Choose life by Paulines Publishing House

IMPRIMATUR

Rev. Msgr. Daniel B. Sta. Maria

† Most Rev. Honesto F. Ongtioco, DD Bishop of Cubao

The image used on the front cover is from the personal collection of a friend and is used with permission. Published and distributed by Paulines Publishing House Daughters of St. Paul 2650 F.B. Harrison Street 1300 Pasay City, Philippines E-mail: edpph@paulines.ph Website: www.paulines.ph All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner without written permission of the publisher. 1st printing 2014 ISBN 978-971-590-768-2

at the service of the Gospel and culture

Contents Introduction Preface Foreword

i iii vii

Part I - Morality and ethics Challenges in forming the conscience Biblical pastoral reflection on sin and its effects Overcoming temptations Virtues are back in fashion Jesus the perfect communicator Moral character and the practice of rhetoric St. Alphonsus Liguori, the patron of moral theology Structuring a first course of fundamental moral theology

1 3 21 39 53 71 89 105 119

Part II - Healthcare and bioethics The dignity of a person Utilizing moral imagination in bioethical issues Ethical and spiritual concerns of healthcare workers Status of the human embryo Consent Notes regarding end of life issues Letter from a Christian doctor

131 133 139 151 157 163 171 177

Part III - Pastoral issues relating to human sexuality The gift of sexuality - union and procreation Infertility and In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) Why masturbation is wrong - a pastoral response Evaluation of direct sterilization Family planning as nature intended Internet pornography - the new pandemic Homosexuality - an evaluation and pastoral approach Same Sex Attraction (SSA) in females HIV & AIDS and the Catholic Church Prostitution in the Philippines - a time for change A synthesis of Pope John Paul II’s “Theology of the Body”

181 183 189 195 199 203 219 235 245 257 277 303

Epilogue

329

Introduction

Do we really need another book on morality? Would it not bring more

confusion to an already confused and confusing field? These are just a few questions that people might ask upon seeing this new book of Fr. James McTavish, FMVD. But an open and careful reader would appreciate this latest addition to moral and ethical discourse. We thank Fr. McTavish for this artful work of love. As a theology teacher, I marvel at the clarity, simplicity and freshness with which Fr. McTavish deals with rather complex themes and topics. Nonexperts will not be intimidated by his theological language and manner of exposition. Instructors, catechists, seminarians, parish ministers, parents and the youth are only a few of the possible readers that could benefit from this collection of articles. Fr. McTavish’s serene pedagogy springs from his solid background in theological tradition, in medicine and in prayer. His experience as a teacher and companion of those undergoing formation is clearly manifested on the pages of this book. I appreciate how he faithfully presents the teachings of the Church. He clearly operates from a presumption of trust in the Church that speaks. He also explains the contributions of great thinkers and theologians. I find extremely interesting and helpful the inclusion of the views of doctors and scientists. Case studies or questions at the end of some chapters provide an opportunity for the reader to assimilate the content and method of moral reflection. Fr. McTavish engages some of the burning issues in bioethics and sexual ethics that the Church in the Philippines is currently facing. Instead of making the book narrowly “local” in its perspective, the inclusion of these concerns makes the book a genuine contribution of the Catholic moral tradition to the common search of the human family for authenticity and integrity. i

Introduction

As I thank Fr. McTavish for this timely gift to the Church, especially in the Philippines, I am encouraging the readers of this book to make people know about it. Let us work together in the formation of conscience and the development of a morally upright culture.

† Luis Antonio G. Cardinal Tagle Archbishop of Manila

Preface

It is said that what makes a book special is the competence of its author

combined with the expertise of a good communicator. The author of Choose Life! possesses the competence of a good theologian, the commitment of a knowledgeable medical doctor and the compassion of a Catholic priest. The author is Fr. James McTavish, FMVD, professor of ethics, bioethics and moral theology in various medical schools and faculties of theology.

We have in our hands a remarkable and relevant book on ethics and bioethics, Christian morality and pastoral theology. The subtitle of the book Choose Life! is Theological Reflections on Current Moral Issues. It is a remarkable book because it blends well both the arguments from faith and from reason to promote human dignity, respect for life and the central place of love in human and Christian relationships. It is relevant because it applies skillfully the basic principles of philosophical and theological ethics to current issues hotly discussed today such as the status of the human embryo, the end of life, the concerns of healthcare workers and Christian doctors, natural family planning, HIV/AIDS, etc. The book is divided into three parts: the first part is on fundamental ethical and moral issues; the second part, on bioethics and healthcare ethics, and the third part, on pastoral concerns connected with sexuality as an essential dimension of human life, love and communion. The first part entitled Morality and Ethics discusses in eight chapters basic issues of ethics and moral theology. Among the specific topics, the author writes on the formation of a good conscience, the attainment of a good moral character and the essential place of virtue in fundamental ethics and moral theology. Fr. James McTavish also deals in this section with sin and its bad effects, and with the nature of temptations and how to overcome them in our life. He ends this first part with an interesting article on how to structure a first course of fundamental moral theology. iii

Preface

In the second part, entitled Healthcare and Bioethics, Fr. James discusses ethically and theologically in seven illuminating chapters some basic bioethical issues and concerns. These issues and concerns are related to human life; after all, bioethics means etymologically life-ethics or the ethics of the life sciences. He begins considering the excellent dignity of the human person, dignity that finds its expression in human rights, which are rights or essential entitlements of every human person from the moment of conception to natural death. He reflects, in particular, on the right to life of the embryo and the ethical issues regarding the end of life, ethical and spiritual concerns of healthcare workers, in particular of Christian doctors, the ethical principle of consent, and the importance of imagination in bioethical issues. The third part is made up of eleven interesting specific topics of applied and practical ethics, of healthcare and bioethics, and pastoral theology. The author begins reflecting on the nature of human sexuality and continues by tackling some issues that are presently on center stage in ethical, medical and theological conferences and studies. Among these issues, Fr. James considers prostitution, masturbation, HIV/AIDS, IVF, sterilization, natural family planning, internet pornography, homosexuality and lesbianism. He ends the chapter with a consideration of Blessed Pope John Paul II’s theology of the body. I have to say that all the twenty five chapters of the book Choose Life! are interesting and worth reading and studying. I find particularly thoughtprovoking and very useful the following: from Part I, article four, Virtues are back in fashion; from Part II, chapter nine Utilizing moral imagination in bioethical issues; and from Part III, chapter 15, The gift of sexuality union and procreation, and chapter 25, A synthesis of Pope John Paul II’s “Theology of the Body.” Personally, I find the book of essays of Fr. James well-grounded philosophically, theologically, spiritually and pastorally. The author invites us not only to know the issues, but also to face them and do something positive about them. And rightly so: ethics, bioethics,

Preface

life is not just about knowledge but mainly about practice. As I like to tell my students, “To know and not to do is not yet to know” (Buddhist saying). In ethical discussions, one has to walk the talk! The author invites us, above all, to Choose Life! He invites us kindly and convincingly to defend and promote life with well-reasoned arguments and with love and compassion. He invites us to be ethical, that is virtuous persons. Peter Kreeft asks himself: What is the purpose of ethics? He answers: “To be good, that is, to be virtuous” - to love. When all is said and done in our relationships with others, in our profession, in our whole life is love, virtuous love that respects life and truth, and loves every human person and respects life. For us Christians, the God of Jesus Christ, our God, is Life, Truth and Love. In the evening of life, St. John of the Cross tells us, “We will be examined on love.” I have known Fr. James for a few years. As a moral theologian, as a doctor of medicine, as a priest, he has touched my life. I recommend the book Choose Life! Theological Reflections on Current Moral Issues. In particular I highly recommend the book of Fr. James McTavish to all those who are involved in the practice of the healthcare professions, in teaching and studying ethics, bioethics and moral theology, and also to those persons dedicated to pastoral care. Fr. Fausto Gómez, OP Member, Pontifical Academy for Life

Foreword

The title Choose Life! is taken from the Book of Deuteronomy. In chapter 30 we find the following exhortation: â&#x20AC;&#x153;I have set before you life and death, the blessing and the curse. Choose life, then, that you and your descendants may liveâ&#x20AC;? (Deuteronomy 30:19). For many today the challenge is to choose what is best in a bewildering array of options. As a parent guiding their children or as a priest giving pastoral advice each one is trying to choose life, to choose in accordance with Godâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s design and to choose for the good of the person and society at large. In this book I present various themes most of which are current and topical such the issue of conscience and its formation, the status of the human embryo or even the dangers of internet pornography. It is hoped that the study of this book by priests, religious, teachers, doctors and parents can help them identify the life issues at stake and make better and more consistent choices in favour of life. It is also my desire to offer a modest contribution to the world of Moral theology which may also serve those teaching in academic institutions such as universities or seminaries. At the beginning I never set out with the intention of writing a book. I was just writing articles on morality, bioethics and human sexuality as they arose mainly from my experience of teaching Morality and Bioethics at the University of Santo Tomas and the Loyola School of Theology here in Manila. Sometimes I wrote articles in response to questions such as whether the human embryo has a soul or not. In other moments I reviewed the available literature to answer pastoral problems such as the causes and dangers of addiction to internet pornography. So the impetus was at times academic and in other moments pastoral. I do not see these two moments as being strictly separated. If our theology is missionary, to help us minister better to those entrusted to us, then any good academic or theoretical study will have relevance practically. Likewise any true pastoral exposure necessarily involves an academic aspect because it is impossible that one can know all the situations of the vii

Foreword

world of today without ongoing formation. Contact with the changing world encourages one to study more about it to be able to love it more. So academic and pastoral or theory and practice are like two sides of the same coin. They are in function of each other and flow mutually into one another. I see this harmony in the moral theology of St. Alphonsus Liguori. His moral theology was eminently practical. He did not write just for the sake of writing but instead was concerned with the salvation of souls. Actually he did not write his first treatise until he was over 50 years old. It was in response to a pastoral situation. Thereafter he wrote over 111 works. Pope John Paul I, while Patriarch of Venice, wrote: “Alphonsus is a theologian for the practical problems which need to be solved quickly, following his own living experience. If he sees that charity needs to be rekindled in the hearts of the people, he writes ascetical works. If he wants to deepen the faith and hope of the people, he writes works of dogmatic and moral theology” (A. Luciani, S. Alfonso cent’anni fa era proclamato Dottore della Chiesa. [Letter to the presbyterate of Venice for Thursday, 1972], Venezia 1972, p. 41.) So little by little this book came together. It has three main parts. Part I is entitled “Morality and ethics.” Some general themes of moral theology are addressed such as conscience, sin and virtues. Included are some articles on communication, preaching and moral character. Why to put them in a section on morality and ethics? Well preaching is actually virtues in action. It also strikes me that Jesus the great teacher was also often preaching. Preaching and teaching are complementary activities. Part I also contains a tribute to the moral theology of St. Alphonsus, Patron of Moral theology. My two years of Licentiate study in Rome at the Alphonsianum under the Redemptorists made a profound impression on me. Part I closes with an outline of my first course of fundamental moral theology which may be helpful for would-be professors! Part II deals with issues from Healthcare and Bioethics. As a former medical doctor these areas are very close to my heart. It begins with a viii

Foreword

piece on the dignity of the human person reminding us that as imago Dei we are all made in the image and likeness of God. A discourse is then given on the importance of utilizing our moral imagination in bioethical issues. It is a call to see beyond the immediate picture and gaze beyond into the truth. Some ethical and spiritual concerns of healthcare workers are then outlined before later moving on to an article on end of life issues. After treating the issue of Consent, Part II closes with a letter from a practising Christian doctor. Part III deals with various themes drawn from human sexuality such as In Vitro Fertilization (IVF), Same Sex Attraction (SSA) and also Natural Family Planning (NFP). These issues are frequently encountered in pastoral situations. Also internet pornography, said to be the fastest growing addiction in the world, is discussed in a separate article. This is followed by two themes with growing relevance here in the Philippines - HIV and AIDS and the problem of prostitution. Part III ends with an article outlining some insights from the “Theology of the Body” of Pope John Paul II. A source of moral inspiration for me has been the writings of Fr. Fausto Gómez, O.P., an eminent moral theologian of the Dominican order. I notice that his various books are written in a simple but lucid style, combining deep insights with practical applications for the Philippines setting. I pray I can emulate him, at least somewhat! At the root of my writings is the missionary call of Christ to come follow him. If he had not called me there would be no book. Our moral life is really a response to his calling, a response to his great love. I am moved and animated by my daily prayer with the Word of God. In this life giving encounter Jesus gives me the strength and direction for the mission. This helps explain my extensive use of the Word of God throughout my writings. This is fully in line with the call of the Church to make the Word of God the soul of theology (see Dei Verbum, n. 24) and to ensure that our moral theology be more nourished by Sacred Scripture ix

Foreword

(see Optatam Totius, n. 16). This does not simply mean we pepper our moral writings with bible quotes just to be on the safe side! Rather it means that the Word should be at the centre of our lives so that even in times of studies the life of prayer is never put to the side but instead provides the grace, discipline and creativity for study. The moral author should set aside some hours each day to listen to the Author of life. In this way what is written will in some way express what is seen, heard and touched in the daily encounter with the Divine as expressed in the first letter of John - “What was from the beginning, what we have heard, what we have seen with our eyes, what we looked upon and touched with our hands concerns the Word of life - for the life was made visible; we have seen it and testify to it and proclaim to you the eternal life that was with the Father and was made visible to us - what we have seen and heard we proclaim now to you, so that you too may have fellowship with us; for our fellowship is with the Father and with his Son, Jesus Christ. We are writing this so that our joy may be complete” (1 John 1:1-4). For sure writing this book has been a challenge but ultimately a joyful one. I hope that reading it will also prove to ultimately be a joyful experience! I give thanks to my community Verbum Dei, for the opportunities it has given me and also for always encouraging me in the mission. I hope and believe it gives my moral theology a missionary flavor perhaps reflected in the wide range of themes presented revealing a desire to “Go to all” as Jesus asks us (Matthew 28:19). Inspired by the teachings of the Second Vatican Council I hope that it is a moral theology that is also dialogical, trying to understand the signs of the times, always seeking to be faithful to Mother Church and its teaching Magisterium. I thank my Verbum Dei community for their support and am pleased to be able to release this book on the occasion of our 50th anniversary. Thanks to Fr. Norberto Castillo, OP, for all his encouragement in my academic writing ministry. Thanks also to Fr. Jack Carroll, SJ, for his helpful advice on various articles and moral support! I enjoyed

Foreword

immensely the academic collaboration with Sr. Ann Marie Bruchalski, FMVD (“Internet Pornography - the new pandemic”), Monica Jalandoni (“Virtues are back in fashion”) and Simone Lorenzo (‘A synthesis of Pope John Paul II’s “Theology of the Body”’). Again thanks to Maria L. Balmaceda for her aesthetic brilliance in laying out the book and to Mally Potes for his design work. On this feast of the presentation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, may she enable us to present Jesus and the teachings of the Church with clarity, courage and conviction. Thank you Mother Mary for the gift of my missionary priesthood and the wonderful mission of being a moral theologian. And help us dearest Mother to consistently choose Life in our everyday choices!

Fr James McTavish, FMVD Presentation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, November 22, 2013, Manila

Part I

Moral theology and ethics

Challenges in forming the conscience What is conscience? “The lamp of the body is the eye. If your eye is sound, your whole body will be filled with light; but if your eye is bad, your whole body will be in darkness” (Matthew 6:22-23). In his writings, Pope John Paul II relates that these words of Jesus refer to a call to form our conscience, the conscience being “the bright lamp of the soul.”1 If your conscience is sound then your whole body will be filled with light, but if your conscience is not well formed then your whole body will be in darkness. The formation of conscience stands as the ethical imperative of the Church - to form Christians who are responsible with a well formed and mature conscience.2 Before discussing formation of conscience let us briefly remind ourselves of the task of the conscience with reference to the Catechism of the Catholic Church (henceforth “Catechism” or CCC), numbers 17761802, in the section “Dignity of the human person.” In the CCC various aspects of conscience are discussed and one facet of interest is the conscience as a practical judgment of reason allowing the person to recognize the moral quality of an act. The conscience judges particular choices, approving those that are good and denouncing those that are evil. Here we see a movement from the particular act to a general principle of good and evil. The conscience bears witness to the authority of truth and can perceive and recognize the prescriptions of the divine law.3 Again there is a movement from particular to general. But the converse movement is also noted, from the general to particular, as the conscience is concerned with the perception of the principles of morality and their application in the given circumstances. The conscience thus acts as a mediator between the general and the particular, a process See Veritatis Splendor, n. 63 and Evangelium Vitae, n. 24. Henceforth “VS” and “EV”. The formation of the conscience is part of the mission of the Church (See Dignitas Personae, n. 10. Henceforth “DP”). In specific areas such as healthcare ethics there is an ‘urgent need to mobilize consciences in favour of life.’ See DP, n. 35. In EV, n. 95 we find an urgent call for “a general mobilization of consciences.” 3 Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 1777. Henceforth “CCC”. 1 2

Part I. Moral theology and ethics

taking place in the interior of the person. This may be represented as follows: General principles

CONSCIENCE Particular case

Some pastoral examples may help to clarify this dynamism. Passing from general principles to particular cases

A person knows the general principle (or precept) that they should attend mass once a week, preferably on a Sunday with others in the believing community. One Sunday they are feeling sick and wonder if they can attend mass or not. Now the conscience helps the person decide whether they should indeed go or whether in fact their sickness physically prevents them. Sometimes a person will present themselves in the sacrament of confession stating they have sinned because they missed mass. They are following the principle that they should attend mass every Sunday but it must be applied in the concrete situation. If they were bed-ridden with illness and could not physically attend (and no one was available to bring them communion) then there would be no sin as God does not command the impossible. This scenario highlights the vital role of the conscience in applying the general principles in the particular situations. This is a challenging task that requires a mature conscience. Even the great moralist Saint Alphonsus Liguori noted that the greatest difficulty is to apply principles rightly and in a new way to particular cases according to the many circumstances calling for different solutions.4 We find this St Alphonsus Liguori, Practice of the Confessor, n. 17: “It is enough, they say, for the confessor to know general principles of morality to solve every particular case. It is certainly true that all particular cases are to be solved in the light of principles. But the whole difficulty consists exactly in applying to particular cases obscured by complex circumstances the general principles appropriate to them. Reason comes into play in order to weigh the pros and cons of each principle. This is the task performed by the moralists.” 4

Challenges in forming the conscience

challenge echoed by Pope John Paul II “Certainly there is a need to seek out and to discover the most adequate formulation for universal and permanent moral norms in the light of different cultural contexts, a formulation most capable of ceaselessly expressing their historical relevance, of making them understood and of authentically interpreting their truth.”5 For a person to pass from the general principles to the particular situation they need to assume a certain moral responsibility for the decisions that they are making. Assuming responsibility for decisions and their consequences is one sign of spiritual and moral maturity.6 That is why the Church advises each lay person to develop a mature conscience and grow in their sense of moral responsibility in their specific field of expertise - “Let the layman not imagine that his pastors are always such experts, that to every problem which arises, however complicated, they can readily give him a concrete solution, or even that such is their mission. Rather, enlightened by Christian wisdom and giving close attention to the teaching authority of the Church, let the layman take on his own distinctive role.”7 To pass from the particular situation to the general principles guiding it It is not merely to apply general principles in the concrete situation but also the reverse - to pass from the particular situations to the general principles governing it. One pastoral situation where this applies not infrequently is in decision about care at the end of life. A young man approached asking advice about his grandmother of 90 years of age who was sick with severe pneumonia. The family was wondering if she should be placed on a mechanical respiratory ventilator or not. He texted me for advice and I asked him to call me to clarify some of the issues involved. He did not call and instead texted me back later saying “I will just pray about it.” Prayer is indeed recommended and this is the good advice we also find in the book of Sirach 37:14-15 “A man’s conscience can tell him his situation better than seven watchmen in a lofty tower. Most VS, n. 53. See Gaudium et Spes, n. 55. Henceforth “GS.” In this document from the Second Vatican council, the word ‘responsibility’ is mentioned over 25 times! 7 Ibid., n. 43. 5

Part I. Moral theology and ethics

important of all, pray to God to set your feet in the path of truth.” The family needs to pray and always this should be encouraged but they also need to be well informed about the situation in question. It is not enough to make a decision based on particular details without inferring which principles are being drawn on. Of course many correct decisions are made areflexively, without the person being specifically able to elucidate the general principles guiding them. Obviously the family will be trying to do the best for their beloved grandmother, or “lola.” Often in these situations the family is torn between prolonging the life of their loved one but on the other hand not prolonging their agony. In deciding what to do they are greatly helped by the teachings of the Church, specifically the principle of ordinary and extraordinary care. Stated by Kelly it reads “Ordinary means of preserving life are all medicines, treatments and operations which offer a reasonable hope of benefit for the patient and which can be obtained and used without excessive expense, pain or other inconvenience.”8 Ordinary means are morally obligatory. On the contrary, if the ventilator does not offer reasonable hope, is excessively expensive or inconvenient then it would be classed as an extraordinary intervention and would not be morally obligatory, a conclusion which can give peace of mind to the family who may be in a dilemma as to what is the correct course of action to take. One danger then is to remain in the particular - the details of a situation - and not to contrast the facts with objective criteria of what is right and wrong. At times a family in an emotionally tense and fraught moment such as being confronted with the possible death of a loved one need objective principles to guide them to help them make the correct decision of conscience. Thus we have seen the important role of the conscience mediating between the general principles and the particular and vice versa in a kind of on-going feedback loop, going from the particular details to the 8 See Gerard Kelly, “The Duty to Preserve Life”, Theological Studies 12 (1951), 550. Also CCC 2278. At times in Catholic bioethics, the nomenclature of ‘ordinary’ and ‘extraordinary’ treatment is used interchangeably with the terms ‘proportionate’ and ‘disproportionate’ treatment.

Challenges in forming the conscience

general principles and from here applying them again to the particular case in question. This is the challenging task of the conscience! Care for the formation of the conscience The formation of the conscience is a lifelong task and becomes increasingly challenging as the world grows increasingly more complex each day.9 Rev. Fr. Majorano, a Redemptorist moral theologian and specialist on the conscience notes: The care for the formation of the conscience clearly emerges as the fundamental ethical responsibility of every person. Whatever laziness in this regard will have immense consequences for oneself and for the others - it can never be justified. Neither is it possible at a certain point of life to stop. The path of formation needs to be continually taken up; in fact in adulthood there is a renewed responsibility in front of one’s professional, family and social duties challenged by new ethical problems full of questions and uncertainties.10 Gradual numbness of the conscience If care is not taken to continually form the conscience it may become less capable to discern what is the correct course of action in a given situation and can become numb, gradually silenced as a result of habitual sin.11 An example from the Emergency room can perhaps enlighten us here. Before entering religious life and being ordained as a missionary priest I worked as a medical doctor, specializing in surgery. During my medical school days I remember well my stint in the emergency room, that exciting locale of human drama, where one did not know what or who would come through the doors next. On my first day there I 9 “Conscience is innate, that is, given, but needs to be developed, to be educated, or to be formed. As other human qualities and faculties, as human life itself, conscience has to grow, to mature, to ripen – to become a true and certain conscience, or an upright and good conscience.” See Fr. Fausto B. Gómez, O.P., ‘Formation of a moral conscience’ in The Journey Continues – Notes on Ethics and Bioethics, (Manila: University of Santo Tomas Publishing House, 2009), 193. 10 Fr. S. Majorano, CSs.R, La Coscienza, (Torino: Edizioni San Paolo 1994), 182. English translation in text above is my own from the Italian original. 11 See GS, n. 16.

Part I. Moral theology and ethics

remember two patients being wheeled in on trolleys at break-neck speed. One caught my attention because she was screaming out, “Help! I’m going to die! My leg, will someone please look at my leg!” My attempt to review her immediately was curtailed by my boss grabbing the lapel of my white coat and restraining me firmly. “What are you doing?” he asked me. “It’s obvious,” I appealed, “I’m going to save this woman.” “And what about the other woman?” he asked. “She is fine because she is not saying anything,” I ventured. I learned that day that the patient who was not saying anything was silent not because all was well but because she had stopped breathing. An undisturbed conscience is not always a healthy conscience. A “good” Catholic may not be disturbed that they go to rest in a big mansion despite that the fact that many other brothers and sisters in Christ around them live in abject poverty. A silent conscience here may mean that the conscience is dying or nearly dead. This was a similar conclusion of Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger in addressing the situation regarding the behavior of the Nazis. One objection was raised to him that the Nazis had done evil but were in fact following their conscience. To follow one’s conscience is a moral obligation and thus, even though objectively they had done wrong, subjectively speaking they had acted morally. Perturbed by this disturbing conclusion, Cardinal Ratzinger wrote “I knew with complete certainty that something was wrong with the theory of justifying power of the subjective conscience, that, in other words, a concept of conscience which leads to such conclusions must be false. For, subjective conviction and the lack of doubts and scruples which follow there from do not justify man.”12 Some thirty years later Cardinal Ratzinger found summarized the perceptions he was trying to articulate in the terse words of the psychologist, Albert Gorres, who understood the importance of guilt as conscience’s complaint against a self-satisfied existence. In his encyclical Spe salvi, on Christian hope, Pope Benedict XVI noted “Failure to recognize my guilt, the illusion of my innocence, does not justify me and does not save me, because I am culpable for the Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, “Conscience and Truth”. Presented at the 10th Workshop for Bishops, February 1991 Dallas, Texas. See www.ewtn.com/library/CURIA/RATZCONS.HTM. 12

Challenges in forming the conscience

numbness of my conscience and my incapacity to recognize the evil in me for what it is.”13 Conscience must be educated To safeguard against the gradual numbing of the conscience it is vital that it be educated.14 In vogue today is the expression “to follow your conscience” but care must be taken not to simply follow arbitrary preferences or mere intuitions as the moral character of actions is determined by objective criteria not just by how we feel.15 We are called to follow our conscience but first to educate and form it because it can be in error. Cardinal Newman put it eloquently in his letter to the Duke of Norfolk: The sense of right and wrong, which is the first element in religion, is so delicate, so fitful, so easily puzzled, obscured, perverted, so subtle in its argumentative methods, so impressible by education, so biased by pride and passion, so unsteady in its flight, that, in the struggle for existence amid various exercises and triumphs of the human intellect, this sense is at once the highest of all teachers, yet the least luminous; and the Church, the Pope, the Hierarchy are, in the Divine purpose, the supply of an urgent demand.16 Humility is therefore essential because our conscience being the highest of teachers is at times the least luminous and as the psalmist reminds us “he so flatters himself in his mind that he knows not his guilt” Spe Salvi, n. 33. “When we appreciate the call of conscience, the voice to hear the demands of God, of love, and of justice, then we similarly recognize the formation of the conscience as itself a command. We need to remember, however, that forming our conscience is a lifetime process.” See James Keenan, S.J., ‘Conscience’ in Moral wisdom, (Quezon city: Claretian publications 2004), 35 15 See Anthony Fisher, O.P., “Some problems of conscience in bio-lawmaking” in Culture of Life Culture of Death, (London: Linacre Centre 2002), 202, footnote 23. 16 Cardinal John Henry Newman, A letter addressed to his Grace, the Duke of Norfolk, on occasion of Mr Gladstone’s recent expostulation, 1874, (Reprint by Kessinger Publications), 60. 13 14

Part I. Moral theology and ethics

(Psalm 36:3).17 For this reason the exhortation of St. Augustine, “Return to your conscience, question it...Turn inward, brethren, and in everything you do, see God as your witness.”18 Challenges in forming the conscience 1. Misinformation A great challenge in the formation of the conscience is to have the correct information.19 You are only as wise as your sources. It is interesting at times to see the injudicious use of sources of information. I asked a class of young theologians (seminarians, young religious and some lay) studying fundamental moral theology, to present proposals for written papers on moral themes such as gambling, pornography and in vitro fertilization (IVF). They had to attach a bibliography. The main sources used were books from not so well known theologians with virtually no references whatsoever to the Church Magisterium. In the next class I brought in 15 documents including BBC news stories, articles from a conference of Bishops, the Holy Bible and some documents from Vatican II. They had to number from 1-15 the relative importance of each source. They correctly placed the Sacred scripture and Magisterium as the primary sources in this exercise with the theological books being in 9th place out of 15. I found it interesting that even though the theological books came 9th in this exercise, in their proposed bibliographies they were the principal source! I then asked them to re-write their research proposals incorporating the teaching Magisterium into their bibliography. No wonder many theologians dissent later if at the beginning of their theological training they do not know what the Church teaches!20 “The formation of conscience must go hand in hand with the realism of humility, which is aware of inevitable limitations of every individual.” See Karl H. Peschke, Christian Ethics, Vol I, (Manila: Logos Publications 2007), 207. 18 St Augustine, In ep Jo. 8, 9: PL 35, 2041. 19 “In order to make a sincere and correct conscientious decision, we must be convinced that our conscience has all the available information”. See Amelia Fleming, ‘Conscience and Decision-making’, in An Irish Reader in Moral Theology, (Dublin: Columba Press 2009), 367. “A man simply must have good information in order to make good mature moral judgments.” See Karl H. Peschke, Christian Ethics, Vol I, 205. 20 “We need to make sure that in theological faculties, seminaries and Catholic institutions sound doctrine is taught, explained and more fully investigated.” See EV, n. 82. 17

Challenges in forming the conscience

But what we can glean from this experience also applies to the whole faithful of God. If you want to know about Church teaching on the use of condoms in AIDS then take care what you read. If you read the online BBC news or various articles in some of the Philippine daily newspapers then you may end up with a misinformed, biased opinion, critical of Catholic Church teaching in this area. However if you use sound and trusted sources such as the views of Edward Green, who happens to be the Director of the Harvard AIDS program, you will see how the Church, with its vast experience of treating 25% of the world’s victims of HIV & AIDS, is speaking as Mother. You can also understand how its views on how condom use can even worsen the spread of AIDS are scientifically based and should be taken seriously. You are what you eat not just gastronomically speaking but also theologically. We need to choose and use our sources of information very carefully! The Catechism puts it neatly - “The means of social communication (especially the mass media) can give rise to a certain passivity among users, making them less than vigilant consumers of what is said or shown. Users should practice moderation and discipline in their approach to the mass media. They will want to form enlightened and correct consciences the more easily to resist unwholesome influences.”21 It reminds me of the tale of Harry the hungry hippopotamus who did not take care what he ate. One day at the zoo a little boy threw an apple core at him and Harry the hippo ate it happily. The next day a little girl threw an empty coke can and he accepted it gladly. On the third day a naughty schoolboy threw stones at the hippo and he devoured them without thinking. The next day the children read the sign “Sorry, Harry the hippo is dead.” What is the moral of this sad tale? Don’t eat everything that is thrown at you! This maxim was phrased in altogether different way by the current Father General of the Jesuits, Rev. Fr. Adolfo Nicolás in a talk given in 2009 on the new frontiers of education. He said a phrase that afterwards really stuck in my mind - “The world is in danger because of a lack of thinking.” We need to think, to use our minds as Jesus reminds us - “Love me with all your mind” not just your heart (see Matthew 22:37). CCC 2496.

Part I. Moral theology and ethics

2. Speed of life The pace of modern life is so fast that there seems to be little time to ponder and reflect. It is like the story told by Buddhists monks about living life too fast. There was a man galloping along on a horse which appeared out of control. An onlooker shouted to the man “Where are you going?” The man replied “I don’t know, ask the horse!” Sometimes life can seem out of control with little time to reflect on where one is going. The philosophical adage of Socrates “an unexamined life is not worth living” is still relevant and insightful today. 3. A superficial gaze A further challenge in coming to solutions for problems in the world of today is a superficial, imminent gaze that does not see more deeply.22 It is the challenge to see beyond, to go deeper. A superficial gaze will never see the other as “imago Dei,” made in the image and likeness of God.23 What will be noticed instead is their title, family name, profession, social status, wealth, intelligence, how they speak and the colour of their skin. Just look at the attention given to beauty in our contemporary world to confirm that often our gaze can be rather shallow. For skin colour in Europe “brown is beautiful” and people would die to have the appearance of a tanned, dark skin! Here in the Philippines it is the opposite - the advertising billboards will tell you that in fact “white is sexy”! The book of Samuel reminds us that “man looks at appearances but God looks at the heart” (1 Samuel 16:7). If we do not look with contemplative eyes we may never see the other as a brother or sister. This can have tremendous repercussions in a society. When the other is seen just as “another mouth to feed” for example then I can begin to believe all the myths about overpopulation and population bombs, proposed so craftily by neo-colonial powers and international organizations of nations that are united in trying to spread anti-natal “We need first of all to foster, in ourselves and in others, a contemplative outlook.” See EV, n. 83. The document “Communion and Stewardship: Human Persons Created in the Image of God” from the International Theological Commission provides a thorough evaluation of the concept of Imago dei. See www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_ 20040723_ communion-stewardship_en.html. 22 23

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policies, funded by banks who are supposed to work for the benefit of the world. If I see the poor through American dollar tinted spectacles of course I will not feel the slightest remorse in proposing and supporting the reproductive health bills even though they will promote widespread contraception. If our gaze remains superficial we will never enter into the adventure of transcendence! We need to go beyond!24 In decisions of conscience indeed a deeper gaze is needed. A gaze that encompasses the details of the problem at hand but that never loses sight of the dignity of the people involved. Perhaps the words of the great Cappadocian Father, Saint Gregory of Nyssa, as quoted by Pope John Paul II help us to have a more correct vision of man - “Man, as a being, is of no account; he is dust, grass, vanity. But once he is adopted by the God of the universe as a son, he becomes part of the family of that Being, whose excellence and greatness no one can see, hear or understand. What words, thoughts or flight of the spirit can praise the superabundance of this grace? Man surpasses his nature: mortal, he becomes immortal; perishable, he becomes imperishable; fleeting, he becomes eternal; human, he becomes divine.”25 Ways to form our conscience Having viewed some of the challenges in the formation of the conscience we can proceed to look at the various ways that conscience can be formed. 1. Through prayer The Word of God is a light for our path and lamp for our feet (see Psalm 119:105). We need to assimilate it in faith and in prayer and put it into practice. In this way our moral conscience is formed.26 A prayerful spirit of interiority is needed to be able to listen to the voice of our conscience. “Beyond the limits of experimental methods, beyond the boundaries of the sphere which some call meta-analysis, wherever the perception of the senses no longer suffices or where neither the perception of the senses alone nor scientific verification is possible, begins the adventure of transcendence, the commitment to “go beyond” them.” Benedict XVI, Address to participants at the 12th General Assembly of the Pontifical Academy for Life and Congress on “The Human Embryo in the Pre-implantation phase”, Rome, 27 February 2006. See http://www.zenit.org/article-15491?l=english. 25 Quoted by Pope John Paul II in EV, n. 80 (from St Gregory of Nyssa’s De Beatitudinibus, Oratio VII: PG 44, 1280). 26 See CCC 1785. 24

Part I. Moral theology and ethics

In a noisy world, full of many voices, it becomes more difficult to listen to the whisper of God. Elijah discovered this as God was not present in the hurricane, tumultuous earthquake or raging fire but was in the tiny whispering sound (see 1 Kings 19:11-13). To listen to this tiny whispering sound of the voice of God one needs to enter into one’s room, close the door and pray to the Father who is in secret (see Matthew 6:6). There are various ways in which prayer can help form our conscience: Discernment - To discern what is good and what is not. Often the moral choice is presented as an ultimatum between good and evil. Rarely does the ordinary life of a Christian present such a stark contrast. What is more typical is the choice between good and good! In other words, the choice between two goods, two options which both seem beneficial. The challenge to discern here is to elucidate what is good, what is pleasing and what is perfect (see Romans 12:2). To reflect on our experience - The Second Vatican council gave a certain credibility to human experience as a valuable category in evaluating contemporary moral problems. Gaudium et Spes n. 46 exhorts us to look for solutions to concrete problems in the light of the Gospel and human experience.27 Of course what needs to be avoided is a certain absolutism, whereby my experience becomes a kind of subjective and objective norm. To avoid this, the personal experience of the believer on a certain issue of conscience can be healthily contrasted and confirmed, even purified and perfected, by comparing it to the experience of the whole Church as expressed in its Magisterium and in the lives and experiences of the Saints who are part of the living Tradition of the Church. Humility to accept mistakes - Seeing as one task of the conscience is to evaluate completed actions, in prayer the Holy Spirit can remind us of our actions and in the light of truth we may see certain errors in our ways. In humble prayer we can also receive the desire or resolve to mend them. GS, n. 46. For an account on the importance of dialoguing with human experience see Dennis J. Billy, ‘Dialoguing with human experience: A challenge to Catholic moral theology’ in Moral theology New directions and fundamental issues, ed. by James Keating, (New York: Paulist Press, 2004), 69-87. 27

Challenges in forming the conscience

To correct our faults - The Catechism reminds us that modern day life often distracts us from any “reflection, self-examination or introspection.”28Without this it is very hard or almost impossible to detect our faults and failings. Instead it becomes very easy to only see those of others! It takes work to remove the log from our own eye. Saint Alphonsus Liguori in his “Discourse on the necessity of mental prayer for priests” likened prayer to a spiritual mirror: If one has a stain on one’s countenance and one looks in the mirror, one sees it and takes it away; without this mirror, the stain remains, and will always remain; as one does not see it, one does not take it away. So it is with mental prayer: if we have a defect, if we find ourselves in a dangerous occasion, when we go to mental prayer, as if going before the mirror, we see in our conscience this defect that we have, we see this danger of losing God; we see it and we take it away.29 To find solutions to problems - One task of the conscience is to provide practical solutions to concrete problems. Prayer helps the conscience perform this task as Pope Benedict XVI in a recent address to the Italian Youth acknowledged. He commented that faith and indeed prayer “do not resolve problems, but enable one to address them with a new light and strength, in a way fitting to man, and also more serenely and effectively.” He said the history of the Church is full of saints who, precisely with prayer, “were always able to find new, creative solutions to respond to concrete human needs in every century: health, education, work, etc.”30 Grace filled encounter - Many times man experiences the same turmoil as Saint Paul “I do not do what I want to, but do what I hate” (Romans 7:15). It is not merely that the conscience needs to know what to do, but thereafter we need to actually put into practice what it is telling us. CCC 1779. Saint Alphonsus Liguori, ‘Discourse on the Necessity of Mental prayer for Priests’ in Dignity and Duties of the Priest (or ‘Selva’), I, 165. This work is available online in PDF format at www.freewebs.com/ wallmell/LiguoriDignityDutiesPriest.pdf. 30 Pope Benedict XVI, Address to Youth in Sulmona, Italy, July 5, 2010. See www.zenit.org/article29803?l=english. 28 29

Part I. Moral theology and ethics

Hell is full of people with just good intentions they say! The scholar of the Law knew many things but he also needed to put them into practice. That is why Jesus told him “Do this and you will live” (Luke 10:28). What is needed to put our resolutions into practice? Man needs the grace-filled prayerful encounter with the Risen Lord. “The law comes from Moses, but the grace and truth comes from Christ” (see John 1:17). Eschatological dimension of prayer - Finally prayer reminds us of heaven, our ultimate destination. It can be a useful reminder in our decisions of conscience in our daily life to bear in mind where we are heading. In this way we are more likely to follow the Way and not get lost in the journey. 2. Listening to the preaching of the Gospel The preaching of the Gospel can help so much to form the conscience of the believer as the proclamation of the Gospel enlightens the conscience.31 Saint Paul in his second letter to Timothy urges his disciple to announce the Gospel in season and out of season, to convince and correct, and to counter falsehood. I charge you in the presence of God and of Christ Jesus, who will judge the living and the dead, and by his appearing and his kingly power: proclaim the word; be persistent whether it is convenient or inconvenient; convince, reprimand, encourage through all patience and teaching. For the time will come when people will not tolerate sound doctrine but, following their own desires and insatiable curiosity, will accumulate teachers and will stop listening to the truth and will be diverted to myths. But you, be self-possessed in all circumstances; put up with hardship; perform the work of an evangelist; fulfill your ministry” (2 Timothy 4:1-5). The regular homily is for many Christians “the central moment of encounter with the word of God.”32 The Instrumentum Laboris of the most recent synod of Bishops, on the Word of God in the Life and EV, n. 6. Synod of Bishops, XII Ordinary General Assembly, Concluding message, Oct 24, 2008, III.7. See www.zenit.org/article-24043?l=english. 31 32

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Mission of the Church, stated that “In the homily, preachers need to make a greater effort to be faithful to the biblical text and mindful of the condition of the faithful, providing them assistance in interpreting the events of their personal lives and historical happenings in the light of faith.”33 What is being asked here is to make the Word flesh, to incarnate the Word of God in the biblical text in the situations of daily life. One challenge is how to affront some of the challenging issues of conscience in the preaching of a typical homily. Perhaps it is not directly to discuss the technique of in-vitro fertilization (IVF) in the Sunday homily but instead to lay the foundations, giving general principles about respect for life and the need to respect the dignity of every human being from conception to the grave. A reference could be made to the injustices of IVF whereby hundreds of thousands of excess embryos are now frozen (500,000 in the USA alone) awaiting their fate and living a kind of “hell on ice.” There are many other moments of informal preaching too such as dialogues about the faith, catechism classes, lessons of theology - in fact many situations where foundations can be laid and delicate issues addressed more appropriately.34 3. The role of the Christian community35 The task of forming the conscience is not merely an individual one but also a social one - “In fidelity to conscience, Christians are joined with the rest of men in the search for truth, and for the genuine solution to the numerous problems which arise in the life of individuals from social relationships.”36 In our decision making, subjective peace of mind Synod of Bishops, XII Ordinary General Assembly, Instrumentum Laboris, Vatican City 2008, n. 37. “To be truly a people at the service of life we must propose these truths constantly and courageously from the very first proclamation of the Gospel, and thereafter in catechesis, in the various forms of preaching, in personal dialogue and in all educational activity. Teachers, catechists and theologians have the task of emphasizing the anthropological reasons upon which respect for every human life is based. In this way, by making the newness of the Gospel of life shine forth, we can also help everyone discover in the light of reason and of personal experience how the Christian message fully reveals what man is and the meaning of his being and existence.” See EV, n. 82. 35 “Conscience is always personal, but it cannot be isolated from community.” See Seán Fagan, ‘Conscience today’ in An Irish Reader …, 362. 36 GS, n. 16. Also GS, n. 30 “No one can allow himself …to wallow in the luxury of a merely individualistic morality”! 33 34

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should be contrasted with the Magisterium of the Church because the conscience can also be in error.37 The dialogue with others is a great help in clarifying issues at stake. The book of Tobit tells us to “Take counsel from every wise person and don’t despise useful advice” (Tobit 4:18). Listening to others helps to keep us humble and open in an on-going search for the truth.38 The approach taken by Saint Alphonsus Liguori in solving practical problems is quite remarkable particularly his zealous search for the truth and his consultation with the wider Christian community. He said that when confronted by a difficult problem he sought to inform himself as best he could - reading the writings of learned men, the Popes, the Saints and then dialoguing with experts about it. Even after all this “external” work he would turn to the Lord and begin the just as important “interior” work - to purify his vision so that he would not give a biased opinion. Having done all this, then and only then he would comment on the case in question.39 How much more clarity would be transmitted to the faithful if each time a person in charge of shepherding others, whether it be a catechist, a theologian or even a fellow Christian, was likewise responsible in their diligent search for the truth. How often opinions are given by Christians on serious and important themes such as euthanasia or IVF without them ever having taken “In forming their consciences the faithful must pay careful attention to the sacred and certain teaching of the Church.” See Dignitatis Humanae, Declaration on Religious Liberty, 14. “It follows that the authority of the Church, when she pronounces on moral questions, in no way undermines the freedom of conscience of Christians. This is so not only because freedom of conscience is never freedom “from” the truth but always and only freedom “in” the truth, but also because the Magisterium does not bring to the Christian conscience truths which are extraneous to it; rather it brings to light the truths which it ought already to possess, developing them from the starting point of the primordial act of faith. The Church puts herself always and only at the service of conscience, helping it to avoid being tossed to and fro by every wind of doctrine proposed by human deceit (cf. Eph 4:14), and helping it not to swerve from the truth about the good of man, but rather, especially in more difficult questions, to attain the truth with certainty and to abide in it.” See VS, n. 64. 38 “The person eager to make true moral judgments will, of course, be anxious to learn what he or she can from moral advisers who can be trusted.” See William May, An Introduction to Moral theology, 2nd edition, (Huntington, USA: Our Sunday Visitor Publishing Division, 2003), 64. 39 See Saint Alphonsus Liguori, Risposta a un anonimo..., in Apologie e confutazioni, vol. I, Monza 1831, 77-78. 37

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seriously the task of discovering the truth. The prophetic voice of the Church is much weakened when we take little effort to be informed about issues of life and death. Many Christians today would wrongly be in favour of IVF for example without really knowing what it involved and not having taken the time or trouble to read what the Church teaches on the subject. This is irresponsible. If a person was in an operating theatre as a bystander and was asked by the surgeon in a critical moment of the operation if he should cut this structure or not, only a foolhardy spectator would answer without having studied well the matter in question. For similar matters of life and death such as abortion, cloning, embryo research and euthanasia it is becoming increasingly fashionable to give opinions on such lofty and serious matters with little or no interest in discovering what these issues actually involve. It is amazing how many people would be in favour of IVF without understanding the technique and its dangers. Many would even have strong opinions against the teaching of the Church without even having read what she says! This is why the Catechism exhorts us to educate and thus form our conscience well - â&#x20AC;&#x153;The education of conscience is indispensable for human beings who are subjected to negative influences and tempted by sin to prefer their own judgment and to reject authoritative teachings.â&#x20AC;?40 4. Spiritual elements in formation of conscience Various other elements in the spiritual life can assist the formation of a mature conscience including the exam of conscience itself. This exercise has a long and trusted tradition in the spiritual patrimony of the Church. For ordinary Christians it can be done in a moment of break at lunchtime or in a quiet moment at the end of the day. The sacrament of reconciliation is also indispensable for the correct formation of conscience. The penitent can acknowledge those moments in which they have not followed the light of their conscience, or have failed to properly inform themselves before making or taking a decision. Overall the sacrament of reconciliation helps the person to recognize their weaknesses and to grow in humility, learning to rely more on the Lord. Finally spiritual direction can help the person walk the Christian path and allows them to share the light of the spirit with a trusted guide and friend. Of course, spiritual CCC 1783.

Part I. Moral theology and ethics

direction is more fruitful when the person is actually living a spiritual life! That is the person needs to be praying regularly and listening to the insinuations of the Spirit so that they actually have a spiritual life first when they come to seek the help of a director or guide. The director can never replace the Holy Spirit in the life of the person being guided. The danger here is that the director becomes a substitute conscience of the person asking for help. Conclusion The formation of the conscience remains the ethical challenge of the church today. To form Christians with a well formed conscience and to be able to make mature and responsible decisions in front of the concrete problems of today.41 Prayer is vital in this task, helping place the person in touch with the voice of God that echoes in the depth of their conscience, as well as the possibility to dialogue humbly, openly and critically with fellow believers to discern God’s will in front of a myriad of possible choices. Although the believer has a duty to follow their conscience, care needs to be taken to first form the conscience well. A major problem today is the speed of life with little time for reflection, leading to a superficial gaze on things, and often an injudicious and uncritical use of sources even among moral theologians. A sound grounding in and fidelity to the teaching Magisterium of the Church should first be encouraged before forays are undertaken into the wide body of theological literature available. It is indeed a challenge to form the conscience well. As our Lord reminded us “the lamp of the body is the eye. If your eye is sound, your whole body will be filled with light” (Matthew 6:22). A well formed conscience can give so much light to the person, to the Church and to the problems of the modern world. It is a challenge to form the conscience well but a worthwhile one.

For Seán Fagan a mature conscience lives more by a “morality of responsibility rather than of permissions.” See “Conscience today” in An Irish Reader…, 361. For Fr. Fausto B. Gómez, O.P., the well formed conscience is critical, dynamic and dialogical. See “Formation of a moral conscience…,” 203-204.