XYZ-Dimensions of Shock – Final Major Project Report by Paulo Estriga

XYZ DIMENSIONS OF SHOCK

MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

DIMENSIONS OF SHOCK

MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

DIMENSIONS OF SHOCK

PAULO ESTRIGA MA GRAPHIC BRANDING & IDENTITY 2011 LONDON COLLEGE OF COMMUNICATION MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS to the Occupy movement for the inspiration to Tony Credland for the insight to Eugenie Dodd for the clarity to Silvia for everything

CONTENTS Introduction

Context

Field of study

Project focus

Target definition

Methodology

Annotation 15 Data extraction

Basic structure design

Visual research & experimentation

Typefaces 18 Structure 20 Image

Colour

Semiotics 27 Storytelling 27

Resolution 29 Concept & format

Exclusion & reinforcement

Typography & narrative

Colour & semiotics

Cross-referencing & multidimensional navigation

Conclusion

Bibliography

PHOTO BY PAULO ESTRIGA

INTRODUCTION

aomi Klein’s The Shock Doctrine: the rise of disaster capitalism tells us a story of mechanics: of how whole societies have been put through the disaster capitalism machine losing rights, lives and their countries’ resources in the repeated shock process; of how the machine’s operators – the corporations – grew increasingly richer at the expense of those societies, and increasingly eager to put more of them through the process at every possible opportunity; and of how the lack of awareness, of a narrative about how the process works, allowed those operators to repeat the same processes over and over again against unprepared targets. Everything that has happened to the world economy since the 2008 depression, and the way those mechanics have been recurrently put in motion with impunity under the excuse of “austerity measures”, means that today more than ever it is vital that as many people as possible are made aware of the modus operandi of the disaster capitalism complex, so that with the power of information they can prepare, recognise when the machine is in motion and defend themselves. My project aims to visually disseminate the essence of The Shock Doctrine through information graphics in order to reach a larger number of people, and do it with more immediacy, effectiveness and impact than the original format of a 450-page book could allow.

In this report I will begin by contextualising my project in the information graphics and political/economical fields, both of which are going through turbulent and transformative phases (the first clearly more positivelooking than the latter). I will explain the reasons and aims of my project and in what ways I intend to connect with an audience. That will be followed by a description of my methodology, in which I will explain the rationale behind it and tell of my visual experimentation and the resulting findings. Finally, I will show how I reached my final concept, all the thinking and the decision-making processes coming from the additional experimentation leading to its final form, and I will reflect upon and analyse the overall results. Bill Hicks said of life that it’s “just a ride”, which “goes up and down and round and round, and it has thrills and chills and is very brightly coloured, and it’s very loud”. This describes rather accurately how working on this project felt to me. I sincerely hope you enjoy the ride as much as I did.

DETAIL OF RANDOM WALK: THE VISUALISATION OF RANDOMNESS, BY DANIEL BECKER TAKEN FROM DATA FLOW 2: VISUALISING INFORMATION IN GRAPHI DESIGN, P.174

CONTEXT

FIELD OF STUDY INFORMATION GRAPHICS

CLUSTERBALL: HUMANS, MEDICINE, HISTORY, BY CHRIS HARRISON TAKEN FROM DATA FLOW: VISUALISING INFORMATION IN GRAPHIC DESIGN, P.63

he speed at which information technology has evolved in the last decade, and the consequent democratisation of graphic production tools, data and knowledge, has led the field of information graphics to an unprecedented transformational phase. ‘The production environment has been completely changed by the appearance of desktop computers, and the availability of outstanding graphic software and graphic databases’, says Nakagawa (2006, p.5). Lima (to Schardt, 2010) enumerates the increase in computer storage, the democratisation of visualisation tools, and the inexpensive availability of data as the main reasons for the explosion of popularity and interest that the field has experienced in recent years. Wildbur & Burke (1998, p.8) point out that with the advent of personal computers, ‘Designers found themselves in direct control of machines and having to wear a number of hats in order to stay in business’. This need for the diversification of skills was met by an increase in cross-disciplinary education – ‘designers learning computer skills and IT students using designoriented approaches’ (Moere to Schardt, 2010, p.28). As Schardt (2010, p.6) says, ‘Within just a few years, the once unglamorous task of giving form to abstract data has become a favourite among designers’. This increase in the number of practitioners from the design world has moved the control over the direction of information design, as a discipline, from an elite to the masses. Such transfer alarms the purists. Tufte (1983, p.87) argued that ‘Allowing artist-illustrators to control the design and content of statistical graphics is almost like allowing typographers to control the content, style and editing of prose’. Nowadays, this would only be seen as an extremely backwards view, as the progressive solution is not to keep specialisms separate and the elites in their compartments, but for each side to learn the others’ disciplines, as now like never before that possibility is present. That is not to say that the situation does not create enormous challenges. As Lima (2009) cautions, though these changes breed innovation, ‘with more agents in a system you also have a stronger propensity for things to go wrong’. He describes a ‘sense of saturation over a growing number of frivolous projects’, ‘eye-candy’ designs.

Along with overemphasis on aesthetics, there is equally the temptation for complexity due to easy access to increasingly larger databases, forgetting that ‘Compositions must ensure comprehension’ (Heerden, 2008, p.8), and ‘more in not always better’ (Lust, 2008, p.108). There are, however, more reasons to be positive than negative. Schardt (2010, p.7) looks on the bright side, by pointing out that ‘thanks to the sprouting interest of designers, we also see less legible, crude diagrams, unpleasant to the eye, made by people who might know lots about the data, but don’t have the means to communicate them properly’. After all, ‘Trained to communicate precisely through visual language and experienced in creative problem solving, designers can put all their skills to use’ in this field like in few others. As the field of information graphics tries to adapt to changing times, some serenity may come from always bearing in mind that ‘Experiments – be they of a visual nature or interactive design – are vital to thriving innovation, and since information visualisation is just growing out of its baby shoes, we should embrace it. As this discipline is maturing, best practice will prevail.’ (Schardt, 2010, p.7)

Easy access to large databases has led to an explosion of complex visualisations which may not inform effectively, such as this one by Chris Harrison using data gathered from Wikipedia.

CONTEXT

PROJECT FOCUS VISUALISING THE SHOCK DOCTRINE

data flow, but also the transmission of narrative through emotional elements, enhancing it if necessary and steering the viewer into sharing the author’s point of view (as opposed to being completely neutral in an almost journalistic sense). At the time, I called this concept point of view through design. This use of emotional elements in information design would be controversial, as the discipline should be primarily an objective vs. a subjective exercise. As laid down in the Visual Journalism blog’s very conservative manifesto (2011), ‘Infographics are neither illustrations nor “art”. Infographics are visual journalism and must be governed by the same ethical standards that apply to other areas of the profession’. But as said by Hagy (2008, p.165), designers have the power to affect meaning to extents that orators could never dream of, ‘Since even something as simple as a choice of fonts can change the connotations of a word’. It would not be wise to squander such power, but with it comes the question of balance. For this reason, my initial research question focused on the idea of emotion in information graphics and asked what role it should play in the discipline. As my research progressed, that changed as I refocused myself on my core objective – exposing the essence of The Shock Doctrine – emotion being then redefined as just one of the various tools available to make the author’s case and advocate for it, while at the same time trying to reach a wider audience than is possible with a 450-page book. At this point, my research question reached its final form.

Research question How can I use graphic means to expose the essence of the shock doctrine in a more effective and wide-reaching way than the original book? 12

PHOTO BY PAULO ESTRIGA

he Shock Doctrine: the rise of disaster capitalism tells the story of how since the 70’s, multinational corporations and the United States government have used shock tactics based on psychiatric experiments to lead entire societies to accept economic changes that they would not take in normal democratic situations. These changes always result in the transfer of wealth, assets and resources from those societies to the corporations, and of debt in the opposite direction. Upon reading the book, I was struck by how the components of the process keep repeating, and by how the same agents have been involved with similar consequences across different times and regions of the world. I felt like slicing and folding the pages of the book, so that I could gather those same steps of the process together to overlay, juxtapose and compare them, thus bringing together what was before separated in a chronological narration and gaining a more satisfying grasp of its essence. I felt a dimension was being somehow lost, and I wanted to use information graphics to expose it so that I could look at the big picture more clearly. I feared by turning the book into information graphics, I would lose much of its linguistic dimension, thus losing its influence in driving across the author’s point of view – Naomi Klein is not neutral, and I wanted my work to reflect it. I would have to find a substitute for the emotional and partial elements of her style, by taking advantage of the possibilities of the graphic medium. I wanted to use aesthetics not just to improve

CONTEXT

TARGET DEFINITION SURVEY Do you collect objects which you have gathered simply because of the pleasure it gives you to look at them or explore them visually? Responses from those whose main occupation is related to visual arts/design

Responses from those whose main occupation is unrelated to visual arts/design

Do you believe that if important information about politics or the economy was presented in a more aesthetic, visually engaging and interesting way, it might lead you to be interested in it, while otherwise you’re not?

20.3%

Yes, and If I found something that outraged me, I might become actively involved with the issue to make things better.

46.4%

Yes, but I don’t think I’d ever become actively involved to create change.

23.2%

I’m already very interested in these subjects, it wouldn’t make me any more engaged.

10,1%

No.

YES 57.7% YES 95.3%

NO 42,3%

ritten the year before the economic crash of 2008, the thesis of The Shock Doctrine has never been more relevant. As the economic crisis and resulting disorientation are used to push capitalism’s “holy trinity” of privatisations, deregulation and spending cuts all over the world in the shape of austerity measures, for those who read the book or lived through what it describes, it’s “déjà-vu all over again”. It’s never been so urgent for as many as possible to understand the mechanics of the disaster capitalism complex – only armed with knowledge can people defend themselves and fight back. And as (Schardt, 2010, p.8) so clearly defines: ‘With the urgent problems our society and our planet are facing, data visualisation can be an effective tool to spur us into much-needed action. Information can change people’s behaviour. Making that information visible, easily understandable and enjoyable to use, is probably one of the most interesting challenges designers have encountered.’ I aimed to reach a wider audience than the original book – an audience not necessarily interested in politics or economics, perhaps too busy with making a living and family obligations to dedicate time to reading a long essay on the subject of disaster capitalism. I created a survey to better define my target. I found from the responses no significant differences in the levels of interest in political and economic issues between different genders and ages.

I found from the limited universe of my 69 respondents, that 95.3% of people whose main occupation relates to art and design keep or collect objects simply for the pleasure they get by exploring them visually. These people would be a primary target for my work, though it would still have significant results on those who don’t have such an occupation, as 57.7% of them confessed to the same habits. Beautiful aesthetics could be used as a “Trojan horse” to drive interest in the subject matter. 62.3% of respondents admitted feeling they should pay more attention to current events (which indicates receptiveness to the themes, providing their relevance is well put across), and 66.7% said their interest in political and economic subjects might increase if they were presented in a more aesthetic, visually engaging and interesting way. 20.3% of the total went further in admitting they might become actively involved if they found something that outraged them (23.2% said they already were interested and it would make no difference). I believe, therefore, that there is potential to increase the levels of active involvement of the public in the political and economic issues that affect them through a visual version of The Shock Doctrine, with a larger focus on visual people, but with relevant potential for success in the rest of the public as well, and a secure audience in those already interested in the issue who may even have read the book but who, like me, will appreciate a clearer insight into its essence.

METHODOLOGY

ANNOTATION One of the 34 pages of annotations I initially did from the book. Along with part, chapter and page numbers for my guidance, some inter-page connections are already visible, as well as diagrammatic structures at a very basic level and boxes around several recurrent entities.

wanted to limit myself to the data already present in the book, avoiding as much as possible to complete it through external sources. In order to do this, I would have to gain an in-depth knowledge of the content already in it. As said by Grundy & Northedge (2006, p.3), ‘Without a full understanding of complicated data, it is very easy to produce diagrams which look good but which fail to communicate accurately’, and it’s important to allow the data to point the direction for the graphics to follow (though we can always decide, at our own peril, to ignore it later), for ‘Data is the foundation for the composition and design of infographics’, says Richli (2008, p.186). He continues: ‘The data define the shape of the graph. The designer cannot arbitrarily decide to change its shape, as doing so would change the content and the meaning. This is why it’s crucial that we, as designers, grasp or at the very least develop a feeling for the subject matter. This is the only way to ensure that we understand the choices we’re making in the design process.’ This knowledge has only recently begun to be expected from designers. As we’ve seen already, designers nowadays have to “wear many hats”. Duenes (to Schardt, 2010, p.141), director of the graphics team at The New York Times, tells us how in his paper ‘It is often the same people doing the research, fact checking and executing the visualisation’. Designers have to increasingly embrace the ‘substantive expertise’ necessary to achieve ‘graphical sophistication’ that Tufte (1983, p.87) speaks of. I approached this task by turning the whole book into notes, looking for patterns that would help me decide on

relevancy, and creating visual connections and codes to help me unearth the graphics’ direction. I ended up with 34 A4-size pages of handwritten notes. During this activity, I began exercising two practices that I would carry all the way to the end of the project (and I believe I will to retirement too) as essential parts of the design process: subtraction of weight and search for relevancy. The first practice was described by Italo Calvino (quoted by Tufte, 1990, p.60) in reference to his writing: ‘My working method has more often than not involved the subtraction of weight. I have tried to remove weight, sometimes from people, sometimes from heavenly bodies, sometimes from cities; above all I have tried to remove weight from the structure of stories and from language. …Maybe I was only then becoming aware of the weight, the inertia, the opacity of the world – qualities that stick to writing from the start, unless one finds some way of evading them.’ And Lima (2009) best summarised the importance of the search for relevancy in his manifesto: ‘Extracting relevancy in a set of data is one of the hardest pursuits for any machine. This is where natural human abilities such as pattern recognition and parallel processing come in hand. Relevancy is also highly dependent on the final user and the context of interaction. If the relevancy ratio is high it can increase the possibility of comprehension, assimilation and decision-making.’ Indeed, pattern recognition and parallel processing (breaking beyond the book’s time dimension) are what my notes helped me achieve. Once this process was completed, it was time to move to defining what in the notes should be turned into graphics to tell the story. 15

METHODOLOGY

DATA EXTRACTION

ow to distil all my annotations into relevant subjects and relate them to the corresponding information to turn them into graphics was the stage at which I was lost for longer. My first instinct was to scan my notes and start cutting out and grouping elements from different pages, trying after that to design structures for graphics illustrating the subjects. This was difficult to organise, as I kept having to go back to add elements to old structures when I scanned new pages, sometimes finding the whole subject had lost its relevancy in the newer, bigger picture. I then tried to focus on the role that brands like Ford, ITT or Mercedes played in the disaster capitalism complex, but there wasn’t enough data in the book to carry the project on that alone. I also realised I had the expectation of creating a quantitative graphics outcome (Information is Beautiful-style), but the data in The Shock Doctrine did not lend itself to it: it would be a flowchart-driven project. As Tufte (1983, p.8) says, I had to ‘find the right numbers’, and in this case the right numbers were not numbers at all; they were processes. I had to ‘make verbs visible’ (Tufte, 1997, p.55) and ‘let the data form itself’ to reach ‘the goal of turning data into information, information into knowledge, and knowledge into stories.’ (Lust, 2008, p.108). I then found a solution which meant going back to my initial instinct, but improving on the process and getting rid of the cutting-out completely: as I went through the notes from beginning to end, when I found a subject worthy of a graphic, I would write the subject down on a table and the corresponding page number next to it. I continued to add subjects and page numbers to new and old rows until I had a list of nearly 100 subjects to be turned into graphics, each having between one and 18 pages contributing data to it. I was finally ready to initiate the process of designing the basic structures for the diagrams. A fragment of the table joining the initial annotations into subjects to be sketched out.

Tragedy = opportunity, clean sheet, strategy, stockpiling, partial vs. full implementation, free state vs. reality, corporatist system consequences and bubble of the wealthy, process of shock = torture, 3-shock process, Chile process, state of shock gap, habituation = stronger shocks needed constantly

4, 6, 6, 8, 9, 11, 15, 15, 16, 25, 71, 458, 459

Public vs. private schooling $ flow

4 roles of the state

Number of schools pre/post Katrina, US security contracts 2003–2006, global homeland security industry value rise, relief & reconstruction change, Bush’s shock therapy, global contributions to homeland security complex

5, 13, 13, 14, 14

Ideology’s disciples

The shock doctrine quote

Application of doctrine – Iraq, Iraq civilian casualties Application of doctrine – Sri Lanka 35 years of shocks Application of doctrine - US Neo-vonservative movement think tanks: Heritage Foundation, Cato Institute, American Enterprise Institute Disaster capitalism trinity Naomi’s quote

7-8, 12, 14 8 10 12, 13 14

15, 57 19

What it fights against (Keynesianism, Developmentalism, not Marxism), successes of such policies, interest in Friedmanism from corporations, Marshall Plan and end of Cold War, equation of democratic socialism to terrorism

20, 53, 55, 56, 251, 451

CIA funding of psychiatric experiments, blank slate+rewrite belief, electroshock/ disaster commonalities, MK Ultra, Kubark manual+pattern, Afghan/Guantanamo/ Chile prisoners interrogation practices

28, 31, 3132, 33, 35, 36, 38, 41, 42, 43, 44, 50, 54, 92

CIA coups (Iraq, Guatemala), involvement in Indonesia, 75% funding in Chile, whipping of military into a frenzy, training of Pinochet’s military in subversion control, Brazilian and Uruguayan police in interrogation techniques (Kubark)

56, 67, 70, 76, 92

METHODOLOGY

BASIC STRUCTURE DESIGN

started sketching out and organising the basic diagram structures by referring to the table (left) and getting all the information necessary from my notes. I continued to exercise the ever-present philosophies of weight removal and search for relevancy, and additionally I tried to increase their data density (within reason) by combining them into smaller numbers. As said by Tufte (1983, p.168), â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Low-information designs

are suspect: what is left out, what is hidden, why are we shown so little?â&#x20AC;&#x2122;. He defends therefore, that for example in the case of graphics displaying statistical evidence, data-rich designs provide context and credibility. I believe the case to be the same for flow diagrams. After this process of refinement I had a new shorter list of just over 60 richer diagrams, with their structures defined and ready to be turned into final styled graphics.

A sketch of the structure for one of the subjects on the table of the previous page. This structure would later be designed into the CIA torture diagram on page 28.

METHODOLOGY

VISUAL RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTATION

ith every graphic to be designed, I searched for existing examples that could point the way in terms of lookand-feel and final structural solutions for my work. I searched for infographics blogs and websites, bookmarked them and further searched within each of them bookmarking the examples I believed would come more handy in the future. I also analysed all examples in the books I had gathered and bookmarked those as well, ready to be consulted and used as springboards for graphics presenting similar problems. The look-and-feel experimentation was about to begin. TYPEFACES ‘One of the things I do when I am thinking about writing a film, when I have an idea for a film is, I’ll go through my record collection and just start playing songs, trying to find the personality of the movie, the spirit of the movie.’ (Tarantino, 1999) The above quote struck me as extremely interesting, because in order to get an initial feel for how a project should look, I often resource to a very similar process with one difference: instead of music, typefaces. I believe I use typefaces instead of other graphic elements such as for example colour, because there is already an intention built into them – a soul, which has been deliberately awarded and wasn’t just there already, existing in nature as is the case with colour. In the case

of images, there is too much of a soul in them, as the context they were created in (the advertising campaign or the news story) is carried through and taints the “purity” of the graphic meaning. In short, by picking the correct typefaces for a project, I instantly give it the soul it needs as a starting point, which is then developed with the subsequent design work. In the case of this project, I was looking for an 80’s feel due to that period being the height of capitalism, with Reagan in power and movies like Wall Street inscribing the economic system as an integral part of that decade’s culture. Some typefaces that could provide that feel included Aachen or Eurostile. As I started developing the project however, that reference lost importance, and I realised I needed a font or fonts with a very complete family including condensed and extended versions, a versatility that would leave me prepared for any future eventuality. Of that list, which included for example Univers and Trade Gothic, I ended up settling for Akzidenz Grotesk. Not only does it have a very complete family, but it’s also the typeface used on the covers of all different editions of The Shock Doctrine. Using this typeface, therefore, ensured continuity and consistency between the existing The Shock Doctrine brand and my work. However, I didn’t want this to limit me and maybe hinder certain designs, so I kept my options open to other typefaces when the subject justified it, as were the cases when I used American Typewriter or Caslon.

Akzidenz Grotesk Regular

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890!@#$%^&*() Akzidenz Grotesk Medium

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890!@#$%^&*() Akzidenz Grotesk Bold

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890!@#$%^&*() 18

METHODOLOGY

Akzidenz Grotesk Condensed Regular

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890!@#$%^&*() Akzidenz Grotesk Condensed Medium

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890!@#$%^&*() Akzidenz Grotesk Condensed Bold

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890!@#$%^&*() Akzidenz Grotesk Extended Regular

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890!@#$%^&*() Akzidenz Grotesk Extended Medium

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890!@#$%^&*() Akzidenz Grotesk Extended Bold

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890!@#$%^&*() Akzidenz Groteskâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s versatile family includes complete condensed and extended versions, which proved invaluable in the development of my project. 19

METHODOLOGY

Y SHOC LIC K O

In these examples, I attempted to disguise the typical flowchart structure by giving the graphics an illustrative treatment.

TROSHOC EC

STRUCTURE While nearly all my initial structural sketches followed the typical flowchart language (with cells connected by arrows), in some of my experiments I tried to disguise that structure by dressing the graphic in an illustrative style, such as on the “Electroshocks vs. policy shocks” (right), “Chicago School” (below) and “Thatcher’s housing” (next page, below) diagrams. In some graphics I did away with the structure completely, and was able to reorganise the information both in the shape of the Argentine flag (next page, above) or the “Chile” word (next spread), in a way that dispensed the need for arrows, or any kind of directional help in the reading of the information.

VISUAL RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTATION

DEPATTERN MINDS

SOCIETIES

ERASURE OF DISTORTING PATTERNS CAUSED BY HUMAN INTERFERENCE REACH BACK TO A NATURAL STATE MENTAL BALANCE

PURE CAPITALISM

METHODOLOGY

VISUAL RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTATION

METHODOLOGY

In this graphic, colours demarcate years, and information flows between text cells from top-right to bottom-left, a natural reading direction which helps dispense the use of arrows or other navigational aids.

METHODOLOGY

VISUAL RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTATION

PREPARATION

FRIEDMANITES STOCKPILE FREE MARKET IDEAS FOR A CRISIS

CRISIS

SHOCK 2

SHOCK 1

SHOCK 3

FEAR AND DISORIENTATION

STRIKES AND PROTESTS ECONOMIC SHOCK THERAPY

WAR OR COUP / NATURAL DISASTER / TERRORIST ATTACK

POLICE OR ARMY REPRESSION

E V E RYB O DY E L

DEBT

TLY

TO R

R OT TI N G

IMAGE Since the beginning, I tried to find out how much I could conjugate different pictorial styles, not only across diagrams but sometimes within the same diagram as well. The “Three-shock process” and the “UK” diagrams (above, and next page, above respectively) are examples of this, where I used pictograms that were drawn from scratch, while others images were made from photographs. I found that although those different styles could coexist, there was at places a worrying redundancy 24

INF

TU R R A STR U C

ING

M ARKE T

I E S,

INK

HOS

FA C

S E: G

CIVIL

WEALTH

L I B E RTI E S

FREE

between text and image that needed to be reflected upon. In the case of some graphics with thin but powerful amounts of data, I tried to design them as whole images in their own right – illustrations, offering the freedom to add external graphic elements that enhanced the strength of the message, facilitated comment, and aided in emotional connection and storytelling – I defined this concept as infoillustration. That was the case with the “Torture” and “The four sole roles of the state” graphics (both next page, bottom).

methodology

1979

1982

1983

1984

1985

Violent police repression

255 British killed

Doubled unemployment and inflation

Argentina invades Flaklands

Margaret Thatcher elected UK Prime Minister

British counterinvasion “Operation Corporate”

Mine closures

MI5 British victory, nationalist wave takes hold of the country

655 Argentinians killed

PM’s approval rating = 25%, Government’s approval rating = 18%

Miners strike

Thatcher wins reelection and support for corporatist revolution

LE FOR SA

Secret service infiltration and bugging of unionists

Major blow for unionist movement

Miners defeated

FOR SALE

LE FOR SA FOR SALE Major leap forward towards even more privatisations

Privatisations

S ION T A OG E RR

UNR EL I

AT T EFFEC AND ER T POP CONT ROR IVE ULA ROL ISIN TION LING G S

ABLE

FOR

This image and the one on the left show experiments combining pictograms with vector images made from traced photographs. There is some redundancy between text and image to be resolved.

INT

TORTURE THE WHOLE POINT OF

I used an illustrative approach to add a dimension of partial and subjective comment to data-thin graphics, in order to make the point of the author more effectively.

METHODOLOGY

VISUAL RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTATION

PREPARATION

PREPARATION FRIEDMANITES STOCKPILE FREE MARKET IDEAS FOR A CRISIS

CRISIS

FRIEDMANITES STOCKPILE FREE MARKET IDEAS FOR A CRISIS

SHOCK 2

SHOCK 1

SHOCK 3

FEAR AND DISORIENTATION

STRIKES AND PROTESTS

CRISIS

SHOCK 2

SHOCK 3

FEAR AND DISORIENTATION

ECONOMIC SHOCK THERAPY

WAR OR COUP / NATURAL DISASTER / TERRORIST ATTACK

STRIKES AND PROTESTS ECONOMIC SHOCK THERAPY

WAR OR COUP / NATURAL DISASTER / TERRORIST ATTACK

POLICE OR ARMY REPRESSION

FREE POLICE OR ARMY REPRESSION E V E RYB O DY E L

DEBT

TLY

L I B E RTI E S

E V E RYB O DY E L

DEBT

TLY

TO R

R OT TI N G

I N F R A STR U

CTU R

ING

M ARKE T

I E S,

INK

HOS

FA C

S E: G

CIVIL

WEALTH

COLOUR In exploring colour, I was struck by how much it affected the perceived tone of voice of the graphics. Although I had the desire to be convincing and transmit a sense of urgency in the message, shouting (visually through colour), didn’t seem the best way to do it. I called this factor visual tone of voice. Indeed we can compare this to how a doctor would lose his credibility and authority if he grabbed a patient and shouted that he had to change his habits or he’d die. On the other hand, if that doctor spoke too softly or in a carefree way, the result would be equally undesirable. During my experiments, I kept trying to find the balance between the two extremes by following Imhof’s (1982 quoted by Tufte, 1990, p.58) advice on the matter: ‘Pure, bright or very strong colours have loud, unbearable effects when they stand unrelieved over large areas adjacent to each other, but extraordinary effects can be achieved when they are used sparingly on or between dull background tones. “Noise is not music… only on a quiet background can a colourful theme be constructed,” claims Windisch.’ Tufte (1990, p.90) states that ‘Colour spots against a light grey or muted field highlight and italicise the data, and also help to weave an overall harmony’, and he explains it in more detail: ‘Large area background or base-colours should do their work most quietly, allowing the smaller, bright areas to stand out most vividly, if the former are muted, greyish or neutral. For this very good reason, grey is regarded in painting to be one of the prettiest, most important and most versatile of colours. Strongly muted colours, mixed with grey, provide the best background for the coloured theme.’ 26

TO R

R OT TI N G

I N F R A STR U

CTU R

ING

M ARKE T

I E S,

INK

HOS FA C

FREE

S E: G

CIVIL

WEALTH

L I B E RTI E S

SHOCK 1

The image on the left shows a different colour option for the same graphic that appears on the previous page, done when I was trying to find the right tone of voice (this version seemed to quiet to me). Later, I reduced it to a maximum of four working grayscale tones (above), like I did to all. The four tones are shown below. This addition of grey is something that I found to work very well throughout my project, leaving large areas in dull colours and highlighting more important information in more vivid colours, and always avoiding to let the image either shout or whisper. I also found the addition of grain and a vignette effect to all not only helped this “grey” effect, but made the images more organic, humanistic, and created an additional element of overall graphic consistency. In an initial phase, I was not worried about a common colour theme, and was using the colours I found most appropriate for each subject. As this created many cross-graphic inconsistencies, I decided to develop most of the ensuing graphic work in greyscale. Along with the temporary removal of effects, this allowed me to focus on contrast as opposed to hue, and I found I could develop any graphic using four levels: 0% (white), 20%, 50% and 90% black. The absence of 100% black avoided the “shoutiness”, and the remaining values provided a good balance that kept it from falling in the “whisper” category, while at the same time ridding the pallet of unnecessary levels of colour information. When the time came to bring colour back to the designs, if the luminosity and contrast levels were preserved, consistency would be maintained even with different colours being used. 0%

20%

50%

90%

methodology

I researched Christian symbology and the design of the dollar bill to create this design. Semiotics In order to ensure certain points of view were transmitted clearly or even enhanced, I experimented with semiotics, as a good toolbox to avoid my intentions coming across too evidently or in an excessively forceful way. ‘Sometimes decoration can help editorialise about the substance of the graphic’, says Tufte (1983, p.59), and that was the case with the design about the “Holy trinity of capitalism” (above), for which I studied the adaptation of Christian symbology and combined it with graphic elements inspired on the design of the dollar bill. I also experimented with flag colours and elements, like when I inverted the star in the “Chile” graphic with the Chile flag colours, trying to allude to the inverted flag as an international sign of distress, creating an exclamation mark as a sign of danger in the process. In the context of the subject, this added layer created an emotional level which helped the connection with meaning. The same can be said of the “CIA torture” diagram (next page), in which each cell looks like a typewritten official document full of redactions, referring to the secrecy of the institution and hinting at what else may have been done that we don’t know about. The “grunge” background may additionally transmit the idea of a photocopy hastily taken in secret. Some of these, could be argued, would be missed by most people. I am of the opinion however, that it’s worth keeping them instead of leaving out the information they transmit, in an exercise of generalised audience patronisation which adds nothing and removes plenty.

This emotional level also began to create a new narrative layer, and the element of storytelling started being present. And as Pettersen (2006, p.7) says, ‘Diagrams succeed because of the clarity of their storytelling’. Storytelling Schardt (2010, p.8) states that ‘narrative is a very powerful tool’, which helps information to flow and be conveyed more effectively. The use of storytelling allows the designer to become ‘an author, not just the narrator. Every visualisation is an interpretation.’ As I tried to replace subjective linguistic elements with graphic equivalents, I attempted to combine all of the already described (typefaces, structure, images, colours and semiotics) into visual messages that carried the narrative, the emotion, and the partiality of the book. In addition to each graphic telling its own part of the story, it was my objective to unify them all in a common narrative, which would tell the essence of The Shock Doctrine in a powerful and succinct visual manner. I called this concept infographic storytelling. This would be achieved through final and unified graphic, typographic, pictorial and chromatic consistency. Eventually, the fate of my work changed radically, as told in the following chapter, and the objective of complete consistency ended up not being pursued for these graphics. But the visual consistency reached in what was to come, would be much more effective than anything that could have been achieved with what I had at this point.

nnnnnn

–20 hours a day

METHODOLOGY

VISUAL RESEARCH & EXPERIMENTATION mind depatterned, blank

EFFECTS - lower intellectual efficiency - increased openness to suggestion - disorientation - dishinibition - reduction of defences

slate ready for rewrite

nnnnnn

- amnesia - loss of space-time image - temporary or permanent regression: - thumb-sucking - fetal position - crying for mothers - mistaking doctors and nurses for parents - forgetting how to walk, talk and eat

funds Dr Ewen Cameron’s experiments on psychiatric patients 1957–1961

FOREIGN COUNTRIES

ountries as direct the 70’s, tors only

ISOLATION

Guatemala Honduras

Isolation boxes /chambers

- soundproofed - white noise / rubber earplugs - darkness / dark goggles

nnnnn Vietnam

nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn nnnnnnn - cardboard tubing to prevent patients from touching their bodies - patients in isolation for weeks

Iran Philippines Chile Uruguay FORCED SLEEP Sleep rooms

- drug-induced sleep 20–22 hrs a day

nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn

- patients turned every two hours to prevent sores - patients awakened only for meals and toilet - paralysis-inducing Curare drug to prevent escape

nnnnnnnnnnnnnnn nnnnnnnnnn

Honduras

ELECTROSHOCKS

DRUGS

nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn

Uppers, downers, hallucinogens

nnn Brazil

- six consecutive shocks instead of one for four treatments totalling 24 jolts per patient - later increased up to 360 jolts per patient

- LSD - PCP - chlorpromazine

nnnnnnnnnnnnn nnnnnnnnnnnnnnn

nnnnnn

- barbiturates

PSYCHIC DRIVING

nnnnnnnnnnn nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn

mind depatterned, blank slate ready for rewrite

Pattern - arrests at night or early morning raids for disorientation - detainees hooded, blindfolded, stripped, beaten - intense isolation - drugging

- lower intellectual efficiency - increased openness to suggestion - disorientation - dishinibition - reduction of defences

nnnnnn

these experiments lead to the production of CIA’s interrogation manual in 1963

‘KUBARK’ COUNTER INTELLIGENCE INTERROGATION HANDBOOK

nnnnn

- Nembutal - Veronal - Melicone - Thorazine

EFFECTS

nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn

- playing of tape-recorded messages 16–20 hours a day for weeks

- sodium amytal - nitrous oxyde - desoxyn - Seconal

nnnnn

The “official document” look, the addition of “redactions” (detail below) and the photocopy background, all contribute to add an immersive and emotional dimension to this diagram.

FOREIGN COUNTRIES

used in several countries with Americans as direct interrogators until the 70’s, from then as mentors only

Guatemala Honduras

nnnnn Vietnam

Iran Philippines Chile Uruguay

Honduras

nnn Brazil

nnnnnnn - electroshocks

nnnnnnnn nnnnnnnnnnn

used on ‘enemy combatants’ by the US post 9/11

AFGHANISTAN

USA

GUANTANAMO

IRAQ

Techniques

- isolation up to 30 days - deprivation of light and sound - hood

- LSD/PCP

- hoods - blackout goggles - headphones - isolation for months

US-run prisons: • dark rooms with loudspeakers on every corner • blindfolds and shackles • prisoners put in hot shipping containers without food, water or sleep for 24 hours • detainees put in 4x4ft, 20in deep cells for up to one week • senses blasted by strobe lights and heavy metal music

nnnnnn

- stripping - exploitation of phobias

- small cells with blocked-out windows - no clock or calendar - shackles - blackout goggles - headphones

nnnnnnnn

nnnnnnnnnn

nnnnnn nnnnnnnnn

GUANTANAMO

- contact only with interrogators - senses blasted with lights and pounding sounds during interrogation

nnnnnnn

- senses bombarded by barking dogs, strobe lights, loud music, sounds of babies crying and cats meowing - regression

nnnnn nnnnnnnn nnnnnnn

Techniques - hoods - blackout goggles - headphones - isolation for months

nnnnnnn

- senses bombarded by barking dogs, strobe lights, loud music, sounds of babies crying and cats meowing - regression

nnnnn nnnnnnnn nnnnnnn

ng sounds during

IRAQ

nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn Iraqi-run, US-supervised prisons: • electroshocks • choking • burning with cattle prods

Techniques US-run prisons: • dark rooms with loudspeakers on every corner • blindfolds and shackles • prisoners put in hot shipping containers without food, water or sleep for 24 hours • detainees put in 4x4ft, 20in deep cells for up to one week • senses blasted by strobe lights and heavy metal music

nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn Iraqi-run, US-supervised prisons: • electroshocks • choking • burning with cattle prods

METHODOLOGY

RESOLUTION CONCEPT & FORMAT The solution that I believe took this project to a new level was to create three books, one for each shock as it happened in every country. The viewer can browse through each book and compare instances of the same shock across countries, or he can place them side-byside and follow each country’s journey through the three shock types, moving from one book to the next with the aid of navigational help. I viewed this as a solution going back to my seminal desire of slicing, folding, juxtaposing and overlaying the events in the book: a kind of physical three-dimensional flowchart, where each page is a cell of information, and dividers point the way of the flow horizontally from book to book, but where flow also exists in a longitudinal dimension, where each shock type can be followed and investigated vertically. As said by Wildbur & Burke (1998, p.6), the information designer should aim at transforming information into ‘a visual model capable of revealing its essence’. In this solution, the actual objects, the books, are the model of the essence!

1 2 3 SHOCK

START

realised from the presentation I did to Tony Credland and John Bateson, that all the work I had done so far was not putting the essence of the book across effectively. As that was my core objective, I was failing. I had to stop and do some hard reflection on the author’s intentions, on the events the book narrates, on how much of what was done should be carried through, and on how much I would have to let go of. I realised most of the work done focused on the initial parts of the book, which explain how the disaster capitalism complex came to be – its formation and implementation as a powerful entity in the world – and its underlying ideology. This is not, however, the essence of The Shock Doctrine. The essence is how disaster capitalism has been applied in the world and that has been in the way Naomi Klein (2007, p.25) explains herself: ‘I am writing a book about shock. About how countries are shocked – by wars, terror attacks, coups d’état and natural disasters. And then how they are shocked again – by corporations and politicians who exploit the fear and disorientation of this first shock to push through economic shock therapy. And then how people who dare to resist this shock politics are, if necessary, shocked for a third time – by police, soldiers and prison interrogators.’ That is the essence: the three-shock process. And of that, I had only done three graphics, for the processes in Chile, Argentina and the UK (plus the one which lays down the process in diagram form, which incidentally was the first I did). In those I had tried different approaches – from disguising the structure in the shape of a word or an image, to just creating a plain linear navigation diagram. I had found it impossible to cut on text, as vital details of the process could only be conveyed through it. I was trying to steer away from making them all visually dull text flowcharts, but by adding images I was creating a lot of redundancy. And I couldn’t just replace text with images and keep all the content. So as I tried to solve these problems, I had the idea that would materialise into my project outcome.

SHOCK

The basic mechanic of the three books mirrors the thesis of The Shock Doctrine.

METHODOLOGY

RESOLUTION

EXCLUSION & REINFORCEMENT As said by Knight & Glaser (2009, p.5), ‘the visualisation of information involves summarising and honing data so that it can be presented in a succinct manner. Designers frequently have to make difficult decisions about what information to include and what to omit’. I analysed The Shock Doctrine again and decided to treat only seven of the 14 countries whose shock processes are properly narrated in the book. Only those seven had full detail of events travelling across the three categories of shock. Although this meant sacrificing data, it equally meant that the exposure of the threeshock process was not distracted from by the lack of coverage of certain parts of it in some of the countries treated, and it focused the narrative on the most perfect examples of the disaster capitalism complex’s influence, for maximum impact of the author’s point of view. I created seven new tables from my notes, this time each table grouping events by shock type and using arrows marking where the viewer should move from one book to the other. These would form the basis for the design of the three books. TYPOGRAPHY & NARRATIVE My “Chile” graphic received quite good feedback during the presentation and I thought the way I designed the typography of the “cells” in that graphic was the best I had achieved during my research to deal with textdense graphics. I decided to use that same approach on each page of the book, each one equating a cell of the overall three-book-shaped diagram. With all lines bearing the same width in an impactful block, I chose to combine condensed, regular and extended versions of Akzidenz and vary type sizes per line to achieve perfect justification, though I limited myself to bold for maximum strength, visual consistency and economy of means.

I decided to remove all date references, and have the text in present tense and similar linguistic format to news headlines, in order to break the connection with a timeline and make everything feel more relevant as if it was happening now, aiding in the mental connection with current events. This removed a lot of the original subjectivity, but thanks to the use of different sizes and weights, I was able to privilege – or enhance – certain words over others, thus moulding the message in order to drive the author’s point across as strongly as possible (although of course, by doing so I was doing my own statement as well). This enhanced the narrative, and it was further aided by the frequent grouping of two or more related content blocks in one, separated by rules, which increased the storytelling’s fluidity and logical connectedness. COLOUR & SEMIOTICS Colour would serve as a navigational aid in these books, helping the viewer situate each country within each book, and its journey through the three shock types. To add a helpful logical semiotic layer to colour choice, I looked at the national flags of the seven countries and if two countries used too similar colours, I further looked at their national sports equipments through the years to find acceptable variations. I also carried the same colour philosophy of avoiding strong contrasts from my previous research, as well as the use of grain, vignette and shadow effects for a more humanised, organic feel.

METHODOLOGY

CHILE

ARGENTINA

UNITED KINGDOM

BOLIVIA

RUSSIA

IRAQ

SRI LANKA

Each page equals a diagram, cell with a block of text in the centre having all lines of equal width. Type size differences allow for the priveliging of certain lines over others, which in turn possibilitates the moulding of the message. Each country was awarded one of seven colours based on its flag and national sports equipment. The navigation section on the top helps situate the viewer.

METHODOLOGY

RESOLUTION

CROSS-REFERENCING & MULTIDIMENSIONAL NAVIGATION While creating the tables for the three books, I realised that although Naomi Klein (2011) refers to these types of shock as first, second and third, the process doesn’t always go in one direction: often, from the shock of repression countries move to additional economic shocks, and from there maybe back to an initial type of shock like a war, or back to more repression. Therefore as I was trying to name – or codename – each book, I was finding 1, 2, 3 or A, B, C induced in error, as they strongly hinted of a single direction. That was when I had the idea to name them X, Y, Z, which felt perfect, as through the letters’ association with the three axis of space, they provided further materialisation of the multidimensionality of my concept. I designed the horizontal inter-book navigation arrows to be on dividers, aligned in page height from book to book to facilitate an easy transfer. The start pages for each country on the X book, along with these coloured navigational dividers between books, come together to ensure all primary navigational dimensions are simultaneously visible (the longitudinal dimension being each book itself). An added navigational section at the top of each page helps to situate the viewer in the overall shock journey of each country. To complement all this, the first pages of each book complete a sentence that summarises the concept and crosses the three books, revealing the mechanics of the cross-book flowchart. The last dimension of information added was the cross-referencing system on the back pages, pointing to other occurrences of the same category of events across the three books, helping the narrative component of process repetition to be put across and examined in a logical fashion. The superimposition of all these dimensions of visualisation helped to dispense instructions. I trust my design will help the audience find their way through these books intuitively and that any challenges will be faced with curious interest. As Sauter (to Schardt, 2010, p.251) says, ‘the audience is cleverer than many think. You have to challenge people – if you don’t, they are not interested in what you want to tell them.’ But of course, ‘You have to do it in a clever and intelligent way.’ I hope I have.

A divider with the country’s ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 code, and a map highlighting the country’s location in the world mark the beginning of that country’s journey through shock.

Horizontal navigation is always visible. The first three pages form a complete sentence which lays down the concept and kickstarts the cross-book navigation process. 32

METHODOLOGY X

RUSSIA Y49

Arrows cut into dividers on certain pages mark the point at which the viewer should switch books in order to continue following the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s shock process. Each arrow pointing out of one book has a corresponding arrow on an adjacent book pointing in at itself, at equal page height for easy navigation.

After a page is turned up on the wiro bind, its reverse shows references pointing to pages where the same type of occurrence seen on the current page appear. The reference numbers appear, left, centre or right on the page, corresponding to the X, Y or Z books, for intuitive navigation.

CONCLUSION

earning to let go of old work, with all the emotional investment it entailed is not easy for designers, and I’m no exception. After much reflection on my presentation feedback, I had to make the hard decision of sacrificing a route that was providing me with interesting image-based work, in favour of a different route privileging typography and navigation over pictorial elements. It was a hard process to complete, and I kept returning to the old route, as it seemed sometimes impossible to organise such complicated relationships across countries and types of shock, and make them work with an inter-book navigational code. When I realised however, how fitting the new direction was for my intentions, how the very format of the book and the XYZ concept so perfectly embodied the very essence of The Shock Doctrine, all doubts and all regrets became inexistent and nothing remained but the hunger to see the project realised in its physical form. I now see that in the initial urge to reach an audience not necessarily interested in the subject, I was at times patronising the audience, resorting to overdecoration, overexplanation, and dangerously close to Tufte’s concept of “chartjunk”. Knight & Glaser (2009, p.4) highlight the pointlessness of patronising the audience by stating that ‘Human interaction relies on our insatiable desire to make sense of what is being communicated.’ They add that designers ‘can generally rely on readers wanting to understand the information being presented to them’ and that ‘People have an automatic tendency to group elements, discern hierarchies, and tease out the sequencing of information’. They then make a statement that almost exactly describes the process that went into the making of my final outcome: ‘Simplicity is not necessarily the key to successful communication, several layers of information can make for an exciting visual experience as a whole, and these layers can be broken down clearly into different levels through changes in colour and styles of mark-making, through contrasts in scale, and through spatial distribution.’ More words by the same authors (Knight & Glaser, 2009, p.5) seem to describe another quality present in the

various dimensions and layers of information coexisting in my work: ‘Diagrammatic data informs on both a macro and micro level. Initially the reader gets a general impression of what is being communicated, then on closer inspection engages in more detailed matters.’ They then advise the use of the macro level ‘to create a visually exciting and enticing first level, with the intention of persuading readers to take time to understand the micro information’. I believe this result has been successfully achieved in my work. The format chosen for my outcome also adds a dimension of interactivity that was not present in my previous experiments. As defended by Lima (1999), interactivity allows users to ‘properly investigate and reshape the layout in order to find appropriate answers to their questions’, which, he adds, ‘becomes imperative as the degree of complexity of the portrayed system increases.’ And Sauter (to Schardt, 2010, p.251) argues: ‘Interactivity means that you design a dialogue between the audience and the subject. In information visualisation it is often helpful to see data from different angles, compare it with other information, update it, network it, give it a personalised view of something, go to deeper levels and so on. All of this can best be provided with interactivity.’ The fact that I made most of these exercises of interactivity possible in a non-digital format is very satisfying to me. And it makes me reflect on the following words by Sauter (to Schardt, 2010, p.251): ‘In the last decade we observed a data visualisation hype. This has a lot to do with the new field of computational design. Both screen-based media – the internet and the television – have passed the print medium. But we also see a renaissance of the physical world. We see an increasing number of people leaving the isolated situation in front of a computer, going to a museum to experience information in a physical environment with other people. I think that information and narration in space will become a domain where we will see an increasing number of physically static and mechatronic information installations.’ I see my outcome as a small part of the movement described above, and I must say it feels great to be part of the renaissance! 35

BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Duenes, S. (2010) Interview with Schardt, J. In: Klanten, R., Ehman, S., Bourquin N. & Tissot, T. (eds.) Data flow 2: visualizing information in graphic design. Berlin: Gestalten. Grundy & Northedge (2006) Foreword. In: World Diagram Collection. Tokyo: Pie Books. Hagy, J. (2008) Interview. In: S., Klanten, N., Ehman, Bourquin R. & Tissot, T. (eds.) Data flow: visualising information in graphic design. Berlin: Gestalten. Heerden, F. V. (2008) Foreword. In: S., Klanten, N., Ehman, Bourquin R. & Tissot, T. (eds.) Data flow: visualising information in graphic design. Berlin: Gestalten. Herdeg, W. (1976) Graphis diagrams: the graphic visualisation of abstract data. Zurich: The Graphis Press Klein, N. (2008) The shock doctrine: the rise of disaster capitalism. London: Penguin Knight, C. & Glaser, J. (2009) Diagrams: innovative solutions for graphic designers. Mies: RotoVision Lidwell, W., Holden, K. & Butler, J. (2003) Universal principles of design: 100 ways to enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach through design. Gloucester, MA: Rockport. Lust (2008) Interview. In: S., Klanten, N., Ehman, Bourquin R. & Tissot, T. (eds.) Data flow: visualising information in graphic design. Berlin: Gestalten. McCandless, D. (2009) Information is Beautiful. London: Collins Moere, A. V. & Lima, M. (2010) Interview with Schardt, J. In: Klanten, R., Ehman, S., Bourquin N. & Tissot, T. (eds.) Data flow 2: visualizing information in graphic design. Berlin: Gestalten. Nakagawa, K. (2006) Foreword. In: World Diagram Collection. Tokyo: Pie Books. Noble, I. & Bestley, R. (2005) Visual research: an introduction to research methodologies in graphic design. Lausanne: AVA

Pettersen, T. (2006) Foreword. In: World Diagram Collection. Tokyo: Pie Books. Richli, C. (2008) Interview. In: S., Klanten, N., Ehman, Bourquin R. & Tissot, T. (eds.) Data flow: visualising information in graphic design. Berlin: Gestalten. Sauter, J. (2010) Interview with Schardt, J. In: Klanten, R., Ehman, S., Bourquin N. & Tissot, T. (eds.) Data flow 2: visualizing information in graphic design. Berlin: Gestalten. Schardt, J. (2010) Foreword. In: Klanten, R., Ehman, S., Bourquin N. & Tissot, T. (eds.) Data flow 2: visualizing information in graphic design. Berlin: Gestalten. Tufte, E. R. (1983) The visual display of quantitative information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press. Tufte, E. R. (1990) Envisioning information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press. Tufte, E. R. (1997) Visual explanations. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press. Wildbur, P. & Burke, M. (1998) Information graphics: innovative solutions in contemporary design. London: Thames and Hudson. Wurman, R. S. (1999) Understanding USA. Newport, RI: Ted Conferences INTERNET Lima, M. (2009) Information vizualisation manifesto. [Internet] Available from: <http://www.visualcomplexity. com/vc/blog/?p=644> [Accessed 30 May 2011] Enough with the non-factual breaking news graphics. (2011) [Internet] Available from: <http://visualjournalism. com/enough-with-the-non-factual-breaking-newsgraphics/2011/05/09/> [Accessed 30 May 2011] Klein, N. (2011) Interview. In: Naomi Klein @ Occupy Wall Street 10-06-2011 [Internet] Available from < http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gOX3VEYI72c> [Accessed 11 October 2011] MUSIC Tarantino, Q. (1997) Interview. In: The Tarantino connection. Hip-o Records [Music: CD]

“Keep searching.” Pina Bausch