Tour of the book and431 Porter et al. (1975) offer a third way, suggesting that an effective route to change is companion website to intervene in ways that simultaneously modify structures, in order to create the Selecting interventions
conditions that will elicit new and desired behaviours, and modify interpersonal processes – to address issues of managerial style, attitudes and the social climate of the organization. This approach employs structural interventions to support intrapersonal and interpersonal learning. Exercises They suggest that structural interventions might include: Change tools
Change management is most effective when the use of These invite you to articulate and critically examine # modifying work structures in order to change how individual employees actually tools and techniques is guided by theory. Throughout your own implicit theories of time change, drawing on your spend most of their 302 Planning and preparing for change the book, a number of carefully selected change tools # modifying whether control structures in order to determine attend to personal experience, that is in a company you what individuals # modifying reward structures orderattended, to24 influence what individuals will do when are presented have worked for, a club or society youinhave Managing change: a process perspective alongside theory to provide change they have choice. what needs to be done managers Identify with some ideas about what might be useful or in your everyday life. They also often ask you to apply While there are no hard-and-fast rules about whether interventions should address in specific circumstances concepts and theories studied in the chapter to this (2003) Once and Kantor et al. (1992) argue that the notion attention of refreezing is not relevant a change objective has been identified, needs to be given to interpersonal processes or structures first, there is a growing body of opinion that organizations operating in turbulent environments. They argue that organizaexperienceintervening to change one without the other is less effective thanforintervening has to be to done to achieve the change. The Awakishi diagram could prove h
tions need to be fluid and adaptable that it would be counterintuitive for them for this purpose (Change tooland 15.1). to be frozen into some given way of functioning. Lewin’s point, however, is that all too often change is short-lived. After a ‘shot in the arm’, the change is not sustained 15.1 Awakishi and lifeChange returns tool to the wayThe it was before. diagram In his view, it is not enough to think of Exercise 24.1 Choice of interventions change in terms of simply reaching a new state, for example achieving a short-term The Awakishi diagram (Newman, 1995) a useful tool to stimulate thinking Review some of the change programmes that have been implemented within your improvement in the level of collaboration in theismarketing department’s meetings. what that needs to be done.forLet us assume the change the closur organization and, with reference to the content of this chapter, critically assess the permanency, He asserted as long as it is that relevant, needs toinvolves be an important to achieve cost savings. Anand individual (or group) could brainstorm choice of interventions. Are you able to identify occasions when inappropriate part ofplant the goal. This state may be brief involve little more than taking stock about what needs to bechange. done toItachieve this goal. The brainstorm interventions were used? Give reasons and suggest interventions than might have before moving on to yet more is, however, important to think inmight terms gen of large number issues requiring attention, which can betogrouped categ been more effective. consolidation in orderofto minimize the danger of slipping back the wayinto things Theeither most important categories provide the main ‘bones’, which connect If you are a full-time student with little work experience, you could were before. spine of thep.skeleton (see Figure 15.1). These could be plant to to be closed, research an organization online, such as the NHS in the UK, or design a miniHendry (1996, 624) testifies to Lewin’s lasting contribution change s inventories andany people. V ‘Scratch research project and interview members of an organization, such management, as yourequipment, univerby noting: account of creating and managing change Using bones prompts, the otherwhich thingsnecessarily that will need to be done sity or a local company, to identify the type of interventions that used tothese andwere the idea that change is aasthree-stage process begins with a and prioritized. Forfar example, needs ’toHowever, happen inasorder to id achieve change, observe whether they were carefully chosen for particular circumprocessidentified of unfreezing will not be below what the surface. Burnes which plant to close, which equipment to dispose of, and which people to stances, and assess whether inappropriate interventions had been used. (2004a) has observed, the strength of Lewin’s contribution to the theory and can then change be given what needs to be done toisactually the practiceAttention of organizational is to when this three-step model viewedclose as part plant, dispose surplus equipment, and group manage the relocation/severan of an integrated theoryofthat includes field theory, dynamics (see Chapter staff. Attention can also given toreport issues2.1 such as stakeholder Summary 16) andsurplus action research (see Chapter 17).be Research presents the resultsma ment, communications and so and on. the three-step model of change. of an empirical test of Lewin’s theory This chapter examined the factors that need to be considered when selecting which Research reports type of intervention to use. Consideration was also given to the factors that can affect decisions regarding the sequencing of interventions in those Dispose of Identify wh Much of the knowledge about the Research report 2.1 Acircumstances test of the validity of Lewin’s three-stepConsolidate model People surplus plant facility to cl inventories where it is necessary to use more than one type of intervention. managementSome of change that is of the factors that need to be considered selecting interventions are:change: An 1 As implementation progresses, change process Ford,when M.W and Greer, B.M. (2006) Profiling
change both.
Criteria Timetable available to managers is practice profiles will display higher levels of ‘movement’ and empirical study of change process patterns, Journal of 1 Diagnosed problem: ‘refreezing’ factors. Applied Behavioral Science, 42(4): 420–46. based. There#is,Where however, a growing Identify who to retain the issue is defined in terms of a need for transformational change, Closure of 2 Change process profiles associated with higher body of research evidence thatsuggest can that the most effective interventions will be those Burke and Litwin one plant degrees of implementationHow? success will display Theory Supporters When? that in aresome targeted at changing system-wide elements such as mission and stratcomplement, and cases higher levels of unfreezing, movement and This study compared profiles of activity at different What? Blockers egy, leadership and culture. Who? refreezing factors than change process profiles stages of a change to investigate the validity of challenge, this craft-based expertise. # Where the issue is defined in terms of a need for incremental change (or associated with lower degrees of success. Identify Lewin’s three-phase model. Lewin’s model implies that Throughout the book, there fine-tuning), theare most effective interventions may be those that address Communications ? activities relating to unfreezing should be observable This second hypothesis relates to the levels ofstakeholders elements that, if changed, might have a more localized impact in terms of frequent references to research before activities relating to movement and refreezing. unfreezing-moving-refreezing activity associated with Unfreezing to destabilize the status quo needs to studies, but occasionally selected the degree of implementation success. Lewin’s theory Figure 15.1 Using the Awakishi as a change plant closure occur first otherwise the organization will be poorly doesdiagram not suggest that anytool: of the three phases will studies are presented in research prepared for change. Movement requires at least dominate, for example although refreezing occurs late reports. These give a flavour of some some old ways of doing things to be discarded in in the change process, it is just as important as Develop annew implementation plan favour of new behaviours. It is only after these of this research-based knowledge, unfreezing, so it follows that implementation success behaviours have been established that refreezing will will be associated with more intense use of all change how research is contributing to factors at will influence the change facilitate the stabilization of the Two organization a new process factors. plan: our knowledge about change equilibrium. Ford and Greer argue that if such a 1 Change participants’ perceptions of the proposed change in terms of its progression or sequence exists, then intensity levels of Method management and different research and the likelihood that it will happen. factors linked to each of the three stages of Lewin’s change, Ford and , whe methods that can be used 2 Clarity of the desiredAfter endstudying state –conceptualizations is the change a of‘blueprint change’
model should change as implementation proceeds. Greer developed a set of change process factors desired end state is known, or an emergent change, where the that desired en They make two hypotheses: could be linked to Lewin’s three phases:
is, as yet, unknown?
xviii
spent in the department by 45 minutes, and the freeing 10 per cent increase in demand over the following 12 mo Following this early success, lean thinking was dissem Process mapping created detailed pictures of how work commitment to change. This led toxix the identification o Tour of the book and companion website ties and the engagement of staff in PDSA cycles to el value. Ben-Tovim et al. (2007) illustrate how this wor Appreciative inquiry 353 waste by speeding patient discharge. It becam eradicated Case studies Examples of some inpatients was delayed because they had to w A multitude of international casetest. studies invite youroot cause revealed that These illustrate key points and describe an instance or follow-up A search for the shorter (two-day) interventions with three secondary schools that had to merge under such pressure to perform tests that, when the lab to apply theory to a variety of real-life organizational refer to a pattern of behaviour that demonstrates and with two fast-growing computer dealers who were also involved in a merger was decided to appoint a new technician rather than a (seeunderstanding Elliot, 1999). situations. They are situated across a wide range of the relevance and aids the of a concept The result was that appointments could only be mad An appreciative inquiry at Nutrimental Foods in Brazil led to three new business industries and countriesmember and arewas allfree based onup actual or theory to pick and respond to messages lef initiatives and a massive increase in sales, as shown in Example 18.2. system. This delay had and the knock-on effect of increa events, although in someinginstances, the name while new patients who needed to be admitted waited fo
location of the organization have been changed.
Example 18.2 Using appreciative inquiry at Nutrimental Foods Each case study includesThese questions to demonstrate answer or tasks examples how a lean philosophy t
many different settings. Read Case study 22.1 on the Gra
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to complete opportunity to practise appreciative interviewing. The Nutrimental Foods is a Brazilian manufacturer that how lean principles can be applied in this setting. summit involved 700 people, staff and external specialized in the production of dehydrated foods that stakeholders such as suppliers, customers and bankers, it supplied to federal institutions such as the army, coming together in a big empty warehouse to talk hospitals and schools. After enjoying this privileged 22.1 and Grampian Police about Nutrimental’s past, Case presentstudy and future to position for 26 years, a new government changed its share their stories about best practice, peak experiences procurement policy and decentralized the purchase of Leading and managing the people issues Before reading on, make so Members of the public were frustrated because they and company strengths. An observer reported that the foods. This had a devastating impact on Nutrimental. It think lean thinking might he were finding it difficult to contact Grampian Police. opportunity to participate in the creation of a desired had to refocus on supplying the consumer market and problem. There were over 70 different telephone lines the public ways that helptotoavoid maintain momentum of enormous change and ensure that hard-won generated energy. downsize from 2,000 in to 650 employees being the future Attention was focused inst could use. Some went to a central switchboard, others do not evaporate. can observe their leaders’ active involvement Following the summit, 150 of those involved in the driven out of business.gains The CEO, Rodrigo Loures, When quickly people calling the police. After analy directly to various departments or local police stations, in andhad commitment the change, there is every chance they willatbethemotivated main event used the data generated summit toto recognized that something to be done totorevitalize found that a significant perce many of which were so small that they were not persist with change even when confronted by problems might otherwise develop a new corporate vision.that Several teams were the demoralized workforce and gainthe a competitive firearms licensing matters. Gr manned on a continuous basis. Consequently, many undermined commitment. However, a common problem is that formed to implement action plans. By 2001, the having edge in the consumerhave market. Appreciativetheir inquiry was with many farmers and other calls were not answered or were answered by identified the need for change, created communicated a vision set the companyand achieved a 66% increase in sales, and a 300% identified as a possible way forward. shotguns that have to be lice somebody who was not in a position to resolve the change in Cooperrider motion, leaders their attention elsewhere andimprovement those working in profitability and a 42% in to After a successful pilot project, and turn increase analysis of this category of ca caller’s problem. Grampian Police responded by the changeinquiry perceive a lack of support top. Whelan-Berry productivity that from senior the managers attributed to the and Barros were invited todeliver lead an appreciative of them were prompted by p creating a new state-of-the-art call centre. Operators Sommerville drawing onnew work bycollaborative Schein (1999), Hesselbeinculture (2002) more and appreciative thatand summit. In preparation for this event, (2011), 180 people could use a geographical information system to identify associated with the process o Cameron andthey Green leaders need to ‘walk the talk’ throughout thisthat intervention had helped to create. attended a one-day meeting where were(2004), argue licences. It was predicted tha where a caller was calling from, and could access a the implementation if they are to be effective drivers of change. Kotter and introduced to appreciative inquiry and givenprocess the V instantly problems could free up to 14 crime information system so that they were
Heskett (1992) make a similar point and argue that leaders need to demonstrate the centre’s capacity. aware of criminal activity in that area and the contact behaviours they want others to model. The first step was to study details of local officers and those leading current It is also important that leader support is not restricted to the senior managers identify sources of problems inquiries. The new service was well received, not least In Chicago, a project 4,000need school children conducting one million who may have initiated the involved change. They to involve other leaders down the design of the system. The lice because callwhat centrethe staff were able to deal with many ‘peak interviews with older city residents to vision city could Managing change in line practice Companion and experience’ hold them accountable for implementing the change inwebsite their departments example, started with a notic calls in their entirety with to themale– complete satisfaction of the be like if the norm became Chicago at its best. Avon had a problem and work groups. Managers supervisors at all need to be committed and website, www.palgrave. These interactive features invite you to watchand specially A levels comprehensive companion out to certificate holders. The As word got round, more people started to ring femaleinvolved relationships and usedthe appreciative inquirythat to caller. address the issue. Following a equally in ‘walking talk’ to ensure adequate attention and recorded videos in whichrequest change practitioners withsystem for male–female com/companion/hayes-change-management4, completed form to police he in. Thepairs call centre on focused the company’s email who became believeda victim they of its own success. resources are on the task. other documents. After the fo Workloads increased andselected the call centre manager exemplified high-quality communication in the workplace, 15 pairs were an impressive range of experience across various accompanies the textbook, featuring audiovisual Sometimes, implementing a change can be a lengthy process and there is a and checked, a police officer appealed for more staff. But setting up the call centre to interview 300 other exemplary pairs. Their stories were used to generate 30 dangerview that, of over thetopics course in of time, people willpresentations lose their initial on sense of topics, urgencyvideo interviews with organizations discuss their key key gun owner’s premises, to insp had already stretched resources, so another way of principles for attention positive cross-gender working relationships. and divert their to more pressing, day-to-day operational issues. Kotter change management. TheFinegold videos are availabledescribe on thean appreciative change practitioners andhad notes on presentation skills that they were stored in a sec managing the workload to be found. et al. inquiry a US university. (1995) argues that one(2002) way of minimizing this risk is for those in leading the change It started with 400 members of the administrative and finance division being asked, companion website and link back to questions and for students. There is also a range of material for to seek out short-term wins and plan for visible (interim) performance improvein pairs, to reflect on theiralong wholethe span employment at advocating the university ments that can be celebrated way.ofHowever, while the and cele-tell lecture slides and case exercises in the textbook lecturers, including PowerPoint each other a story peak experience, a time when theytoo felt soon most because energized, bration of early wins,about Kottera cautions against declaring victory study valued. They were then invited to tell each debriefs other what they valued about thisalive canand kill momentum. themselves, their work and the university and to think about the way they wanted the university to be. For many, it was the first time they had been invited to give Managing change in practice 9.1 Jo North: with the end in mind for staff voice to their hopes and visions. They wereStart able to present propositions training and development and for better communication between departments Jo North is the managing director of The Big Bang Partnership Ltd, a commercial and senior management. The intervention was so successful that it became the consultancy that works with businesses to help them innovate and grow. Previmethodology for annual strategic planning in the division and eventually develously, she was deputy managing director and customer service director of East Coast Mainline Company Ltd, commercial director of Northern Rail, and director of sales and marketing at FirstGroup, UK Bus. In her video, ‘Start with the end in mind’, on the book’s companion website at www.palgrave.com/companion/hayes-change-management4, Jo highlights what she sees as four key leadership tasks. Compare Jo’s list with the tasks included earlier in Table 9.2. Is one list better that the other or do they cover much the same ground?
Leadership style Hackman (2002) argues that too much attention has been given to the importance of leadership style and asserts that leaders can be successful using those behaviours or styles that make the most sense to them personally, given the properties of the situation, the state of the team, and their own idiosyncratic skills and preferences.