.



The main material of construction of complex is sandstone.



The red sandstone seems to be imported from Rajasthan and black sandstone is the local stone from Narmada Ghats.



Each stone appears to be made in suitable shape and sizes in the stone quarry itself, for the ease of importing.

 

15

The facing of these stone blocks was obtained by hammer dressing, the surface finish appears to be “Bush-hammered”.

There is use of Mortar in stone joinery. The formula of mortar was known by the Hindu masons and mortar could be only used when it got certain kind of smell after period of time after being prepared.

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE BY PERCY BROWN P.66

20 

The iron joints are used at ends of the floor levels. As to bear pressure on the end stones.



The northern wall of the complex at the height of +8.6 m from the ground consist of random rubble masonry from the stones available locally. As to save the cost and time of the construction.



some of the quarries From here the blocks, ready dressed to level beds and carved to pattern, were assembled on the temple site, a staff of workmen being on the spot to lay the stones in their proper shape.

Figure 10 USE OF "RANGE" TYPE STONEWORK IN AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX

Figure 9 USE OF RANDOM RUBBLE MASONRY IN AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX

21

CHAPTER 3-ARCHES 3.1 ORIGIN OF ARCHES IN INDIA 16

The Indian masons had, for many centuries been engaged on the erection of great

stone temples of exquisite design, and to their artistic ability the conquerors gave undoubted credit. But the indigenous workmen during this long period had neither invented improved methods nor acquired any scientific building procedure, their technique having remained static through persistent isolation. On the other hand the conquerors not only brought with them an infusion of new blood but also innovations gained from other lands, fresh principles and practices which had proved effective under all conditions.

Furthermore, each community had been accustomed to different systems underlying their method of building production, the Hindus being bound by a code of hieratic and conventional rules, while the Moslems built up around an academic tradition. Then in a matter of architectural procedure, each had adopted a different constructional principle, the basis of the building art of the one being trabeate, and the other arcuate.

The indigenous architecture of India was of trabeate order, as all spaces were spanned by means of beams laid horizontally; as distinct from this is the Mohammedan builders had adopted the arch as a method of bridging a space, so that their style was arcuate. The appearance of arch in the building construction of Islam may be traced to the contract of the early Mohammedans with the architectural development of the post-Roman period, as they were quick to see the scientific advantages of this feature, and appropriated it accordingly, although in a different form. But the displacement in Indian architecture of the beam by the arch evolved under Mohammedan influence, was however only made possible the introduction of another material hitherto little known to indigenous masons. This was a cementing agent in the form of mortar, and so we find for the first time mortar masonry figuring freely in Indian building construction. Instead, therefore, of the simple and primitive method of placing one stone on the other, in such a position that only the pressure was vertical directing downwards, involving no structural problems, as seen in all Hindu buildings, the Mohammedans brought into use certain scientific and mechanical formulae derived 16

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE BY PERCY BROWN(ISLAMIC PERIOD) P.1

22 from their own experiences or those of other civilizations. Such formulae, when put into practice, were applied to counteract the effects of oblique or lateral thrust, and to resist the forces of stress and strain, by means of which greater strength and 17 Stability were obtained, materials were economised, and a wider range and flexibility given to builder’s art. Finally, there was the effect of appearance over the face of the country as a whole. Hitherto the “skyline” of the building of the building took the form of flat or low-pointed roofs, and the spire of shikara.

With the Mohammedans came entirely new shape, the dome, so that there was a change from the pyramidal to the ovoid, and before long the characteristic architectural feature of many cities and towns and even the villages was the white bulbous dome.

3.2 EVOLUTION OF ARCHES IN INDIA 18

Buildings in Islamic mode gradually increased under the patronage of the ruling

power at Delhi, it becomes noticeable that the saljuqian influence declined and an architectural movement from another source is not only blended with it, but in the course of time, dominates it. This may be defined as derived from prevailing art of Persia, as it assumed form under the Timurid rulers of the 15th and 16th centuries. An indication of this fresh stream of art is revealed by the shape and treatment of hat indispensable element in building construction-the arch. Decoratively attractive, as the pointed horse-shoe arch of the saljuqians proved to be, its narrow compass was not sufficiently satisfying when wider spaces were to be spanned. Something providing a more ample interval between the jambs, or side-posts, of the openings, was called for, and the application of what is known as the four-centered or “Tudor” arch, a shape by this time almost universally used in the building of the Timurid, solved the problem.

But nevertheless the introduction of this feature into the architecture of northern India was hesitant, and in certain aspects of its use experimental. Apparently the Indian masons were not altogether convinced of its bearing capacities, and in order to make their construction doubly sure, reinforced this arch with a supporting beam-the system

17

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE (ISLAMIC PERIOD) BY PERCY BROWN P 1-2.

18

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE(ISLAMIC PERIOD) BY PERCY BROWN P 7-8

23 of bridging a space in the indigenous manner by means of a lintel, died hard with those steeped in the Hindu tradition. The combination of arch and beam, wellillustrated in the buildings of the tughlaqs(14th century),is however a negation of reasonably scientific construction, and soon after this short lived digression, the truefour-centered arch, without additional support, began to be generally used, as in tombs and mosques of the Sayyids and Lodies(15th and 16th centuries). But it is instructive to note the uncertainty, when first employed, of the lines of its curves and mouldings, as may be seen, for instance, in the façade arches of the Moth-ki-Masjid, dating from the early years of the 16th century, and it was not until Sher Shah’s inspired architects took the matter in hand, that perfection was attained.

Figure 12 TYPES OF ARCHES

Figure 11AJMER: THE ADHAI DIN KA JHOMPRA

24

3.2.1 BEGINNINGS UNDER THE SLAVE KINGS (A.D.1200-1246) 19 Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, during whose reign from A. D. 12II to 1236, four important architectural works are recorded. They are, (1) The addition of a facade to the Ajmer mosque, mentioned above, (2) A grand extension to Qutb-ud-din's mosque at Old Delhi (finished in 1229), (3) The tomb of his son (1231), and (4) His own tomb, both in Old Delhi.

Of these, the building which makes a notable contribution to the architecture of the period is the mosque facade at Ajmer, clearly inspired by his predecessor, Qutb-ud-din whose similar addition to the mosque at Delhi, is in much the same style. In point of time an interval of possibly a quarter of a century separates the construction of these two mosques fronts, and the differences in detail mark the course of the art during this progressive period. In the Ajmer example there is no upper storey or triforium. But above the parapet over the main archway are fluted minarets, one on each side. The outlines of the main arches in the two structures differ, those 8.t Ajmer are less curved in contour, having been straightened to approach more nearly to the four-centred type, or what is commonly referred to as the Tudor Gothic, a shape almost invariably found in the later Indo-Islamic style. Then there are the smaller side arches, four of which are of the multi-foil pointed variety, a type rare in Indian architecture but probably derived from Arab sources, as seen in the eighth century mosque at Ukaider in Iraq. But it is in the character of the surface decoration that the principal change is seen, both in Old Delhi. Nonetheless the Ajmer screen is a fine work of art, with its seven arches extending over a width of 200 feet, its central parapet 56 feet high and its masonry nearly 12 feet thick, all combining to give the front elevation of this mosque an appearance of great elegance and dignity. One detail of the arcade is of historical interest. This is a small rectangular panel in the spandrel of each archway, a survival of a system of lighting which prevailed in the ancient mosques of Arabia,

19

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE BY PERCY BROWN P.12

25 originally a structural feature, but here reappearing centuries later as a purely decorative motif, although in an identifiable form.20 Bayana in Bharatpur State, a one-time famous city, where there is a temple, the Ukha Mandir, also has an architectural association with the regime of the Slave Kings.

Formed of temple spoils into a mosque apparently during the reign of Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, It had pointed arches corbelled out in the shape and manner as at the Qutb mosque at Delhi.

3.2.1.1 House of Balban With the tomb of Iltutmish the story of Indo-Islamic architecture under the Slave dynasty closes, and for a period of some sixty years, with one exception, no structures of any importance appear to have been produced. The exception emerges during the rule of the "House of Balban:' a short and supplementary dynasty that was in power at Delhi from ¡ A.D. 1266 to 1287, and the building concerned is the tomb of Balban himself, the founder of this brief regime. Dating from about 1280 it is now a ruined and unattractive edifice on the south-east of the Qal-'a-i-Rai Pithaura, but on account of its construction is a notable landmark in the evolution of the style. For in this building for the first time in India we meet with the true arch produced by means of radiating voussoirs, a fact of more than ordinary significance. In spite of the coarse nature of the masonry, which is a rubble foundation covered with cement, this tomb, consisting of a square domed chamber thirty eight feet across, has an archway on each of its sides, each arch put together and bonded on the scientific system originally formulated by the Roman engineers. Such an innovation was a clear intellectual gain, and it is therefore not what this building is that is important, but what it signifies. In its narrow aspect it meant a definite advance in structural practice, but broadly it indicated something much more. It marked a positive step forward in socio-political evolution under the Islamic regime. No longer was the movement towards India confined to military adventurers desi personal advantage, for Delhi was by this time becoming a city of repute, of wealth and influence, a centre of attraction to men of distinction, culture, and learning, rous of exploiting the country to their own

20

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE (ISLAMIC PERIOD) BY PERCY BROWN P 12-13.

26

Figure 13 TOMB OF BALBAN

Figure 14 TOMB OF ILTUTMISH

Possessed of wide scholarship, practical knowledge, and technical skill .Among them were master craftsmen and other trained artificers prepared to introduce the procedure and usage of other lands. The arches in Balbans' tomb although, appearing in such an¡ unobtrusive manner, are proofs of this trend. And, as will be now shown, they prefigure the beginning of a short but brilliant phase of the building art, different from anything that preceded it and having no21table implications.

3.2.2THE BUILDINGS OF THE KHALJI DYNASTY (1290-1320) 3.2.2.1 Alai darwaza It will be realized from the foregoing that this entrance gateway to the mosque of Alaud-din Khalji occupies a key position in the evolution of Islamic architecture in India.

As a provincial or Indianized form of the building art of the Saljuqs it is itself of pronounced consequence, but it is also of importance as certain salient features of its composition were reproduced in the styles that followed, altered and adapted to accord with such changing conditions as from time to time occurred. But although some of the qualities of this Western Asian culture may be detected in the building art of the Khaljis, its actual identity was soon obscured as one form of architectural expression succeeded another or other influences prevailed. Yet certain elements belonging to this movement persisted and may be recognized, as for instance the "spear-head" embellishment of the arch, but most of its distinguishing attributes became gradually merged into the architectural style of the country as it began to take definite and

21

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE (ISLAMIC PERIOD) BY PERCY BROWN P 14-15.

27 permanent shape. 22The Alai Darwaza was erected to serve as one of four entrances to the mosque, two of which were to be on the long eastern side, and one each on the north and south. In design the three outer faces are much alike, each containing a tall archway over a flight of steps leading to the higher floor of the interior. Below is a plinth, its vertical sides elegantly carved in varied bands, while the surface of the wall above is divided into two stories and then again into upright rectangular panels, the two lower being arched recesses with stone grilles. All this is intelligibly executed in a combination of red sandstone and white marble, with arabesques and decorative inscriptions enriching the whole. Yet the outstanding gracefulness of its facades lies in the shape of the arches, particula1ly of the central opening which, in the refined quality of the curves. The proportions of width to height, and the method of embellishment show Islamic architecture at its best. The type of arch here presented is known as the pointed horse-shoe, or "keel," a rare kind not ordinarily used, and, as a matter of fact it does not find a place in any of the buildings after those of the Khaljis.

Moreover the system of its construction is that of radiating voussoirs, so that it is of the "true" variety, and as it is formed of dressed stone is a distinct advance on the rough rubble arches of the previous regime. In addition, however, to the shape of the arch in the Alai Darwaza, its decorative treatment emphasizes its beauty of form.

Around its outlines is a band of inscription carved in white marble, while on the underside, or intrados, is a "fringe" of spear-heads, and in the spandrels are sockets which once contained projecting bosses, typical of the archways in the buildings of the Saljuqs, marble, while on the underside, or intrados, is a "fringe" of spear-heads, and in the spandrels are sockets which once contained projecting bosses, typical of the

Figure 15 ALAI DARWAZA

22

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE BY PERCY BROWN P.17

28 archways in the buildings of the Supporting the arch are slender nook-shafts carved and moulded and the whole is contained within a rectangular frame work bordered with repeating patterns and inscriptions in white marble. So skilfully balanced is the coloured plastic scheme that although all the surfaces are most intricately carved, some in low relief, others deeply incised, the appearance is not cloying or fatiguing to the eye.

3.2.3 THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320-1413) OF the eleven rulers forming the dynasty of the Tughlaqs, which was in power at Delhi for nearly a hundred years, three only, judging from the remains of this period, appear to have interested themselves in the art of building.

These were (I) the founder of the dynasty, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq I (1320-25), (2) His son, Mohammed Shah Tughlaq (1325-51), And (3) the most proli1ic of all in his building projects, Firoz Shah Tughlaq (135188).When it is understood that, besides other important architectural undertakings, each added his own capital city to the two already existing at Delhi, the amount of building construction represented by these three rulers is noteworthy 3.2.3.1 Tomb of ghiyas-ud-din 23 The fabric of this tomb building is of red sandstone with certain portions, including the dome, of white marble, but the most striking part of its composition is the determined slope of the outer walls, as these are inclined at an angle of seventy-five degrees, suggesting in a manner the converging sides of a pyramid. Its square base is sixty-one feet side and the entire height of the structure, including its sandstone finial is over eighty feet. In the centre of each side is recessed a tall pointed archway, three of which contain doorways, while the fourth, or western side, is closed to accommodate the mihrab in its interior. Parts of the exterior design are reminiscent of that outstanding structure ~ Alai Darwaza produced. In the previous decade, but with certain marked differences. There is the same character in the treatment of the pointed arches, each having its spear-head "fringe" although in the case of the tomb, the horseshoe shape has been

23

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE BY PERCY BROWN ISLAMIC PERIOD P.22-23

29

Figure 16 TOMB OF GHIYAS UD DIN TUGHLAQ DELHI 24

Modified into one of a more '''Tudor'' outline, and there is a slight ogee curve at

the crown. But the chief difference ties in the actual conception of these archways, in which a notable expedient appears for the first time, namely, the imposition of a lintel across the base of the arch, thus combining in the construction of this opening the two principles of support, the arch and the beam. From the fact of the reappearance of the beam in the building art at this time much might be inferred, such as the unconscious insistence on the part of the indigenous workmen in maintaining their traditional methods. A compromise was then effected in the form of a fusion of the two systems, the trabeate and the arcuate, a compounding of the structural conventions of both communities, as illustrated in the archways of this tomb.

3.2.3.2Works of Mohammed Tughlaq To Ghiyas-ud-din's son and successor, Mohammed Tughlaq (1325-51) belongs the credit of having built the fourth city of Delhi, but it cannot be said that his patronage had much influence on the imperial style as a whole. His contribution to the capitals of this area consisted in enclosing the space between the first and second cities, by means of fortified walls of prodigious thickness, the part thus joined up being named 24

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE BY PERCY BROWN ISLAMIC PERIOD P.24

30 Jahan pannah, or the "World's Refuge." Very little of this great walls remains, but certain buildings within have been preserved, as for instance an ornamental sluice, comprising a double-storied bridge of seven spans, hence its name "Sath Pul," with supplementary archways and a tower at each end, the whole intended to regulate the supply of water to an artificial lake, which was one of the features of the new city.

Another structure bearing traces of architectural treatment is the Bijai Mandai, presumably part of a “Palace of a Thousand Columns," among the remains of which are certain horse-shoe pointed arches, imperfect reproductions of the "keel" type of the Khaljis. A tomb in its vicinity, square in plan and with a shallow dome, its drum perforated with openings, shows in its proportions and form generally, that the art of good building was being consistently maintained.25 3.2.4 MALVA. THE CITIES OF DHAR AND MANDU (15TH CENTURY) 26 The Provincial Style of Indo-Islamic architecture in Malwa, a region towards the west centre of the country, is the story of two cities, Dhar and Mandu. The former was the ancient capital of these, as for several centuries during the early mediaeval period dhar was the stronghold. Of the Paramaras, a Hindu so powerful and who ruled over so large a kingdom that they originated 'the saying "the world is tile Paramaras."

Monuments of these two cities of Malwa, for reproduced in them we see architectural elements derived from the various styles of buildings at Delhi, such as the battering walls and pointed arch with spear-head "fringe" of the early Tughlaqs, the archlintel-bracket combination of Firuz, the "boat-keel" dome and pyramidal roof of the Lodi’s, besides several other structural practices and decorative motifs, each reminiscent of one of the architectural systems which at different times prevailed at the parent Moslem city. These unmistakable features the hereditary artisans from Delhi skilfu1ly incorporated in the buildings they were commissioned to produce at Malwa, but with them they also introduced original elements as well as motifs of their own, which helped not a little to give this manifestation of the building art its distinctive appearance. Prominent among these innovations was an attractive method of combining the two structural systems of the arch with the pillar and-beam, forming it out of the temple materials, and in no other early type of mosque has this problem 25 26

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE BY PERCY BROWN ISLAMIC PERIOD P.25 INDIAN ARCHITECTURE BY PERCY BROWN ISLAMIC PERIOD P.60

31 been more artistically solved. the most striking impressions conveyed by the architecture of Dhar and Mandu is not the result of its structural but of its decorative properties, as the element of colour takes a prominent part in the architectural scheme.

3.2.4.1 Various phases of buildings at Dhar and Mandu The buildings at Dhar and Mandu besides illustrating the various phases through which the architecture of Malwa passed during this period at Dhar. And in some of the earlier examples at Mandu we see the first phase when the existing temples were dismantled and converted into mosques, the act of a robust and somewhat ruthless domination. Denoting the breaking down of the old indigenous system, and on its ruins raising something new. In the course of time this preliminary period was followed by a style of building of a more substantial and formal order represented by monuments of an original character having a sober and massive elegance signifying that the Moslem rule had been firmly established and had become the recognized constitution of the country. This is the' second, or what may be termed the classical phase. Finally there ensued the third phase, when a less austere and more fanciful type of structure became the vogue, its buoyant effects implying a life of ease and of blithe luxury. As expressed in pavilions, kiosks, pillared courts, balconied turrets and colonnaded terraces, providing an appropriate setting to the sensuous and romantic conditions which brought the Khalji dynasty of Malwa to a close.

3.2.4.1.1 First phase 27 Exemplifying the first phase which began about 1400. There are four mosques, two at Dhar and two at Mandu, which, as they are adaptations from temple materials, illustrate the style in its earliest aspect. At Dhar are the Kamal Maula Masjid (cir.

1400) and the Lat khans Masjid (1405), while the two at Mandu are Dilawar Khan’s Masjid (c. 1405) and the mosque of Malik Mughis (I452) Chief among these was a plan of interposing pointed arches between the pillars in certain central portions of the scheme, thus producing a more finished appearance to the columned interior. Nor that such arcuate additions were of much structural value, as they were too fragile to act as real supports, but they were of a singularly refined shape, made more so by the spandrils being relieved by perforated patterns. The

27

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32

Figure 17 KAMAL MAULA MASJID

Figure 18LAT KHAN MASJID

skilful and elegant manner in which these adjustments were effected may be best studied in the outer porticos of the Lat Masjid at Dhar, and the Malik Mughis' at Mandu, where the lower stones of the arches are socketed into the shafts of the columns so that they appear to spring from pillar to pillar with an aerial grace. The main architectural effect of the interior has been obtained by the treatment of the columned hall of the sanctuary, which is four aisles deep, while the qibla or Western wall has the usual range of decorative mihrabs. At three places in this columned hall the pillars are so disposed as to provide open spaces, thus forming a Dave and two aisles. These spaces are octagonal as they are contained within eight pillars, the intervals between each pillar being filled with pointed arches, while above is a domical ceiling. It is the incidence of these three open bays enclosed by arches within the rows of pillars that give the sanctuary its charmingly varied appearance.

3.2.4.1.2 Second phase 28 The beginning of the second phase of Islamic architecture in Malwa coincides with the establishment of the capital at Mandu, and also the first step taken towards the erection of its finest monuments. The conception of the new seat of the government appears to have been initiated early in the fifteenth century when, in addition to the battlemented walls, among other buildings the first of the fortified entrances to the city were constructed, such as the Delhi or northern gateway, and the Tarapur gateway, both within the years 1405-7. The former is a grand portal consisting of a sequence of archways, their shape and structure with the "spearhead fringe" being of the same

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33

Figure 19 JAMI MASJID MANDU

order as those in the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din at Tughlaqabad (1324) but more substantially treated to suit their sterner purpose.

3.2.4.2 Jami Masjid 29 The largest and most impressive building of this great central group is the congregation mosque of the city, the Jami Masjid, which having been begun by Hushang was finished by his successor Sultan Mahmud I about A.D. 1440As the building is raised on a high plinth, this enables the front side of the basement to contain a series of arcaded chambers for public use as a serai. The courtyard, which is 162 feet square, is surrounded on all four sides by arched arcades, the eleven openings in each side forming a facade to the pillared halls within. Passing into the columned hall of the sanctuary. One is struck at once by the effect produced by its repeating arcades of arches, the manifold rows of which. One within the other, give this interior not only a stately appearance but also an atmosphere in keeping with its sacred purpose. These aisles of pointed arches are moderately' plain in design with only an occasional display of ornamentation, but a passage of rich variety is introduced into the scheme by means of sculptured mihrabs at regular intervals in the qibla wall, and by an elegantly designed mimber (pulpit) in the central bay.

3.2.5 THE MUGHAL PERIOD-AKBAR THE GREAT (1556-1605) The style of building that evolved under this ruler's patronage was chiefly executed in red sandstone readily available in these parts, with insertions of white marble not infrequently introduced for purposes of emphasis. In principle the construction was of the trabeate order, although the "Tudor" arch was often used but mainly in its capacity

29

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34

Figure 20 AGRA FORT

as decorative arcading; as a matter of fact in its appearance but not in structure the style was arcuate and trabeate in almost equal proportions.

3.2.5.1 Fortress-palace of Agra30

One of its most remarkable features is its massive enclosure wall which consists of a

solid sandstone rampart just under seventy feet in height and nearly one and a half miles in circuit, the first application of dressed stone on such a large scale. Within this fortified wall at Agra were two gateways, the one on the southern side being intended for private entry, but that on the west known as the Delhi Gate was the main entrance and accordingly designed in keeping with the noble rampart on its flanks. The scheme as a whole is comparatively simple as its front consists of two broad octagonal towers joined by an archway, while the back is an elegant facade with arcaded terraces above, surmounted by cupolas, kiosks and pinnacles. From every point of view a most attractive appearance has been given to this structure by means of arcades, arched recesses and other architectural and decorative features, so disposed as to add greatly to the effect but without detracting from its real purposes as an essential part of the fortification.

Figure 21ARCHES IN AGRA FORT

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35 3.2.6 THE MUGHAL PERIOD-SHAH JAHAN (1627-58)-THE REIGN OF MARBLE 31 Such a change in the substance of the building art naturally brought with it a corresponding change in its temper and treatment. Marble, especially of the textural quality as that obtained from the quarries of Markrana in Jodhpur State, provides its own decorative appearance owing to its delicate graining, and any ornamentation requires to be most judiciously, almost sparingly applied, otherwise the surfaces become fretted and confused. The forms therefore of this style are essentially marble forms, while the decoration is only occasionally plastic, such enrichment as was considered essential being obtained by means of inlaid patterns in coloured stones.

Particularly noticeable is the alteration in the character of the arch, the curves of which were now often foliated, usually in each instance by means of nine cusps, with the result that white marble arcades of engrailed arches became a distinguishing feature of the period. The dome also assumed another form, as the Persian type, bulbous in its outlines and constructed at its neck, found favour. The adoption of which brought with it the system of true double doming derived from the same source.

Other developments were the introduction, of pillars with tapering or baluster shafts, voluted bracket capitals and foliated bases.

3.2.6.1 The fort of DelhiThe fort of Delhi in plan approximates an oblong 3100 feet long and 16so feet in width and is aligned from north to south, an orientation no doubt so devised as to prevent the symmetry of the whole being disturbed by the fixed orientation of the mosques, a defect which is only too obvious in the plan of his predecessor's capital at Fatehpur Sikri. This palace enclosure which is nearly symmetrical in its arrangements resolves itself into four parts, (1) a large central quadrangle containing the Diwani-Am or Hall of Public Audience; on each side of this are (2) and (3) consisting of two square open spaces designed in the form of ornamental gardens and courtyards, while (4) is the range of marble palaces, one side facing the gardens and the other commanding an open view of the river. Two or these buildings were larger 31

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36 than the others and of exceptional richness in their architectural and decorative treatment, typical of the style in its most opulent mood. Such are the Hall of Audience and the Rang mahal, and from these two examples it is possible to study not only its architecture but to recall some of the past life and thus to revive the dead glories of this remarkable conception.

32

The structure takes the form of an open pavilion in one story, their facades of

engrailed arches shaded by a wide eave, or chajja, above which rises a parapet and from, each comer a graceful kiosk. The interiors also consist of engrailed arches in intersecting arcades which divide the whole space into square or oblong bays, each bay having a cavetto or cyma recta cornice and a fiat highly decorated ceiling. There are no pillars, their place being taken by massive square or twelve sided piers, a formation which also Gives a spacious soffit to the arches, a factor having no little influence on the effect.

For, viewed from any angle, owing to the double and sometimes fourfold outlining of the underside of the arches, these interiors present a perspective of flowing curves and arcuate shapes, of volutes and crescentic, forms, expressive of the soft luxurious use to which these structures were applied. In addition there is the ornamentation distributed over every portion, of gilt, coloured, and inlaid patterns in sinuous scrolls and serpentine lines accentuating that atmosphere of voluptuousness with which these buildings were so obviously associated. Within the traceried foliations on the walls, piers, and arches, conventional flowers were freely introduced, roses, poppies, lilies and the like, for the mughuls were flower worshippers not content with those growing naturally in the gardens outside, but they craved for pictures of them always before their eyes.

Of these two buildings, the Rang Mahal or "Painted Palace," and the Audience Hall. the former is perhaps the more lavishly ornate and may be regarded as the crowning jewel of Shah jahan's seraglio, so much so that its beauties moved a contemporary chronicler to exclaim that "in lustre and in colour it is far superior to the palaces in the promised paradise." In plan the dimensions of the Rang Mahal are 153 feet by 6g feet and it consists of a main central hall with smaller compartments at each end. This 32

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37

Figure 22 DIWAN-E-KHAS -DELHI FORT 33

central hall is divided up into fifteen bays each twenty feet square by means of

ornamental piers, the general effect being that of a pavilion or loggia of elegant proportions with all its parts admirably spaced. Originally its exterior arches appear to have been filled in with perforated marble screens, and there were triple arches of lattice work placed across the centre of each side, so that its privacy was complete.

Equally well planned is the other palace, the Diwan-i-Khas, but It is more open in its arrangements as it is formed of one large hall 90 feet by 67 feet and its facade consists of an arcade of five equal arches with others of varying sizes skilfully disposed on its shorter sides, thus providing a cool and airy interior, as no parts are enclosed. This interior is divided into fifteen wide bays by means of engrailed arches supported on square marble piers, while the eastern side overhanging the rampart has arched window openings and elegant perforated tracery. With its pavement of "polished marble, reflecting the massive piers enriched with inlaid flowers, and its foliated arches picked out in gold and colours, a textural effect causing the whole interior to be illumined by a soft mellowness. This building, in some of its aspects, rivals the Rang Mahal in an appearance of exuberant grace.

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38

3.3 AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX ARCHES 3.3.1 Type of arch The ahileshwar temple complex consist of Multi foliated arches.

Multifoil Arches Sometimes called the cusped arch, multi-foil arches contain arches within arches. This style of arch was very common in Moorish architecture and some examples can be found in the Great Mosque in Cordoba, alongside horseshoe arches. The main architectural benefit to multi-foil arches is decorative like horseshoe arches, they provide opportunity for greater visual pattern and rhythm; and indeed the shape of multi-foil arches was completely removed from arches to become a pattern motif on some buildings. But, like the pointed arch, multifoil arches also centred the thrust of the weight they carried to a single vertical point, which allowed for all the structural benefits of a pointed arch. The term is French, "foil" means "leaf." The number of foils involved is indicated by a prefix: trefoil —3, quatrefoil —4, etc., and multifoil — many.

3.3.2 Material Material of construction of arches is sandstone.

3.3.3 SimilaritiesThe arches evolved during the rule of shah jahan (1627-1658) are similar arches present in ahileshwar temple complex. Though the difference is between the materials used in constructing these arches.

The ahileshwar temple complex consist of Multi foil arches built in red sandstone from quarries of Rajasthan.

While buildings built by shah jahan are of marble from quarries of Makrana of Jodhpur state.

3.3.4-Details of arches in temple complex Detail of Arches in Ahileshwar temple complex at various spots is shown the marked up details are shown on next page-

39

Figure 23 PLAN SHOWING VARIOUS DETAIL MARKS IN TEMPLE COMPLEX

Figure 24 SURROUNDING FACADE WITH ROW OF ARCHES

Figure 26 DETAIL OF ARCH

Figure 25VIEW OF ROW OF ARCHES IN TEMPLE

40



The row of arches shown at C is present inside the boundary of ahileshwar temple.



The similar row of arches is present at southern side of the temple following symmetry in planning of temple.

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The arches of ahileshwar temple and Vithoji chatri have different type of carving details on them which clearly shows that both the structures were built at different time period.

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The slab above the arches is supported through the beams.

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The row consist of 13 arches at both the sides northern and southern.

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The row of arches at both the sides is overlooking the ahileshwar temple.

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There is difference in height of 600 mm floor level, between the space provided on the other side of the arches and the floor level of the temple. i.e Space provided the arches is raised upto 600mm.



The water drains through the groove provided at the end of the floor level of ahileshwar temple there is constant slope in the drain.



The main architectural benefit to multi-foil arches is decorative like horseshoe arches, they provide opportunity for greater visual pattern and rhythm; and indeed the shape of multi-foil arches was completely removed from arches to become a pattern motif on some buildings. But, like the pointed arch, multifoil arches also centred the thrust of the weight they carried to a single vertical point, which allowed for all the structural benefits of a pointed arch.



Construction of arches is based on assembly of pieces of stones prepared and are joined through special mortar the formula of which was known by the masons.

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The arches consist of carvings of patterns of flowers, these carvings now appear in maheshwari sarees.

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The arches Detail D are similar to arches of Detail E.



The southern façade follows the axis and symmetry.



The space for activities is created by constructing a wall behind the arches at some distance.

41  

The interest in façade is created by constructing jharoka at center of the arches at first floor level.

The Detail G shows the detail of arches at vithoji chatri, it consist of single arch in front façade provided with squinch.



Two multi foil arches when viewed from the side and two at the back.



The chatri also follows symmetry in plan and elevation like the ahileshwar temple.

Figure 27 SIMPLE MULTI FOIL ARCH IN TEMPLE COMPLEX

Figure 32DETAIL OF ARCH AT AHILESHWAR TEMPLE ENTERANCE

Figure 28 DETAIL OF ARCH IN FRONT FACADE

Figure 29DETAIL OF ARCH

Figure 33VIEW OF ARCHES IN SOUTHERN FAÇADE (RIGHT SIDE)

Figure 30VIEW OF ARCHES IN SOUTHERN FACADE (LEFT SIDE) Figure 31ARCH AT MAIN ENTRY

42

CHAPTER 4-SHIKHARA 4.1 BASICS OF SHIKHARA 34

For the sake of convenience, it is usual to classify Hindu architecture according to

geographical criteria but also by the type of covering built over the inner sanctum Geographical division gives the nagara style which was generally developed in the north, the dravida style that developed in the south, arid the vesara style from the centre of the country, a fusion of the other two The second type of categorisation gives temples with three types of covering, the curvilinear, the pyramidal or prismatic, and the cylindrical or barrel vault Indian texts refer to square and rectangular coverings for the nagara style, hexagonal and octagonal coverings for the dravida style, and circular, oval and apsidal coverings tor the vesara style However these divisions do not do justice to the great variety of styles that characterise Hindu architecture.

The basic structures of the nagara temple are •The adhisthana, the plinth, a tall platform with one or more flights of steps leading up it.

•The ardhamandapa, a hypostyle entrance porch.

•The mandapa, a hypostyle room with pyramidal covering.

•The antarala, a hall, the space that joins the mandapa to the inner sanctum.

•The garbha-griha, the square inner sanctum that houses the murti of the divinity: this stands on the pitha, the pedestal which is placed on the spot where a jar is buried containing symbolic objects, for example nine jewels which refer to the planets The jar symbolises the fertile womb of Prakriti, Nature, and the pedestal used for the murti refers to Mount Meru.

• The shikhara, the ogival structure that stands over the inner sanctum, is perhaps influenced by the ancient Vedic altar covering made from bamboo pointed at top pointed at the top; it is achieved by cutting successive horizontal mouldings to create a

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ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA BY MARILIA ALBANESE P.17-18

43 dome effect. The shikhara evokes Mount Meru as well as the idea of a sacrificial flame rising towards heaven To smooth the angles of the shikhara and to counterbalance the horizontal dimension of the mouldings, the corners are accented with angashikharas or urushringas, miniature repetitions of the shikhara that have the precise function of emphasising the ogive and accentuating the vertical dimension. Consequently, the horizontal plane, which alludes to the various existential planes and forms, and the vertical plane, which evokes the essential ontological unity enclosing manifestation, are harmonised in a single, compact upward movement. The convergence of ethereal forms.

35

The geometry of plan of the temple breaks all barriers of Varying form, elevation

treatment, and regional distinction of ornamentation because the deriving parameters of design remain the same whether it is north or South India, good way to decipher the form the Shekhari form or for that matter any complex structure is to break it into subparts and then try to see the order in which they are fitted together. Similar is the exercise for the Shekhari the key components are the centrally placed Latina or the mukunanjari and the Latina kutasrombhu which prefer to address in the Nagara vocabulary as the 'sringastambha’. Convincingly enough, the Shekhari’s anatomy can be seen to be having a defined organizational pattern of these parts, in an underlying imagery.

This imagery’ can also be seen in “the principle of articulating the temple exterior as a matrix of interconnected shrine-images.” Hardy’s expresses the dynamism in the Shekhari configuration by a set of movement patterns viz. Projection, Staggering, Splitting, Bursting of boundaries, Progressive multiplication, Expanding repetition.

Pictorial representation and Gyration' which are self explanatory’ from his drawings of the Nagara temples. Hence his evolution theory can be applied as a means to analysis the temple form which can be studied as a development of the aedicular components having certain characteristics of ‘proliferation and fragmentation’, alignment’, ‘diagonality’ and ‘staggeration' along the ‘central axis' of the prasada and the Mandapa.

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44

Figure 34 TERMINOLOGY OF SHEKHARI

Figure 35KEY COMPONENTS AND DYNAMIC COMPOSITION OF SHIKHARI

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4.2 FORM AND COMPOSITION OF SHEKHARI TEMPLES 4.2.1 The Roof Plan

36

It becomes very necessary to analyse the ground plan in conjunction with its

elevation in order to generate a precise roof plan As far as the roof plan is concerned there arc only basic three components, i.e. the main mulamanjari the four symmetrical urahsringas distributed around the main cardinal axis and finally the four smaller sringas at the edge of the composition.

The issues that are important to consider are firstly the sizes of the three parts, secondly the locations of the urahsringas and the sringas with respect to the mulamanjari anti the central axis, the levels which in this case are all at the same level and next is the selection of a correct grid.

4.3 TYPES OF SHEKHARI The '5 types proposed by Hardy break(author of the book on shekhar) all the geographic and regional barriers and hence, can be considered generic to all the shekhari temples. His classification gives us a method to visualize in the 3 Dimension, the variations in shekhari formation and their composition it provides us a powerful tool to generate their roof plans. Any architectural study is incomplete without a proper documentation of its plan elevation and roof plan.

Besides the 5 types Hardy has devised another category termed as 'proto-Shekhari’.” It deals with those temples where the bhadra is treated more than a mere central part of the bhitti, the others being pratibhadra and karma. Here the projected bhadra is in fact superimposed with the miniature version of the complete temple form itself.

In figure 36, both a' and b’ represent the basic 'proto-shekhari temple structure, where as a’ is single tiered, b' is double. It is easy to visualize a small a acting as a urahsringa as such in c as well as d being embedded or more so emerging from the mulamajari.

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Figure 36 COMBINATION OF PROTOSHIKHARI TYPES

4.3.1 Type 1

37

The general characteristics of the type 1 of the sekhari type are the simplest. They

are “with a single urahshringa projecting from each face of the mulamanjari".

Emanation of the urahsringa from the vertical cardinal axis can be visualized.A generic development of the roof plan can be seen in the Figure 37 , The step 1 relates to the identification of the mulamanjari. In step 2 the urahsringas are placed symmetrically in the four directions. The placement of the urahsringas is dynamically driven but it is not necessary that the urahsringas which is in fact a smaller version of the bigger mulamanjari complete shikhara is half way embedded/projecting. This

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47 location of the urahsringa with respect to the edge of the mulamanjari is defined by the ground plan. Similarly, the sringas are placed in the four corners of the mulamanjari with respect to the ground plan Therefore definitely it can be said that in

Figure 38 DYNAMIC COMPOSITION OF TYPE 1

Figure 37 GENERIC DEVELOPMENT OF TYPE 1 SHEKHARI

Figure 39AXONOMETRIC VIEW OF TYPE 1 SHEKHARI

48 the location selection of both the urahsringas and the sringas flexibility is visible which is governed by the changes in the differing ground plans.

4.3.2 Type 2 38 The Type 2 is an extension of type 1. Visually the elevation can be expressed to be projecting downwards and the plan outwards. The important difference is the presence of two levels as compared to the single in the Type1.The number of urahsringas levels range from 0-2.

4.3.3 Type 3 The creation of Type 3 as a predecessor of Type 2 could be the result of either the natural human instinct to create a more complex and a larger structure than done before or else it could be distinct design parameters of the Shekhari structures where by the compositions tends to proliferate outwards and downwards. There is basic transformation in the form of the Shekhari composition from a square to a stepped diamond one. There are numerous examples of Type 3, like Alau Parsvanath and Bahu temple both in Nagad, Rajasthan but the earliest example is Someshvara, Kiradu, Rajasthan, co.1020. The Type 3 is analysed in two versions: the classic’

Figure 40 TYPE 2 ROOF PLAN AND ITS AXONOMETRIC VIEW

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INDIAN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE- ANALYSIS OF PLANS,ELEVATIONS AND ROOF FORMS VOL. 3 SHEKHARI ROOF PLANS P.32

49 where “the corner projections and the adjacent ones are in the line of the stepped diamond, while the pair flanking the bhadra are back from the line, half embedded in the bhadru’s side. Every projection is treated as a Latina kutastambha". The other is based on a 'stepped diamond', which according to Hardy(author of the book on shikhara) “allows a wide enough bhadra. If the flanking projections are drawn back from the diamond line, as in the version so far discussed, the bhadra is so ample as to require additional minor offsets. It is even possible to align all the kutastambhas, including those next to the bhadra, with the bounding diamond and still have room for a bhadra wide enough to carry the third urahsringa."39

Figure 41 PLAN AND AXONOMETRIC VIEW OF TYPE 3 SHEKHARI

Figure 42 PLAN AND AXONOMETRIC VIEW OF TYPE 4 SHEKHARI

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INDIAN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE- ANALYSIS OF PLANS,ELEVATIONS AND ROOF FORMS VOL. 3 SHEKHARI ROOF PLANS P. 43

50 4.3.4 Type 4 40

According to Hardy(author of the book on shikhara). Type 4 made its presence felt

in the eleventh century and they were largely built in the twelfth, fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. They were more popular in Gujarat with a few found in central India. The obvious gaps have been tilled up occasionally by small katas in the form of miniatures rangamandapa (kaksakatakas) which Hardy addresses as Phamsana kutastambha. The major difference between Type3 and Type 4 although both might have the same number of springing levels is that, in Type 4 there are half urahsringas attached to the first urahsringa whereas in Type 3 the urahsringas are independent.

4.3.5 Type 5 41

The additions of another level of urahsringas, transforms the role of the 50e-entrant

projections from just fillers between sringas to an entity of equal importance as the sringas. The best known Type 5, Kandhariva Mahadeva, Khajuraho (ca. 1030) can be said to have evolved the type which later could be seen in Jagat Siromani temple, Amer, Rajasthan, seventeenth century and also at Chhatri of Gaja Singh, (reigned 1619-1638) Mandor, Rajasthan. “From the fifteenth century onwards, the types that had been established earlier were repeated many times, even if disguised by features not directly related to the underlying compositions of the shrines themselves. New prasada designs are few, but significant. It has already been seen that one way in which Shekhari temples developed was through proliferation within the framework of the established types, notably with kutastambha pavilions becoming composite. Apart from simply adding storeys, there is a further kind of development that can be made in terms of the primary components: to add additional, inferior order of quarter sringas. This is seen in the Kandhariya Mahadeva, but afterwards was not attempted for another four hundred years. A number of related ways of doing this appeared between the fifteenth

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51 and eighteenth centuries. These belong to two categories, the first consisting of extrapolations from type 5, the other developing the old idea of the central cluster.

Figure 43PLAN AND AXONOMETRIC VIEW OF TYPE 5 SHEKHARI

Belonging to the first category’ is one design that appears repeatedly, and might almost be called “Type 6.� Variants of this are found in a number of fifteenth century temples in Rajasthan, and later in two of the seventeenth century chhatris at Mandor.

Perhaps the earliest example is the Meera temple at Eklingji.. In temples of this variety, the second urahsringas and all the corresponding quarter srngas sprout secondary quarter sringas. They generally have three tiers of kutastambhas and three urahsringas. The plan geometry is of the kind in which all the main sringas sit within a diagonal square, a scheme that may have arisen in relation to this type before being applied to Type 5. As the third urahsringa is at the same scale and springing level as the corresponding minor quarter sringas, they form, together with the second urahsringa, a half emerged Type 1 shikhara. Similarly, the clusters of major and minor quarter sringas form quarter emerged Type 1 configurations. The lesser quarter sringas (not exactly a quarter on plans) are organically related to the stages below through corresponding, distinct cardinal projections in the reentrants. Typically, the crowning elements of these reentrants are quarter visible cluster, of which an invisible central core is surrounded by small kutastambhas, all leading up to the quarter sringas

52 clusters. The other category of late Sekhari temple with two orders of quarter sringas develops the idea, already seen at a much earlier of the emergent central cluster.

Though not consciously, the new design, repeated a number of times, in effect extrapolates from the concept underlying the Rajarani temple, Bhubaneshwar and the temple at Baragaon. Three examples are the Lakheina temple, Abhapur, Gujrat (ca. third quarter of the fifteenth century), the Siva temple, Vadnagar, Gujrat and an eighteenth century Maratha work, the Narayana temple, Nasik, Maharashtra. The core of the composition (and no doubt the starting point of the idea) is a Type 4, in other words with a stepped diamond plan and with quarter sringas corresponding to the second urahsringa.

4.4 STUDY OF SHIKHARA OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE 

The “Shikara” is the salient feature of the nagara style temple. A single module of Shikhara is repeated in ahileshwar temple to create dynamics



Central shikhara is surrounded by small other shikhara in four direction.

•

It is a type 3 type shikhara shrine.

•

The base of the temple i.e. Vedibandha, is at level +8.6m from ground level.

•

The sub base of the temple i.e. Upapitha is divided into several levels.

•

The wall zone of the temple completes at level +11m from the ground level

•

The chadya level (chajja level) starts at level+11m from the ground level and

ends at +11.5m.

•

The ahileshwar temple comprises of mulamanjari, 4 urahsringas on all sides of

temple, and 4 second urahsringas.

•

Sringas at all levels have similar dimensions.

Figure 44 SECTION OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX

53

Figure 45 FRONT ELEVATIONAL DETAIL Figure 48 SIDE ELEVATION DETAIL OF AHILESHWAR OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE TEMPLE

Figure 46 VIEW OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE SHIKHARA

Figure 47 VIEW OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE SHIKHARA

54

CHAPTER 5 CARVINGS 5.1 STAGES OF CARVING  5.1.1 Quarrying The first stage of any carving project that is not using second-hand material involved the quarrying of a suitable piece of stone. Once a suitable section of rock was found, and any overburden cleared, separation trenches would be cut along the sides and rear of the block that was to be removed with the pick 42

Once these trenches were cut, shallow holes would then be carved out with the point around the bottom of the block, where it was still attached to the bedrock. Into these, iron wedges would be hammered to encourage the stone to split from the bedrock.

Sometimes the holes for these wedges were carved quite deeply and wooden wedges inserted which, when soaked in water, would expand and split the rock.

The saw was occasionally also used for extracting material directly from a quarry face.

Modern marble quarrying is usually done with diamond wire saws allowing for enormous blocks to be extracted, which are then sawn into smaller panels. Pneumatic drills are also employed to create holes into which edges are then hammered to split the stone.  5.1.2 Transport Where a particular stone outcrops is determined by the underlying geology and not all areas contain stones suitable for all types of project. As a result, stone, once quarried, usually has to be transported some distance to the site at which it is to be put to use.

Transporting a material as heavy as stone is far from easy. Most hard limestones or marbles weigh between 2,500 and 2,800 kg/m3.

The first obstacle was to get quarried material out of the quarry. Quarries are often located in areas of steep terrain and ox-drawn carts suitable for the transport of stone blocks overland struggle on gradients of over 5%. In most cases, then, quarried material had to be slid out of the quarry on sleds or over rollers to a point where it could be safely loaded on to a vehicle.

Once material had been brought to an area flat enough to allow access to vehicles it then had to be loaded. In the Roman period, ox-drawn carts would have been the most common vehicles used for overland transport.

The very largest blocks could not have been carried in carts and were probably just pulled over rollers by oxen or men. Cranes would have been needed to get blocks on and off these vehicles, both at the quarry and at the place where the material was needed.

42

Adam, J.-P. (1999). Roman building: materials and techniques. London.

55 Quarries located immediately next to the sea had an important advantage in this respect. Long distance transport of stone is much cheaper by sea than by land and it is preferable to be able to load blocks directly from quarry to ship than to have to transport it overland first.  5.1.3 Planning and measuring Carving stone is a subtractive process and it is hard to put back stone that has already been removed. As a result, most stone carving projects are carefully planned. When the finished product has to closely resemble a specific subject or match another product (as in the case of architectural elements), this planning process might also require close measuring. This process could be done before or after transport. however, were made once the stone arrived at its destination, whether a building site or a carver’s workshop. They were intended to help the carver lay out their design and execute it correctly. For this reason, such guidelines are most common on architectural projects, where very specific dimensions and proportions were required to ensure that different elements fitted together into a unified structure.  5.1.4 Laying-out Most guidelines were probably applied directly on to the surface of the stone with impermanent materials, like paint or charcoal, and have since vanished. Occasionally, though, more permanent guidelines are visible, engraved into the surface of the stone, especially on unfinished objects.  5.1.5 Carving How a carver goes about actually carving their work depends very much on the project in question, the desired final effect, and their own personal approach. Carving as a process can be divided into a whole series of lesser processes, each with their own specific goals and for each of which different tools are best suited. As with so much else in stone carving, these processes are not easily defined and many carvers see no obvious separation between them.

43

1. SQUARING -The rough squaring of newly quarried blocks so that they were approximately flat on all sides was a task usually undertaken in the quarry.

Occasionally rough blocks were sub-divided and squared using the saw, a process that leaves a distinctive flat surface on the block.

2. ROUGHING OUT- This is the initial stage of shaping the form in a very rough way. Roughing-out was often carried out at the quarry to reduce the weight of the object ready for onward transport. The basic forms of the final design are defined at this stage and as much excess material as possible removed. This is almost always undertaken with the point and results in the removal of the largest volume of stone of any stage of carving.

3. HOLLOWING OUT- A sub-category of roughing-out, hollowing-out is a particular type of preparatory work often carried out at the quarry on vessels, basins and especially sarcophagus chests. This process was usually done with the point chisel, though for large spaces the quarry pick might have been used.

43

Rockwell, P. (1993). The art of stone working: a reference guide. Cambridge.

56 4. ROUGH SHAPING- Following roughing-out a carver will normally begin to add more definition to the form, still working relatively quickly. Often this stage of work is skipped altogether as the carver goes straight from roughingout to a finer level of shaping.

5. FINE SHAPING- This is the careful definition of the planned form, usually carried out with a flat chisel but sometimes with a roundel or tooth chisel. This could be a final level of finish if no further smoothing was required.

6. DETAILING- A sub-category of fine shaping is detailing, which involves the carving of specific minutiae of the form picked out for visual effect. Detailing might include the addition of depth to facial features, drapery or hair with the drill followed by the channelling tool or the use of the corner of a flat chisel to decorate armour or add patterns to clothing, hair or beards. This is work usually only undertaken once the overall form of the carving is basically complete. For detailing that required depth, such as holes in nostrils, ears and eyes or grooves in drapery, the favoured combination of tools in the Roman period was the drill followed by a narrow flat chisel or channelling tool.

7. OUTLINING- These outlines are usually carved with the corner of a flat chisel, a roundel or sometimes a channelling tool.

8. FLATTENING- All of the processes discussed so far (except squaring) were intended to shape particular forms but flat surfaces also had to be carved.

Flattening here is defined as the rough working of a surface to provide a flat finish rather than a smooth one.

9. SMOOTHING- Smoothing, on either flat areas or more complicated forms, Sometimes careful flat chiselling was all that was required but in most cases a rasp, or sometimes a scraper, was used.



5.1.6 Further surface finishes

44

All of the carving processes discussed up to this point could have been done with a small selection of tools and completed by most carvers. Further levels of finishing, especially polishing and painting, however, required different equipment and have, throughout history, often been carried out by specialist craftsmen.

1. POLISHING- Polishing is distinct from smoothing because it is not done with a chisel or rasp but instead involves abrasive stones or powders. There are different gradations of polish, ranging from a basic matt one to an extremely high gloss finish, which require progressively finer abrasives to achieve. A matt polish, for instance, can be achieved by rubbing emery, sandstone or pumice over the surface of the stone, usually with water to help lubricate the process. Higher grades of polish can then be achieved by using finer substances, like sand and burnt and crushed animal bones mixed into a paste with water. Only certain stones can be polished, among them marble, various hard granites and porphyries, and certain types of limestone.

44

Rockwell, P. (1993). The art of stoneworking: a reference guide. Cambridge.

57 2. PAINTING- This is true of free-standing statues, reliefs and architectural carvings. Very little of this paint has survived and even where it can still be seen with the naked eye it is clear that ancient pigments deteriorated rapidly.

The study of the painting of statuary has been boosted relatively recently by the development of a host of new analytical techniques, chemical, physical and photographic.

3. INSERTION-Particular effects were sometimes achieved through the combination of different materials. A particular class of sculpture, known as chryselephantine, made use of gold and ivory together. Metal inserts were also used.

5.2 CARVINGS IN AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX The Ahileshwar temple complex has different details of carvings in ahileshwar temple and vithoji chattri this may be due to different time period of their construction.

The details of carvings are shown separately, after showing the correct point of detail.

The important details are mentioned below-

Figure 49 PLAN SHOWING DETAIL MARKS OF CARVINGS ON DIFFERENT AREAS IN TEMPLE COMPLEX

58

Figure 50 SOME STONE CARVINGS OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE COMPLEX

    

Figure 59 shows carving details at base of the entrance of vithoji chattri the carving of elephant is widely used in surrounding façade of vithojji chattri.

On top of the vithoji chattri at portals there are statues carved in sandstone near the main dome(figure 56) Figure 58 shows te elephant engraving on the side elevation of vithoji chattri, it enhances the beauty of the structure.

Figure 61 shows the detail of jharuka provided at chajja level on vithoji chattri , it consist of flowering patterned carvings.

Figure 60 shows carving detail on arches, the temple complex consist of flowering patterned carvings on arches.

59

5.2.1 DETAILS AT 1- VITHOJI CHATRI CARVING DETAILS The Vithoji chatri has various details of carving including carvings of elephants and the beautiful figures of musicians, dancer’s couples including one or two Europeans.

Figure 52 ELEVATION SHOWING DETAIL MARKS OF CARVINGS ON VITHOJI CHATTRI

Figure 51SIDE ELEVATION SHOWING CARVING DETAILS

60

Figure 59 CARVING DETAILS ON THE BASE OF THE ENTERANCE STAIRS

Figure 56DETAIL AT L Figure 55 DETAIL AT M Figure 54 DETAIL AT N

Figure 53 DETAIL AT O

Figure 58 ELEPHANT ENGRAVING IN THE SIDE ELEVATION OF VITHOJI CHATTRI

Figure 57 CARVING DETAIL OF PARAPET

61

Figure 61 CARVING DETAILS OF JARUKHA

Figure 60 CARVING DETAILS OF ARCH

Figure 62 CARVING OF ELEPHANT

62 5.2.2 DETAILS AT 3 CARVING DETAILS OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE

Figure 66 (DETAIL E) CARVED AT TEMPLE

Figure 65 (DETAIL F), DETAIL CARVED AT PARAPET OF THE TEMPLE

Figure 63 SECTION BB'

Figure 64 SIDE ELEVATION SHOWING CARVING DETAIL MARKS

63 5.2.3 CARVING DETAILS OF SURROUNDING FAÇADE

Figure 67 SURROUNDING FACADE SHOWING VARIOUS DETAIL MARKS

DETAIL A B C D Figure 68 ELEVATION OF TEMPLE

64

DETAIL A

DETAIL B

DETAIL C

DETAIL D

Figure 72 CARVING DETAILS OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE

Figure 71(DETAIL G) DETAIL OF THE PARAPET

Figure 70 DETAILS OF I J AND K (CARVED PORTALS ON THE FACADE OF THE CORIDOOR)

Figure 69 DECORATIVE ELEMENT ON SURROUNDING FACADE OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE

65

Figure 73 COLUMN DETAIL OF AHILESHWAR TEMPLE

66

CHAPTER 6-OBSERVATION AND ANALYSIS 1) The detailed research analysis is done to find which stone would be better to be used for external façade of buildings irrespective of the climate of the place.

6.1 SELECTION OF STONE Stone for building construction is judged on the basis of appearance, durability, strength, economy, and ease of maintenance. Design and aesthetics will determine the suitability of the color, texture, aging characteristics, and general qualities of the stone for the type of building under consideration. Colors may range from dull to brilliant hues, and from warm to cool tones. Textures may vary from coarse or rough to fine and dense. Some stones, such as marble and granite, are typically used on large commercial and institutional structures, whereas others, such as rubble sandstone, are more often seen in smaller, more rustic designs .Limestones are generally considered in the broad range of commercial, institutional, and utilitarian applications. Some stones, such as granite, soften very slowly in tone and outline, and will retain a sharp edge and hard contour indefinitely. Others mellow in tone and outline, becoming softer in shape without losing their sense of strength and durability. Elaborately Carved ornaments and lettered panels require stones of fine grain to produce and preserve the detail of the artist’s design.

The compressive strength of stone was of great importance when large buildings were constructed of loadbearing stone walls and foundations. Today, however, stone is more often used as a thin veneer over steel, concrete, or unit masonry structures, or as loadbearing elements only in low-rise structures. In these applications, the compressive loads are generally small, and nearly all of the commonly used building stones are of sufficient strength to maintain structural integrity.

In terms of practicality and long-term cost, durability is the most important consideration in selecting building stone. Suitability will depend not only on the

67 characteristics of the stone but also on local environmental and climatic conditions.

Frost is the most active agent in the destruction of stone. In warm, dry Climates, almost any stone may be used with good results. Stones of the same general type such as limestone, sandstone, and marble differ greatly in durability based on softness and porosity. Soft, porous stones are more likely to absorb water and to flake or disintegrate in repeated freeze-thaw cycles, and may not be suitable in the colder and moister northern climates.

Weathering of stone is the combined chemical decomposition and physical disintegration of the material. The thinner the stone is cut, the more susceptible it is to weathering. Marble naturally has a lower fatigue endurance than other stones, and there are a number of variables which affect its strength and stiffness. Certain environmental conditions will weaken marble over time, causing panels to fracture, crumble, or bow.

Most stone used for exterior building construction is relatively volume stable, returning to its original dimensions after undergoing thermal expansion and contraction through a range of temperatures. Some fine-grained, uniformly textured, relatively pure marbles, however, retain small incremental volume increases after each heating cycle. Marble is actually composed of layers of crystals, and repeated thermal and moisture cycles tend to make these crystals loosen and slide apart. The marble becomes less dense when it expands during heating, but does not return to its prior state during the cooling cycle. This irreversible expansion is called hysteresis. In relatively thick veneers, the greater expansion on the exposed exterior surface is restrained or accommodated by the unaffected interior mass. In thin veneers, however, dilation of the exterior surface region is not restrained by the inner layers, and the stone dishes because the expansion is greatest across the diagonal axis.

Expansion of the exterior face of marble panels increases the porosity of the stone and its vulnerability to attack by atmospheric acids a cyclic freezing. Thermal finishes, in addition to reducing the effective thickness of marble and granite panels, also cause micro-fracturing of the stone. The micro-cracks, in turn, permit moisture absorption to

68 depths of at least in., which can result in physical degradation if the stone freezes while it is saturated.

Some soft marbles can be easily “granulated,� even by light impact forces such as pelting wind and rain. In addition to environmental problems, marble may bow naturally after it is quarried, and the thinner it is cut, the greater the tendency. Each time the thickness of marble is halved, the stresses are quadrupled. Marble can be a very non uniform and unpredictable material, and pre-construction testing is critical to assure adequate performance.

Limestone and marble are both vulnerable to attack by sulphurous and sulfuric acids, and to a lesser extent, by carbonic acid and ammonium salts. Rainwater is a weak carbonic acid which dissolves the calcite or lime component, causing stones to flake, crumble, and eventually disintegrate. Sulphur-based acids form gypsum, which is eventually washed from the stone matrix. Urban environments that produce stronger acid rain also produce accelerated disintegration. Chloride ions, such as those derived from deicing salts like sodium chloride or calcium chloride, do not chemically react directly with stone. However, chloride can cause physical distress from the forces of crystal growth caused by calcium chloride salts precipitating from solutions within the stone, and by osmotic forces created by cyclic wetting. Porosity permeability relationships and macro and micro fracturing influence these types of chemical weathering. Permeability is of increased significance in thin veneers. It is likely that water will penetrate thin stone veneers in greater amounts and at faster rates than would normally be expected.

Polished marble is not recommended for commercial floors. Polished finishes wear off rapidly, becoming dull and showing traffic patterns. Honed finishes are less slippery, require less maintenance, and look better with wear, becoming more lustrous with normal foot traffic. Granite is normally a better choice for polished floors. Porous stones require commercial sealers to protect against staining. Food, grease, and sugared drinks readily penetrate porous stone faces, leaving unsightly stains that are difficult, if not impossible, to remove. Sealers not only protect porous stone floors, but also enhance their natural colors.

69 Abrasion resistance of the stone must also be considered. If two or more varieties of stone are used, the abrasion resistance should be approximately the same, or uneven wear will result. Only stones highly resistant to wear should be used on stair treads.

The costs of various stones will depend on the proximity of the quarry to the building site, the abundance of the material, and its workability. In general, stone from a local source will be less expensive than those which must be imported; stone produced on a large scale less expensive scarce varieties; and stone quarried and dressed with ease less expensive than those requiring time and labour.

6.2 CASE STUDIES 6.2.1 WORKS OF AR. RAJ REWAL The most recent decade of Rewal’s career has seen his architectural practice flourish in terms of the increasing volume and scale of projects. It is also characterized by a radical shift in his vocabulary of aesthetic expression. His use of exposed reinforced concrete and brick, and subsequently the grey stone grit finishes, were largely abandoned in favour of sandstone.

Sandstone from the Delhi and Agra regions, primarily of a reddish or beige colour, was employed by the builders of mosques, palaces, and tombs during the Mogul Empire, and later by architects such as Sir Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker during construction of New Delhi in the 1920s and 1930s ; and it is still widely available. In a double effort to introduce polychrome for surface treatment and to provide more durable exterior finishes for his buildings in the harsh Delhi climate, Rewal sheathed his NIPF complex (1979), and later the EIL high-rise office building, with panels of beige sandstone. In seeking to enliven these exteriors with colour, he found that the stone could be cut in a variety of panel sizes - thereby permitting him to create geometric patterns on the facade - and that strong natural textures were also obtained. Once again, the solutions found were basically empirical and pragmatic rather than rooted in a theory, for Rewal is very much a ‘hands-on’ architect.

To Rewal’s strong propensity, as manifested early in his career, for relying on a given structural system for expressive purposes must, then, be added the concern for surface

70 ornamentation through the application of stone and stone grit, as demonstrated in his projects during the 1980s.

6.2.1.1 State trading corporation, New Delhi

The design for the STC 14-storey skyscraper, commissioned after a competition in 1976, included | ‘Vierendeel’ beams of reinforced concrete running between support towers and maintaining the concrete floors. Photographs of the model at the time suggest that exterior surfaces were to be of striated concrete, typical of the work of American architect Paul Rudolph, although Rewal did not specify precisely the treatment until much later. In the course of the 14 years the project has taken to be realized, he decided to cover the exterior entirely with alternating bands of red and beige sandstone.

Composed of three separate towers linked together, the highest being 14 storeys, the STC has taken its place among the others near Connaught Place (such as Charles Correa’s LIC building), as a symbolic image of the state’s trading authority and power. The coloured stone, composed in horizontal stripes, projects both weightiness and grandeur emphasizing structural masses and natural materials, (in contrast with the Hall of Nations). There is a certain incongruity in the resulting image of such a high building clad in stone, the precedent for which was perhaps provided by Philip Johnson’s AT & T offices in New York city of the early 1980s.

For a rather similar commission, to house the offices of other semi-governmental organizations and institutions (e.g. the state-owned petroleum company), the architect

Figure 74 STATE TRADING CORPORATION NEW DELHI

71 again specified red and beige sandstone cladding for a structure that is as astonishing in its bulkiness as is the STC is in its verticality.

6.2.1.2 Standing conference of public enterprises office complex, New Delhi

SCOPE was required to adhere strictly to city planning codes m terms of height; but was allowed a floor area ratio of 1:500. Eight interlocking polygonal structures, grouped around an interior courtyard, incorporate a unique network of roof terraces on upper levels. Unlike the STC, where the services were located at the periphery of each floor, there is a central service core (elevators, stairs, and wcs) in each pavilion at SCOPE but chimney-like ventilation towers, visible on the exterior and extending above the building, are to be found at most corners of the facade. Hence, the massiveness of SCOPE is partially attenuated by the squarish pinnacles rising above the roof-line everywhere but it is equally accentuated by the stone cladding. The latter has been applied in a systematic way here, in order to differentiate the underlying reinforced concrete structure covered with beige panels from the infill covered with red sandstone. This aesthetic feature corresponds with one of the tenets of the modern movement in the West; that one should be able to recognize the different functional parts, support and infill, on the façade of a building. In SCOPE and subsequently in the CIET, Raj Rewal’s practical concern to find durable exterior finishes has resulted in the full integration of sandstone in his design vocabulary, and its use is now rationalized to conform with the standard size panels produced at the quarries, rather than sizes specified by the architect.

As a free-standing edifice on a site near Delhi’s main sports stadium, SCOPE has a distinctly monumental allure. From its many turrets, passageways and bridges on the

Figure 75 STANDING CONFERENCE OF PUBLIC ENTERPRISES OFFICE COMPLEX

72 roof, soon to be covered with flowers and vegetation, the 7,000 employees who work there can gaze across the Delhi cityscape at other, more ancient monuments, such as Humayun’s Tomb, that dot the region. Further to the south in New Delhi, within sight of the celebrated Qutab Minar, are two more, just completed complexes by Rewal for institutional use: the Nil, which combines scientific research facilities with housing, and the CIET, for educational research and development.

6.2.1.3 National institute of immunology, New Delhi The Nil is a campus similar to the Western university model, with eight separate buildings grouped around a central place, or maidan; while the CIET is a simple unit, also with a central courtyard space. Although quite different from SCOPE, both in scale and volume - and the fact that building surfaces at the Nil have received a grit finish (crushed red and beige sandstone) rather than stone panels, they all share a pervasive monumentality.

In his latest works, Rewal has accomplished a dual tour deforce while remaining consistent with his earlier architecture. On the one hand, the designer has transposed, and above all monumentalized, the vernacular architecture of Rajasthani towns which has inspired him, and permeates the housing at the Nil; on the other, he has found the aesthetic-expressive tools to link design for modern institutions such as offices, laboratories and institutes to classical models from India’s rich architectural past.

6.2.1.4 Sheikh Sarai The mass housing that Rewal built at Sheikh Sarai based on the haveli typology and traditional patterns of urban space has been refined, purified and perfected into ideal ensembles of collective dwellings. Masterfully taking advantage of the irregularities

Figure 76 CENTRAL INSTITUTE OD EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Figure 77 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF IMMUNOLOGY

73 of the site, the laboratories and the dwellings, with walkways, courtyards and terraces, offer a harmonious physical entity for living and working. But it must be made clear that they were conceived and executed for an institutional client, as a kind of heteratopia or ‘place-apart’, sheltering a privileged community of scientists and their families. It is certainly not to be confused with the category of self-financed, self-built mass shelter found near most large cities.

Similarly, SCOPE and the CIET have attributes (particularly the clmfn-like balconies, the inner courtyards and red sandstone infill) which evoke the imperial palace complexes, through a modern idiom. The allusions are handled with great control, and they essentially represent an overlay upon an architecture which has remained consistent in its volumetric and structural characteristics from the beginning of his career.

Yet the intentions behind these allusions to the past remain ambiguous, enigmatic.

Rewal speaks of his desire to impart to these buildings a rasa, an “emotional flavour or poetic mood” which characterizes ancient masterpieces of Indian architecture.

Figure 78 SHEIKH SARAI HOUSING

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6.3 INFERENCES 6.3.1 SELECTION OF SANDSTONE AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL FOR EXTERNAL FAÇADE Stone for building construction is judged on the basis of appearance, durability, strength, economy, and ease of maintenance. The sandstone is better for external façade due to following reasons

Durability – Sandstone is known for its extremely durable nature. It has been used by various cultures throughout the ages to create enduring edifices that have stood the test of time. Due to its inherent durability, sandstone is best employed for exterior structural edifices more so than interior aesthetics, although sandstone does make for a long-lasting and beautiful alternative to tiles.



Affordability – While sandstone is not nearly as cheap as concrete and tile, it is nevertheless cheaper than marble or granite. And, it’s just as durable and beautiful. Because of its natural hardiness, it will last indefinitely if not physically damaged, and requires almost no amount of maintenance



Sandstone is also an extremely dense stone, able to withstand the effects of acid rain and other natural corrosive substances, and is tough enough to endure repetitive freeze and thaw cycles.



Unlike tiles and other construction mediums that require lengthy preparation time and finicky installation methods, sandstone only requires the use of plain Portland lime or mortar in order to bond to any prepped surface. This makes it faster and less time-consuming to install.



The tightly porous surface gives a stronger bond to mortar.



Sandstone takes on colour and character as it ages, darkening slightly over the years, more so in damp or shady conditions.



Sandstone has many advantages over both granite and limestone. It is: – Lighter and less expensive than granite – Chemically inert, darkening richly with time, while limestone tends to bleach out and lose its colour – Easier to hand-tool than either granite or limestone.

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6.4 EXPERIMENTATION The experimentation includes “Designing of façade by juxtaposing of various design elements of Ahileshwar temple complex by applying principles of design to provide a significant view”.

The shape of the façade varies from design to design. The building’s façade develops from conceptual base form.

For experimentation The rectangular shape façade is taken into consideration.

6.4.1 FAÇADE 1 By applying design principles– 

SYMMETRY, AXIS, RHYTHM, BALANCE, EMPHASIS, VARIETY, REPETATION we can design many types of façade using design elements of ahileshwar temple complex. One example of façade designed, using these design principles is shown below-

Figure 79 FACADE 1

6.4.2 FACADE2 APPLYING ASYMMETRY, EMPHASIS-

Figure 80 FACADE 2

76 6.4.3 FAÇADE 3 APPLYING FOCUS, SYMMETRY

Figure 81 FACADE 3

6.4.4 FAÇADE 4 APPLYING HEIRARCHY,SYMMETRY, BALANCE, VARIETY

Figure 82 FACADE 4

6.4.5 FAÇADE 5 –  APPLYING RHYTHM, REPETATION, VARIETY

Figure 83 FACADE 5

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CONCLUSION The dissertation focused on 4 design elements of Ahileshwar temple complex maheshwar fort, the design elements are stone, arches, shikhara, and carvings on stones.

The analysis of stones explained about properties of stones, how the stones are produced through different stages such as quarrying, cutting, and finishing techniques.

It also covered up various steps in hand dressing he face beds and joints of a rough stone, types of masonry and different type of surface finishes of stones.

Some types of natural stones that satisfy the requirement of the building construction are Granite, Limestone, Sandstone, Slate and Marble.

The stones section also consisted of the construction method of Hindu temples. It covered up the study of stones of ahileshwar temple complex, the type of stone used in ahileshwar temple complex and its masonry at different spots in complex.

The arches chapter covered up how the arches came in India and its evolution through various centuries, from the 13th century till 18th century, also the study of arches of ahileshwar temple complex which consisted of study of multi foil type arch present in ahileshwar temple complex and its similarities with other types of buildings built in different era.

The shikhara chapter explained about various elements of shikhara temple and the types of shikhara analysed by author Hardy break and detailed study of shikhara of ahileshwar temple complex.

The chapter 5 carvings explained he stages of carving such as quarrying transport, planning and measuring, laying out, and carving.it also consist information about major carvings used in ahileshwar temple complex.

At last it consisted of observation and analysis in which analysis was done to find better stone material for external faรงade, the result was sandstone due to its durability, affordability and hardness. At last experimentation is done to know how the design principles can help designing the faรงade.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 

MP tourism, The forts of Madhya Pradesh : maheshwar fort , 2010

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Brown Percy ; Indian architecture (Hindu and Buddhist period), evolution of temples , 1997

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Brown Percy; Indian architecture (Islamic period), Mughal period, 1997.



Marina Albanese ; Architecture in India , the nagara style temple and its structures , 2000



Adam, J.-P.: Roman building: materials and techniques. London. (1999).



Rockwell, P.; The art of stone working: a reference guide, Cambridge. (1993).



Dr. Ananya Gandotra ; Indian temple architecture, analysis of plans, elevations and roof forms vol.3 shekhari roof plans, 2011

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Stone work



Archaeological survey of India, 1994

OTHER SOURCES 

www.deepchaniara.com/maheshwar, Documentation by SCET.



http://www.artofmaking.ac.uk/content/essays/3-stoneworking-techniques-and-processes-wwootton-b-russell-p-rockwell/

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www.rajrewal.org