Digitizing Government by Palgrave Macmillan Professional Business

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Alan W. Brown, Jerry Fishenden, Mark Thompson © 2014 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2014 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978–1–137–44362–5 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India.

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Contents

List of Figures List of Tables

ix xi

Acknowledgements

xii

Figures Acknowledgements Preface

xiv

Introduction

Pressure for Change 1 The Gap – Political Vision versus Operational Reality Building Truly Digital Public Services 5 The Challenge is not Primarily Technology 6 Killing the Myths 7 Aim and Structure of the Book 9

Part 1: Online Services – A Road Much Travelled 1

An International Problem

Between Aspiration and Implementation Falls the Shadow

The UK’s Journey, A Lesson for Us All

The Wilderness Years: The Failed Allure of ‘New Public Management’ 22 A Serious Misalignment: Implementation of DEG Using Stone-Age NPM Tools 27

Decades of Hope

Accessibility/Social Inclusion Privacy, Security and Identity

31 34

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Policy – or How Technology will Miraculously Improve Public Services and Cost Us Less 39 The Magic of ‘e’: Electronic Government 40 Modernizing, Information Age Government 42 … and Yet more Strategies 44 Transformational Government 47 Putting the Front Line First: Smarter Government and Digital Britain 48 Portals, Portals, Portals 51 ‘Open’ Everything 54 Outcomes and Beneﬁts 56 Undercurrents of Change: Prelude to the 2010 General Election 59

2010 and Beyond

The Coalition Agreement 62 Viva la Revolución 63 ‘A Recipe for Rip-offs’ 63 Government ICT Strategy 2011 65 Digital Services and the Growth of the Government Digital Service 66 Current State 68 The Schism between Aspiration and Implementation: Turning a Corner? 71

Establishing a New Normal – Remaking Public 74 Services for the Digital Age So What is ‘Digital’ Anyway? 74 The Four Layers of the Digital Organization 75 User Empowerment through Digital 79 The Speed of Change 80 Management of Continuous Change 81 New Citizens and New Expectations: The Impact of Mobile Technology 82 Democratizing Innovation 83 Enablers of Change 84 Summary: Characteristics of Digital Government 86 Towards Reimagined Public Services and the Big Idea 88

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Contents

Part 2: The Big Idea 6

Establishing the Cultural Framework

‘Leaning’ Government 92 Understanding how the Various Moving Parts Work Together Open Architecture 96 Example: Replacing Silos with Component Reuse across Government 101 Innovate–Leverage–Commoditize (ILC) 105 But Who Sets the Standards? ‘Tight-loose’ in Action 114

Implementing a Mature Platform

116

So What Is, and Isn’t, a Platform? 116 So Where does the Technology Come in? 119 How Open Standards Create Innovation and Investment The Platform is a Dynamic, not a Thing 123 Avoiding Evolutionary Dead Ends: Blu-ray and HD DVD Existing Public Services versus the Open, Platform-based Architecture 126 Culture Change from Closed to Open: Achieving the Open Stack 128 Converging on Open Architecture 132 Spending More, or Less, on Technology? 133 Getting Started – Digital Proﬁling 134

Future Digital Public Services

122 125

139

The Opportunity in Local Services 139 Change-ready Business Model 147 A Better Outcome 148 Digital Proﬁling: How to Start a National Conversation 156 Open Architecture and Agile: The Yin and Yang of Digital 157 Build or Consume? 158 Summary – Characteristics of Digital Government 160

Part 3: Service Providers and Digital Delivery 9

Organizational Structures and Digital 165 Transformation The Foundations of Digital Transformation

165

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vi ii

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‘Elastic’ Principles of Successful Digital Organizations 171 Experimental Approaches to Organizational Agility 172 Some Challenges – and How to Overcome Them 179 Summary – the Elements of Successful Digital Transformation 181

Flexible Architectures for Large-scale Systems Digital Proﬁling 185 Approaches to Software Architecture Into the Clouds 199 Impact on Government 205

Agile Processes and Practices

191

208

Agility in Software Delivery 209 Rethinking Enterprise Software Delivery 210 From Software Development to Software Delivery The Basis for Agile Government 214 Agility at Scale 216 Cornerstones of Success 221 Implications for Government 224

211

API Economy, Ecosystems and Engagement 225 Models Deﬁning and Using APIs 229 API Philosophy 231 Designing an API 233 Implementing an API 235 Summary – Implementing Digital Government

Conclusion and Recommendations

236

237

Conclusion 237 Summary of Recommendations 246 How, and Where, to Start – to Become a Digital Organization 249

References, Sources and Further Reading Index

184

253

261

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Introduction

Pressure for Change Governments and public sector organizations across the world are trying to balance essential, and often conflicting, demands: to deliver better, more relevant public services centred on the needs of the citizens and businesses they serve; to reduce costs and improve the efficiency of their operations; and to reinvent supply chains to deliver services quickly, cheaply and effectively.

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The UK well illustrates the challenges of this struggle: although the initial years of the government from 1997 to 2010 were associated with public expenditure restraint, sources from the Organisation for Co-operation and Development (OECD) show that public expenditure as a share of GDP rose from around 40% in 2000 to around 50% in the recession year of 2009. In parallel, the global shifts towards emerging markets have been increasing the role and influence of these rapidly emerging economies. Without exception, these economies have much lower public spending as a percentage of their GDP than the more mature economies of the UK, North America and Western Europe. Because these emerging economies are offering goods and services at ‘super competitive’ prices, and also improving their skills and hence productivity very rapidly, there is a considerable risk of other governments being caught in a trap where it becomes difficult to develop and sustain a higher cost public sector without losing competitiveness. This is an increasing problem in many EU

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economies, where it is simply not possible to afford a high ratio of public spending to gross domestic product (GDP) without doing considerable damage to much-needed growth that, in turn, puts upward pressure on the ratio of public spending to GDP. Within the UK (the case example for many of the discussions in this book), global competitiveness is set to decline from just under 5% of world GDP around the turn of the twentieth century to 2.6% by 2028. Meanwhile, the East Asian economies are rising from about 20% of world GDP to 32.6%, or more than double the size of the Western European economy – which by 2028 will represent just 14.5% of world GDP. Within the UK, as within other Western economies, this picture has a stark implication: in order to maintain our existing standards of public services within this era of relative decline, we need to have a serious and open public debate about how we reorganize our public service delivery models or accept lower public service standards. We cannot continue to pretend that we can have both. In fact, pressure is mounting not only to maintain but to improve service levels: for instance, Don Tapscott, author of Grown Up Digital, observes that younger, digitally native generations now ‘demand better services, more convenient access to information and an on-going opportunity to personalize or customize the services they receive from government. They want the public sector organized in ways that maximize convenience to the citizen as opposed to the bureaucracy.’ If governments are to relieve these growing internal and external pressures, they need to rethink, redesign and optimize their services, and place the user – citizens, businesses and the voluntary sector alike – at the centre of their operations, rather than the needs of government organizations and service providers. And they need to move rapidly and effectively away from outdated business models, management cultures, technology and processes inherited from earlier eras. This transition will involve a disruptive and painful move away from closed, top-down, bureaucratic and paper-based transactional services towards online, integrated digital offerings that encourage a new kind

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Introduction

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of interaction between citizens and the state. The confluence of citizen demand for greater speed and more transparency in service delivery is being met with an increased appetite within the public sector to deliver services in more innovative ways – through the use of open technologies; more inclusive citizen engagement; the increased involvement of smaller, more innovative companies; and the adoption of agile delivery practices that are better able to meet ever-changing socio-economic demands. Since the mid-1990s, much has already changed in our private and business lives. In the private sector entirely new business models have emerged, enabled by rapid advances in technology. Many old and oncetreasured high-street brands have gone into decline, or even disappeared entirely, whilst new organizations – such as Twitter, Netflix, Whatsapp and Facebook – have appeared to come from nowhere, either to define entirely new opportunities, or to reimagine and reinvent old business models. They are delivering new models of innovation and services at a scale and speed previously unknown. As a monopoly provider of many services, however, governments have remained largely shielded from the benefits, as well as the business challenges, of these revolutionary changes. This lateness to engage effectively is damaging to governments, as well as to the citizens and businesses they serve. With such a privileged, monopoly status comes great responsibility: governments need urgently to rethink their role, engagement approach and delivery model for the digital world. Perhaps partly because governments were often amongst the earliest adopters of information technology (IT) – doing much in the 1960s and 1970s to automate their basic internal operations in areas such as taxation – it has often become more difficult for them to change: and whereas they were once often amongst the largest users of computer technology, their size and scale is now dwarfed by the largest technology-driven corporations, such as Facebook, Google and Amazon. Where government technology and services were once seen as big and ‘special’, today – with a few notable exceptions, such as national defence systems – they now often appear relatively small-scale, unnecessarily complicated and increasingly outdated.

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The Gap – Political Vision versus Operational Reality Politicians have long recognized the opportunities offered by the internet and digital technology to bring significant benefits to the public sector. Indeed, fine sentiments have been expressed for decades about modernizing and improving public services, but such sentiments have remained relatively unmatched by meaningful delivery on the ground. Public services appear largely to have been bypassed by developments in the private sector, and have become increasingly unable to meet the needs of a tech-savvy population accustomed to responsive, tailored and personal services. In consequence, governments run the risk of becoming isolated and outdated – almost aloof – from the internet age, artificially separated from the world outside and citizens’ expectations by their exclusive monopoly provider role, yet unable to deliver the quality and responsiveness expected from their uniquely privileged position. As a result, their relevance, and even legitimacy, is at stake. Whilst governments have been preoccupied with their repeated efforts to move online, elsewhere we have seen the emergence of truly digital organizations. Modern technology is typically the enabler of change, but being digital is not principally about technology: their behaviours, actions and culture must also adapt to a digital world. So, for example, successful digital organizations usually have operating models clustered around speed and adaptability, exemplified by maxims such as ‘show don’t tell’ and ‘done is better than perfect’. The culture that enables organizations to work well in this way often contrasts strongly with accepted best practice. So digital transformation actually requires redesigning and re-engineering organizations on every level – people, process, technology and governance. Yet just how do public service organizations successfully reinvent themselves as truly digital organizations, and ensure that investment in digital transformation delivers the intended outcomes in terms of service improvements? Nearly two decades of online government, e-government and transformational government initiatives have promised so much, spent so much, and yet delivered relatively little in terms of significant,

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Introduction

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sustainable benefits. One analysis suggests that an estimated US$3 trillion was spent during the first decade of the twenty-first century on government information systems, yet 60% to 80% of e-government projects failed in some way, resulting in massive wastage of financial, human and political resources, and an inability to deliver the potential benefits. We need to develop an improved understanding and consensus on what being a public sector organization means in the digital, twenty-first century.

Building Truly Digital Public Services In this book, we focus on transforming public services and their relationship with citizens and businesses alike. We provide a perspective of digital change efforts, using the UK public sector as an illustration of the more ubiquitous challenges faced and improvements required to reimagine public services everywhere. We look at the mismatch between aspects of some public and private services, and the role of culture, leadership and technology in delivering truly digital organizations. We aim to provide both a vision for the future of public services in our digital world (revealing the close relationship between organizational improvement and digital culture), as well as mapping out a framework for how public services need to reform and modernize in order to play their rightful, and essential, role in the digital economy at local, national and international scale. The context within which this digital public services reinvention needs to happen is the much broader transformation taking place in our personal lives and how we conduct business – driven by a constant stream of digital technology changes, optimized production practices and flexible global delivery models. There has been a sea change in the way users expect to use technology: it has become cheap, easy to use, consumable like a utility, always on, mobile, and open (working seamlessly with everything else – well, most of the time anyway). At home, we have become sophisticated users of such technologies, and of the flexibility and freedoms they enable. There is an increasing, and undeniable, demand to see these same benefits realized in public services as everywhere else.

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One example of this digital transformation has been the use of technology platforms, whether these are proprietary (such as Apple’s iOS, which powers iPods, iPhones and iPads alike) or more open (such as Google’s Android, which powers the majority of today’s mobile devices). These platforms have stimulated whole ecosystems of organizations to build products and services, attracted by the volume of demand that they generate. Such platforms can drive astonishing rates of innovation, investment, choice and competition. However, until recently very little of this platform-based thinking – and its associated benefits – have been emulated within our public services. Accordingly, the essential role of platforms forms a core theme of this book. There is a stark contrast between these emerging business models based on digital platforms and interfaces in the best organizations in the private sector and the general state of public services: the latter are all too often underpinned by idiosyncratic processes, point solutions, topdown assumptions about users’ needs, often exclusive contracts based on obsolete commercial models, and outdated systems. Whilst some of the worst organizations in the private sector also share similar structural and management failings, their existence in a competitive market means we are able to take our custom elsewhere. As a result, poorly performing companies ultimately decline and fail, whereas governments – isolated from such dynamics – need to take conscious and deliberate corrective action if they are to modernize and improve: as citizens, we have nowhere else to turn for our public services.

The Challenge is not Primarily Technology Despite considerable media attention on public sector ‘IT failures’, the underlying challenge is not primarily one of technology (although this is certainly important), but a lack of the capabilities and leadership skills needed to manage and deliver meaningful reform. There continues to be a widespread lack of understanding of how digital models of public service design can deliver agile, easy-to-use, consumerized services at lower cost

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Introduction

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and in a way that emulates our daily experiences in the best of the private sector. This lack of understanding – and the missed opportunity for public services – crystallizes the urgent need to build a common view of what the transition to digital public service delivery actually involves. Digital thinking, and its associated technologies, need to impact and influence the design and operation of public services as they are being contemplated, developed and evolved, rather than being applied merely as a means of automating old processes from the world that has passed. The misunderstanding of the gap between applying digital technology versus implementing a digital strategy is both pervasive and common to the public and private sectors. A recent Forrester ‘State of Digital Business 2014’ report, which polled almost two thousand senior business leaders in the UK and US early in 2014, highlighted this gap and called it a ‘digital strategy execution crisis’. The data showed that only one in five business leaders had a meaningful vision for digital transformation, and that a majority of organizations had a ‘bolt on’ approach where existing practices were simply augmented with new digital technology delivery channels.

Killing the Myths To be truly effective, digitizing government involves reimagining the way in which governments design and deliver services: a transition from traditionally organized state corporates (who have outsourced much of their work and expertise to large private corporates) to a new, diverse ecosystem of state, private and third sector activity, organized around the citizen in the form of services. Such a de-corporatization of the state and its favoured suppliers requires an untangling of the black boxes of many siloed organizations, paper-oriented processes, proprietary technologies and opaque cost structures. Separating these out will enable easier cost comparison between commoditized components in a manner that resembles, for example, the domestic electricity market: despite electricity suppliers’ attempts to build brand value, electricity remains fundamentally a price-sensitive commodity. The same

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applies to much of the infrastructure running our public services. We can ring-fence total government spending, and yet increase the amount spent on services, by becoming much more selective about whether we wish to spend our taxes on institutions, bureaucracy and supplier margins – or on people and services. But before we get into the detail of this transition, it is important that we lay to rest two misconceptions that are sometimes raised in relation to these concepts. The first is the fear that the transformation we propose will hand the soul of our public services to large companies. This is simply not the case. Indeed, this description actually better describes the operating model of public sector IT as it has been for the past 20 or so years, and represents a major part of what we are keen to get away from. Whilst we will show how many of the old distinctions between public sector and private sector do start to become redundant within a genuinely transformed, digital public sector, this does not disrupt the political settlement. The most accurate characterization of this transformation is that it is anti-corporate: it is both pro public services and pro market, not pro organization. It does not seek to protect the institutional or organizational self-interests of either sector: it seeks to protect those of the citizen. The second misconception is that when we talk about digital we are discussing the wholesale replacement of face-to-face public services with so-called zero touch, or electronically mediated forms of self-service. Digital government is emphatically not about some flashy Internet of Things gadget dangling around a lonely, housebound patient’s neck as a substitute for all-important face-to-face visits that may serve a host of other useful purposes (combatting loneliness, for instance). Quite the opposite. For us, digital public services will help drive a larger share of the public wallet to the front line – which will increase, not decrease, the resources available to spend on appropriate face-to-face services. It is about improving the funding for those activities – particularly caring, educating, policing – that (in our view) are best performed by public officials. This can only be achieved by spending less on all those unnecessary activities,

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layers of bureaucracy, or even suppliers that have inserted themselves in the way, as governments consume standard services directly from a plural, vibrant marketplace. Digital allows us to separate out important services from internal overheads: to move from multiple versions of the same thing, organized around the internal needs of the bureaucracy, to the same version of different things, organized around the citizen.

Aim and Structure of the Book Importantly, however, we make no claims to have all the answers: instead, this book is intended to assist in opening up a broader dialogue about the future of public service delivery, by making the subject more accessible and relevant. Accordingly, instead of adopting an academic style, we offer instead a manifesto or call to arms, combined with a practitioner’s field guide. Our purpose is to bring together a wide range of experiences and lessons learned in a variety of organizations inside and outside the public sector, to set out a vision for what a truly digitized government needs to achieve, and to offer insight and guidance on how to get started on that journey. In setting out an improved set of principles for organizing our public services, our aim is to introduce our experiences and thinking to a much broader audience of citizens and practitioners who, we hope, may also start to demand better public services from an informed standpoint of the art of the possible. The future of public services – their design, relevance and quality – is an important topic. Our aim is to provide not only an analysis of the current situation and the opportunities on offer, but also a path through this complex maze. We believe that the most effective way of accelerating the evolution of digital public services is to raise levels of awareness amongst citizens, policymakers, public officials and their supplier community about the benefits of digital thinking, how these can be achieved, and ways in which their achievement will require us to alter some of our past patterns of behaviour. In Part 1, ‘Online Services – A Road Much Travelled’, we first review and summarize some of the history of previous attempts to implement

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technology-based public service transformation, examining the opportunities and challenges. Part of truly understanding digital government lies in building a clear view of how it differs from those earlier attempts at using technology to drive the modernization of public services (the ‘why’ – the context and pressures that shape the current move to digital approaches). In Part 2, ‘The Big Idea’, we develop these insights into a discussion of the objectives of digital culture and services, the digital business models that enable achievement of these objectives, and the balance that needs to be achieved between consuming services and building services: ‘the yin and the yang’ of digital (the ‘what’ – the principles we believe guide successful digital transformation). In Part 3, ‘Service Providers and Digital Delivery’, we drill down into more detail about some of the primary tools and techniques being used as part of the move towards digital organizations. Whilst the move to digital government is not primarily about technology (and should certainly not be technology-led), the technology is an essential part of the process. Fundamental technology ideas are outlined as the basis for a discussion on digital delivery and the wider lessons to be drawn from approaches to software, the use of cloud computing, agile processes and practices, and the application programming interface (API) economy (the ‘how’ – the tools and approaches to help deliver successful digital transformation). One of our key messages in this book is that digital transformation requires open, honest debate on the major principles and practices for the digital age. However, we recognize the need to bring these ideals to ground in practical steps that can be taken by practitioners to effect change in the projects and programmes in which they work. Consequently, we have grounded our analyses, observations and recommendations on in-depth experiences with the UK government’s transformation efforts, where the authors have detailed insight over past decades: but we do so to draw out common problems and solutions that face almost all public agencies across the world. Indeed, these challenges are not exclusive to governments and the public sector, but are shared by any large enterprise struggling to adapt to the digital age – as the authors have witnessed at first hand.

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We also believe that the UK is one of the most relevant case studies since it aims to become a bellwether itself of digital reinvention after many decades of disappointment. Technology thought-leader Tim O’Reilly has referred to the UK government’s current digital strategy as: the new bible for anyone working in open government … [it] could be applied to every major corporation on the face of the planet. You guys are working in government and making a big difference there but I think you are potentially showing the way to a transformation of the IT sector in every organization and it’s really inspiring. When you put that ‘simple, beautiful and easy to use’ interface on government, you’re actually not just changing how government ‘appears’, you’re changing how it ‘works’. You’re changing the relationship between government and citizens. Can you imagine if people started to feel good about government again? That’s really part of what you are accomplishing. It’s not just improving government websites, it’s literally going to change the relationship between citizen and governments.1

The lessons we highlight here, and the framework we set out, we hope will be of use to all of those interested in helping redesign and reimagine public services for the digital age – enabling a new era of digital public management. They relate to the major shift taking place in the digital economy, and provide relevant insight into what is needed to succeed – and how we might begin to make people ‘feel good about government again’.

See http://www.eduserv.org.uk/blog/2013/04/18/pioneers-of-the-new-public-sector/.

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Index

definition of 229–31 designing of 233–4 diversity in delivery 232 elements of 231–3 implementing of 235–6 mash-ups and new solution combinations 232 meritocracies and priority-based decision making 232 outside-in design 231 philosophy of 231–3 use of 227 Australia ‘Better Services, Better Government’ strategy 17 e-government services 17 ‘Government Online’ policy 17

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bankruptcy 161 beginner organization 166 benchmarking 44, 64, 113, 134 Betamax video standard 125 ‘Better for Less’ paper (2010) 59 five principles from 60 ‘Better Services, Better Government’ strategy, Australia 17 Blair, Tony 23, 39, 42, 47–8 Blockbuster video rentals 93 Blu-ray 125–6, 140

Adult Social Care application 144 agile government, basis for 214–16 agile innovation practice 173 agile organizations 85, 177 agile processes and practices 85–6, 137, 164 key principles of 174 agile software architecture 196 delivery techniques 85, 158–60, 195–6, 198, 209–10 development 85, 175 agile thinking, principles of 216 agility at scale context for 216–18 factors for 218–21 Amazon 3, 20, 80, 118, 124, 137, 196, 198, 235, 239 Elastic Compute Cloud 204 Web Services platform 204 Android mobile platform 6, 97, 122 anti-corporate 8 AOL 51 Apple 154–5, 196 application programming interfaces (APIs) 10, 86, 199, 226–7, 251 availability of 234 community-focused 232–3 concept of 230

26 2

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Bracken, Mike 66 Brown, Gordon 48 ‘brownfield’ organization 83 Burton, Andy 127 business architectures 141, 145, 147 business intelligence 155, 223 business logic 99–101, 111, 115, 119–20, 192 business model canvas 145–7 reshaping of 175–6 business services delivery (BSD) 198–9 Businesslink.gov 50, 52 business-to-business relationship 227 Canada, e-government services in 18 capability maturity model (CMM) 191, 209 capital investment 204 case management system 95 ceremony 210 change management methods of 81 technical architecture of 101–5 change–ready business model 147–8 change–ready local authority 147 Chesbrough, Henry 182 Chief Technology Officer (CTO) 16, 66 Chopra, Aneesh 16, 182 citizen centric services 41, 51, 114 citizen feedback 84 citizen-centric business models 85 citizens card 36 citizens’ information, privacy and security of 34 civil liberty 61 cloud computing 61, 72, 85, 196–7, 199–200, 226

application of 236 characteristic of 200–1 development of 251 hybrid models of 202 impact on government 205–7 private and public 201–2 service models for 202 infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS) 203 platform-as-a-service (PaaS) 203–4 software-as-a-service (SaaS) 204–5 significance of 207 CloudStore 72, 156 Coalition government in UK aspiration and implementation of IT services 71–3 civil service reform 64 Coalition Agreement 62–3 current state of IT service 68–71 digital services, growth of 66–8 Efficiency and Reform Group (ERG) 68 ICT savings initiatives, impact of 68 ICT strategy (2011) 65–6 influence of 62 IT-related commitments 62 Public Administration Select Committee (PASC) 64, 66 ‘A Recipe for Rip-offs’ report 63–5 Viva la Revolución 63 collaborative communities 80 Combined Online Information System (COINS) database 56 commercial contracts 155 Commercial Off The Shelf (COTS) software 55 commodity services, demand for 157

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Index

competition, supply-side and demand-side 110 complex system 185 Compuserve 51 computer hacking 35 computer technology 3 confidentiality of information 35 conservative organization 166 Conservative Party 59, 61–2 consumer-to-consumer relationships 227 co-operative public system 96 corporate innovations 84 Craiglist 124 credential management 36 criminal justice 95, 140 cross-departmental working group 52 ‘crowdsourcing’ of innovation 122, 241 cryptography 36 customer relationship management 187, 189 customer satisfaction 137 data maintenance and quality, cost of 80 data management 167, 192, 197–8 data mining 154–5 data protection 35–6, 38, 60 data quality 197 data security 35, 38, 198 data sharing, aspects of 38 data sources, management of 168 data warehousing 25 data.gov.uk 56, 168 data-interchange language 236 datasets 78 day-care centres 34 decision making 78, 82, 85, 215, 223

26 3

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meritocracies and priority-based 232 de-corporatization of the state 7, 244 demand forecasting 155 democratizing innovation, role for 83–4 Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS) 49 Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG) 156 digirati organization 166 ‘Digital Britain’ 48–51 digital business model components of 167 framework for 167 digital delivery, concept of 165 digital divide, concept of 32 digital government 8 benefits of 86 characteristics of 86–8, 160–1 cultural framework required for 172 implementing of 236 digital initiatives 14, 27, 29, 164, 181 digital local services 154–5 digital maturity of organization 166 digital media delivery models 74 digital organizations 98, 137, 236 adaptable culture 176–8 benefits of 161 business models and operating approaches 74 characteristics of 77 democratizing innovation 83–4 development of 163 digital drivers and delivery 78 ‘elastic’ principles of 171–2 emergence of 74–5 as enablers of change 84–6

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26 4

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digital organizations – continued four layers of 75–9 recommendations to move towards 249–51 software development and deployment 184 speed of change 80–1 digital profiling 134–5, 185–91, 238, 248 for starting national conversation 156 web-based 156 digital public management (DPM) 11, 26, 242 open-architecture approach for 132 technological aspects of 163 digital public sector 8, 76, 133 digital public services 5–6, 8, 63, 247 accessibility and social inclusion 31–4 achievement of 160 build versus consume debate 158–60 change-ready business model 147–8 delivery of 173 design and delivery of 85 digital profiling 156 elements of 90 evolution of 9 growth of 66–8 implications of moving to 38 ‘Modernizing Government’ initiative 42–4 open architecture and agile 157–8 opportunity in local services 139–47 outcome of 148–55 privacy, security and identity 34–8 use of 36 ‘digital strategy execution crisis’ 7

Digital Switchover of Public Services programme 49 digital technology 199 adoption of 166 deployment of 166 implementation of 78 digital transformation 4, 10, 85, 93, 164, 170, 171, 177 creative process of 175 elements of successful 181–3 essential element of 165 foundations of 165–70 implications of 74 organizational structures and 84–6 of public services 169 redesign and re-engineering 75 digital-era governance (DEG) implementation of 27–30 innovative features of 25, 26 significance of 25 themes of 25 digitally enabled services business-specific needs 79 computing power and networking capability 79 development of 79 expectations for 77 user empowerment through 79–80 digitization, idea of 25 digitizing government, characteristics for 164 Direct.gov 52 ‘Directgov 2010 and Beyond: Revolution not Evolution’ report (2010) 63 disaggregation 126, 127 ‘do once, use many times,’ principle of 36 Dropbox 198

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Index

Dunleavy, Patrick 24–6 Durnall, Richard 181 DVLA 49 East Asian economies 2 eBay 118, 124, 137, 196, 234–5 economic governance 213–14 ‘eEurope – An Information Society For All’ initiative 54 e-Government Authentication Framework 36 elastic enterprises 170 five principles of 171 ‘elasticity’ of an organization 170 electronic government (e-government) services 4–5, 14, 35, 176 in Australia 17 benefits of 56 in Canada 18 concept of 23 costs and benefits of using 57 creation of 15 for delivery of public services 56–7 magic of 40–2 in New Zealand 16–17 open source software (OSS), use of 54 strategy of 44–7 in United Kingdom 17, 23 electronic service delivery 44 emerging markets 1 enterprise application architecture 196–9 enterprise resource planning (ERP) 115 enterprise service bus (ESB) 193–5 enterprise software 208, 211, 219 delivery 197, 210–11, 220–1 traditional approaches to 191–5

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enterprise-scale software system 191 enterprise-wide digital profiles 161, 248 ‘e-recruitment’ system 121 Essex County Council 113 extreme programming 216 Facebook 3, 21, 112, 124, 196, 239, 242 face-to-face services 34, 120, 150, 155 fashionista organization 166 Federal-Aid Highway Act (1956), USA 117 Findlay, James 185 flexible architecture of computing 85 for large-scale systems 164 Flickr 20 Foden, Mark 101, 126, 148, 189 government silos 102 Fox, Martha Lane 63 fraud 35 detection of 155 Freeman, Roger 29 ‘freeze–unfreeze–freeze’ change models 81 Gartner 133 Gawer, Annabelle 116 platforms typology 118, 158 G-Cloud (Government-Cloud) initiative 189, 206 guiding principles of 207 geographic information interfaces 189 global capitalism 244 global competitiveness 2 Gmail 204

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Google 3, 124, 154–5, 157, 161, 196, 198, 234–5, 239, 248 Android mobile platform 6, 97, 122 e-mail service 204 innovation ecosystem 111, 123–4, 240 government as a platform (GaaP) 117, 159, 161, 182 Government Digital Service (GDS), UK 37, 46, 58, 89, 168–70, 184, 206, 230 by default design approach 67 design principles 169 establishment of 66 growth of 66–8 operation and delivery of public services 70 third-party identity service providers 37–8 Government Gateway systems 52 Government Information Service (GIS), UK 29, 51–2 ‘Government Online’ policy, Australia 17 government-held public data, use of 55–6 government’s use of information 35 GOV.UK 168, 206, 229–30 gross domestic product (GDP) 2 Gubbins of Government 101–9, 120, 148, 150, 154, 189 HD DVD 125–6, 140, 148 Herbert, James 142 High Speed 2 (HS2) railway infrastructure programme 185 Wardley Map of 188 Highsmith, Jim 175 HMV 20 holism, idea of 25

Hounslow, London Borough of 150–2 platform and component-based architecture 152 IBM 28, 235 IdeaExchange 112, 242 ‘Ideal Government IT Strategy’ 60–1 identity service providers, third-party 37 ILC logic 186 ‘Improving IT Procurement’ (2004) report 57–8 industry platform, definition of 159 Information Age Government 42–4 information technology (IT) 3, 15–16 access to 39 government outsourcing of 27 for meeting needs of citizens and business 43 political interest in using 19 use of 44 Information Technology Infrastructure Library (ITIL) 112 infrastructure services (IS) 197–8 infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS) 203, 226, 229 innovate–leverage–commoditize (ILC) model 105–14, 160, 185, 247, 250 digital profile based on 148 to generate a consistent local services delivery model 153 to reimagine revenues and benefits 149 and skills needed within government 113 innovation 144, 157 concept of 109 crowdsourcing of 122 democratizing of 231

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Index

open competition and 132 process of 127 in public services 111 R&D activity 122 technological 120 through IdeaExchange 112 Institute for Government 71 integrated portfolio planning and management 155 Intel Corporation 84 intellectual capital 122 intellectual property 54 internet 16, 74, 82, 202 Internet of Things (IoT) 225, 227 inter-organizational relationships 195 interstate commerce 117 iOS 6 IT-centric service delivery, development of 29 IT-enabled projects, causes of failure of 58 iTunes 118 JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) 236 joined-up government, benefits of 132 Jones, Capers 223 Kemp, Anthony 151 knowledge-driven marketplace Kodak 20

Labour Party 23–5, 39–40, 45, 48, 58–9, 63, 65–6 Land Registry interface 137–8, 189 Lane Fox, Martha 63 large-scale systems 185, 215 evolution of an activity 187 ‘n-tiered’ approach for 192–3

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lean thinking 161, 172–4, 248–9 key elements of 173 practices of 92–4 lean-based decision process 105 Liberal Democrats 61–2 life-cycle traceability 222–3 local authority evolution, characteristics of 143 local government business architecture 147 change-ready architecture, development of 146 drivers of 145 external forces shaping 145 London Borough of Hounslow see Hounslow, London Borough of London School of Economics (LSE) 24, 116 McLuhan, Marshall 243 ‘Make IT Better’ 60 Manifesto for Agile Software Development 85, 195, 214 Margetts, Helen 24–6 Marx, Karl 122 Maxwell, Liam 59, 66 ‘Measuring the Expected Benefits of e-Government’ (2003) report 56–7 meritocracies 176, 232 metadata 78 Methods Digital 142 micro-customization 84 Microsoft 117, 235 MIT Sloan School’s digital maturity model 166 mobile computing 197 mobile technology, impact of 82–3

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‘Modernizing Government’ initiative 42–4 guiding principles of 44–5 key objectives of 45 responsibilities and timelines 47 monopoly 3–4, 21–2, 32, 59, 161, 240 MSN 51 multi-supplier consumption models 101 multi-tenancy 202 National Audit Office (NAO) 68–70 national defence systems 3 national identity card 37, 61 national identity systems, state-imposed 37 National Partnership for Reinventing Government (NPR), USA 15 Netflix 20 new public management (NPM) 43, 57, 72 accountability of 23 failure of 22–6 free-market doctrine of 28 IT-enabled improvements in 25 revival of 25 wilderness years 22–6 New Zealand, e-government services in 16–17 NHS Jobs 120–1 null project 208 OAuth protocol 236 Obama, Barack 16 oligopoly 27, 64, 70 on-demand network 85, 200 online government services see online public services

online payments service 86 online public services 4, 13–14, 16, 32, 35, 40, 78, 80 characteristics of 36 common causes of failure of 58 comparison with the private sector 49 delivery of 34, 49, 54 evaluation of 57 open source software (OSS), use of 54–6 outcomes and benefits 56–9 potential benefits 52 transaction handling 52 undercurrents of change 59–61 open access data 155 open architecture 96–101, 111, 160 versus agile processes and practices 157–8 basic principles of 99 converging on 132–3 culture change from closed to 128–32 difference with open source software 157 emergence and adoption of 128 features of 127 involving reuse of components across government 103 spending on 133–4 open architecture platforms 246 development of 120 dynamic 123–5 evolution of 125–6 innovation and investment, creation of 122–3 meaning of 116–19 openness of 123 public services versus 126–8 role of 116

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Index

technologies for 119–20 utility economics of 127 Open Data Institute (ODI) 56 Open Government Licence 230 Open Office 131 open source software (OSS) 61, 97 difference with open architecture 157 in-house development and maintenance 158 objectives of 55, 56 Open Office 131 use of 54–6 Open Stack 128–32 open standards, principle of 158 open technical standards 99, 101, 114–15 ‘open.gov.uk’ 51 Oracle 235 O’Reilly, Tim 11, 117, 118, 123–4, 182, 241, 245 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 1 organizational agility, experimental approaches to 172–8 organizational design 120 outsourcing 25, 28, 43, 87, 90, 114, 123, 125, 239 principle of 54 Oxford Internet Institute (OII) 24 Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (POST), UK 36–7, 244 Parliamentary Public Administration Select Committee (PASC), UK 66 Patient Opinion 20 pay-as-you-earn (PAYE) tax 93

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platform businesses 144 platform-as-a-service (PaaS) 203–4, 226 political vision versus operational reality 4–5 portals 51–4 Portal Feasibility Study (1999) 51 three-tier architecture 53 ‘The Power of Information Review’ 55 Power of Information Taskforce 55 privacy 34–8, 72 producer–consumer partnerships 84 property and information mapping service (PIMS) 188 proprietary software 54–5 pseudo-markets 23 public expenditure 1–2 public finance 23 public sector organizations 1, 3, 75, 178 accessibility/social inclusion 31–4 capabilities and leadership skills 6 centralized administration of 24 challenges faced by 179 as digital organizations 4 IT failures 6 misconceptions 7–9 technical challenges to success 180 transition to digital public service delivery 7 see also digital public sector public service transformation, technology-based 10 public services 24/7 availability 42 agencification of 25 automation of 14 citizen audits and evaluation of 25

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public services – continued citizen-responsive 126 design and operation of 7, 18, 34 digital models of design of 6–7 digital procurement and delivery of 49 digital profiling of 160 digitalizing of 49 effectiveness and efficiency of 132 features of 127 future of 9, 47, 117 modernization of 10, 20, 24, 40, 88 ‘one stop shop’ for all 51 online see online public services versus open platform-based architecture 126–8 operation and delivery of 70 political desire for 89 quality and efficiency of 13, 16, 84 rate of innovation in 111 recurrent political promises of better 19 re-engineering of 34 reforms in 48, 63, 100 standards of 2 technology-enabled 71 use of IT to reform 14, 16, 19, 29, 39–40 vertical silos of 126 quality of the services

real-time information 74, 215 ‘A Recipe for Rip-offs’ report 63–5 redesign and re-engineering, for digital age 49 reintegration, idea of 25 relationship-based services 32–3 Representational State Transfer (REST) 235–6

research and development (R&D) innovation 97 resource allocation 79 revenue-collection transactional processes 93 Ries, Eric 173–4 risk management 46, 68, 187, 189 Rogers, Everett 105 diffusion curves 105 ‘safety net of last resort’ 141 Salesforce.com 204, 242 screen-based service delivery 34 security 34–8, 128, 157, 198 self-serve business intelligence 155 service architectures, for providers of public services 120 service delivery automated processes of 39 digitization of 79 service level agreements (SLAs) 101 service providers 83, 163 service-based architectures 226 service-based design 226 service-driven procurement models and practices 129 service-oriented architecture (SOA) 120, 194, 235 limitations of 195 Shared Service Centres 115, 187, 199 Shaughnessy, H. 171 Six Sigma 110, 112 small and medium enterprises (SMEs) 65, 70, 84, 206 Snowden, Edward 38 social inclusion/exclusion 31–4 social insurance 25 social web, notions of 25 socio-economic demands 3, 170, 196 software architecture 190

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Index

agile 196 approaches to 191–9 capability maturity model (CMM) 191 dimensions of 191 elements of 185 enterprise application architecture 196–9 enterprise-scale 191–5 lighterweight practices, emergence of 195–6 service-oriented architecture (SOA) 194–5 software delivery agile techniques for 85, 158–60, 195–6, 198, 209–10 best practices and automation for 223 delivery cycles for 218 development intelligence for 223 implications for government for 224 improvement to reduce cost for 223 in-context collaboration for 222–3 life-cycle traceability 222 philosophy of 214 real-time planning for 221–2 time-to-delivery 215 software development 85, 175, 184, 210 agile software delivery techniques 195 boundaries between maintenance and 212 business value and outcome 214 common platform of integrated process and tools 213 as continuously evolving systems 211–12 economic governance 213–14

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released capabilities with ever-increased value 212–13 and software delivery 211–14 technologies for 214 web-based collaboration for 213 software-as-a-service (SaaS) 204–5, 226 solution delivery, innovation in 85 solution making 78 Stacey Matrix 107 staff reductions, in banking and government 245 Sun Microsystems 235 ‘super competitive’ prices 1 super-suppliers 27 supplier lock-in, creation of 28 supply chains 1, 24, 27, 117, 144, 200, 220, 231 for digital delivery 74 public sector 86 software 195 technology 142 system’s behaviour, analysis of 192 systems integrator 104, 189 Tapscott, Don 2 technology life cycle 36 technology-driven corporations 3 Tesco (supermarket chain) 41 Clubcard 72 Thoughtworks 181 ‘tight-loose’ principle 114, 156 total cost of ownership (TCO) 113 Toyota 154–5, 173 transactional services online 32 transformational government (t-government) 4, 14, 35, 47, 176 TripAdvisor 20 ‘Trojan horse’ 187 Twitter 3, 20, 124, 234, 238

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United Kingdom (UK) civil service 22, 40 Cloud Industry Forum 128 Department for Media, Culture and Sport (DCMS) 49 digital inclusion 33 e-government services 17, 23 federated identity system 37 general election (2010), prelude to 59–61 Government Digital Service (GDS) 37 Government Information Service (GIS) 29, 51–2 identity assurance standards 37 national identity card scheme 37 national police computer system 38 Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (POST) 36–7 public sector IT supplier revenues (2008) 28 smarter government and digital Britain 48–51 ‘Transformational Government’ strategy (2005) 24 UKOnline branding 52 vision for making life ‘better for people and businesses’ 42 United States of America (USA) Federal-Aid Highway Act (1956) 117 National Partnership for Reinventing Government (NPR) 15 Universal Credit (UC) programme 72

user interaction 199 user interface 192 user-driven service design 91 utility consumption, architecture of 157 utility service, standard model for delivering 129 value creation of 172 definition of 173 value added tax (VAT) 93 value chain 173, 185 of needs 186 vehicle excise duty (VED) 49, 92–3 vending machine government 117 vendor lock-in 60, 115, 138 VHS video standard 125 Visa Europe 133 Visual Basic 158 Vitalari, N. 171 Wardley Map 185–6, 250 of HS2 188 Wardley, Simon 107–8, 110–11, 185 Weill, Peter 167 Western economies 2 Whatsapp 3 Wikipedia 124 Woerner, Stephanie 167 Yahoo 196 YouTube 97, 101