McMullan - Chapter 1

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Contents List of Figures ix List of Tables xiii Preface xv How to use this book xvii Acknowledgements xix Part I

Core Topics

1

1 The Environment 3 Environments 4 Climate 7 Climate types 9 Environmental comfort 12 2 Energy Use in Buildings Chapter outline Using energy Thermal comfort Energy transfer in buildings Energy regulations

14 14 15 21 25 31

3 Thermal Effects in Buildings 39 Chapter outline 39 Thermal insulation 40 Insulation calculations 45 Standard U-values 49 Thermal bridging 53 Structural temperatures 59 Heat energy calculations 61 Energy balance 70 4 Air Control in Buildings 78 Chapter outline 78 Air supplies 79 Humidity 82 Condensation in buildings 91 Condensation conditions 95 Refrigerators and heat pumps 103 Ventilation installations 109 5 Properties of Lighting 113 Chapter outline 113 Measurement of lighting 114 Colour 125

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6 Artificial Lighting 130 Chapter outline 130 Lamps 131 Luminaires 141 Lighting design 144 7 Natural Lighting Chapter outline Natural light sources Daylight factors Typical daylight levels Combined lighting

153 153 154 155 157 161

8 Aspects of Sound Chapter outline Measurement of sound levels Attenuation of sound Nature of hearing

164 164 165 172 176

9 Noise and Sound Insulation Chapter outline Measurement of noise Noise control Noise transfer Sound insulation

182 182 183 193 195 197

10 Room Acoustics 216 Chapter outline 216 Acoustic principles 217 Reflection 218 Absorption 222 Reverberation 226 11 Electricity Supplies Chapter outline Electrical principles Power supplies

234 234 235 242

12 Water Supplies Chapter outline Natural waters Hardness of water Sources of water Water treatment Water installations

255 255 256 259 261 263 269

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13 Waste Water Chapter outline Drainage systems Nature of waste water Waste water treatment Options for sewage treatment

271 271 272 274 277 281

14 Green Buildings 284 Chapter outline 284 Climate around buildings 285 Resources for buildings 291 Carbon and energy management 293 Pollution 296 Sick and healthy buildings 299 Sustainable buildings 301 Future buildings 302 Answers to exercises

307

Part II Resources

309

Resource 1 Science Information 311 Units 311 Chemical processes 313 Resource 2 Principles of Heat Resource Nature of energy and heat Heat transfer Gases and vapours

319 319 330 334

Resource 3 Principles of Light and Sound Nature of light Nature of vision Nature of sound

338 338 340 343

Resource 4 Principles of Electricity 349 Current electricity 349 Magnetism 362 Induction 367 Resource 5 Principles of Water Technology Fluids at rest Fluid flow Fluid energy

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370 370 375 378

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Resource 6 References General built environment Energy and carbon use, green and sustainable buildings Building services Noise and acoustics Water and drainage Professional bodies: UK and Ireland Standards organisations Some national standards organisations International standards organisations

387 387 388 388 389 389 389 390 390 390

Index 391

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1 The Environment It is remarkable to see a ‘big picture’ view of our environment, such as the entire planet Earth photographed from outer space. Against the darkness of space the Earth’s surface is lit by the Sun, that crucial star that governs our planet and supplies it with energy. It is also challenging for us to consider that the Sun and the Earth, like other planetary systems, can happily exist without the current range of life on Earth, including us humans. Compared to such matters, this book has a relatively limited scope!

Used in a broad sense, the term environment means the global surroundings that affect our lives. This is obviously a large and complex topic involving factors that range from big events on the Sun to small events within the molecules of living organisms. Many environmental factors also interact with one another in ways that are important, or even vital to life. For example, the oxygen content of the atmosphere is regulated by the plants of the Earth which take up carbon dioxide from the air and then give back oxygen, which we breathe.

Maintaining and improving the quality of our environment is important to life and to the quality of life. Environmental topics can also have important social and political dimensions with difficult choices to be made and issues to be debated. Added to this, the science and technology of the different topics have many interactions and links which can be difficult to understand.

This book focuses on the science, technology and services relating to the comfort of humans in buildings and the environmental performance of those buildings. These aspects of the built environment have many significant interactions with the wider environment and a secure knowledge of facts, terms and principles is a good basis for understanding the environment.

Overarching environmental matters, such as climate and comfort, are considered in this chapter while later chapters examine topics in more detail. The Resource sections of the book contain supporting information that can be used to review the science behind some of the technologies studied and for the further investigation of topics.

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ENVIRONMENTS Basic terms The components that make up the wider environment can be subdivided according to various systems, but a major distinction for this book is the difference between the natural environment and the built environment.

• Natural environment is the entire environment, without human presence or interference.

Notable features of the natural environment include climate, mountains and hills, rivers and lakes, rocks and soil, trees and plants.

• Built environment is formed by the buildings and other structures that humans construct in the natural environment.

Related ideas: Green architecture Sustainable architecture Natural building Ecological building Environmental building

Notable features of the built environment include buildings, water and drainage ­systems, transport systems, power systems, and communication systems.

• Sustainability is the general idea of meeting the needs of the present without compromising the needs of the future. It is about enduring.

• A green or sustainable building is deliberately designed to minimise impact on the natural environment and to maximise efficiency in the use of resources such as materials, water and energy over the lifecycle of the building.

Although this book focuses on the environment in and around buildings, there is considerable interaction between different environmental factors, as shown in the simple model of Figure 1.1.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT Space Sun Earth RESOURCE ENVIRONMENT Atmosphere Land Vegetation Water

BUILT ENVIRONMENT Buildings Industry Transport Services

Figure 1.1 Parts of the environment

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Connections between environments From the earliest times, people have adapted their habitat to provide shelter from the weather and other threats to life. Early humans made use of natural shelters, such as caves, and then they built shelters using available materials like animal hides, stones, straw, or wood. Modern buildings involve so many features in design, materials and construction that it is easy to forget that the fundamental aim is to provide an internal environment that is different from the external environment. A built environment responds to the local natural environment, and different types of building are therefore found in different parts of the world. Climate is a major factor in determining the features of building, together with the availability of building materials and skills.

Some of these interactions are summarised in Table 1.1. Other influences on types of building are local traditions and international architectural styles.

Interactions and issues Some of the interactions between the built and natural environments have effects that cause concern: • • • •

consumption of non-replenishable resources such as fossil fuel consumption of resources without replacement, such as hardwood forests harmful changes to local habitat, such as deforestation harmful changes to global habitat, such as climate change.

Table 1.1 Examples of environmental connections Natural environment features

Built environment features

Hot, dry climates

Light-coloured surfaces Roof overhang to provide shade Openings for breezes Courtyards to trap cooler air

Warm, humid climates

Lightweight materials Buildings on stilts for ventilation

Cold climates

Naturally sheltered sites High insulation Tightly-sealed construction

Snowfalls

Strong roofs for load Sloping roofs to discard snow

High winds

Naturally sheltered sites Low sunken buildings

Forests

Timber as construction material

Loose stone or quarries

Stone as construction material

Clay soil

Mud brick or adobe construction Fired brick as construction material

Earthquake zones

Low-rise flexible construction Reinforced concrete structures Avoidance of unsecured masonry

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Vernacular means the local style

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These concerns are connected to various topics in this book and are discussed, where relevant, in other chapters.

Remember also that the natural environment can undergo great changes without the presence of human beings. Britain, for example, has been subjected to ice ages and to warm periods, and that is ignoring an earlier geological time when Britain was connected to Canada and positioned at the equator. The mountains of the Earth have been eroded and washed into the sea to form new layers of rock which, in turn, have formed new mountains; this has happened four times in the lifetime of the planet.

And only 20,000 years ago you could walk on dry land between England and France where the Channel Tunnel now crosses beneath a sea.

The built environment See also: Section on Life cycle assessment in Chapter 14

Most people on Earth live and move around in a human-made built environment that we have inserted into the natural environment. The features of the built environment include buildings, electricity and water supplies, roads, bridges, tunnels, railways, harbours, and airports. The larger features of the built environment can leave their mark in the natural environment for thousands of years after they have been abandoned.

Examples include pyramids, stone circles, earthwork forts, old tracks, and roads, and it is interesting to ask yourself which parts of the current built environment might, if abandoned, be detected thousands of years from now.

The focus of this book is on the buildings in the built environment rather than the roads and bridges. Building types are varied and include houses, schools, shops, office blocks, factories, and shopping centres. Most buildings are designed to have people living or working inside and we are therefore interested in those aspects of buildings that affect human comfort. These factors include heating, cooling, lighting, acoustic performance, and use of services such as electricity and water. Interlocked with these topics is the sustainable use of resources to construct and to run the buildings.

Over its lifetime we can consider a building to have four major stages, as shown in Figure 1.2 and described below.

1. Design: the stage when we think about what we want and specify how best to do it. Decisions made at this stage last for the lifetime of the building, and poor design decisions are usually hard to remedy.

2. Construction: during this stage the building is made, requiring resources of land, materials, energy, and having an impact on the natural environment.

3. Performance: the extended stage of the building as it is provides benefits to people but requires arrangements for energy supplies, water supplies, and waste disposal.

This performance continues, for better or worse, over the lifetime of the building.

4. Disposal: the stage when the building is disassembled and its materials and fittings are recycled or disposed of with minimum impact on the environment.

Building design

Building construction

Building performance over lifetime

Figure 1.2 Major stages in the life of a building

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Building recycling and disposal

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The technical topics covered in this book are applicable, as appropriate, to all the stages in the total life of a building. The final chapter on ‘Green Building’ returns to the wider issues of designing, constructing and using buildings in ways that are environmentally responsible.

CLIMATE The Earth’s atmosphere is a particular environment which produces ever-changing effects of sunshine and clouds, pressure and wind, temperature and humidity, and precipitation in the form of rain, hail and snow. When these short-term variations of weather are observed at one place and considered over a period of time they form a climate.

The climate varies from place to place on Earth and creates a variety of environments.

The physical mechanisms driving the global climatic system include energy received from the sun, the rotation of the Earth, convection of air masses, heating of land and water masses, and evaporation of water and its subsequent condensation and precipitation. These mechanisms are interlinked in complex ways and produce variations that depend on regular cycles of time, such as daily and yearly changes, and variations which are random. Forecasting of local weather on a daily basis is challenging, but there are good data for the probable frequency of events in an area and this information is more important for building design.

Directly or indirectly, climate has an influence on all human activities, as it affects the rocks, soil, vegetation, and water resources in a region. Climate is therefore interlinked to traditional social characteristics in a region such as the types of food grown, the clothes worn, and the buildings lived in. Even in areas with little tradition, the local climate will still affect styles of agriculture, buildings and their services, leisure activities, and transport.

The underlying climate of a region can be linked to certain factors which are listed below and described in the following sections: • geographical latitude

• effects of water

• season of the year

• atmospheric circulation.

Precipitation: the release of water from the atmosphere Examples include: rain, snow, hail, dew

• altitude and topography

Latitude The geographical latitude of a place on Earth is a measure of its position above or below the equator, and is usually measured by angles in degrees.

• Intensity of solar radiation decreases as latitude increases.

The solar radiation and heating effect received from the Sun is strongest when it strikes the Earth’s surface ‘straight on’, at an angle of 90° to the surface. But most parts of the Earth receive sunlight at an angle of less than 90° to the surface, especially towards the poles of the Earth. The radiation is then less intense by a non-linear factor which varies with the cosine of the angle. The heat received on Earth from the Sun is therefore significantly less in the higher latitudes near the polar regions.

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Higher latitude means farther north or farther south

See also: section on Cosine law of illumination in Chapter 5

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Season of year The intensity of radiation from the Sun also varies with the season of the year.

The angle at which radiation from the Sun falls on a surface changes as the tilt and orbit of the Earth around the Sun change, as shown in Figure 1.3. In tropical latitudes, near the equator, there is little difference in solar heating between summer and winter. In high latitudes, in the Arctic or Antarctic regions, the Sun never rises for long periods of the year.

The orbit of the Earth around the Sun is slightly elliptical in shape and the axis of the Earth is tilted by 23.5° with respect to the plane that passes through the Sun and the equator. This tilt causes the change in radiation, length of day and climate between summer and winter. If there was no tilt then there would be relatively uniform climatic conditions throughout the year.

Summer: northern areas receive higher solar radiation as rays strike at more favourable angle

Earth is tilted on axis at 23.5° as it orbits sun 21 June Midsummer in northern hemisphere

Winter: northern areas receive lower radiation as rays strike at less favourable angle

Sun with Earth shown in two positions of its orbit around Sun

21 December Midwinter in northern hemisphere

Figure 1.3 Motion of the Earth around the Sun

Each day the Sun traces an apparent path in the sky. In the northern hemisphere the winter solstice on 21 December marks the lowest path and the shortest day. The summer solstice on 21 June marks the highest path and the longest day. The equinoxes are on 21 March for spring (vernal) and 21 September for autumnal in the northern hemisphere. On these two dates all places on the Earth have a 12-hour day and a 12-hour night, with sunrise being exactly due east and sunset exactly due west.

Altitude and topography The height of a place above sea level affects its climate because the temperature of the air decreases with altitude. Even in the tropics it is possible for tops of high mountains to be snow-capped.

Lapse rate is the decrease of temperature with altitude

• Air temperature drops by 6.5°C for each 1000 metres increase in altitude.

The surface features of the Earth, or topography, also influence the local climate by affecting the formation of wind, cloud, and rain. For example, as humid air from an ocean sweeps up the slope of a mountain range, the air cools, forms clouds, and causes

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rain and snow to fall. As the wind blows down the leeward slopes on the other side of the mountains, the air usually warms and clouds tend to disappear.

Effects of water Large masses of water cover the surface of the Earth and have a considerable effect on our climate, both locally and globally. Oceans and large lakes affect climates by reducing the extremes of air temperature at places nearby and downwind of them.

The mass of water in an ocean or lake absorbs heat and so takes longer to warm and longer to cool than a landmass. Therefore, the air temperatures over the ocean and in places near oceans have smaller variations than at places at the same latitude but well inland. For example, Glasgow and Moscow have similar latitudes, but they have very different climates.

The oceans of the world store great quantities of thermal energy and this heat store stabilises the variations in temperatures over the planet and keeps them within a relatively narrow range of values compared with other planets in the solar system.

Within the oceans there are large currents, such as the Gulf Stream and El Niño, which distribute this energy around the world and interact with weather systems.

Atmospheric circulation The movements of large masses of air in the atmosphere influence climate by producing winds that distribute heat and moisture. Global belts of wind, such as the trade winds, circle the earth and shift north and south as the seasons of the year change. In the spring they move towards the poles and in the autumn they shift towards the equator.

These shifts of wind help explain why some areas have distinct rainy and dry seasons.

Some general climate descriptions: Tropical desert Arctic oceanic/ maritime continental Alpine

CLIMATE TYPES The different climates encountered in the world can be described by various systems of classification which take account of the characteristics of a region, such as vegetation, average temperature, and average precipitation. For the purposes of studying the effect of climate upon buildings and human comfort, the four general climate types described in Table 1.2 are useful.

Environment around buildings From the perspective of a single building, the climate is the set of environmental conditions that surround the building and link into it. The study of climate for the local built environment generally involves the study of smaller systems of climate than those described above, and Chapter 14 considers details of climate measurement and of microclimates.

The following general features of the local natural environment are important to our choice of site for buildings and towns: • • • • •

availability of drinking water drainage of ground safety from flooding shelter from prevailing weather orientation to the Sun, as appropriate.

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See also: section on Climate around buildings in Chapter 14

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Environmental Science in Building Table 1.2 Climate types Type of climate

Typical characteristics

Cold

Excessive heat loss for most of the year Minimum temperatures: below −15°C

Temperate

Excessive heat loss for part of the year Inadequate heat loss for part of the year Temperature range: −30°C to 30°C Precipitation possible in all seasons

Hot/dry

Overheating for most of the year Dry air allows evaporation Temperature range: −10°C to 45°C High radiation Strong winds

Warm/humid

Overheating for most of the year Humid air inhibits cooling Temperature often above 20°C Mean relative humidity around 80% High rainfall in certain months

Climate change Climate change can be a controversial subject both scientifically and politically.

The records of global temperature show that the Earth has warmed by at least 0.5°C during the last century. There have been changes in global temperature in past epochs, such as tropical ages and ice ages, which can be linked to natural effects of solar variability, volcanoes, and even meteor impacts. Despite the difficulties of being certain about some data, there is considerable scientific evidence to suggest that the activities of humans are causing the current increase in global temperatures.

Whatever the exact causes of global warming are, the effects will change the ecology of many parts of the Earth and bring difficulties for people living there. Possible effects of global warming include: • • • • •

melting of polar ice causing a rise in sea levels and disappearance of land increase in severity of storms and flooding change in rainfall patterns, forming new deserts changes in ocean currents, causing changes in local climates changes in patterns of snowfall and ice sheets.

Greenhouse gases The atmosphere surrounding the Earth behaves as a large ‘greenhouse’ around our world and retains a certain proportion of the heat received from the Sun. There is a

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balance between the heat absorbed and given off by the planet Earth. Increasing certain ‘greenhouse’ gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels, increases the greenhouse effect and reduces the quantity of heat that the planet Earth would otherwise radiate back into space. This particular greenhouse effect therefore causes global warming.

Greenhouse gases are those gases that have a large influence on the greenhouse effect.

Described below are significant greenhouse gases, including some whose quantities are influenced by human behaviour.

• Water vapour H2O: occurs naturally from the waters of the world, not including clouds, and accounts for most of the greenhouse effect on Earth.

• Carbon dioxide CO2: produced by the burning of fossil fuels and forests and by all organic decay. Chimneys, motor vehicle exhausts, and forest fires are major sources.

• Methane CH4: the main component of natural gas supplies. Methane is produced by decay of organic matter and also by the digestion of sheep and cattle.

• Nitrogen oxides NOx: the various oxides of nitrogen, which are mainly produced by motor vehicle emissions.

• Chlorofluorocarbons CFCs: families of chemical compounds manufactured for use in refrigerators and spray cans, and for insulation. Although inert at the point of use, CFCs escape to the upper atmosphere, where they chemically react and deplete the ozone layer, which we need for protection from excess ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.

See also: section on The greenhouse effect in Resource 2

Major contributors to greenhouse effect: H2O = 35–70% CO2 = 10–25% CH4 = 4–9%

CFCs, described above, are categorised as being among the minority greenhouse gases, but they play a unique role by chemically reacting with and depleting the ozone gas in the upper atmosphere. This ozone layer filters out the shorter wavelengths of ultraviolet light that, in large amounts, are harmful to life forms and cause effects in humans such as skin cancer. We do not want to damage the ozone layer, and since agreements in the 1990s the use of CFCs has been dramatically reduced, as described in the section on Refrigerants in Chapter 4.

Greenhouse gas emission agreements The natural greenhouse effect of the Earth’s atmosphere is one of the mechanisms that make life possible on this planet and it is also a mechanism that can be changed, for good or ill, by our human activities. There is a general consensus on the need for governments of the world to agree upon targets and mechanisms for limiting greenhouse gas emissions.

Most countries of the world committed themselves to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) of 1992. The objective of UNFCCC is ‘to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system’. The framework itself does not set targets and mechanisms for limiting greenhouse gas emissions by individual countries, but these have been negotiated in extensions to the UNFCCC such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreements.

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See also: section on Carbon management in Chapter 14

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Kyoto Protocol objective: to stabilise greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at a level that will avoid dangerous climate change

One mechanism for encouraging reductions in greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) has been the use of carbon credits, where one credit represents the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or its equivalent of another greenhouse gas. Projects that reduce GHGs, such as by planting forests, gain carbon credits, and these credits can be traded (sold) to projects that are producing GHGs. These costs are intended as an incentive for large industrial processes to reduce emissions.

ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT Despite the challenges of using our natural environment with care, we do have a need to construct a built environment with comfortable places where we can live and work. The physical comfort of humans greatly depends upon the following physical factors: See also: section on Thermal comfort in Chapter 2

• temperature

• lighting environment

• quality of air

• acoustic environment.

The technical measurement and control of these factors within buildings is discussed in the various chapters of this book. Figure 1.4 summarises important factors for human comfort within buildings and gives a preview of typical units and comfort ranges.

section on Lighting design in Chapter 6

See also: section on Measurement of sound levels in Chapter 8

COMFORT RANGE

See also:

Temperature

Humidity

Sound

Lighting

Dry bulb temperature

Relative humidity

Sound level

Illuminance

100°C Boiling point of water

100% Saturated air

140 dB(A) Threshold of pain

50 000 lux Sunlight

25°C Summer’s day

70% Humid day

70 dB Busy office

10 000 lux Shop display 400 lux Office lighting

5°C Winter’s day

40% Dry day

30 dB Quiet room

50 lux Hallway

0°C Freezing point

0% Dry air

0 dB(A) Threshold of hearing

0 lux No lighting

Figure 1.4 Summary of comfort conditions

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Outside the focus of our human physical comfort, the features of the built environment interact with many wider themes, as is indicated in the previous sections about climate and global warming. Overarching topics such as health and safety, use of materials, use of land, energy use and carbon management, water use, and reduction of waste and pollution occur throughout the various chapters of the book. The final chapter on ‘Green Buildings’ returns to key topics and issues.

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See also: section on Humidity in Chapter 4

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Index A absolute pressure 372 absorption coefficient 222 absorption of sound 222 absorption refrigeration 106 absorption unit 222 absorptivity 44 AC dynamo 235 AC motor 367 AC properties 240 accommodation of eye 341 accumulated temperature difference, ATD 286 acidity of water 257, 259 acids 315 acoustic shapes for halls 220 acoustic tile 226 acoustic trauma 178 activated sludge 279 active noise reduction (ANR) 195 active power 241 activity, heat emission 21 adaption, of eye 342 additive colour 127 advanced coal technologies 244 advanced gas-cooled reactor, AGR 245 aeration ponds 281 aerobic processes 276 age, body heat emission 21 air absorption of sound 176 air change rate 28 air conditioning 110 air pollution 296

air quality 79 air supplies 79–82 air supply rates 25, 81 air temperature 22 air, composition 336 airborne sound 195 aircraft noise 192 airport noise 193 airtightness for sound insulation 200 alkalinity in water 257 alkalis 315 alkane chemicals 317 alternating current properties 240 alternative energy 294 altitude 8 alum 258 ammonia as refrigerant 106 ampere 350 anaerobic ponds 281 anaerobic processes 276 anechoic 227 anemometer 24 anode 358 answers to exercises 307 apostilb 124 apparent power 240 aquifer 262 armature 367 artesian well 262 artificial skies 158 A-scale for sound 185 atmosphere, composition 336 atmospheric pressure 372

attenuation of sound 172 audigram 179 audiometry 179 auditorium types 217 B barometers 337 base exchange 268 base temperature 287 basilar membrane 177 battery 359 Bazalgette, Joseph 277 Bernoulli principle 379 BIM, Building Information Management 305 biological factors in waste water 275 biological filtration 279 biological oxygen demand, BOD 276 Blasius equation 383, 403 blind spot in eye 341 BOD, biological oxygen demand 276 boiler efficiency 74 boundary layer of thermal insulation 41 Bourdon gauge 372 Boyle’s law 334 BREEAM appraisal system 302 British Zonal system 143 brushless DC motor 366 Building Information Management, BIM 305

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building regulations 32 building-related illness, BRI 299 built environment 4, 6 buzzer, electric 364 C calorific value 19 candela 115 carbon capture and storage 245 carbon credits 11 carbon dioxide 293, 297 carbon dioxide as refrigerant 106 carbon emission 19 carbon filtering of water 267 carbon management 293–296 carbon, element 293 casual heat gains 67 cathode 358 cavity absorber 225 CCGT, combined cycle gas turbine 244 cells, electrical 357 Celsius temperature 322 centre of area 373 centre of pressure 374 centroid 373 cesspool 282 CFC refrigerant 105 CFL, compact fluorescent lamp 137 change of state 324 charge 350 Charles’ law 334 chemical oxygen demand 276 chemical pollutants in buildings 300 chemical reaction 315 chemical terms 314 Chézy formula 384 chlorination of water 266 CHP (combined heat and power) 244 chroma, of a colour 126 CIE colour coordinates 126 CIE standard sky 155

circuit, radial 253 circuit, ring 253 circuits 355 clarification 264 clean coal technologies 244 clear sky radiation 45 climate 7 climate change 10 climate types 9, 285 climatic data 286 climatic severity 287 clo 22 clothing 22 cochlea 177 COD, chemical oxygen demand 276 Code for Sustainable Homes 157, 302 coefficient of performance, heat pump 108 co-generation 244 coincidence, sound insulation 201 cold bridges 53 cold roof 102 colour of light 125–128 colour rendering 133 colour rendering index 133 colour reproduction 126 colour temperature 133 combined cycle gas turbine, CCGT 244 combined drainage system 274 combined heat and power, CHP 244 combined lighting 161 comfort temperatures 24 commutator 365 compact fluorescent lamp, CFL 137 compass 362 complementary colours 127 compound 314 compression refrigeration 104 concave reflectors of sound 219 condensation causes 92

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condensation in buildings 91–1037 condensation remedies 94 condensation risk 98 condensing boilers 295 conduction 42 conduction of heat 330 conductive hearing loss 178 conductor of electricity 352 cone vision 342 conservation of energy 16 construction site noise 190 consumer control unit, CCU 253 continuity of flow 377 contrast 342 control gear 136 convection 41, 332 convex reflectors of sound 219 correlated colour temperature, CCT 133 cosine law of illumination 119, 290 coulomb 350 critical frequency, sound insulation 200 critical velocity 376 crown-silvered lamp 135 current electrical 349 cyan colour 127 D Dalton’s law of partial pressures 335 Darcy formula 383 datum head 379 daylight factor calculation 158 daylight factor protractor 159 daylight factors 154–161 DC generator 236 DC motor 363 deafness 178 decibel 167 deep well 262 degree Clarke 259 degree-day 286 delta connection 241 demineralisation 268, 281

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density 342 design interactions 304 design temperature 23 detention of surface water 274 dew-point 84 dew-point gradient 97 diffraction of light 339 diffraction of sound 218 diffuse reflection 121 direct ratio 143 direct water supply 270 directional quality of light 125 disability glare 124 discharge lamp 131, 138 discomfort glare 124 disinfection of water 263 dispersion of white light 340 distributed network 250 dosemeter for noise 190 downward light output ratio, DLOR 143 drainage systems 272 driving rain index, DRI 286 dry cell 358 dry resultant temperature 23 E ear 177 earth connection 253, 266 echoes 220 eddy current 237 efficiency of energy use 74 efficiency of lamps 132 El Niño 9 electric charge 350 electric current 350 electric motors 365 electrical circuit breaker 248 electrical potential 352 electrical power grid 249 electrical sub-station 248 electrical transmission lines 249 electrical transmission systems 248 electrical transmission towers 249 electricity, efficient use 295

electrolysis 316, 335 electrolyte 358 electrolytic corrosion 358 electromagnetic induction 367 electromagnetic waves 338 electromagnetism 363 electromotive force, EMF 353 electron 349 element 314 embodied energy 17 EMF, electromotive force 353 emissivity 44 energy 14 energy balance in buildings 31, 70 energy conservation, practical details 36 energy conversion 15 energy efficiency in buildings 295 energy losses in pipe 381 energy management 293–296 energy measurement 17 energy of liquids 378 energy performance rating 35 energy regulations 31 energy sources 15 energy transfer in buildings 25 energy unit conversion 18, 19 energy use of lighting 149 energy, definition 319 energy, electrical 359 energy, national use 20 enthalpy 326 entropy 16 environment 4 environmental appraisal of buildings 301 environmental comfort 12 environmental connections 5 environmental profile 291 environmental temperature 23 equinox 8 equivalent continuous sound level 188 evaporation 82 expansion, thermal 329 exposed area of buildings 328

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exposure to climate 28 eye 341 Eyring formula 230 F fabric heat loss 27 fabric heat loss calculation 62 fan-shaped hall 221 Faraday, Michael 235 field windings 367 filtration of water 264 fission reaction 245 fixed points of temperature 322 flanking transmission of sound 196 floc 264 flow in open channels 384 flow in pipes 382 flow rate 376 fluid flow 375 fluid pressure 370 fluidised bed technology 243 fluorescent lamp 136 flutter echo 220 flux, magnetic 363 force on a conductor 365 fossil fuels 16 foul water 274 fovea 341 free field 173 frequency bands of sound 185 frequency of alternating current 240 frequency of sound 344 frequency of wave 343 frequency response of absorbers 224 fuels 19 fundamental frequency of sound 346 fur from hard water 260, 269 future buildings 302–306 G gas laws 334 gas state 325 gas turbine 244

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gases, nature of 344 gasification of coal 245 gauge pressure 372 gender and heat emission 21 general gas law 335 general lighting service lamp, GLS 134 generators, electrical 235 geothermal energy sources 247 glare 124 glare index 151 glare rating 151 globe thermometer 24 GLS lamp 134 Greek alphabet 313 green buildings 302 Green Star system 302 greenhouse effect 333 greenhouse gases, GHG 11 grey water 270 grid 249 Gulf Stream 9 H hardness of water 259 harmonics, of sound 347 hazardous waste 298 Hazen-Williams equation 383 head, pressure 372 healthy buildings 300 hearing loss 178 hearing risk 189 heat capacity 323 heat gains for buildings 29 heat loss calculations 61 heat loss factors 27 heat loss measurement 25 heat loss types 27 heat losses for buildings 25 heat pump efficiency 108 heat pumps 103–109 heat transfer 330 heat, nature 319 heavy metals 297 heliodon 290 Helmholtz resonator 225

high-pressure sodium lamp, SON 139 hot-wire anemometer 24 hue, of a colour 126 humidity 24, 82–91 hydraulic gradient 384 hydraulic radius 384 hydraulics 375 hydrocarbons 317 hydrodynamics 375 hydroelectric power station 245 hydrological cycle 256 hygrometers 86 I illuminance 116 illuminance levels 144 illumination vector 125 immersed surfaces 373 impact sound 195 incandescent lamp 131 incineration of sewage sludge 281 indirect water supply 270 induction 367 infrared radiation 340 infrasound 343 inner ear 177 insulating materials 40 insulation for sound 197–214 insulation measurement 26 insulation of building shell 27 insulator of electricity 352 intelligent buildings 303 International Standards for sound 203 international standards organisations 390 interstitial condensation 92 inverse square law of illumination 118 inverse square law of sound 173 inverted roof 103 ion 350 ionisation 350 isolating transformer 237 isolation for sound insulation 202

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K kelvin temperature 323 kinetic energy 319 kinetic energy of liquid 379 k-values 42, 331 Kyoto Protocol 11 L LA10 traffic noise level 187 LAeq equivalent continuous sound level 188 lambda values 42 Lambert’s cosine rule 119 laminar flow 375 lamp developments 140 lamp maintenance factor 148, 155 lamp types comparison 132 land disposal of sewage sludge 281 LAPd occupational noise index 189 lapse rate 8 latent heat 327 latitude 7 LCA, life cycle assessment) 291 lead-acid cell 359 Leclanché cell 358 LED lamp 135 LEED system 302 Lenz’s law 368 life cycle assessment, LCA 291 life of a building 6 life of lamp 133 light loss factor 147 light meter 124 light output ratio, LOR 142 light, nature 338 lighting control 150, 158 lighting design 144–151 lighting design criteria 151 lime 268 lime-soda treatment 268 line source of sound 174 linear thermal transmittance values 55 liquid state 325

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logarithmic nature of decibels 167 longitudinal waves 343 loudness 179 loudness contours 179 loudness level 180 low-emissivity glass 44 low-pressure sodium lamp, SOX 139 low-voltage lamp 135 lumen 115 lumen method of lighting design 147 luminaire maintenance factor 148 luminaires 141–144 luminance 123 luminous efficacy 132 luminous flux 115 luminous intensity 115 lux 116 M macroclimate 285 magenta colour 127 magnetic fields 362 magnetic flux 363 magnetic water treatment 269 magnetism 362 magnets 363 Manning equation 383 manometer 372 mass law of sound insulation 200 mean radiant temperature 23 mechanical ventilation 110 membrane absorber 223 membrane filter 266 mercury discharge lamp 139 mercury halide lamp, MBI 139 methane 297 microbial pollutants in buildings 300 microclimate 285 micro-organisms in waste water 280 micro-organisms in water 264

micro-strainer 266 middle ear 177 middle-ear deafness 177 mineral 316 mixture 314 moisture content 84 molecule 314 monochromatic light 339 monomer 317 motorway noise 187 moving magnet 368 Munsell system, of colour 126 N nano-filtration 266 National Grid 251 natural environment 4 natural frequency 347 natural ventilation 93, 109 NC, noise criteria 186 near point of vision 341 nerve deafness 177 neutral cable 241 neutron 349 Newton, Isaac 127 NIHL, noise induced hearing loss 178 nitrates 259, 276 noise and number index, NNI 193 noise control 193–195 noise criteria, NC 186 noise dose 190 noise induced hearing loss, NIHL 178 noise limiting curves 185 noise rating, NR 186 noise spectra 185 noise transfer 195 normalisation of sound insulation 203 notches in channels 381 noys 192 NR, noise rating 185 nuclear energy 15 nuclear power station 245 nucleus 349

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O occupational noise index 189 octave band 346 Ohm’s law 354 OLED lamp 141 operative temperature 24 organic chemistry 317 organic compounds 317 outer ear 177 overall thermal transmittance value 25 overtones 347 oxidation 316 oxidation ponds 281 oxidation, of waste water 276 oxygen content of waste water 276 ozone 297 ozone treatment of water 267 P panel absorber 223 PAR lamp 135 parallel circuit connection 355 Paris Agreements 11 pascal 370 passive solar design 295 passive stack ventilation 109, 117 PassivHaus system 302 pathogen 275 pattern staining 56 peak noise 190 peak value of alternating current 240 penstock 245 perceived noise level 192 percentage saturation 85 percentile level for noise 187 permanent supplementary artificial lighting of interiors, PSALI 161 permanent threshold shift, PTS 178 permeability 95 personal protection against noise 194 pH scale 257, 316

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Environmental Science in Building

phon scale 180 photometer 124 photovoltaic devices, PV 247 pipeline formulas 383 pitch, of sound 344, 365 Pitot tube 379 plane of saturation 262 plane reflectors of sound 219 planet Earth 3 plenum system 110 plumbo-solvency 259 PMT, thermal mass parameter 67 PNdB 192 point source of sound 173 polar curves 141 polarisation 358 pole, magnetic 363 pollutants in water 259 pollution of environment 296–299 polymer 317 porous absorber 223 potential difference 352 potential energy 319 potential energy of liquid 379 power 17, 71, 359 power density of lighting 149 power factor 240 power pylons 249 power rating 17 power station efficiency 244 power stations 242 power supplies 242–252 power, electrical 359 precipitation 7, 267 predicted mean vote index, PMV 25 prefixes for SI units 312 presbycusis 179 pressure energy of liquid 379 pressure filter 266 pressure measurement of fluids 372 pressure of fluid 371 pressure of sound 166 pressure, of gases 334

pressurised water reactor, PWR 245 Prévost’s Theory of Exchanges 333 primary cell 357 primary energy 16 primary fuels 16 proton 349 protractors, daylight factor 159 PSALI 161 psychrometers 87 psychrometric chart 88 PTS (permanent threshold shift) 178 Q quartz lamp 135 R radial circuit 253 radiant temperature 23 radiation 41, 332 radon 298 railway noise 189 rainwater harvesting 262 rapid gravity filter 265 RCD 253 reaction, chemical 315 reclaimed materials 292 recycled materials 292 reduction, chemical 316, 335 reed banks 281 references 387 reflectance 122 reflection of light 121 reflection of sound 218 refraction of light 339 refrigerants 105 refrigeration cycle 103 refrigerators 103–109 Regnault hygrometer 87 regulations for energy 31–36 relative energy content 291 relative humidity 85 relays 364 renewable energy sources 295 reservoir 264

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residual current devices 253 resistance, electrical 353 resistivity 42 resistivity, electrical 353 resistor 353 resonance 347 resonance in sound insulation 201 resonant frequency of absorbers 224 resource environment 4 resources for buildings 291 reverberant field 227 reverberation of sound 226–232 reverberation time 227 Reynolds’ number 376 ring main 253 RMS pressure 166 RMS value of alternating current 240 road noise 187 rod vision 342 room acoustics 217 room centre comfort temperature 245 room index 143 room surface maintenance factor 148 room temperature 22 rotor 237 run-off 257 R-value 26, 27, 46–48 S Sabine formula 229 sabins, unit 223 salts 316 sand filter 264 SAP, standard assessment procedure 35 saturated vapour pressure, SVP 83 saturation 83 scalar illuminance 125 scale prevention 269 schmutzdecke 265 science information 311

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sea disposal of sewage sludge 281 season of year 8 seasonal energy requirements 71 seasonal heat gains 70 secondary cell 357 secondary energy 16 secondary fuels 17 SEDBUK, boiler efficiency 74 sedimentation 263 sedimentation tank 278 SEL, sound exposure level 191 self-induction 368 self-luminous sources 123 semiconductor sources of light 131 sensible heat 325 sensory hearing loss 178 separate drainage system 273 septic tank 282 series circuit connection 355 service illuminance 145 services efficiency 29 sewage 274 sewage composition 275 sewage treatment plants 277 sewage treatment processes 277 sewer 274 sewerage 277 shallow well 262 sheltered buildings 29 SI units 311 sick building syndrome, SBS 299 sick buildings 299 SIL, sound intensity level 169 SIL, speech interference level 193 simple AC dynamo 236 simple cell 358 single-phase supply 241 site noise 190 site waste management plan, SWMP 293 sky component 158 slow sand filter 264

sludge disposal 280 sludge treatment 280 smog 297 soda 268 sodium discharge lamp 139 softening of water 267 soil pollution 298 soil water 273 sol-air temperature 65 solar data 290 solar energy 15 solar energy 295 solar energy sources 247 solar heat gains 29, 294 solar radiation 290 solenoid 364 solid angle 114 solid state 325 solute 315 solution 315 solvent 315 SON lamp 139 sone scale 180 sound 343–348 sound aborption 196 sound exposure level, SEL 191 sound insulation 199 sound insulation calculations 211 sound insulation construction details 206–210 sound insulation measurement 21 sound insulation principles 199 sound insulation regulations 202 sound insulation values 209, 216 sound intensity 165 sound intensity level, SIL 169 sound level meter 184 sound level, measurement 183–193 sound levels 168 sound paths in rooms 218 sound power 165 sound pressure 166 sound pressure level 169

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sound ray 218 sound reduction index 197 sound sources 196 sound waveforms 166 SOX lamp 139 specific heat capacity 323 spectral energy distribution of lamps 125 spectrometer 125 spectrum of noise 185 specular reflection 121 speech interference level 193 SPL 169 SPL (sound pressure level) 169 spotlamp 135 springs, water 262 SRI, sound reduction index 197 stabilisation pond 281 stack effect 109, 116 standard assessment procedure, SAP 35 standard sky 154 standard temperature and pressure, STP 335 standardisation of sound insulation 203 standards for sound insulation 203 standing waves of sound 220 star connection 241, 254 state point 90 statistical measurement of noise 187 stator 237 steady state conditions 66 steam turbine power stations 243 step-down transformer 237 Stephens and Bate formula 228 step-up transformer 237 steradian 114 storm water 273 STP, standard temperature and pressure 335 streamline flow 375 structural temperatures 59–61 structure-born sound 196

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Environmental Science in Building

sub-atomic particles 349 subtractive colour 127 sulfates 276 sulfur 314 sulfur oxides 297 sulphur…see sulfur sun controls 69 sun data 290 sun position 306 sun position 8 sunlight 154 sunpath 290 surface condensation 91, 100 surface water 272 sustainability 4 sustainable building 4, 301 sustainable construction 292, 301 sustainable drainage system 274 SVP, saturated vapour pressure 83 swales 274 SWMP (site waste management plan) 293 symbols 313 T target carbon dioxide emission rate, TER 35 TBS, tight building syndrome 299 Telsa, Nikola 242 temperate climate 10 temperature gradients in structures 60 temperature scales 322 temporary hardness 260 temporary threshold shift, TTS 178 TER, target carbon dioxide emission rate 35 thermal admittance, Y-value 66 thermal bridging 53–56 thermal comfort 21–25 thermal comfort factors 21 thermal conductivity 42 thermal conductivity 42, 331

thermal insulating materials 40 thermal insulation 25, 27, 40–59, 296 thermal insulation calculations 45–53 thermal insulation of buildings 27 thermal insulator properties 41 thermal insulator types 41 thermal mass parameter,TMP 67 thermal resistance, R-value 27, 45–49 thermal response of structures 59 thermal response with time 66 thermodynamic temperature 323 thermometers 321 thermostat 329 three-phase supply 241 threshold of hearing 167 threshold of pain 167 tidal energy sources 247 tight building syndrome 299 timbre of sound 347 time distribution of noise 187 tinnitus 178 toxic metals 298 trade winds 9 trading off for energy performance 34 traffic noise index 187 transformer efficiency 238 transformers 237 transitional flow 375 trichromatic colour reproduction 126 TTS, temporary threshold shift 178 tubular fluorescent lamp 136 tungsten filament lamp 134 tungsten-halogen lamp 135 turbulent flow 375 U ultrasound 343 ultraviolet radiation 340

Copyrighted material – 9781137605443

underground water 260 uniform standard sky 154 United Kingdom electrical supply 251 upside-down roof 103 upward light output ratio, ULOR 143 useful energy 16 utilisation factor 147 U-value 26, 28 U-values, adjustments 53 U-values, average 56 U-values, calculation 48 U-values, combining 56 U-values, floors 53 U-values, standard 49 V vapour barrier 95 vapour check 95 vapour diffusivity 96 vapour pressure 84 vapour pressure drop 97 vapour resistance 96 vapour transfer 195 vapours 336 VDC, Virtual Design and Construction 306 vector/scalar ratio 125 velocity of sound 345 ventilation 28, 63, 79–82 ventilation heat loss 27 ventilation heat loss calculation 63 ventilation installations 109 ventilation rates 80 ventilation requirements 80 venturimeter 380 vernacular style 5 Virtual Design and Construction, VDC 306 viscosity 376 vision, nature 340 visual acuity 342 visual field 342 volatile organic compounds, VOC 300

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volt 353 voltaic cell 358 vortex separators 278 W Waldram diagram 159 warm roof 102 waste material 298 water characteristics 258 water conditioner 269 water cycle 256 water installations 269 water pollution 298 water runoff 297 water softening 267 water storage 264 water supplies 256 water technology principles 370

water treatment 263–269 water vapour 82 wavelength of wave 344 weather 7 weighting networks 184 weirs 381 wells 262 wet-and-dry-bulb thermometer 87 wet-bulb 88 wetlands 281 wetted perimeter 384 whirling sling hygrometer 88 white light 339 whole-life costing and performance 302 wind chill 288 wind data 288

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wind direction 288 wind effects around buildings 289 wind farms 246 wind rose 289 wind speed 288 wind turbine 246 Y Y-value, thermal admittance 66 Z zenith 155 zeolite 269 zero energy and carbon 304 zero-energy building 304 zinc-carbon cell 358

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