Introduction to Global Studies sample chapter_ McCormick

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LONG CONTENTS

Illustrations and Features

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About the Author

xv

Tour of the Book

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Summary of the Book

xviii

Online Resources

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List of Abbreviations

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Acknowledgements

xxii

INTRODUCTION

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What is global studies?

The world as a community of 100 people Some notes on this book’s approach

2 6 10

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1. HISTORY The emergence of the modern world World war and the end of empire The Cold War The new global system Globalization

2. POPULATION AND RESOURCES The global population Feeding the world The new urban majority Natural resources Meeting our energy needs Managing forests and oceans

16 21 25 28 31

37 38 41 44 47 50 54

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3. IDENTITY AND CULTURE

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Identity and worldview Understanding culture Accounting for race and ethnicity The changing place of religion

60 65 69 73

4. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

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Science, technology, and global change The state of global health The globalization of disease The digital revolution Information, communication, and tourism

5. STATES AND GOVERNMENT Understanding states States vs. nations The evolution of states Understanding government Challenges to the state

6. LAW AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS Understanding global governance International law International organizations Non-state actors Regional integration

80 82 86 88 93

99 100 106 107 111 116

121 122 124 128 133 138

143

7. HUMAN RIGHTS Understanding human rights The evolution of rights The expansion of rights The global human rights regime Comparing records on human rights

144 147 150 153 159

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8. ECONOMY Understanding the global economy The changing global economic landscape

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The global financial regime Wealth and its effects Poverty and its effects

173 177 179

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9. TRADE Understanding trade The evolution of global trade The changing global trading landscape The global trade regime Free trade Trade and inequality

188 190 192 197 200 203

209

10. MIGRATION Understanding migration The causes of migration The global refugee problem The global migration regime The effects of migration

11. ENVIRONMENT Understanding the environment The global environmental regime Biodiversity Climate change

12. WAR AND PEACE

210 214 218 221 225

233 234 238 244 248

255

Understanding war The causes of war Understanding peace The conditions needed for peace The global security regime Terrorism

256 260 263 267 269 271

Conclusions: Future directions in global studies

277

Glossary

281

Bibliography

291

Index

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INTRODUCTION

Isolation, it is often said, is the hallmark of the life of a writer. This is certainly true in my case, because – except when I am travelling – I spend much of my working life sitting before a computer, either at home or in my campus office. Except for my fellow scholars and the students in my classes, I see few people during regular working hours. And yet while I may not see them in person, I am actually connected in ways that are far deeper, wider, and more complex than even a few years ago, or that past generations could have imagined.

I can call up vast amounts of information through the internet, and my social media feeds send me a stream of news stories from around the world.

I send and receive emails and text messages, or make (free) calls on Skype or WhatsApp, some connecting me to people just down the road, others to people on the other side of the world.

I can stream many more movies, TV shows, and music than a human could hope to watch or listen to in a lifetime.

I am surrounded by products made all over the world: a smartphone assembled in China, a German car assembled in South Africa, an American computer made in Mexico, and clothes that bear American brand names but were made in Malaysia or Sri Lanka.

I can refresh myself periodically with coffee from Colombia or tea from Kenya, and dinner this evening might include pasta from Italy, rice from India, fish from Indonesia, vegetables from Canada, or fruit from Brazil. Or, if the family decides to eat out, we can choose among restaurants nearby serving anything from Chinese to Ethiopian, Greek, Indian, Mexican, Moroccan, or Vietnamese cuisine.

This is all immediate and real evidence of the globalized world in which we live. True, not everyone has access to this variety of options; millions still live in abject poverty, in societies shattered by war, under governments that deny their basic rights, and in urban slums or isolated villages that lack even a reliable supply of clean water. Many are also denied access to modern technology; barely one in five own a road vehicle, and only half of the people in the world have access to the internet at home. In spite of such limitations and inequalities, however, we are all still connected, directly or indirectly, through the political, economic, social, technological and environmental links that have made the world a smaller place. It is these connections that are at the heart of global studies. As we look into its different facets in the chapters that follow, we will be asking many questions. How did these connections evolve? How are they shaped and influenced? Are they good, or bad,

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or a mix of both? Do they unite us or divide us? How have they changed our lives?

How should we prepare for the future? And what exactly is globalization and the global system?

In this book, we will be exploring what such connections mean for our identities, our jobs, our societies, our governments, and our markets. We will look at how populations are changing, how we feed ourselves, how technology is changing, how medical science is evolving, how we govern ourselves, why people migrate, how trade works, how our rights are defined and limited, what is happening to our environment, why we go to war, what is needed to keep us at peace, and whether or not the changes that have come to the global system have made us safer, happier, and healthier.

Before we do that, though, we need to be clear on the meaning of a few key concepts.

WHAT IS GLOBAL STUDIES? The Chinese philosopher Confucius is reputed to have once said that the beginning of wisdom is to call things by their right name. Whether or not he did, it is certainly hard to understand the world around us unless we agree on the meanings of the terms we use to describe it. Natural scientists have made more progress on this than most, because the terms they use mainly have consistent definitions. In the social sciences and the humanities, though, there is a lot more fluidity, with terms and ideas often open to interpretation, and definitions often contested according to the different perspectives of those doing the defining – we will see plenty of examples of this in the chapters that follow. The problem brings to mind the claim made by Humpty Dumpty in Through the Looking Glass: ‘When I use a word … it means just what I choose it to mean – neither more nor less’.

As a subject, global studies suffers its share of uncertainty, fluidity, and imprecision.

Its intellectual roots may be long and deep, but as a distinct field of study it dates back only to the turn of the new millennium, which means that our understanding of its content and outlines is still evolving. To complicate matters, it is made up of many different subjects and ideas, our understanding of which changes with time and with the viewpoints of those who assess them. And to complicate matters even further, global studies is easily confused with four other concepts, each of which we need to tie down.

First, there is international studies, focused on the interactions between two or more countries and on what these countries share or have in common. (To be pedantic, it should really be interstate studies, since the term international is usually used in the context of states, not nations. There will be more on this problem in Chapter 5.)

Although international studies looks beyond state borders, it remains founded on states, the prefix inter- originating from the Latin word for ‘between’ or ‘among’.

If we study something happening within a single state, then our interest is national or domestic, but as soon as we start looking at states in relation to one another, we move into the realms of the international. Our interest might be in how states interact with one another, or we might be interested in making comparisons among them. Either way, the international part of this stops short of the holistic approach that characterizes global studies.

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For its part, the word studies implies that our interests are broad, and might range from the historical to the political, economic, legal, social, cultural, religious, scientific, technological, linguistic, and environmental. Jan Nederveen Pieterse (2013) jokingly notes the suggestion that we should avoid investigating subjects whose title includes the word studies, because it suggests a lack of the kind of structure and depth we find in a formal discipline, such as history, political science, or economics. He also points out that the use of the word – as in global studies, gender studies, media studies, and so on – has been a relatively recent development, but this should not imply that any of these fields of research is any less interesting or important than the disciplines that preceded them. He rightly warns that newness can mean greater unevenness and a looser understanding of the focus of a field, but he fails to point out that newness also implies possibilities: global studies has made great strides in its short life, and is wide open in terms of its potential.

The second concept to tie down is international relations. As usually applied and understood, it is more limited than international studies because it focuses on the political and economic interactions between states. In some countries, international relations (or IR, as it is known) is considered a sub-field of political science, where it is both related to (but contrasted with) the sub-field of comparative politics. In other countries, it is a free-standing discipline. Either way, it is interested in topics such as diplomacy, war, peace, security, international organization, and foreign policy.

In contrast to the broader idea of studies, the narrower idea of relations implies a specific interest in how states relate to one another. Some, though (such as Barnett and Sikkink, 2011), see evidence that IR has moved in recent decades towards a new interest in the global as opposed to merely the international.

Figure 0.1: Key concepts in global studies TERM

MEANING

INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

The study of interactions, comparisons and commonalities involving two or more states.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

The study of (mainly) political and economic interactions between or among states, with a focus on diplomacy and policy.

GLOBALIZATION

The process by which the political, economic, social, and cultural links between people, corporations, and governments in different states become integrated through cooperation, trade, travel, communications, media, investment, market forces, and technology.

GLOBALISM

A philosophy, ideology or policy based on taking a global view of politics, economics, society, security and the environment.

The third concept is globalization, which is distinct from international studies or relations in the sense that it describes a process: one in which the links between people, institutions, and governments in different parts of the world have evolved

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and deepened. This has resulted – as Robertson (1992) puts it – in ‘both the compression of the world and the intensification of the consciousness of the world as a whole’. Globalization is both a cause and an effect, and – as with all terms that have the suffix –ization (such as democratization, Europeanization, and polarization) – it describes a phenomenon that is always moving and evolving, and is neither static nor final. It is important to note that while globalization is usually associated with political and economic change, it actually applies to almost every facet of human endeavour, including culture, religion, science, and health. It is even more important to note that while the term comes up frequently in the chapters that follow, this is not a book about globalization.

The fourth and final concept is globalism, which is an ideology, a set of beliefs, or an attitude that favours a global view on politics, economics and society, and supports the kinds of trends we find in globalization. In contrast to nationalists, who see the world from the perspective of their home countries, and place the interests of those countries first, globalists see the world as a whole, arguing that national interests add up to global interests, and that global interests help shape national interests. In spite of the criticism directed by many nationalist movements against globalism in recent years (spearheaded by leaders such as Donald Trump in the United States, Vladimir Putin in Russia, and Narendra Modi in India), the two ideas are not mutually exclusive, and nationalist criticisms of globalism as elitist and anti-democratic threats to national sovereignty miss much of the story. It is possible to simultaneously pursue local, national and global views (see Rosenboim, 2017).

All of this brings us back finally to the meaning of global studies. Where international literally means between nations (or states), the word global implies a more holistic and transnational view of the world. In other words, it is concerned with the world as a whole. If all other perspectives are partial, separated or contained, global perspectives are aggregated, combined, and connected. State borders cannot be ignored, to be sure, but global studies is concerned with matters that are of common interest to us all, regardless of those borders. Human rights, for example, are the rights that all of us have by virtue of being human, and they rise above citizenship of a particular country or community. Migration is not something that is limited to a particular time or place; it has happened throughout human history, and continues to happen today, for different reasons and with different results. And when air pollution causes changes in the earth’s climate, we are all affected, regardless of any identity we might have other than simply being human.

If you are using this book, you are probably enrolled in a course or a module whose title includes some combination of the words international, global, and/or globalization, and that may be offered by a department, a programme or a school of either international studies, global studies, or both. These possibilities tell you something about the unsettled nature of the field. You would see even more possibilities with just a quick scan of the titles of other textbooks in this field, which include not just global studies and/or international studies, but sometimes spill over into global issues.

And the list expands still further if you look at the contents of these books, which reveal an overlap between international, regional and global studies, and a wide range of possible topics. In preparing to write this book, I looked carefully at all the others on the subject, and found that no two covered the same ground. The most

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common topics were economics, population, culture, war, and health, followed by history, government, human rights, and the environment. Meanwhile, several books were each unique in addressing geography, foreign policy, technology, crime, and terrorism.

Unconcerned and undeterred by such mixed signals, this book defines global studies as follows: The systematic study of the global system and of its related features, qualities, trends, institutions, processes, and problems.

The global system, meanwhile, which is a term that appears often in the chapters that follow, can be defined as follows: The collected elements and components – including people, institutions, principles, procedures, norms and habits – whose interactions make up the global whole.

In the world of global studies, we are ultimately interested in understanding how the global system is constructed and how it works. We are focusing on the logical final point in a progression that begins with the individual and moves through the familial to the communal, the local, the national, the regional, and the international.

In its efforts to understand global connections and phenomena, global studies has four important qualities: It is transnational, meaning that it is concerned with events, ideas, activities, and phenomena that are not limited by state boundaries. To be sure, global studies is grounded in the local, the national, and the international, which is why Map 0.1 shows the world, but also indicates the states with which most of us most readily identify, and at which level most of the decisions that most immediately impact us are made. Global studies takes the discussion about these decisions to the transnational level.

Map 0.1: The world

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It is integral, meaning that it is concerned more with what unites us than with what divides us, and with the manner in which decisions are shaped and implemented at the global level. We will see that all states are influenced by the actions of other states, that economies are impacted by cross-border investment and trade, and that cultures borrow from one another, promoting a sense of global consciousness. But it is our interconnectedness and interdependence that interests us when we take the global view.

It is inclusive, meaning that it does not see the world from the perspective of any one group of people, but works to engage with the multiple perspectives of the entire human race. As we will see in Chapter 3, the term ethnocentrism is usually used to describe the phenomenon of looking at other cultures according to the values and standards of one’s own, and even perhaps believing in their relative inferiority. But it also includes the more general idea of taking a narrow and exclusive view of everything we see. In contrast to the ethnocentric (or the nationalist), global studies is interested in taking an inclusive view, in fostering a sense of global literacy, awareness and belonging, and in helping us all better understand our place within a diverse global community.

It is interdisciplinary, meaning that it looks at the world from the perspective of multiple disciplines, including history, geography, sociology, anthropology, demography, science, technology, politics, law, and economics. Although this book has 12 apparently separate chapters, none of the topics with which they deal are isolated, and they constantly overlap. There is a chapter on human rights, for example, but those rights – and the persistent problems of inequality – are threads that can be found woven throughout the book, and within each of its individual chapters. And there is a chapter on the environment, but environmental problems are intimately related to science, politics, law and economics.

The world is so big and diverse that we can never fully grasp how people of different nationalities, religions, cultures, educational backgrounds, and economic situations see it, but global studies can help us find our way through the maze.

Consider the Indian parable of the blind men and the elephant: in order to learn what it looks like, they assign themselves to different parts of the animal, which they touch with their hands before comparing notes. They disagree about what the part they have touched tells them about the whole, but if they ask the help of others, they gather more information, their perspectives widen, and they build a more accurate picture of what the elephant looks like. Global studies works in a similar way by combining multiple perspectives on the world, helping us more accurately describe the qualities and dimensions of the global whole.

THE WORLD AS A COMMUNITY OF 100 PEOPLE The focus of our interest is nothing less than the entire world. However, it is a big and complex place, and grasping its dimensions and diversity is not easy. It contains about 7.5 billion people living in almost 200 independent states, identifying with numerous nationalities and ethnicities, speaking thousands of languages and dialects, following dozens of different religions, and interacting both directly and indirectly through constantly changing webs of interests, needs, and opportunities. It would be impossible for any of us – even if we travelled widely and spoke multiple languages – Copyrighted material – 9781352003994

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to come fully to grips with all this diversity. One way of working around this problem is to reduce the world to more digestible proportions by thinking of the world as a community of 100 people. This is what it reveals: There is an even split between men and women. This should come as no surprise, because nature will make sure that there is a balance between the two. But within those numbers there are important trends: higher male mortality, for example, means that as populations age, the number of women increases relative to men. Men and women also differ in terms of their social roles, their economic status, and their political power.

Asians dominate. There are about 60 Asians in the community, living alongside 15 Africans, 14 people from the Americas, and 11 from Europe. Despite the preponderance of Chinese, Indians, Indonesians, Japanese, and Koreans (among others), the community is still very much defined and influenced by its Western minority, and the focus of political and economic power has long rested with Europeans and North Americans.

This is changing, though, as the number, wealth and global influence of Asia grows.

Many languages are spoken. Although English is the language that most people in the community use to communicate, particularly those who are better educated, only 5 people are native speakers. About 12 speak different forms of Chinese, and 5 speak Spanish, but the remaining 78 speak a multitude of languages, and most are unable to communicate with anyone else other than indirectly, or through a basic version of English. Those who speak English find they can mingle more widely and build stronger ties with the community, while those who cannot find themselves at a disadvantage.

The community is aging. Thanks to better health care and nutrition, people are living longer, although there are many internal differences. Of the 100, 26 are aged 14 or younger, and 9 are 65 or older, leaving nearly two-thirds of the community within the optimum age range to work and to have and raise children. The median age of the community is 28, although the North Americans, the Chinese, and the Europeans are older on average (35 and above), while the Africans and Middle Easterners are the youngest on average (20 and below).

Democracy for the minority. Only about 40 people in the community live under democratic systems of decision-making, while the remaining 60 still languish under authoritarian rule. Most of those living under democracy are European, North and South American, and Indian, while the Chinese and Russian members of the community – along with most of its Middle Eastern and African members – struggle to make themselves freely heard, and find their rights routinely limited. Those who live under democracy worry increasingly about the quality of their influence, and throughout the community there is speculation about inequality, elitism, and a lack of accountability and transparency.

A small minority controls most of the wealth. Although the community has more than doubled the value of its economic output since 2000, just 17 members account for more than 60 per cent of that output, and 20 of them consume almost 90 per cent of its resources; these are almost all Europeans, North Americans, East Asians, and Australasians. The 18 Chinese members of the community are catching up fast, though, and exerting influence more widely. About 80 members of the community live on less than $10 per day, while 10 live in extreme poverty, barely scraping by on less than $1.90 per day.

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Gender

Ethnicity

Language

Age

50 men

60 Asians

12 speak Chinese

50 women

15 Africans

5 speak English

26 are under the age of 14

14 Americans

5 speak Spanish

11 Europeans

78 speak other languages

26 is the median age of the community 9 are 65 or older

Literacy

Educa on

Shelter

Clean Water and Sanita on

84 can read and write

7 have a college degree

77 have shelter

90 have access

23 do not

10 do not

14 cannot

12 have no more than a primary educa on 10 have no formal educa on

Figure 0.2: The world as a community of 100 people Compiled from sources used in the chapters that follow.

Urban areas dominate. Until recently, most of the people in the community lived in its rural areas, but there has been a steady drift over the decades to its urban areas, where 54 people now live. Many of those 54 remain poor and marginalized, while a central elite has accumulated most of the wealth and the power and consumes most of its resources. Meanwhile, many of those in the rural areas must rely on subsidies in order to grow the food on which the community relies.

Unequal access to education. Only 7 people in the community have a university degree, while – at the other end of the scale – 12 are unable to read or write. The community is better

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Government

Wealth

Consump on

Loca on

40 live under democracy

17 produce more than 60 per cent of the wealth

Wealthiest 20 per cent consume 86 per cent of resources

54 urban-dwellers

80 live on less than $10 per day

Poorest 80 per cent consume 14 per cent

46 live in the rural areas

Life expectancy

60 live under authoritarian rule

Nutri on

Health

Technology

Religion

30 have enough to eat

Average life expectancy is 72

35 connected to the internet

32 Chris ans

50 malnourished

For poorer members of the community it is as low as 52

65 not

7 Hindus

20 undernourished

23 Muslims 7 Buddhists 7 members of other religions 16 with no religion

educated than at any time in its history, and education is helping level the economic and social differences within the community, but higher education is still the privilege of a small minority, and remains tied to higher levels of wealth and better opportunities.

A large minority lacks shelter. While 77 of the members of the community have shelter (some of it sophisticated and well supported by utilities and services), the remaining 23 have none. Even for many of those with shelter, it is less than ideal, often consisting of slum dwellings and shanties with high crime rates and poor connections to basic services. Most people in the community have access to clean water and sanitation, but about 10 people do not, leaving them more susceptible to the resulting health problems.

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Few members of the community eat well. About 30 of the members of the community have enough to eat, 13 of them so much so that they have become obese. Meanwhile, about 50 are malnourished and 20 are undernourished, many among the latter suffering from starvation. The problem is less one of supply than of distribution; the community has more than enough resources to feed itself, but its poorer parts have less access to supplies, which are often interrupted by conflict.

Access to health care is unequal. Although the health of the community overall has improved, not everyone has benefitted. In its wealthier parts, members can expect to live into their seventies and even their early eighties, and to have access to fine health care. In its poorer parts, life expectancy may be in the forties or the fifties.

Unequal internet connection. The wealthier and better served members of the community mainly have ready access to the internet, on which they rely for an increasing number of services and for almost all their information. But half of the members of the community remain unconnected, and are thereby denied the knowledge, information, convenience and access that come with being part of this critical network.

Many religions are followed. The community is far from united in its religious beliefs.

Thanks to the influence of its Christian members, and their missionary achievements, Christianity has had an important role in the history of the community. But while nearly one-third of its members formally think of themselves as Christian, many of them are drifting away from organized religion. Meanwhile, the number of those who are Muslim is growing fast, about one-third of the members of the community subscribe to other religions, and 16 have no religion at all.

Of course, there is only so far that we can take the analogy with a community of 100 people, because in the real world the population continues to grow (it has doubled in size just since 1970) and most of its internal ratios are constantly changing. Even so, these numbers give us an idea of the diversity of the global system, and of the considerable inequalities that continue to persist within that system in spite of the enormous strides that have been made over recent decades in economic productivity, education, the provision of basis services, and technology.

SOME NOTES ON THIS BOOK’S APPROACH Before moving on, four points will be helpful in understanding the approach taken by this book.

First, it is – above all – an introductory textbook designed for students coming to the topic of global studies with little background, in a variety of different settings and countries, and most of whom will be taking their first module or course on the topic. It grew out of the needs and preferences of my own students, who were valuable if unwitting guinea pigs for the approaches taken in the chapters that follow.

Everything was tested on them before it appeared in this book, and they helped me determine what should be included and excluded. Because it is introductory, it sets out to cover the entire field of global studies, which means an emphasis on breadth over depth. Think of it as a sampler dish, offering a taste of the variety of topics within global studies, each of which can be covered in more depth using more specialized sources and bodies of literature. Also, because it is introductory, it sets

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out to include as many perspectives as possible, although focused positions are taken throughout the book.

Second, I have titled each chapter with selected key words, carefully chosen to encapsulate a variety of connected topics contained within each chapter. Chapter 4, for example, is titled ‘Science and technology’, but it is about a variety of topics found at the intersection of science and technology; hence it looks at health care, infectious disease, the digital revolution, and at changes in communication and transportation.

At the same time, other chapters in the book cover topics that also relate to science – consider population growth, trade, and the environment, for example – so Chapter 4 is not the end of the discussion. This is where we see the kinds of connections that are at the heart of global studies.

Third, in a book that takes the broad and introductory view, generalizations are often necessary. They have the disadvantage of sacrificing precision, but they have the advantage of providing the shortcuts that are sometimes needed to make larger points. The most potentially troublesome generalization made in the chapters that follow is the division of the world into two communities based on a mix of political, economic and social features: the North (more democratic, wealthier and post-industrial states) and the South (less democratic, poorer and/or industrializing states). Most states fit squarely within one of these groups, but others do not, and this point is always worth remembering. Not everyone will like the use of these labels, which critics dismiss as outmoded, but they can be useful as a guide through a complex global community. More nuanced political categories are discussed in Chapter 5, and more nuanced economic categories in Chapter 8.

Finally, because this is a book about global studies, it is obviously important that it should take a global view. In some ways, the book itself stands as a microcosm of the global at work: it is written in English by an American-based author who is Britishborn, Kenyan-raised, and has citizenship of the US and the UK. It is published by a German-owned company headquartered in the UK (with offices in many countries), the production overseen by an American development editor, an Irish production editor and a copy editor in New Zealand, with the finished book printed on paper sourced in the Netherlands. As a repeat-migrant, and someone who sees himself as a global citizen, I have made a particular effort not to see everything from a Western perspective. However, as a Westerner who draws heavily off research and data generated mainly by other Westerners and made available through Western publishers, I find this sometimes easier said than done. The book also combines international and comparative perspectives: global studies is just as much interested in how communities relate to one another as with how they compare with one another.

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KEY CONCEPTS Global studies

Globalism

International relations

Global system

Globalization

International studies

USEFUL WEBSITES Global Studies Association at https://globalstudiesassoc.wordpress.com Global Studies Consortium at http://globalstudiesconsortium.org World Bank Development Indicators at https://data.worldbank.org/indicator (Note: The Victorian British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli is credited with having once railed against ‘three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics’. Sources of data will always be contested, but I have long chosen – wisely or unwisely – to have faith in the World Bank, which maintains a website that includes data on a wide variety of topics, much of it credited to other UN agencies. They, in turn, usually rely heavily on national governments. Unless otherwise specified, most of the data in this book come from that source.)

FURTHER READING Anheier, Helmut K., and Mark Juergensmeyer (eds) (2012) Encyclopaedia of Global Studies (Sage).

A four-volume edited encyclopaedia with numerous entries dealing in detail with many aspects of global studies.

Smith, Dan (2012) The Penguin State of the World Atlas, 9th edn (Penguin). Although not an example of global studies as such, this is nonetheless a useful and provocative visual summary of current events and global trends.

Juergensmeyer, Mark (ed.) (2014) Thinking Globally: A Global Studies Reader (University of California Press) and Manfred B. Steger (ed.) (2015) The Global Studies Reader (Oxford University Press).

Two collections of useful readings from multiple authors, offering different perspectives on global studies.

Steger, Manfred B., and Amentahru Wahlrab (2017) What is Global Studies? Theory and Practice (Routledge). A survey of the field, showing its links with globalization, and outlining its key principles.

A single issue of the journal Globalizations from 2013 contains a forum involving scholars discussing the meaning and the purpose of global studies. Particularly interesting is the lead paper in the set – Jan Nederveen Pieterse (2013) ‘What is Global Studies?’ in Globalizations 10:4, pp. 499–514 – and a later issue of the same journal – Mark Juergensmeyer (2013) ‘What is Global Studies?’ in Globalizations 10:6, pp. 765–9.

ACADEMIC JOURNALS The following are some of the major academic journals dealing with global studies and globalization.

Asia Journal of Global Studies

http://www.aags.org

Global Affairs

http://www.tandfonline.com

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Global Challenges

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com

Global Environmental Politics

http://www.mitpressjournals.org

Global Governance

https://www.rienner.com

Global Media and Communication

http://journals.sagepub.com

Global Networks

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com

Global Policy

http://www.globalpolicyjournal.com

Global Social Policy

http://journals.sagepub.com

Global Society

http://www.tandfonline.com

Global Studies Journal

http://onglobalization.com/journal

Global Studies Law Review

ttp://openscholarship.wustl.edu/ h law_globalstudies

Globalization and Health

ttps://globalizationandhealth. h biomedcentral.com

Globalizations

http://www.tandfonline.com

Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power

http://www.tandfonline.com

Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies

http://ijgls.indiana.edu

Journal of Global Analysis

http://cesran.org/globalanalysis

Journal of Global Ethics

http://www.tandfonline.com

Journal of Global Health

ttps://globalizationandhealth. h biomedcentral.com

Journal of Global History

https://www.cambridge.org

Journal of Globalization and Development

https://www.degruyter.com

New Global Studies

https://www.degruyter.com

Transcience

http://www.transcience-journal.org

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INTRODUCTION

13

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INDEX

Boldface numbers indicate key references and definitions

A

central bank 174

African Charter of Human and Peoples’ Rights 149–50

China 28, 54, 102, 170

agriculture 38, 166–7

chain migration 217 and climate change 251

and climate change 44, 252 Amnesty International 157, 158, 160, 243 anarchy 122

and global trade 189, 193–5, 196, 197, 198, 199 and population 42 as a state 107–8

Anthropocene 234

Belt and Road Initiative 194–5

asylum 216, 224 asylum-seeker 216

economic reach 171–2

authoritarian rule 30, 110, 113–16, 159, 160, 167

multinationals 136–7, 195;

Ming expeditions 17 see also Hong Kong

authoritarian system 113

Christianity/Christian 10, 20, 75, 76, 137

authority 100–2, 104, 138, 261

cities 45–8

B

citizenship 4, 61, 64, 104–5, 211, 212, 228

Bangladesh 181, 203–5, 221

of the world 64;

Barber, Benjamin 68–9

see also national identity; nationalism

Belgium 106

civil liberties 116, 144

Belt and Road Initiative 194–5

civil rights 144, 151

Bentham, Jeremy 148, 264

civil society 135

biodiversity 123, 150, 235, 244–7, 279

civil war 21, 41, 182, 219, 222, 257–8, 264, 268

and protected areas 247;

civilization 66, 67, 68, 69

see also HIPPO

climate change 4, 31, 44, 51, 54, 80, 88, 103, 123, 150, 239, 241, 248–52, 279

brain drain 176, 211, 218, 226

and European Union 250–1

brain gain 218

and United States 251

Brazil 19, 26, 29, 72, 84 Bretton Woods system 25–6, 27, 33, 125, 165, 169, 174, 191

climate refugees 217

BRIC 29, 171–2, 175, 194

Cold War 25, 26, 27–8, 69, 149, 155, 170–1, 258, 263, 271

Britain 20, 22, 30, 38, 51, 94, 139, 152, 169, 256, 257, 262

colonialism 19, 21, 149, 179, 182, 268

collective security 270, 271

and global trade 191

Columbian Exchange 234

anti-slavery movement 148

common goods 49, 50

nationalism in 106

common pool resources 49, 50, 56

Burma see Myanmar

communications 93–5 comparative advantage 191

C Canada 68

Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1996) 126

capitalism 66, 166, 167, 177–8

container trade 196

Catholic Church/Catholicism 68, 108, 137

Convention on Biological Diversity 240–1

301

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corporate social responsibility 243

electricity 50, 51, 52, 53

cosmopolitanism 63–4

end of history 28, 115

cultural imperialism 66–7

energy 27, 50–3, 103, 134, 170, 279

culture 6, 29, 60, 62, 65–9, 71, 73, 76, 106, 145, 225, 279 and ethnicity 72 and globalization 30–1, 32, 33 and tourism 94, 96; see also global culture; multiculturalism

and the environment 235, 243, 251–2 fuelwood 53 sources 50–1, 51–3 England see Britain environment 21, 29, 31, 44, 50, 135, 198, 234–8

culture shock 65

and business 243

cyber threats 29, 30

and cities 47 and disease 88

D

and multinational corporations 136

democracy 7, 28, 66, 111–13, 115–16, 159

and tourism 96–7

Democracy Index 111–12, 113

environmental treaties 126

democratic peace theory 268

global regime 238–43

democratization 30, 112

non-governmental organizations 242–3

demographic transition 39–40

perspectives of North and South 237;

demography 38–9 development 118, 140, 149, 160, 170, 172, 176, 178, 180–1, 203, 226, 251; see also sustainable development development aid 183, 242 diaspora 107 digital citizenship 91 digital divide 90–1 digital revolution 30, 82, 88–92, 279 cyber threats 29, 30 Diogenes 64 diplomacy 269, 270 disease 39, 41, 47, 84, 85, 118, 246, 250 globalization of 86–8; see also Ebola virus; health care; HIV/AIDS; malaria Doctors Without Borders 157 Doha round 192, 194 DNA rights 152–3 Dubai 48

see also biodiversity; climate change environmental justice 236–8 environmental migrants 216, 217, 250 Environmental Performance Index 240 environmental regime, global 238–43 environmentalism 235, 237 ethnic cleansing 72, 147, 155, 221 ethnicity 60, 69–73, 106–7, 114, 182, 228–9 in North and South 71 ethnocentrism 6, 72 Europe and ethnicity 72–3, 106 and global system 16–18 and global trade 189, 191 and immigration/refugees 42, 68, 211, 223–4 and LGBT rights 151 and patriotism 63 and religion 75–6 and terrorism 272

dumping 199

and the West/Western 66 and tourism 96

E East India Company 19, 135 Ebola virus 84, 88

era of colonization 19–20, 33 era of discovery 18–19

echo chamber 94 e-commerce 188, 195–6 economic union 201 economics 29, 32, 164, 173, 188 economic freedom 166–8 economic size 165–6 economic structure 166 global economic change 169–73 Ehrlich, Paul 38

and war 22–3, 24–5, 108–9, 262, 268

imperialism 21 industrialization 20–21 European Court of Human Rights 152–3, 156–7 European Court of Justice 128, 144 European Union 27, 30, 54, 70, 127, 135, 138–9, 171, 183 and climate change 250–1 and identity 73

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and migration 214, 217, 226–7

global financial crisis 30, 172, 188

and the euro 174

Global Gender Gap Index 159, 160

and trade 189, 198–9

global governance 122–3, 128, 134, 135

economic effects 192, 201

Global North and Global South see North and South

exchange rate 25–6, 169, 173, 191

global studies 1, 2–6, 10–11, 65, 69, 80, 88 future directions in 277–80

F

global system 2, 5, 48, 108, 115, 122, 134, 261, 264, 278

failing states 118 fair trade 204

and states 100, 103, 104, 116, 117, 128, 169, 170, 173

contrasted with free trade 204 financial regime, global 173–7

and trade 188, 189

fish/fisheries 55, 56

changing balance of power within 127

food 41, 47

stages in growth of 16–28

and chemicals 44

today 28–31

and climate change 44

global village 93, 94

security 41, 44, 250

globalism 3, 4, 33

supply 38, 41–4 waste 43 Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO) 43, 44, 242, 250 Fordism 195 foreign direct investment 169, 176–7 forests/forestry 49, 53, 54, 217, 245, 246, 247 and climate change 248–9, 250, 252 fossil fuels 51–3, 81–2, 234, 237, 243, 251, 279

globalization 3–4, 16, 17, 18, 31–4, 122, 134, 150, 153, 169, 177, 258, 277–8, 279 and biodiversity 246 and culture 30–1, 60, 68 and disease 86–88 and identity 60 and immigration 115, 116, 117, 211, 217, 222 and religion 75–76 and terrorism 274

Fragile States Index 118, 260 free trade 25, 167, 169, 191, 192, 198, 200–3 contrasted with fair trade 204

and trade 165, 188, 191, 194, 196, 203, 204 pros and cons 34 glocalization 32, 33, 195

pros and cons 202 free trade agreements 29, 138, 201; see also regional integration

gold standard 173 Google 91, 144 governance 122

Freedom House 116 Friedman, Thomas 91, 92, 268 Fukuyama, Francis see end of history

government 32, 34, 91, 100, 101, 103, 110, 111–16, 134, 188 and economies 166–7, 169, 174, 176, 190 and human rights 144–5, 148

G

and international organizations 128–32

G20 122, 127

and migration 210–11, 216, 223

G7 126, 127, 269

and terrorism 272–3

G77 126, 127

and the environment 238

Gandhi, Mahatma 67, 265 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 26, 191, 192, 197–8, 201 genetically-modified organisms 44

and trade 196–9 intergovernmentalism 138 world government 122, 123, 131 Great Pacific garbage patch 234

genocide 71, 128, 147, 155 Germany 22, 23, 28, 110, 138, 216, 218, 256, 262

great power 22, 23, 25 Great War see World War I

Gini coefficient 169

green growth 236

global city 48–9, 278

green politics 236

global civil society 135

green revolution 38, 41, 44

global culture 31, 33, 65–6

greenhouse effect 248

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303

304

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gross domestic product 165–6, 168–9

and migration 214

Grotius, Hugo 55

Bollywood 31

Group of 20 see G20

parable of blind men 6

Group of 7 see G7 Group of 77 see G77

industrial revolution 21, 38, 39, 45, 47, 50–1, 81, 82, 89, 164, 169, 170, 194

H

industry 21, 166, 195

Haiti 53, 265, 267

infectious disease 85, 86–7, 88, 114, 279

hard power 269

information see communication

Hardin, Garrett 49–50

institutions 101, 111, 122, 123, 138

health/health care 7, 10, 47, 82–6

intellectual property 132, 198

and the environment 234, 237, 245, 246

and poverty 180

intergenerational rights 150

in North and South 85

intergovernmental organizations 31, 130–1, 225

infant mortality 39, 83

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 241, 249

life expectancy 83; see also disease Henry the Navigator 18–19 HIPPO 245–7 HIV/AIDS 84, 85, 86, 87 Hong Kong 193, 277–8 human rights 4, 6, 84, 128, 144–7, 279 agreements on 154 campaigners 158 comparative records 159–60 evolution of rights 147–50 examples of 146, 150–3 expansion of rights 150–3 global regime 153–9 non-governmental organizations 157 violations of 154–6;

intergovernmentalism 138 internally displaced person 219; see also refugees International Court of Justice 128, 132 International Criminal Court 128, 155–6 international law 124–8 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 21, 26, 27, 174–5, 191, 193, 241 international nongovernmental organizations 133–4 international organizations 128–33 international relations 3, 261, 268 international studies 2, 3, 4 International Whaling Commission 242 internet 1, 30, 89–90, 93 access to 10, 90–2

see also civil liberties; civil rights; natural rights; relativism; universalism; women’s rights humanitarian intervention 222–3 humanitarianism 155, 225, 257 Huntington, Samuel 31, 67, 69, 76

and right to be forgotten 144; see also digital revolution; e-commerce; social media Islam/Islamic world 29, 31, 69, 75, 76, 190, 262, 274 Islamic Development Bank 175 Israel 27, 76, 87, 107, 170, 220, 263, 273

I Iceland 106 identity 60–4, 73, 150, 279 and language 62

J Japan 23, 24, 263 and gender inequality 160

globalization and 60;

and immigration 214

see also civilization; culture; national identity

and whaling 242

IKEA 134–5

as a nation-state 106

imperialism 21, 135, 177; see also neo-imperialism Index of Economic Freedom 167–8 India 17, 19, 135

health care 83–4 just war 261–2

K

air pollution 53

Kant, Immanuel 264

and climate change 251

Karman, Tawakkol 158

and glocalization 32

Kenya 16, 42, 196

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multinational corporations 28, 31, 34, 118, 133, 134–7, 150, 173, 191

Kosovo 101 Kurdistan 107

and global trade 195, 199

Kyi, Aung San Suu 147

and the environment 240, 243

L

multinational state 106 Musk, Elon 228

languages 7, 30–1, 61–2, 73, 106 leader-laggard dynamic 240

Myanmar 147, 221

League of Nations 23, 27, 131, 149, 223, 261

N

legitimacy 63, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 115, 118

nation-state 106 national debt 176, 178

LGBT rights 150–1

national identity 61–2, 211, 261;

liberalism (international relations) 261 liberalism (trade) 190 Locke, John 109, 147, 148

see also citizenship nationalism 33, 62–3, 64, 80, 116, 117, 190, 278 nations 73, 106–7 and states 61, 106–7

M

nativism 226, 278

Magna Carta 147

natural law 147–8

malaria 87–8, 180

natural resources 47–50, 136, 150, 182, 235, 243, 279;

Maldives 248 malnutrition 41–2

see also energy; fisheries; food; forests

Malthus, Thomas 38, 41 Mandela, Nelson 135, 146–7, 159, 266 mass media 93

natural rights 109, 148 negative peace 263 neo-imperialism 21, 175, 204

McDonald’s 32, 68, 268

neo-liberalism 167

McLuhan, Marshall 93–4

neutrality 263

megacity 45

New Development Bank 175

mercantilism 191

Nigeria 42, 45, 61, 68, 84, 106, 136, 243, 274

Mexico 86, 115, 140, 237 microfinance 181 migrants 30, 68, 210, 211–14, 215, 216, 217, 221, 222, 223, 224–5, 225–9; see also environmental migrants migration 4, 30, 103, 118, 210–14, 279

Nobel Prize 50, 157, 158, 159, 181, 225, 266, 270 Non-Aligned Movement 28 non-intervention 265 non-state actor 27, 133–8, 157, 256–7

and European Union 226–7

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) 140

and United States 228–9

North and South 11

causes of 214–18

changing balance of influence 127

effects of 225–8

changing balance of trade power 192, 194

global regime 221–5

definition of 26–7

pros and cons 227

digital divide 91

refugee problem 218–21

economies 166, 167, 172

refugee regime 223–5

energy supply 50–1, 53

Millennium Development Goals 172

environment in 237, 246

mobility 29, 30, 73, 211, 222

food supply 44

modern 16, 17

health care 83, 85

modern world, emergence 16–21

LGBT rights compared 151

Modi, Narendra 4, 103

migration in 219, 222

monetary union 201–2

multinationals in 136, 176

Moore’s Law 92

population changes 40, 42

most-favoured nation status 197

poverty in 180

multiculturalism 68

race and ethnicity 71

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North and South (continued)

Psy 88–9

urban change 45–6

protectionism 109, 190, 191, 192

war and peace 268

public goods 49

women in 181

pull factors 214, 216, 222, 225, 279

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 130, 155, 270–1 Norway 114–15

push factors 214, 216 Putin, Vladimir 4, 116

R

O Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 176–7, 183, 217–18 organized crime 133, 138 outsourcing 182, 196, 251 Oxfam 178

race 69–73 in North and South 71 racism 71, 226, 229 realism 261 refugees 28, 71, 107, 114, 211, 216, 217, 218–21, 222 global regime 223–5;

P Palestine 76, 107, 220, 224, 263 Palma ratio 169

see also internally displaced person regimes 123 environmental 238–43

pandemic 86

financial 173–7

paradigm 82, 235, 236

human rights 153–9

Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963) 126, 236

migration 221–5

passive resistance 265

trade 197–99

passports 64, 100, 104, 105, 109, 210, 223

security 269–71

patriotism 62–3

refugee 223–5

peace 263–67 conditions needed for 267–9 global security regime 269–71 in North and South 268 peacekeeping 132, 155, 270 perpetual peace 264

regional development bank 175 regional integration 73, 138–40, 192; see also free trade relativism (human rights) 145, 151 religion 10, 73–76 and globalization 75–6

Peruvian anchovy industry 56

and human rights 144, 145, 148, 149, 225

political prisoners 145–6, 157

religious organizations 137;

political system 111–12 population 10, 38–41, 279 and biodiversity 246 and natural resources 47 changes in North and South 42 urban 45 positive peace 263 poverty 7, 172, 179–83, 264, 273, 278 and health 84, 85 and the environment 237 causes of 182

see also secularism remittances 218, 226 renewable energy 51–3 reproductive rights 160 reserve currency 173, 174 resource curse 182 Rhodes, Cecil John 21 right to clean water 152 Rohingya 72, 147, 221 Russia 23, 73, 91, 110, 127, 148, 269 and the WTO 197

in North and South 180 measuring 179–80 women and 181 preferential trade agreements 191, 200 preventive diplomacy 270 primary health care 84 prisoners of conscience 146, 147, 158 private goods 49

S Said, Edward 69 science 11, 80 and food supply 44 and human health 82–3, 86 and the environment 235, 238, 244, 249, 279

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secularism 18, 29, 75

technology transfer 196, 240

security regime, global 269–71

terrorism 30, 76, 96, 116, 117, 137–8, 182–3, 264, 271–4

security state 116, 117

Third World 25, 26, 69

Sierra Leone 83, 84, 166

tourism 30, 94–7, 118, 182, 211, 245, 248

Silk Road 75, 190, 193

trade 16, 19, 26, 117–18, 188–90

slavery 20, 148, 157, 179

and inequality 203–5

small and medium enterprises 176

changing balance of trade power 194

social media 89, 93, 94, 116, 144, 258

changing global landscape 192–7

social science 80

disputes 198–9

socialism 166–7

evolution 190–2

soft power 269, 270

fair trade 204

Somalia 3, 103, 114–15

free trade 25, 167, 169, 191, 192, 198, 200–3

South see North and South sovereignty 31, 100, 101, 102, 103, 109, 122, 131, 135, 138, 139, 175

global regime 197–99 major trading powers 188–89;

Soviet Union see USSR

see also protectionism, World Trade Organization

Special Drawing Right 175 states 2, 3, 6, 100–06

tragedy of the commons 49, 248

and culture 67–8, 69

treaties 125–8, 131

and globalization, 31

human rights agreements 154

and government 111–16, 122–3

migrant and refugee treaties 223–4

and humanitarianism 155

stages in development 125;

and international law 124–8 and international organizations 128–33 and migration 213

see also individual treaties and conventions treaty secretariats 131 Trump, Donald 4, 103, 116, 195, 229, 251

and national currencies 173–4

Turkey 222

and nations 61, 106–7 and peace 263–7, 268

U

and poverty 179–82 and regional integration 139–40

Union of International Associations 129, 130

and security 269, 272

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) 23, 27, 69, 153

and the environment 239–40

United Kingdom see Britain

and trade 188, 190, 194, 197

United Nations 25, 27, 28, 106, 123, 128, 130, 131–2, 149

and war 256–9, 261–3 challenges faced by 116–18, 199

agencies and programmes of 128, 131–2

evolution of 18, 28, 107–10;

and human rights 151, 153

see also government, legitimacy, sovereignty

and migration/refugees 223–4

statelessness 219, 225

and peacekeeping 270

structural violence 264

Commission on Human Rights 149, 223

superpower 25, 28, 155

Environment Programme 241–2

supranationalism 138

High Commissioner for Human Rights 153–4

sustainable development 150, 235–6

Human Rights Council 91, 153–4 membership 102–3, 107, 110, 127

T

pros and cons of 133

Taiwan 102 technology 22, 31, 80, 81–2, 89, 90, 92, 178, 223, 279

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 55–6

and communications 93–4

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 70, 242

and global trade 188, 191, 195

United States

information technology 194;

and #MeToo movement 160

see also digital revolution

and Bretton Woods 27

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308

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United States (continued) and climate change 251 and development aid 183 and energy 251 and global financial crisis 172 and migration 68, 103, 107, 213, 214, 216–17, 218, 222, 226, 228–9 and national debt 176

wealth 7, 21, 46, 47, 85, 168–9, 177–9, 182–3, 203 West, the 17, 28, 29, 30, 33, 64, 66, 69, 149, 190, 274 Western 66–7, 76, 108, 145, 205 Westphalia, Peace of 17, 109 Westphalian system 18, 137 women 7 and fertility rates 39, 40

and patriotism 63

and poverty 181

and poverty 180 and race 71–2 and the environment 217, 247, 251 and trade 191, 198–9, 203 and war 256, 257, 262, 268

rights 145, 148, 149, 158, 159–60, 181 world as community of 100 people 6–10 World Bank 21, 26, 27, 174–5, 180, 193, 242 World Economic Forum 164

as global power 25, 28, 29–30, 66, 127, 164–5, 169, 192

world government 122, 123, 131;

Bill of Rights 148

World Health Organization 42, 84, 152

Universal Declaration of Human Rights 64, 145–6, 149, 150, 152, 153, 225

see also global governance World Meteorological Organization 242

universal health care 83, 84–5

World Trade Organization 123, 130, 138, 192, 193, 197–9, 200, 201

universalism (human rights) 145, 151

world war 21–5, 109–10, 149, 258, 259 World War I 21, 22–3, 34, 86, 109, 110, 147, 223, 268

urban population 8, 44–7 and poverty 180, 203;

World War II 21, 23–5, 27, 30, 127, 132, 154, 219, 223

see also global city

World Wide Web see internet

V visa 100, 210, 223, 228

worldview 60, 64, 69, 73, 94

X

W

xenophobia 226

war 27, 256–60 causes of 260–63 crimes 72, 128, 154–6 global security regime 269–71

Y Yunus, Muhammad 181

in Europe 17

Z

in North and South 268;

zero population growth 39

see also civil war, Cold War, world war

Zimbabwe 173–4, 182

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