REM vol. 4, n.1 June 2012 by Pensa Multimedia

vol. 4, no.

June 2012

SIX-MONTHLY JOURNAL

REM

Research on Education and Media

Erickson

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REM Research on Education and Media The magazine is published in English twice per year (hardcopy and on-line). Subscriptions to both hardcopy and on-line editions can be bought at the following rates: € 32,00 (single individuals), € 37,00 (for Groups, Schools or Institutions), € 25,00 (students), to be paid to Edizioni Centro Studi Erickson, via del Pioppeto 24 – 38121 Trento, on postal account number 10182384; please specify your name and address. Subscription to the hardcopy or on-line version only, please see the website www.erickson.it, under «riviste»/magazines. Subscription grants the following bonuses: 1. special discounts on all books published by Erickson; 2. reduced rate enrollment fees for conventions, seminars and courses organized by the Centro Studi Erickson. Subscription is considered continued, unless regularly cancelled by posting, within the 31st of december, the module found on the www.erickson.it., under «riviste»/magazines. Returned issues do not count as cancellation. Subscriptions ofice Tel. 0461 950690 Fax 0461 950698 info@erickson.it The Review is registred by the Court of Trento at number 1388, 19/06/2009 ISSN: 2037-0849 Editor in Chief Pier Cesare Rivoltella

Editor in Chief Pier Cesare Rivoltella Scientific Committee Ignacio Aguaded Gómez (Universidad de Huelva) Andrew Burn (London University) Ulla Carlsson (Göteborg University) Maria D’Alessio (Sapienza Università di Roma) Thierry De Smedt (Université de Louvain) Luciano Galliani (Università di Padova) Walter Geerts (Univerisiteit Antwerpen) Pierpaolo Limone (Università di Foggia) Laura Messina (Università di Padova) Mario Morcellini (Sapienza Università di Roma) Nelson Pretto (Universidade da Bahia) Vitor Reia-Baptista (Universidade do Algarve) Mario Ricciardi (Politecnico di Torino) Pier Cesare Rivoltella (Università Cattolica di Milano) Luisa Santelli Beccegato (Università di Bari) Jeffrey T. Schnapp (Stanford University) Editor Alessandra La Marca Referees Committee The referees committee includes 20 well-respected Italian and foreign researchers. The names of the referees for each printing year are disclosed in the first issue of the following printing year. The referral process is under the responsibility of the Journal’s Editor in Chief.

Referral process Each article is anonymously submitted to two anonymous referees. Only articles for which both referees will express a positive judgment will be accepted. The referees evaluations will be communicated to the authors, including guidelines for changes. In this case, the authors are required to change their submissions according to the referees guidelines. Articles not modified in accordance with the referees guidelines will not be accepted. Secretary Alessandra Carenzio, CREMIT, Largo Agostino Gemelli, 1 - 20123 Milano. Tel.: (0039) 02-72343038 Fax: (0039) 02-72343040 E-mail: rem@educazionemediale.it Note to the Authors Submissions are to be sent, as MS Word files, to the email address of the Secretary: rem@educazionemediale.it Further information about submission and writing-up can be found at www. erickson.it/rem Editorial office Davide Bortoli Layout Loretta Oberosler Graphic design Giordano Pacenza Licia Zuppardi Cover Davide Faggiano Print Esperia srl – Lavis (TN)

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INDEX

SPECIAL ISSUE:

SELF-REGULATED LEARNING IN THE USE OF TECHNOLOGIES: CRITICAL THINKING, REFLECTION AND TEACHING METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES Self-regulation of learning: the potential technologies impact of the metacognitive approach Alessandra La Marca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Facilitating critical thinking among a new generation Marta L贸pez-Jurado Puig. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

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Metacognition in primary school: using digital rubric to promote thinking and learning Francesca Pedone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Can technology enhance creativity? The role of self-regulation and self-efficacy in using ICT to foster non-linear, non-standard teaching and learning Maria Cinque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Web and tool 2.0 affordances for formal and informal learning strategies: the role of the educational project Davide Parmigiani and Valentina Pennazio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

ADVP technology-supported model: the development of metacognitive strategies during teacher training academic studies Giuseppa Cappuccio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Rethinking language teaching and training procedures between online and offline communication Montserrat Veyrat Rigat and Giuseppa Compagno . . . . . . . . . . . 97

New technologies to learn how to think: analysis of educational practices Loredana Lupo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

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Self-regulation of learning: the potential technologies impact of the metacognitive approach Alessandra La Marca

ABSTRACT

Department of Psycology, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze – Ed. 15 – 90128 Palermo (Italy). E-mail: alessandra.lamarca@unipa.it

Self-regulation researchers theorize that self-regulation does not occur when learners display personal initiative, perseverance, and adaptive skill in pursuing learning. At its core, self-regulation involves self-motivation as well as metacognitive processes. Reflection on the process of learning is believed to be an essential ingredient in the development of expert teachers. By employing reflective thinking skills to evaluate the results of one’s own learning efforts, awareness of effective learning strategies can be increased and ways to use these strategies in other learning situations can be understood. In this paper, we describe how expert teachers use the knowledge they have gained of themselves as learners, of task requirements, and of specific ways to deliberately select, control, and monitor strategies needed to achieve the desired learning goals. Moreover, we consider the relationship between new educational technologies and SRL. We present a model of expert teachers which illustrates how learners’ metacognitive knowledge of cognitive, motivational, and environmental strategies is converted to regulatory control of the learning process through ongoing reflective thinking. We shortly reflect on educational technology and its relation to learning theories and to SRL describing an action to support both the teaching and learning quality. Keywords: self-regulation of learning; metacognitive strategies; critical thinking; teaching methodologies processes of teaching.

Edizioni Erickson – Trento

REM – vol. 4, no. 1, June 2012 (5-20)

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REM – vol. 4, no. 1, June 2012

It often happens that, despite teachers’ daily work, some pupils may feel deeply uncomfortable with traditional school timetables, showing a wide disinterest in the study. These students’ behaviours and attitudes are often not suitable to the normal relational parameters of school life. Even though they have sufficient cognitive capacity, some students, beginning from secondary school, cannot adjust to the normal patterns of curricular proposals, do not study for a sufficient time, and often come into conflict with the educational institution and teachers. These students require special attention, special educational interventions, taking into account both the underlying causes of their evident problems in school and the diversity of their talents. The risk of social exclusion and of school failure, for students that feel uncomfortable with standard education parameters, is remarkable. Diversity within the school context represents a challenge that involves all the main agents of change: teachers, school administrators, families and extracurricular educational agencies, each with specific functions. In order to achieve the social inclusion of these students, teachers should adopt new teaching methods, original solutions, tailored to individual pupils and contexts, new educational-pedagogical activities customized for the individual students and the different contests. Social exclusion can be overcome by activating learning centred “educational paths”, taking into account all the dimensions of the student’s personality (cognitive, metacognitive, practical-operational, affective, motivational, relational and social) in “authentic” contexts, where communication and social interaction take place with other people, peers and adults (teachers or experts), facilitators, coaches, counsellors or tutors, even through new technologies. Currently, school is too often a place that disengages learners, which fails to encourage honest self-assessment, and where learning and evaluation are not meaningful acts of improvement, but detached and punitive symbols of failure. One way to meet this challenge appears to be the use of ITC, designed to support the process of students’ self-regulated learning and the improvement of reading, writing, and other literacy skills. The current educational context, characterized by a widespread use of technological tools and learning environments which offer many opportunities for self-regulated learning, provides many cues for a reflection on the relationship between technology and self-regulated learning. We believe that deep thinking and independent learning are more likely to occur when effective learning and thinking strategies are explicitly dis6

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Self-regulation of learning: the potential technologies impact of the metacognitive approach

cussed and employed by the teacher and students. Reflection and metacognition are key skills used in this process. Students who employ reflection and metacognition know how to approach learning and are aware of/able to evaluate and regulate their own thinking. These skills are transferable to a range of contexts and purposes, and benefit teachers as well as learners of all ages, including students identified as “at risk” or “gifted”. An inclusive system considers the student as the protagonist of his own learning process, whatever his skills, his potential and his limits might be. It is believed that educational success is enabled when teachers consider the differences of gender and culture of the students, activate their personal strategies and approach to “knowledge”, respect the rhythms and the learning styles of all the students, follow their self-regulating behaviours. It is well known that students learn best if they are helped to trigger a series of metacognitive dimensions during the learning process: self-awareness, self-regulation, self-motivation, control of the causal attributions of success and failure. The correlation between learning objectives common to the whole class and those specific for certain types of pupils is enhanced through ICT. With the advent of technology enhanced learning the class lost the traditional connotations of a closed space, destined to produce “inert” knowledge, to establish itself as a potential environment for the development, pedagogically inspired, of skills useful required for lifelong learning and in professional contexts. The class becomes a knowledge-building community, where all members are engaged in authentic tasks that encourage interdependence between formal, informal and non-formal knowledge and produce effective learning. Over the last decade, lab classrooms, interactive whiteboards and many other technologies have begun to find their specific place in school buildings. ICT can shape not only the learning process, but also the context in which this process occurs. Technological innovations, however, have not yet caused a radical change in educational activities, so that teachers continue to teach mainly in a “traditional” way. A digital content can be a real added value for learning because it proposes a new contest, in which images, sounds and linear text play a new role and generate a new language closer to that of students. With appropriate pedagogical integration, it is undeniable that the interest of students increases if teachers relate to them using the most familiar language of media. This is true, first of all, for the teaching of Mathematics 7

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REM – vol. 4, no. 1, June 2012

and Italian language. The presence of new technologies in everyday life, both as hardware devices and as web 2.0 applications, offers teachers the opportunity to develop students’ metacognitive and decision-making skills. As part of the metacognitive competence, self-regulated learning is more frequently indicated as a crucial element to consider when structuring the educational process. It is related to scholastic success (Shunk & Zimmerman, 1998). On the other hand, lack of self-regulation generates, on the motivational side, frequent moments of apathy and disinterest towards studying (Zimmerman, 2000; 2001; 2002). In particular, the methodology of metacognitive teaching ALM (La Marca, 2012) might be effective if applied to the teaching of Italian language and Mathematics with pupils between 11 and 13 years old.1 Even if we cannot fully understand all the elements that contribute to the education of a free person, who is responsible for his/her actions, however, it is advisable that a teacher should try to build classroom learning situations in order to promote the growth of his/her students’ self-regulation and decision making intentionally. Since self-regulation is acquired through a gradual process and is strengthened through proper exercise, it is useful to offer each student guidance in the exercise of his/her initial decision-making skills up to the extent that he/she is capable of at that time of his/her development. This may help his/her growth to a greater degree of inner freedom and responsibility. The process of guidance, carried out by teachers who favour the acquisition of competences and skills, has specific characteristics according to the age, the school level of students and the different kind of studies. Within this pedagogical framework, the guidance provided by teachers consists in creating around the pupil an environment and situations in which he/she, in his/her schoolwork, is urged to choose and to act consistently with the value system that he/she has internalized, making use of all the freedom he/she is capable at the time of his/her development. The student will also

The research was performed within the PQM project (Progetto Qualità e Merito), in the school years 2010/11 and 2011/12. Our investigation focused on “areas” considered representative of the professional commitment of teachers participating in the project: we specifically analyzed training interventions aimed at teachers who are Project tutors and at teachers who are Tutors of the Institute. We wanted to study and verify how the first were trained and how they, in turn, trained Tutor of the Institute. Totally 157 teachers (Project tutors) were involved. They are from different Italian regions (Sicily 47, Calabria 24, Puglia 39, Campania 44) and teach two different disciplines: Mathematics (105) and Italian (52). All the teachers work in the first years of the secondary school (11-13 years old children) and have a professional expertise of at least 5 years.

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Self-regulation of learning: the potential technologies impact of the metacognitive approach

follow a path of rational choice, which will be acquired through targeted training initiatives.

Self-regulation of learning and performance At its core, is self-regulation a metacognitive ability, a motive, or a behavior? SRL researches have suggested that students are self-regulated to the degree that they are meta-cognitively, motivationally, and behaviorally active participants in their own learning processes (Zimmerman, 1986). For example, highly self-regulated students generate advantageous metacognitive strategies, develop positive self- efficacy motives, and modify ineffective actions to attain their learning goals. Although formal theories, such as metacognition, social cognition, and behaviorism, diverge in their emphasis on these three properties of self-regulatory processes, there is reason to believe that all are important. Finally, virtually all definitions of SRL involve a goal-directed use of one or more of these three self-regulatory properties, and as a result, students are aware of their. The question of how students become masters of their own learning processes emerged in the mid- 1980s and continues to attract students, teachers, and researchers from diverse backgrounds during the 21st century. The search for answers to this question has been labeled self-regulated learning (SRL), but what does this elusive construct mean? First of all, self-regulation is envisioned as a key mediator between oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mental ability and oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s acquisition of academic skills, such as proficiency in reading or Maths. More specifically, this construct refers to the selfdirective processes through which learners transform their mental abilities into academic skills. Self-regulation is conceived as a proactive activity in which students engage in helping themselves learn, such as deploying a strategy, rather than as a passive reaction, such as absorbing knowledge from an instructor. Secondly, self-regulation researchers do not limit their vision of selfregulation to individualized forms of learning, such as discovery learning, self-education through reading, or computer-assisted instruction. Instead, they include social forms of learning, such as seeking help from peers, coaches, and teachers. Self-regulation researchers theorize that the key self-regulation issue is not whether learners display personal initiative, perseverance, and adaptive 9

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REM – vol. 4, no. 1, June 2012

skill in pursuing learning. At its core, self-regulation involves self-motivation as well as metacognitive processes. Several researchers (Zimmerman, 2002) stress the importance of students SRL skills for successful learning. In general, SRL is defined as a goal-oriented process, proceeding from forethought phase through self-monitoring and self-control to self-reflection (Pintrich, 2000; 2004). SRL can foster deep and meaningful learning as well as significant gains in student achievement. As a result, new developments in educational practice, aimed at promoting students’ SRL, are increasingly being initiated by policy makers. In the context of teacher education, teachers are required to demonstrate a high degree of SRL by writing personal development plans, documenting their progress in a portfolio, monitoring their learning process and evaluating their results. In such learning environments, teacher educators must be able to structure the learning process in such a way that it encourages the motivation of student teachers in regulating their own learning. To assess the impact of instruction on metacognitive development, Ritchhart, Turner and Hadar (2009) studied a school year intervention designed to promote the development of students’ thinking across a large span of age groups (Grades 3-11). In publications on self-regulated learning, there seems to be a tendency to define the concept in a narrow sense, thereby neglecting the personal goals of the learner. Some authors refer to the components which are considered to play an important role in self-regulated learning: «Students can be described as self-regulated to the degree that they are metacognitively, motivationally, and behaviourally active participants in their own learning process» (Zimmerman, 1998b, p. 4). The literature concerned with self-regulation and self-regulated learning (Zimmerman & Schunk, 1998) uses the term “self-reflection” to define the process that is part of the cyclic self-regulatory process. They state that self-regulation is composed of forethought, performance and self-reflection. Research on SRL was greatly influenced by the works of Zimmerman and Schunk (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998; 2008; Zimmerman & Schunk, 1998; 2008).

A cyclical phase model of SRL The model that guided our research was developed from social cognitive theoretical origins (Bandura, 1991; Schunk, 2001; Zimmerman, 2000). As 10

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Self-regulation of learning: the potential technologies impact of the metacognitive approach

we noted earlier, a key property of SRL models is their cyclical nature and their dependence on feedback during repeated efforts to learn, especially when the goal involves continuing growth, such as learning a new language. These cycles are divided into three interrelated phases: forethought, performance, and self-reflection. The forethought phase refers to self-regulatory processes and beliefs that precede learning and set the stage for it, whereas the performance control phase refers to self-regulatory processes and volitional beliefs that accompany learning and seek to control it. The self-reflection phase refers to sell regulatory processes and beliefs that follow performance but set the stage for subsequent cycles of learning. The cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational processes that under the each of the phases are depicted in Figure 1. There are a number of potential advantages of a cyclical approach to SRL. 1) it is empowering because it enables learners to interpret personal feedback in terms of controllable processes and outcomes and test that understanding during adaptive efforts to gain mastery; 2) it is interactive because it enables learners to explain between-and within-phase relations between diverse metacognitive processes and sources of motivation; 3) it is event-based and dynamic because it can be used to measure and guide interventions during learning as they occur in real time (Zimmerman, 2008). Social cognitive research hypothesize that all students attempt to regulate their effectiveness in some fashion, but the most effective students are distinguished by the high quality of their forethought and performance phase processes. In contrast to these proactive learners are ineffective learners. According to Zimmerman, self-regulation is achieved in cycles consisting of (1) forethought, (2) performance or volitional control, and (3) self-reflection (Zimmerman, 1998a; 2000). The three cyclical phases of self-regulation include both meta-cognitive and motivational components, providing the foundation for better sustainability of learning and skill development. The forethought phase includes task analysis (goals setting and strategic planning) and self-motivation beliefs (self-efficacy, outcome expectations, intrinsic interest/value and goal orientation). Tasks involved in the forethought phase are: set outcome goals, set process goals, document goal values, plan strategies, and set up learning log. The next phase, the performance phase, includes self-control (selfinstruction, imagery, attention focusing and task strategies) and self-observation (self-recording and self-experimentation). Tasks involved in the performance phase are: creation of work, and learning log entries. 11

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Performance Control phase Self-control Strategy using Self-observation Metacognitive monitoring Self-recording

Forethought phase Task analysis Goal setting Planning Self-motivation beliefs Self-efficacy Task interest/value Goal orientation

Figure 1

Self-reflection phase Self-judgment Self-evaluation Casual attribution Self-reaction Self- satisfaction/affect Adaptive/defensive

Phases and processes of self-regulation. Adapted by Zimmerman & Labuhn (2012).

Finally, the self-reflection phase includes self-judgment (self-evaluation and casual attribution) and self-reaction (self-satisfaction/affect and adaptive-defensive responses). Tasks involved in the self-reflection phase are: reflection on work, reflection on process, and awareness of new goal opportunities.

Motivational feelings and beliefs regarding SRL In a recent study of differences in goal orientations of high school students, Abar and Loken (2010) identified three groups of students according to their level of self-regulatory competence: high SRL, low SRL, and average SRL. The studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; academic goal orientations were shown to differ based on their SRL profile. The optimal SRL profile (high SRL) was associated with the highest levels of a mastery goal orientation. In contrast, those students who showed the least optimal SRL profile tended to be most strongly oriented toward avoiding academic failure (a performance goal 12

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Self-regulation of learning: the potential technologies impact of the metacognitive approach

orientation). These findings revealed a close link between students’ selfregulatory processes and goal orientations: the low SRL group spent the least amount of time practicing for a test using supplementary material (online tutorials and practice questions), whereas the high SRL and high mastery-oriented group attempted to complete high numbers of practice questions and exhibited high levels of effort regulation and metacognition when preparing for the expected test. Another study by Zimmerman and Kitsantas (2005) investigated the mediation role of students’ self-efficacy for learning beliefs between the quality of their homework and their perceptions of responsibility for academic outcomes and their academic achievement. It was found that homework practices were predictive of student’s self-efficacy beliefs regarding their ability to learn and their perceptions of responsibility for learning, which is an attribution type of measure. Student’s self-efficacy beliefs about both learning and responsibility beliefs were found to play an important mediating role between student’s homework practices and their academic achievement, as assessed by grade point averages. Self-reflection is clearly related to metacognition. It is not uncommon in many domains of knowledge that students have to organize a range of information into a coherent knowledge structure, to analyze situations, generate hypotheses and decide paths for solutions. In this context, it is important that learners can study and explore their own learning efforts. Self-reflection provides not only a better understanding of what they know, but also a way of improving metacognitive strategies, because the learner can examine how they performed a specific learning task. For example, when a learner reflects on an action s/he has just performed, s/he is consciously revisiting the information. A rapid evolving area of research focuses on metacognition in computerbased learning environments. Winne and Nesbit (2009) described software systems with cognitive tools that facilitate meta-comprehension by prompting self-monitoring, teaching strategies, providing assistance in learning from errors, and providing easy-to-process summaries of performance over time. Koediger, Aleven, Roll and Baker (2009) reported that an intelligent tutoring system that supports metacognitive process during instruction can increase learning performance. A special issue of «Educational Psychologist» (Azevedo, 2005) focused on the use of computers as metacognitive tools for enhancing learning and outlined several approaches in this burgeoning area of research. 13

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When meta-cognition is an explicit focus of instruction, teachers need to be able to assess the acquisition of metacognitive knowledge and strategies in their students. Block (2005) provided a resource of informal classroom assessments of meta-cognition. Meta-cognition includes two main components: knowledge and regulation. The knowledge component refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes, while the regulation component refers to the actual strategies one applies to control cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979; Brown, 1987). It has been suggested that the two components are distinct from each other because an individual might engage in regulatory activities without having the necessary knowledge of the specific cognitive strategies required (Sternberg, 1998). On the other hand, during regulation, individual relies on knowledge about their cognitive processes, task characteristics and strategies to improve intellectual performance. In line with previous findings (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990; Anderson, 1991; Schraw & Dennison, 1994), the current finding that high-level strategies are more relevant for superior thinking performance supports the proposition that metacognitive knowledge provides the basis for effective regulation (i.e. how and when planning, monitoring and evaluating ought to be carried out). High-level strategies reflect both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation, whereas low-level strategies reflect a lack of metacognitive knowledge and, therefore, ineffective regulation. Only individuals who have sufficient metacognitive knowledge would be able to go beyond mere awareness and engage in specific regulatory activities that would lead to an improvement in earlier studies. Educational and psychological research in the past decade has found that metacognitive capacity starts earlier than was initially realized; is more amenable to educational intervention than was previously thought; can be taught to a wide range of learners; and is both inherently contextual and a unique capacity that is distinguishable from intelligence, cognitive processes and motivation (Dimmitt & McCormick, 2012). This observation has important implications for the enhancement of metacognitive ability as a component of critical thinking instructional programs. While participants should be encouraged to reflect on their own cognitive activities, through checking and questioning to build up the habit of metacognitive regulation, it is also important to explicitly teach the related metacognitive knowledge when necessary. Without the support of metacognitive regulation, learners will not be effective in enhancing thinking performance. 14

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Self-regulation of learning: the potential technologies impact of the metacognitive approach

The role of metacognition in critical thinking Metacognition has been put forth as an important component of critical thinking. Several studies have examined the relationship between the two (Akama, 2006). Others also have argued for its role in thinking and learning (Garner and Alexander 1989; Norris 1991;Mayer 1998; Halpern, 2003). Reflection is a more general term than metacognition. In Educating the reflective practitioner, Donald A. Schön divides metacognition into two brands of reflection: reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action. Reflection-in-action refers to the immediately recursive thought a person puts toward the action at hand, and reflection-on-action is post-activity reflection on the activity. Reflection on the reading, writing, and learning processes might well be our students’ key to understanding their writing processes and to growing as successful writers. It is our job, then, to find activities that facilitate our students’ metacognitive action. In their exploration on reflection, Ertmer and Newby (1996) extended Schön’s (1983; 1987) notions of reflection on action and reflection in action to reflection for action. Reflection on action is defined as the active process of making sense of past experiences for the purpose of orienting oneself for current and/or future thought and action. Reflection inaction is managing the process of learning and constantly adjusting and changing as new information is assimilated. In their studies, Ku & Ho (2010) emphasize that critical thinking demands strategic use of cognitive skills that best suit a particular situation, as well as an active control of one’s own thinking processes for well-justified conclusions. The thinker’s abilities, confidence, preferred ways of learning, values, dispositions and volition may facilitate or hinder metacognitive activity, or even provide its focus. For example, one student may evaluate their own performance as unsatisfactory, identify a need to change the way they are working and then go on to successfully complete the task. While another student in the same situation may lose confidence and motivation and give up.Reflection can lead to greater self-awareness, which in turn is a first step to positive change — it is a necessary stage in identifying areas for improvement and growth in both personal and professional contexts. Taking time to reflect can help you identify approaches that have worked well, and in that way reinforce good practice. Oosterbaan et al. (2010) examined the possibility of describing reflection in terms of thinking activities, by exploring 15

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REM – vol. 4, no. 1, June 2012

the relationship between reflection and the occurrence of thinking activities. When students communicate with teachers about their own development.

The action-reflection ALM model for teachers Through the employment of ALM model (La Marca, 2012), we proposed the effective use of metacognitive strategies to be an important factor contributing to critical thinking performance. The results clearly supported this proposition and threw light on how these strategies affected thinking performance. The action-reflection ALM model is not new in formal teacher training; however, its application within the teaching work environment has only recently gained momentum in SRL development training. While there is no one learning format, project work is central to the design of the learning intervention. There is a clear link between action, reflection and change within this style of teaching. In the activity-reflection model there are four stages to the cycle of reflection: the initial or new experience; reflection and observation; development of a new concept and experimentation. Action learning when applied in a training or education format is distinctly different due to a level of required reflection that enhances teaching. In reflecting, the teacher engages in active, persistent and careful consideration of ideas to seek a deeper understanding and a broader and more reasoned point of view. In a web forum2 teachers are introduced to the need to create and establish an emotionally supportive environment in which they feel “safe” and have the confidence to reveal how they think. The expression of personal material in reflection can be threatening. What might seem threatening to one person might seem fine to another. There is a need to recognize and respect each other’s differences, bearing in mind that the purpose in being reflective in this environment is for teachers to evaluate their own SRL development. Teachers are encouraged to contribute to these sessions by recognizing that the environment needs to be: – a relaxed, informal learning environment;

Our aim was to offer teachers (Project Tutors and Tutors of the Institute) reflection cues on the processes of teaching. They were encouraged to ask questions, to define attitudes, communication styles, educational and teaching methodologies, tools and content appropriate for the development of those metacognitive competence.

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Self-regulation of learning: the potential technologies impact of the metacognitive approach

– a place where learners feel safe to take risks in their cognitive explorations; – a space where there is understanding of the emotional elements in refection and one in which these can be supported; – a tool that will support and help those who have difficulties with reflection as a learning process; – an area where confidentiality is respected. Teachers discuss learning events and dilemmas from their work placements, using their logbooks as prompts. The scaffolding acts as a framework for their reflective processes. Resolution and learning are constructed within the peer relationship as teaching knowledge is fused with life experience, growing awareness of professional growth and identities and the teachers own personal strengths and weaknesses. These spoken narratives are then recorded as written, again using the framework as a scaffold. Teachers commented that teaching SRL strategies was new and thus required a change in teaching strategies, strategies that they were not yet accustomed to. Focus groups also revealed the challenges of using ITC to teach student to self-regulate. The focus group data provided us with some rich qualitative information that added greater dimension to the quantitative results. Analysis of the focus groups revealed the need for teachers to introduce processes involved in self-regulated learning and challenges inherent in teaching students learning goals, learning strategies, and collaboration and feedback. For example, not all teachers reported that students were aware of their learning strategies. In addition, teachers felt that learning goals were especially difficult to teach to very young students. Some teachers reported that students wanted to receive and provide feedback mostly with their friends instead of other classmates. Finally, teachers discussed their need for extensive support from school staff. They used different techniques to teach learning goals: modeling from teachers and more capable peers; reviewing goals and strategies that have worked in the past; using a rubric to show students what they need to do; conferencing one-on-one with the teacher to help the child develop a better picture of themselves as a learner, as students have difficulty being selfreflective at a young age; and using concrete examples to illustrate objectives in specific subject areas. When discussing learning strategies, it was perceived that many only teach strategy monitoring implicitly. This means that teachers notify stu-

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dents when they are getting off task, but do not explicitly teach them how to monitor their strategies in terms of what they are doing well or doing poorly. In some cases teachers do not provide the opportunity for their students to evaluate their own work beyond revising drafts. Some teachers reported that their students were aware of their learning strategies, yet others disagreed. Also, they expressed that students developed avoidant strategies when it came to providing feedback and comments. The teachers participated in a program that encouraged them to make thinking visible through a variety of approaches. The impact of the yearlong intervention was assessed via changes in concept maps, which were used as tools to help the students visualize their thinking processes. The results of the study revealed a developmental progression in which thinking became more sophisticated with age, but also highlighted changes in student thinking because of the effects of instruction and a classroom culture in which thinking is modeled. In terms of teaching students to link their reflections to their goals, teachers would encourage students to look back at their goals while reflecting along with reviewing their reflections in previous work. In line with the notion of “competencies” within the ALM model, teachers reported that they could see their teaching had an impact on their students’ goal-setting abilities if their skills carried over to “real life” experiences. Teachers also reported that the use of technology was often seen as a reward.

References Abar, B., & Loken, E. (2010). Self-regulated learning and self-directed study in a pre-college sample. Learning and Individual Differences, 20, 25-29. Akama, K. (2006). Relations among self-efficacy, goal setting, and metacognitive experiences in problem-solving. Psychological Reports, 98 (3), 895-907. Anderson, N. (1991). Individual differences in strategy use in second language and testing. The Modern Language Journal, 75 (4), 460-472. Azevedo, R. (Ed.) (2005). Computers as metacognitive tools for enhancing learning (special issue). Educational Psychologist, 40 (4). Bandura, A. (1991). Self-regulation of motivation through anticipatory-reactive mechanism. In R.A. Dienstbier (Ed.). Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Vol. 38. Perspectives on motivation (pp. 69-164). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Block, C.C. (2005). What are metacognitive assessments? In S.E. Israel, C.C. Block, B.L. Bauserman & K. Kinnucan-Welsch (Eds.), Metacognition in literacy learning: Theory, assessment, instruction, and professional development (pp. 83-100). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 18

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Brown, A. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation, and other mysterious mechanisms. In F.E. Weinert & R.H. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, motivation and understanding (pp. 65-116). Hillsdale: Lawrance Erlbaum Associates. Dimmitt, C., & McCormick, C. (2012). Metacognition in Education. In K.R. Harris, S. Graham & T. Urdan (Eds.), APA Educational Psychology Handbook, Vol 1: Theories, constructs, and critical issues (pp. 157-187). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Flavell, J.H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: a new era of cognitive developmental inquiry. The American Psychologist, 24, 143-158. Garner, R., & Alexander, P.A. (1989). Metacognition: Answered and Unanswered Questions. Educational Psychologist, 24, 143-158. Halpern, D.F. (2003). The “how” and “why” of critical thinking assessment. In D. Fasko (Ed.), Critical thinking and reasoning: Current research, theory and practice. Cresskill: Hampton Press. Koediger, K., Aveven, V., Roll, I., & Baker, R. (2009). In vivo experiments on whether supporting metacognition in intelligent tutoring system yields robust learning. In D.J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A.C. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of metacognition in education (pp. 383-412). New York, NY: Routledge. Ku, K.Y., & Ho, I.T. (2010). Metacognitive strategies that enhance critical thinking. Metacognition and Learning, 5, 251-267. La Marca, A. (2012). Il Progetto PQM (Progetto Qualità e Merito). Interventi a supporto della qualità dell’insegnamento-apprendimento nella scuola secondaria di primo grado. Giornale Italiano della Ricerca Educativa, 8, 105-120. Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1996). The expert learner: Strategic, self-regulated and reflective. Instructional Science, 24, 1-24. Mayer, R.E. (1998). Cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational aspects of problem solving. Instructional Science, 26, 49-63. Norris, S.P. (1991). Assessment: Using verbal reports of thinking to improve multiple- choice test validity. In J.F. Voss, D.N. Perkins, & J.W. Segal (Eds.), Informal reasoning and education. Hillsdale: Erlbaum, 451-472. Oosterbaan, A.E., van der Schaaf, M.F., Baartman, L.K.J., & Stokking, K.M. (2011). Reflection during portfolio-based conversations. International Journal of Educational Research, 49, 151-160. Pintrich, P.R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts, P.R. Pintrich & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 451-502). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Pintrich, P.R. (2004). A Conceptual framework for assessing motivation and self-regulated learning in college students. Educational Psychology Review, 4, 385-407. Pintrich, P.R., & De Groot, E. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82 (1), 33-50. Ritchart, R., Turner, T., & Hadar, L. (2009). Uncovering students’ thinking about thinking using concept maps. Metacognition and Learning, 4, 145-159. Schraw, G., & Dennison, R.S. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 460-475. Schunk, D.H. (2001). Social cognitive theory and self-regulated learning. In B.J. Zimmerman & D.H. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives (2nd ed., pp. 125-151). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 19

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Schunk, D.H. & Zimmerman, B.J. (Eds.) (1998). Self-regulated learning. From teaching to selfreflective practice. New York: The Guildford Press. Schunk, D.H., & Zimmerman, B.J. (Eds.) (2008). Motivation and self-regulated learning. Theory, research and applications. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum. Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books. Schön, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Sternberg, R.J. (1998). Metacognition, abilities, and developing expertise: what makes an expert student? Instructional Science, 26, 127-140. Winne, P.H., & Nesbit, J.C. (2009). Supporting self-regulated learning with cognitive tools. In D.J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A.C. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of metacognition in education (pp. 259-277). New York, NY: Routledge. Zimmerman, B.J. (1986). Development of self-regulated learning: Which are the key subprocesses? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 11, 307-313. Zimmerman, B.J. (1998a). Developing self-fulfilling cycles of academic regulation: an analysis of exemplary instructional models. In D.H. Schunk & B.J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Self-regulated learning: From teaching to self-reflective practice (pp. 1-19). New York, NY: Guilford Publications. Zimmerman, B.J. (1998b). Models of self-regulated learning and academic achievement. In B.J. Zimmerman & D.H. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement. Theory, research and practice (pp. 1-25). New York, NY: Springer. Zimmerman, B.J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: a social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. Pintrich & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13-39). New York, NY: Academic Press. Zimmerman, B.J. (2001). Theories of self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview and analysis. In B.J. Zimmerman & D.H. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 1-35). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Zimmerman, B.J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory into practice, 41, 64-70. Zimmermann, B.J. (2008). Goal setting: A key proactive source of academic self-regulation. In D.H. Schunk & B.J. Zimmermann (Eds.), Motivation and self-regulated learning: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 267-295). New York, NY: Erlbaum. Zimmermann, B.J., & Kitsantas, A. (2005). Homework practices and academic achievement: The mediating role of self-efficacy and perceived responsibility beliefs. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 4, 397-417. Zimmerman, B.J., & Labuhn, A.S. (2012). Self-regulation of learning: process approaches to personal development. In K.R. Harris, S. Graham & T. Urdan (Eds.), APA educational psychology handbook, Vol 1: Theories, constructs, and critical issues (pp. 399-425). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Zimmerman, B.J., & Schunk, D.H. (Eds.) (1998). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement. Theory, research and practice. New York, NY: Springer. Zimmerman, B.J. & Schunk, D. H. (2008). Motivation. In D.H. Schunk & B.J. Zimmerman, (Eds.), Motivation and self-regulated learning. Theory, research and application (pp. 1-30). New York, NY: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.

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Facilitating critical thinking among a new generation Marta López-Jurado Puig

ABSTRACT

National Distance Education University (UNED), Madrid (Spain). E-mail: lopezjurado@edu.uned.es

Learning to think critically is a serious need for the new generation of student, who have grown up fully immersed in the virtual world. In the age of immediacy, young people should be aware that their actions have the power to generate within themselves moral virtue, a quality of thinking, feeling and acting by which we consider other people not as instruments to achieve certain ends, but as “persons.”The conceptualization of transcendent motives — together with the extrinsic and intrinsic motives — opens a channel to unite theory and practice in the realm of moral education. To think prudently to exercise the virtue means to keep in mind all of the aspect of an action, not only its effectiveness and efficiency (i.e., the instrumental uses of such action), but also benefits everyone involved in the decision. By introducing right thinking and transcendent motives in making decisions, we can recognize the weight of others in our actions, treating them as they need beyond our particular interests. Keywords: efficacy; efficiency; consistency; transcendent motives; moral virtues; rational motivation based on transcendent motives.

Learning to think critically is a serious need for the new generation of students, who have grown up fully immersed in the virtual world. In the age of immediacy, young people should be aware that their actions have the power to generate within themselves moral virtue, a quality of thinking, feeling and acting by which we consider other people not as instruments to achieve certain ends, but as “persons”. To think prudently to exercise the virtue means to keep in mind all of the aspect of an action, not only its effectiveness and efficiency (i.e., the Edizioni Erickson – Trento

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instrumental uses of such action), but also benefits everyone involved in the decision. By introducing right thinking and transcendent motives in making decisions, we can recognize the weight of others in our actions, treating them as they need beyond our particular interests. Current information and communication technologies (ICTs) and web 2.0 provide important tools to teach new generations how best to face life problems, analyze the diverse values entailed in an action, and be guided by transcendent motives, which take into account ethical values. How can one be a good professional, whether businessperson, politician, banker, professor or engineer, while being also a good person? Is it a contradiction that professional excellence can occur in the absence of moral virtues? The channel opened by the conceptualization of the transcendent motives that exist behind a decision —together with the extrinsic and intrinsic motives already known from different scientific perspectives — contributes a way to unite theory and practice in ethical endeavours, and a possibility to learn where are we failing when we engage in a rigorous analysis of our behaviour from an ethical perspective. Any satisfactory conception of the process of formation of the ethical character has to integrate the basic tenet that we are not isolated individuals and, on the other hand, we can only approach human achievement when living closely and solidariously with other people. «The person is not made to be alone: this can be seen even at the biological level. At birth, the corporal, nervous and psychological development of man is rather incomplete; precisely because the decisive factor in him is the learning process (instinct needs habits to exercise all its functions). He needs to be fed, taken care of and taught by others during many years before being able to fend for himself» (Yepes, 1996, p. 184). Our self-realization demands an ongoing dialogue with other human beings that are, in some sense, part of us and vice versa. And this is not in addition to the individual, but a constituting part of the person as an essentially social being.

Decision-making and transcendent motives The Psychology of Learning (Bandura, 1980) and the business environment (McGregor, 1966) has familiarized us with the distinction between the so called extrinsic and intrinsic motives. The first type refers to the world of 22

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Facilitating critical thinking among a new generation

sensate realities and aligns with the rewards or punishments the environment sends as responses to the actions of the individual: money, raises, prestige, rewards, etc. The satisfaction provided by the second set of motives is generated by the direct outcomes the action has on the subject executing the action, and not by an environmental response. Satisfaction such as that felt after performing a duty, engaging in professional learning, the acquisition of various skills, the sense of achievement, etc., are all intrinsic motives. Pérez López (1993) and López-Jurado (2010) breaks this dichotomy proposing a third type of motivation: the transcendent motives. These motives respond to the Franklian concern with the search for sense outside the subject, in the opening up of the person to the world. They address the consequences the action may have for those “others”, or “other”, that will receive the impact of our action, regardless of the effect the same action may have on the subject. These are the motives guiding those that are working to support their family, or on behalf of their country, or wanting to offer a good service to their clients, or those trying to be helpful to their workmates. These motives may not be confused with self-realization or with the enjoyment derived from the regard of others, since self-realization is not concerned, other than instrumentally, with the repercussions of our own behaviour on others and the regard of others does not flow from the one who acts to the others but the other way around. The knowledge of the existence of transcendent motives is not only the result of the observation of behaviour. It is deduced from the study of the dynamics of the action. The behaviour of the decisor while interacting with one or more persons produces several types of outcomes, each susceptible to attract attention and become a powerful source of motivation. 1. Extrinsic outcomes: the interaction itself, called the efficacy of the plan of action. 2. Internal outcomes: the learning of the active agent or the efficiency of the plan of action. 3. External outcomes: the learning of the reactive agent, or the consistency of the plan of action. One or several of these outcomes could very well go unnoticed or be underestimated by the decisor, but he can notice them and, if interested, he may want to pursue them, turning the results into motivation for action. This is how the three types of motives indicated can be deduced. 23

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1. Extrinsic motives: what we expect to receive in exchange for the action. These motives respond to the most basic needs, those we could call material needs. They mean, ultimately, the possession of things or the possibility to establish sensate relationships with things. 2. Intrinsic motives: what we expect to learn or enjoy while performing the action. These motives respond to cognitive needs. They address the subject’s inner world, the capacity to do things, to get what we want. Through the appropriate learning process, a person develops what is called operational knowledge, a set of skills needed to manage the surrounding environment. The sense of power and, somehow, the feeling of security derived from the psychological states that depend upon the satisfaction of these needs. 3. Transcendent motives: the manner in which others are expected to benefit from our actions. These motives address the affective needs, not only the need to be loved, but most specially, the need to love. These motives are linked to the attainment of appropriate relationships with others, that love us as persons and appreciate us for who we are, and not for the presence or absence of certain qualities, or because we are useful to them. The satisfaction derived from actions based on these motives is made manifest in the certainty of knowing that whatever affects us affects the other as well, because it affects us. «People have the ability to internalize — make their own — everything that happens to other people. This internalization process is what we call, in a strict sense, love. People are capable of loving and being loved, and this relationship is what satisfies the emotional or affective relations» (Pérez López, 1993, 60). These three motives may be present when performing the action. A doctor’s foremost concern, for instance, is the health of his patients, although by caring for them he acquires prestige, new knowledge and good earnings at the same time. These motives are not the exclusive prerogative of those who generously spend their life on behalf of others. They are present in any human activity. This is a personal attitude towards work and life. The three motives intervene in any action, but the pre-eminence of one upon the other depends on each individual. The manner in which a person allocates importance to each motive defines his or her motivational quality. The differentiating factor of this type of motivation is that the action seeks to satisfy the needs of a person or persons other than the subject’s. 24

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Facilitating critical thinking among a new generation

The category of the need to be satisfied may be in any of the categories mentioned above: quenching their thirst, helping them become better technicians or learn a new software application, helping them become better parents, or quitting a drug habit. The determining factor is that we are seeking not a change in ourselves, or a result for ourselves, but a direct improvement of the other person’s circumstance. The search for transcendent motives as a guiding principle of movement is one of the main traits that differentiate humans from animals. This is the type of motivation we refer to when talking of generosity, or the orientation towards service, or solidarity, etc. Colloquial language offers us a sample of this: when we qualify a person as “very humane”, we mean this person takes into account what happens to other people and is willing to help them, that is, the transcendent motives are very present in his or her actions. The opposite concept, that of a selfish or not very humane person defines a person whose actions are only directed to his or her own satisfaction, and do not take into account the difficulties that this behaviour may be inflicting on others.

Three different but interconnected motives These three outcomes of the action are three different levels of reality, but are not detachable from each other. They are not mutually independent, but interconnected. The type of feasible actions each of us engages in depends on our inner state, that is, of the level of development of our will and our rationality. Not everybody is prepared to rescue somebody from a house on fire. To be able to do this, the person has had to previously develop the will and the capacity to help others. Hence our capacity to engage in increasingly costly interactions will depend on the level of development of our inner states. On the other hand, the inner states of the reactive agent, coupled with the exercise of individual freedom of action, determine. We see then, that these three categories of reality called efficacy, efficiency and consistency affect the outcome, which is also influenced by the level of trust the reactive agent has in us, indicative of a particular inner state. A high degree of trust between two people allows a great deal of interactions between them that will be accompanied by the corresponding satisfaction they generate. It can be said that in this state all feasible interactions are already possible. 25

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These three different levels of reality, since they are all significant in themselves, can be the motivating factors of our actions, and the outcomes of said actions will, in turn, cover different human needs. The real value of a specific action depends upon the value of all of the outcomes and thus it would be incorrect to analyze the value of an action considering only one or two types of outcome, since the three are present whether the decisor wants it or not.

The motivational quality of the decision Virtue cannot be learned in the same manner as theoretical knowledge is acquired. We do not become prudent merely by reading all the books written about prudence. It is a type of knowledge that must be exercised to really know it. This knowledge is updated via the solutions we give to intermotivational conflicts, that is, conflict that arises amongst different types of motives. Conflict that arises within the same type of motive is called intramotivational. There can be no conflict of values in the theoretical line, or the unity of all values would not be valuable then, but it is obvious that there is a conflict of values in the practical plane caused by the unavoidable presence of evil in the world. Only in a world were all people were good people and all their values were realized would the conflicts between them disappear. It should be stressed that when we fail to incorporate transcendent motives in the decision-making process, it will become increasingly difficult for us to do so. The spontaneous impulse will be less and less sensitive to these types of motives while we will find ourselves gradually further from the most valuable aspects of reality. «Assigning a hierarchy to values implies the capacity to notice that there are different modes of reality and behaviour and that some have higher features than others» (López Quintás, 1993, p. 444). What does the decisor obtain when carrying out “consistent” actions? Something of such calibre that acting differently would be irrational and demential. However, the “reward” must be experienced to know it and to feel it. «We are completely different when we are moral. We change inside out if we exercise our autonomy deciding to be moral, in other words, if we relate to others granting them consideration as valuable beings in themselves» (Sábada, 1995, p. 47). We recognise ourselves as subjects and not objects. The model proposed here does not entail a renunciation of value as such. There is a preference, since the action is going to contain the three inter26

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connected order of values and none of them can be maximized. The rule to decide correctly would be “to always include the third party”. Not surprisingly, the more attractive trait from the perspective of solving a concrete and immediate problem is not acceptable from the perspective of consistency (taking into account the consequences that our actions would have for others). We will then seek a plan of action that while consistent — implicitly in pursuit of positive learning for the receptor of the plan of action — has a minimum of efficacy. «Our personal axiological hierarchy is a result of our preferences. This preference, even if it does not contribute value, contributes at least valuation and places the subject in a concrete position before the values, so it is true that “preference has a creative action”» (Lavelle, 1951, p. 506). The moral virtues play a key role in the implementation of the right action: rationality aided by will has to stop and think of an alternative that contains consistency a priori, and then the subject has to act, after having conquered the spontaneous impulse to act in a more desirable manner. Since moral virtues are developed through practice, transcendent motives can be defined in two different manners: 1. motives based in the action being good for the other address those properties of the action that will provoke those consequences in the subject’s moral virtues: the action must be carried out because it is good for “the environment”; 2. motives based in the action developing moral virtues in the subject. Here transcendent motives are considered as those that improve the self-awareness of the decisor, the development of his or her ability to take better decisions. Moral virtues contemplate the overall goodness of the action and not only the efficacy it has for the other. The paradigm of properly done valuations — a necessasry reference in all education in values — requires always the incorporation of the “consistency of the plan of action”, or paraphrasing Saint Augustine of Hippo, “Tell me what you love and I will tell you who you are”.

A priori valuation of each of these motives Prudence is the virtue that foresees and anticipates future contingent scenarios before they take place in order to avoid a plan of action that 27

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would cause, rather than solve, problems. The assessment or valuation of these three levels of reality or a priori motives cannot be done only by one mechanism that assesses the three scenarios together. We need «three skills or cognitive mechanisms» (Pérez López, 1998, p. 205), since to qualify as motives they have to exist before the action. We use memory — perceptual knowledge — to evaluate a priori, extrinsic motives. A concrete perception — a set comprising action and reaction — accompanied by its associated satisfaction, sets the mechanism in motion anticipating the reward. Memory is the channel we use to connect with past experiences, imprinted inside our selves. These satisfactions are not transferable or communicable. Perceptual knowledge sets in motion the mechanism of spontaneous motivation. Animals move in this manner, their memory is extensive and intensive: they feel, unlike a computer whose memory is solely extensive and therefore feels neither pleasure nor pain resulting in zero cost operations. We use rationality — abstract knowledge — to evaluate a priori intrinsic motives. Rationality is the archive where we file information about the value of things. This process takes effort: thinking, inferring and making predictions based on the available data is costly. Thinking means utilizing, making and applying all this data to feed the process and arrive to a decision regarding the problem at hand. Here is where the will intervenes, and it is at this level where we speak of rational motivation. However, we may have a very “refined” weighing process to evaluate a priori only one dimension: efficacy. In this manner we use reason instrumentally, treating others solely “in function of our interests”, as “a means to”, but not as a value in and of themselves. This corruption of prudence has a degenerating effect on us as persons and eventually disables us from making the same plans we were able to make before, since the others, noticing our modus operandi, will not want to interact with us. We see how rationality articulates two intentions: the explicit, or what we seek with a specific plan of action, and the implicit, the degree in which we more or less care about the impacts of our actions on others. Rationality contributes the aim and the sense of the action and that is why it is such an important element in the development of moral values. Ignorance, when insurmountable, does not harm the subject morally, since he or she is using appropriately the available, albeit incomplete, data. The thinking process is done honestly before implementing the action, and therefore ignorance is not a corrupting factor. 28

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What real value are we assigning the “other” receiving the impact of our action? The development of valuative knowledge allows us to value the other as another self. It allows us to discover personal realities, that is, the inner states of other person. This knowledge, however, calls for a pre-requisite. It is important to note that the individual level of awareness (or capacity for awareness) of the personal realities — incorporating them in the decision-making process — is precisely the same capacity individuals have of feeling deep affective satisfaction. We tend to think that satisfaction of human needs depends solely on what takes place outside the person. This is true — and only partly so — for material needs. The satisfaction of affective needs depends mostly of some thing that is inside the person: the state of his or her valuative knowledge. Even when surrounded by others that truly love them, their deep affective needs will be unsatisfied in the absence of this type of knowledge, because they will be incapable of discovering, and consequently of feeling the affection they feel for them. It is a matter of designing plans of action where it is assumed — intended — that we can trust the other. This entails a cost, an effort and the risk of not arriving to the decision desired by the other. We need to take this risk because avoiding these types of decisions precludes the discovery of the personal realities in an experiential manner, and therefore of feeling their value. The development of this valuative knowledge — that is reached when the decisor is guided by rational motivation based on transcendent motives — is essential for human happiness, because we cannot be happy merely by thinking about it, but with life. Happiness is experiential and this includes feeling. Valuative knowledge allows us to arrive to the point of “feeling” the value of the other as a person that loves us and that we are capable of loving. «That is why it can be said that motivation based on transcendent motives is the motivation that tries to orient human action towards our own personal improvement at the deepest plane of our individual self: our capacity to feel others as people, our capacity to establish deep affective relationships with other human beings» (Pérez López, 1993, p. 61).

Conclusions The purpose of education is to produce competent professionals and people able to live in society, to build society through the exercise of free 29

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actions. Not only the actual functioning of educational institutions, but the very survival of our society depends on the operational existence of true ethical values. Ethics is a science that pointed out, thousands of years ago, that the de facto value a human being assigns to another is not a matter of “what” is being “valued” — it is always a human being — but of “who” is doing the “valuing” and of the level of development this person has reached in the appreciation of what is valuable. There is a process by which we learn to value reality without being deluded by superficial appearances. It is essential to determine which type of capabilities we intend to develop through the educational process. If we develop only operational capacities, we are considering Moral Education as a “moral product” that is transmitted to a third party via the granting of an “Ethics credit”, for instance. The formation of virtues will then be relegated to whatever can be obtained through disciplinary rules, extra-curricular activities, and of course, the exemplariness as role models of the educators themselves. This is all very well and it is important and necessary, but it is not enough. If we also want to develop valuative capacities together with the operational capacities, because we are teaching our students to do complete valuations of reality, we are entering in the deliberative process necessary to exercise prudence, helping then to foster a moral education. I say foster because it is a goal that is only reached if the recipient of this education so desires. In this manner we are endeavouring to provide an education that will enable them to be competent and virtuous professionals. The ethical level is the existential level par excellence. Without ethical experience we can hardly speak of existence, and therefore we acquire prudence if we act with rational motivation based on transcendent motives. In our proposal for an education in moral values we offer the Case Method as a privileged method for decision-making (Lopez-Jurado, 2010). Its very structure confronts the subject with a concrete correct decision, here and now. The instructor, by means of maintaining a dialogue about the situation, brings out and helps manifest the reasoning process of the student until he or she arrives to the point of choosing a plan of action. The questions incorporated in the dialogue serve to rescue the student’s basic guiding motives. There are three criteria related to decision-making: efficacy (economic value), efficiency (psychological value), and consistency (ethical and anthropological value). 30

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Facilitating critical thinking among a new generation

References Bandura, J. (1980). Aprendizaje social y desarrollo de la personalidad. Madrid: Alianza. (A. Bandura, & R.H. Walters, Social learning and personality development. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston). Calder, B.J. (1977). An attributions theory of leadership. In B.M. Satw, & G.R. Salancik (Eds.), New directions in organizational behavior (pp. 179-204). Chicago, IL: St. Clair Press. Ortega Ruiz, P. (2004). La educación moral como pedagogía de la alteridad [Moral education as pedagogy of alterity]. Revista Española de Pedagogía, LXII, 5-30. Castaña, C., Maiz, I., Palacio, G., & Villaroel, D. (2008). Practicas educativas en entornos Web 2.0 [Educational practices in Web 2.0 environments]. Madrid: Editorial Síntesis. Gilligan, C. (1987). Moral orientation and moral development. In E.F. Kittay, & D.T. Myers (Eds.), Women and moral theory. New York, NY: Rowan & Littlefield. Gobry, Y. (1975). De la valeur. Bruxelles: Vander/Nauwelaerts. Jones, H.B. (1995). The ethical leader: an ascetic construct. Journal of Business Ethics, 14. Lavelle, L. (1951). Traité des valeurs. Tomo I. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. (1955) Traité des valeurs. Tomo II. Paris: PUF. López Quintás, A. (1993). El arte de pensar con rigor y vivir de forma creativa [The art of thinking rigorously and living creatively]. Madrid: PPC. López-Jurado Puig, M. (2010). La decisión correcta. El aprendizaje de los valores morales a través de la toma de decisiones [The right decision. The learning of moral values through decisions]. Bilbao: Descleé De Brouwer. McGregor, D. (1996). Leadership and Motivation. Cambrige, MA: MIT Press. Pérez López, J.A. (1993). Fundamentos en la dirección de empresa [Foundations of business administration]. Madrid: Ediciones Rialp. Pérez López, J.A (1998). Liderazgo y ética en la dirección de empresas. Bilbao: Ediciones Deusto. Sábada, J. (1995). El perdón. La soberanía del yo [The pardon. The soverignty of the self]. Barcelona: Paidós. Yepes Stork, R. (1996). Fundamentos de antropología, Un ideal de la existencia humana [Anthropology foundations. An ideal of human existence]. Pamplona: Eunsa.

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Metacognition in primary school: using digital rubric to promote thinking and learning Francesca Pedone

ABSTRACT

Department of Psycology, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze – Ed.15 – 90128 Palermo (Italy). E-mail: francesca.pedone@unipa.it

Research about metacognition and its implications for learning and instruction have become a central issue in education. The call for teaching metacognitive skills is considered one of the main implications for instruction that has emerged from over three decades of research about how people learn. A method to promote the development of metacognition in pupils is to ask them to assess their own work. Pupils who assess their own work will spot areas that need improvement. A rubric is a scoring tool that lays out specific expectations. Moreover this assessment tool conveys effective feedback and promotes student learning and self-assessment. Few of the existing research efforts have focused on the ways in which rubrics can serve the purposes of learning and thinking as well as they meet the demands of evaluation and accountability. This article examines the concept of metacognition and its development in primary school pupils. It analyzes the relationship between writing and metacognition and focuses on the teachers’ role in the enhancement of metacognitive strategies of primary school pupils through writing. In particular, it focuses on how through planning and using digital rubrics it is possible simultaneously to promote students’ writing skills, to develop self-assessment and, therefore, to develop metacognition. Keywords: metacognition; self-assessment; digital rubric; writing.

Edizioni Erickson – Trento

REM – vol. 4, no. 1, June 2012 (33-51)

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Introduction In this article we explore the notion of metacognition with a view to clarify its significance for the development of teaching and learning strategies which enhance the autonomy of pupils’ learning. Two key questions, related to the specific context of the school, are then discussed: one to do with the relationship between metacognition and primary school, and the other with the connection between metacognition and assessment and selfassessment of written essays. Finally, it focuses on how through planning and using digital rubrics it is possible simultaneously to promote students’ writing skills in the last two classes of primary school, to develop selfassessment and, therefore, to develop metacognition.

The educational significance of metacognition Metacognition is a significant factor in successful learning. Flavell first introduced the term “metacognition”, in which he referred to as «one’s knowledge concerning one’s own cognitive processes or anything related to them» (Flavell, 1976, p. 232). Educational and psychological research in the past decade found that metacognitive aptitude starts earlier than was initially realized, it is more amenable to educational intervention than it was previously thought, it can be taught to a wide range of learners and it is both inherently contextual and a unique capacity that is distinguishable from intelligence, cognitive processes and motivation (Dimmit & McCormick, 2012). Metacognition is defined as cognition about one’s own cognitive process (Flavell, 1979; Baker, 2008). A lot of definitions of metacognition have focused on two separate but related aspects: knowledge/awareness of cognitive processes, and regulation and control of cognitive activity (Flavell, 1979; McCormick, 2003). The first element includes both knowledge about cognition or thinking and awareness of one’s own cognition. Awareness of one’s own cognition is obviously necessary to both understand and control cognition. The second element refers to the actual strategies one applies to control cognitive processes, such as planning how to approach a task, monitoring understanding, and evaluating progress and performance. Also called “metacognitive strategies”, the metacognitive control skills consist of leading mental operations in metacognitive processes and can be defined 34

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Metacognition in primary school: using digital rubric to promote thinking and learning

as the ability to strategically use the metacognitive knowledge in order to attain cognitive objectives (Desoete, 2008). Researchers have identified three different kinds of metacognitive knowledge: declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge and conditional knowledge (McCormick, 2003; Harris et al., 2009). Declarative knowledge encompasses knowledge about the self, the task and strategies or procedures applicable to the task. Procedural knowledge is the knowledge needed to carry out procedures, including strategies, in order to apply declarative knowledge and reach goals. Conditional knowledge refers to know when, where, and why to use declarative knowledge as well as particular procedures or strategies (procedural knowledge), and it is critical to effective use of strategies. The effective performance of learners depends upon the application of all three kinds of metacognitive knowledge that vary according to factors such as age, experience and interests. In this paper the last two classes of primary school are taken into account.

Metacognition in Primary School Metacognition is traditionally viewed as a late-developing skill. For many years, researchers believed that young children did not have metacognitive knowledge or skills and that metacognitive instruction was not only a waste of time, but quite possibly detrimental to a childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s learning. Veenman, Van Hout-Wolters & Afflerbach, (2006) remarked that metacognitive skills emerge at the age of 8-10 years and are necessarily proceeded by other cognitive abilities such as the development of the Theory of Mind (Wellman, 1985). However, this position has been challenged by recent researches on both methodological and theoretical grounds. As regards to methodology, it is increasingly recognized that research relying on self-report or verbally-based experimental methodologies may significantly underestimate the metacognitive and self-regulated performance of young children. Recent studies, adopting a range of more age-appropriate methodologies, have identified and begun to analyze metacognitive and selfregulatory behaviours in much younger children (Whitebread et al., 2010). Research on the development of metacognition dates back to the work of Jean Piaget and his assertion that young children do not know that there are such things as conceptual, perceptual, and emotional perspectives of point 35

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of view. Piaget used the concept of egocentrism to interpret the findings of developmental studies on a wide variety of social-cognitive topics such as perceptual perspective taking and understanding of thoughts, dreams, or intentions. Today there is broad agreement that young children are not as egocentric as Piaget believed them to be, but his claim that perspectivetaking abilities and related psychological knowledge develop quickly over time has been confirmed in numerous studies (Schneider & Lockl, 2002). The prominent early metacognitive research, specifically the contributions of Flavell and Brown, emerged from a cognitive developmental perspective. As it is known, the study of metacognition was introduced by Flavell (1976), whose initial focus was on the development of children’s memory. Flavell traced the course of acquisition of the ability to reflect on and control one’s own memory processes. As they get older, children develop the ability to use strategies such as active rehearsal, organization into categories, and, later, elaboration. At a certain point, children become aware of their own memory processes and begin to control them, by deliberately rehearsing the information they wish to remember or by organizing the information into categories. Some of this cognitive activity is done at an automatic level, as when a child, asked to remember a word list, recites the words in categories without any intention or realization of doing so. But when a memory task is more difficult, a child may apply a strategy with effort. At this point, he becomes conscious of what he is doing, and he is using a metacognitive strategy (Williams & Atkins, 2009). About metacognition now we cannot forget an important line of research that has examined, since the eighties, the development of knowledge about the mind in young children, or their Theory of Mind. This interesting field of research can be seen in continuity with the tradition of research on metacognition as it relates to the study of development in the child’s understanding of mental life, the working of the mind, when he thinks or remembers, and the relative independence of their and others’ thoughts. However, the investigation into Theory of Mind has developed into an autonomous and independent research on metacognition. Kuhn (2000) developed a conceptual framework to connect the theory of mind paradigm to related theoretical constructs such as metacognition. She chose the heading of “metaknowing” as a term to encompass any cognition that as cognition — either one’s own or other’ — as its object. Kuhn proposes this term to cover the metacognition at any age. It refers both to 36

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Metacognition in primary school: using digital rubric to promote thinking and learning

an awareness of the existence of different states of mind and sensitivity to the use of task-dependent strategies and objectives. The dichotomy between procedural knowing (knowing how) and declarative knowing (knowing that) was used to distinguish between types of “meta-knowing”. Knowing about declarative knowledge (as a product) was labeled “metacognitive knowing”, whereas knowing about procedural knowing (knowing how) was addressed under the heading of “metastrategic knowing”. In Kuhn’s framework, the metacognitive knowing component addresses young children’s understanding of mental states and thus refers to Theory of Mind research, whereas metastrategic knowing refers to what children know about their cognitive processes and what impact this has on performance (Schneider & Lockl, 2002). According to Schneider (2008) the idea of linking the two research lines in a common framework is important and deserves further attention, especially for the study of the development of metacognition in primary school, where pupils are 5-10 years old. The studies on the development of metacognition indicate a substantial improvement with the age of most of the metacognitive variables, knowledge and control. These studies have focused on changes observed since the early years of primary school to adolescence and have underlined a stronger engagement with the influences of schooling on learning. In other words, as children develop and gain experience with the demand of school, their abilities to monitor and evaluate their learning performances increase. The study of evolutionary change has shown that with increasing age, in parallel with progress in basic skills and in learning, there is a significant increase in knowledge and metacognitive control. The metacognitive knowledge and control is then sophisticated with the development and appear in connection with the progress in learning. The relationship between metacognition and ability is of a causal nature but of biunivocal direction, since that the first affects the second but in turn the performance and the learning experience enrich the knowledge metacognitive. Neuropsychological research has shown that the development of the prefrontal lobe in the brain is related to an increase of executive functioning during childhood and adolescence (Crone et al., 2006). Executive functions, such as planning processes and inhibitory processes, are closely related to metacognitive skills (Veenman, 2011). Earlier this kind of research had to rely on patients with brain damage, but now, Dimmit and McCormick 37

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(2012) assert, there is a growing consensus that executive function is the superordinate theoretical framework, and it is certainly the construct most relevant researchers searching for brain-based connections to learning. Summarizing lifespan development of metacognition begins with young children’s awareness of mental functions (Annevirta & Vauras, 2006). During its extended developmental course, metacognition becomes more explicit, powerful, and effective and also more consciously controlled (Kuhn, 2000). Research has indicated that by age five, many children have acquired some understanding of beliefs and can recognize that a person could have false beliefs (Flavell & Hartman, 2004). As regards thinking about one’s thinking, Flavell and Hartman (2004) found that five-year-olds were often unable to describe what they were thinking while seven- and eight-year-olds were much more skilled at tasks requiring introspection and description of thought content. Research has also indicated that older primary school children exhibit better metacognitive knowledge and control than younger primary students, but growth in metacognitive abilities may not occur in the absence of instruction focused on developing these strategies (Baker, 2008). Metacognitive instructional interventions have been shown to make a difference in supporting the development of metacognitive knowledge in primary school children (Dimmit & McCormick, 2012). About implication for instruction, several researches have promoted the use of instructional approaches that utilize direct instruction, teacher modeling and extensive opportunities for practice, especially for strategies instruction (Dimmit & McCormick, 2012). Baker (2005) described a common pattern in a metacognitive strategy development. Initially children do not use strategies spontaneously. Once explicitly taught, children can use a strategy (i.e., procedural knowledge) but may not benefit from using it. Then, they may use a strategy effectively but not in diverse settings or for different tasks unless there is a lot of practice. Additionally, many students are capable of independently using metacognitive strategies only with support and instruction concerning the development of conditional knowledge. Whitebread and colleagues (2007) emphasized the role that classroom culture plays in fostering the development of metacognitive processes and advocated for pedagogy focused on the creation of social environments that support the development of cognition and a nonthreatening evaluation approach and mastery oriented. In this direction it can be read Larkin’s (2009) 38

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Metacognition in primary school: using digital rubric to promote thinking and learning

recent research on children collaborating in writing tasks that indicates that the nature of the relationship is of major importance in effective reflection. Drawing on the research on effective strategies instruction, Meltzer, Polica, and Barzillai (2007) identified principles for strategies instruction and fostering strategic classroom culture. These principles include linking strategies instruction directly to the curriculum, explicit and systematic teaching strategies with cognitive modeling and extended practice, and addressing students’ motivation and self-evaluation. Recent studies (Baker, 2008) highlight the opportunity to shift from a teacher’s explicit teaching of strategies to a gradual release of responsibility to the students themselves.

Improving metacognition at the end of primary school through writing According to Harris et al. (2009) students who struggle significantly with writing are at a terrible disadvantage in today’s world. By the upper primary grades, writing becomes a critical tool both for learning and for showing what is known. Writing is critical to gathering, refining, extending, preserving, and transmitting information and understanding; making ideas readily available for consideration, evaluation, and future discourse; fostering the examination of unexamined assumptions and creating cognitive disequilibrium that spurs learning; promoting personal development (Graham, 2006; Prior, 2006). Students who do not write well cannot support and extend learning; adults with inadequate writing skills can face significant barriers in their job. Studies of writing and metacognition have focused on verbal reports of children’s ability to reflect on the writing process, on strategy use or on monitoring (Larkin, 2010). Since the 1980s writing has been seen as a problem solving activity and models of writing have highlighted the cognitive processes involved. One of the best known models of writing is Hayes and Flower’s one (1980), which breaks writing down into the three processes of planning, translating and reviewing. Moreover, they showed that writing is a recursive process, so that these three elements occur and reoccur during the writing process. Metacognition is an important component of Hayes and Flower’s model of writing, with metacognition playing a critical role in effective writing. 39

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As we have previously seen the growth of metacognitive abilities over time reflects an ongoing important developmental transition from being other-regulated to being self-regulated. Teachers can provide learning environments which support these developmental transitions. As mentioned above the first major element of metacognition is knowledge about cognition, which includes declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge. According to Harris and colleagues (2009) in term of writing, declarative knowledge is knowledge about the self as a writer and knowledge regarding the writing task. Declarative knowledge also includes the writers’ knowledge about their own affect related to writing, including their self-efficacy for writing in general and the specific writing task, their motivation to write and how these and other affective factors may influence their writing. Thus, for composing, it is important to consider whether writers understand their levels of proficiency with respect to various forms of writing as well as various compositional processes, their environmental preferences, their attitudes toward writing, their levels of writing self-efficacy and their writing motivation (Harris et al., 2010). Procedural knowledge is needed in order to apply declarative knowledge and reach the writer’s goals (e.g., understanding general strategies that allow for efficacious planning, text production and revising; specific strategies that are commonly employed with particular genres). Procedural knowledge can also include knowledge about one’s own optimal writing environment. Conditional knowledge allows the writers to determine the appropriate conditions (when, where, why) in which to apply their procedural and declarative knowledge. Harris and colleagues have argued that «without careful development of all three kinds of knowledge, success in writing is unlikely. Furthermore, unless students experience initial success with writing, it is unlikely that they will expend effort necessary to use more complicated strategies and perform increasingly demanding writing tasks effectively» (Harris et al., 2009, pp. 134-135). The second major element of metacognition is the conscious regulation of writing activity. This is a complex element for skilled writers, as they seek to regulate such factors as selection and use of strategies and skills, the writing environment, managing cognitive load, their affective responses to writing and attentional control (Harris et al., 2009; Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997). The most influential theoretical frameworks emphasize the idea that writing is a recursive, strategic, and multidimensional process central to 40

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Metacognition in primary school: using digital rubric to promote thinking and learning

planning what to say and how to say, translating ideas into written text, revising what has been written (Harris et al., 2010). The emphasis on process rather than product alone clearly addressed the development of metacognition in writing. Instructional programs designed to foster the development of metacognitive strategies specifically used in the writing process, such as planning, drafting, revising and editing (e.g. Englert et al., 1991, Graham & Harris, 1994), have been demonstrated to improve metacognitive awareness and the quality of writing in the upper classes of primary school. In the process approach to writing instruction, teachers create an environment where students have time not only to write, but to think and reflect upon what they are writing about. Instruction takes place in a supportive environment where students are encouraged to choose their own topics, help each other and take risks. Students write for real purposes and for real audiences, rather than just for their teachers, and are given opportunities for extended writing. An important goal in the process approach is for students to see writing as a process, albeit one that is difficult and frustrating at times, yet also a challenging and enjoyable vehicle for learning and self-expression. Several authors (Hacker, Keener, & Kircher, 2009; Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997) have argued persuasively that the very act of writing is applied to metacognition: «Writing is the production of thought for oneself or others under the direction of one’s goal-directed metacognitive monitoring and control, and the translation of that thought into an external symbolic representation» (Hacker, Keener, & Kircher, 2009, p. 154). According to Dimmit and McCormick (2012), the acts of reading and rereading one’s writing and then reflecting on and reviewing what has been written are monitoring strategies. Control strategies include idea generation, drafting, editing, and revision.

Planning and using digital rubrics to assessing writing and develop metacognition After an analysis of theories and researches on the metacognitive processes involved in teaching children how to write, Harris and colleagues’ (2009) concluded that there is significant empirical evidence of the efficacy of teaching students metacognitive strategies in writing. The writing 41

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instruction methods with the most research support were to explicitly teach students planning, revisiting, and editing strategies; communicate clear and specific goals for the outcome of the writing; teach students how to write more complex and sophisticated sentences; provide instruction in prewriting activities, such as generating and ordering ideas. A method to promote the development of metacognitive skill in students is to ask them to assess their own work. Students who assess their own work â&#x20AC;&#x201D; e.g. by evaluating, regulating and monitoring their written essays â&#x20AC;&#x201D; will spot areas that need improvement. In this direction the rubric is an effective tool. A rubric is a tool of assessing how students have performed a task. The rubric can be briefly defined as a list of objectives, what the student will learn or learn to do as a result of completing the assignment. For each objective, a rubric will also list performance indicators, observable evidence that the student has gained the objective knowledge and/or skills to varying degrees, each degree having an assigned number of points leading to a grade (Warlick, 2010). Recent research (Andrade, Du & Wang, 2008) about using rubrics with primary school pupils provides support for the hypothesis that to use a rubric to self-assess first drafts is positively related to the quality of the writing. Pupils of the last two classes ought to be actively engaged in critiquing sample pieces of writing, in thinking together about the criteria that are in the rubrics by which their writing will be evaluated, and in self-assessment of their works in progress. By involving students in the assessment process, teachers can blur the distinction between instruction and assessment and transform classroom assessment into a moment of learning. Rubrics are often used to grade student work, but many authors argue that they can serve another, more important, role as well: rubrics can teach as well as evaluate (Arter & McTighe, 2001). Stiggins (2001) argues that, when used as part of a formative, student-centered approach to assessment, rubrics have the potential to help students develop understanding and skill, as well as make dependable judgments about the quality of their own work. Other assessment theorists (Brookhart, 2003; Shepard, 2000; Wiggins, 1998) put forward a similar conception of assessment as a moment of learning. As it is known, a rubric clearly articulates expectations for a task through a list of criteria describing the quality levels on a scale of numerical or qualitative scores. In rubrics complex performances are separated into simple elements, for each of which is provided a definition as less ambigu42

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Metacognition in primary school: using digital rubric to promote thinking and learning

ous as possible of the levels of performance expected. Using a rubric in the classroom offers many advantages for teachers and pupils. First, the teacher who plans a rubric, has a clear representation of the level to which he should lead the preparation of pupils and he is also induced to reflect on the skills involved in the specific skills tested; he can monitor the progress of students and has a useful reference to personalize the work of students, pointing which aspects should be addressed to the efforts; he has a shared and transparent basis for the certification of skills; he has an objective reference point for interaction with students and parents; he has got a tool for building paths of self-assessment and peer review among peers; he has a starting point for a gradual redefinition of the aspects of cognitive and metacognitive competence to promote since rubrics must be designed as a tool constantly changing. On the other hand, the use of the rubric in the classroom allows students to have a clear picture of what it is important to do, to know in advance what will be assessed, to self-evaluate their strengths and weaknesses, to know on what their efforts should be directed, to monitor their progress. Pupils’ advantages just listed, are real advantages only if the rubric is made known to pupils at the beginning of a training or a job to do, if it is expressed in an understandable way, if it is used during construction to review and improve their performance, if it is built and reviewed with the students and finally, if it is accompanied by examples of levels of competence (“anchors”). The rubric facilitates the practice of self-assessment which enables the student to better understand and to regulate himself, to learn how to leverage on its strengths, to improve even in the least developed aspects, to formulate realistic plans about his future, to know how to make the best choices for his future (Laveaut, 1999). On one hand, distributing and explaining a rubric does improve pupils’ knowledge of the criteria for writing; on the other hand to translate that knowledge into actual writing is a process much more challenging (Andrade, 2001). For this reason, teachers must consider the planning step of a rubric as a phase that acts as a “bridge” between the correction of themes and the planning of educational activities to recover or improve pupils’ learning. A recent study (Rezaei & Lovorn, 2010) has showed that the use of rubrics cannot improve the reliability and validity of the assessment, if who assess is not well trained in how to plan and use the rubric. In other words, if the teacher using the rubric is not actively involved from the stage of its plan43

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ning, the rubric risks becoming little more than a checklist. For this reason the rubric should be planned along with teachers who actually use rubrics in their classrooms. For the construction of the rubric we can refer to the procedural sequence of Arter (1994), which is characterized by an inductive process based on the experience of teachers. By sharing a rubric with the students, teachers can help them to become progressively more aware of their writing and more attentive to the processes put in place while they are doing, because it allows both the teacher and his pupils, to identify and clarify the specific expectations related to the writing tasks and it indicates how pupils achieved the objectives set (Comoglio, 2003). For this reason the rubric must be thoroughly presented by teachers to pupils and it must be left with them, one for each student, during the written tests to help them understand the objectives of the task and to teach them how to self-head in the planning stages, transcription and revision of the text. With the help of teachers, pupils can personalize their own rubrics enriching them with “anchors” chosen from their own work. In this way the rubric allows the starting of a dialogue between teachers and students on teaching cognitive and metacognitive processes of writing. In particular, indicators related to the criteria of the metacognitive dimension of the writing process must be the subject of a conversation between teacher and students because the indicators cannot always be detected only through the reading of written text. Planning and constructing a rubric intends to create a desire for change in educational practice, giving primary school teachers a tool for teaching and assessing which would allow them to become more aware of their own educational practice, in order that they were urged to change attitudes, communicative styles, education-learning methodologies, to review their valuable role as educators, in an effective teaching-learning process. According to what has been said so far, if properly planned, a rubric can play a triple role: to evaluate the performance of students; explicitly to teach cognitive strategies; to promote metacognition. We present an example of a rubric for the written essays assessment for fourth and fifth grades of primary school (9-10 years). The work is the result of a research carried out with primary school teachers (Pedone, in press). Based on the Calonghi’s studies (1972, 1993, 2006) and on teachers’ indications, we defined four dimension of the rubric involved in the writ44

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Metacognition in primary school: using digital rubric to promote thinking and learning

ing process: the conceptual development related to the content of the essay, the organizational aspects of writing, the formal aspects of language, the metacognitive aspects. We defined 24 criteria deducing from the research of Calonghi-Boncori, 2006; Boscolo (2003), La Marca (2003), Cisotto (2009). The criteria indicate the goals and objectives to be achieved and they are also useful in determining when they are achieved. It is essential to explain the criteria to involve pupils in their assessment of writing skills. Then it was identified for each criterion an example of indicator. The result of this work is an ordered list of 4 dimensions, 24 criteria and 24 indicators that characterize the skill of the writing essays (Table 1).

Dimensions

Conceptual development related to the content of the essay

Organizational aspects of writing

Formal language aspects

Criteria

Some examples of indicators

Relevance to the theme

Pupils express a significant relationship between title of the theme and text.

Completeness of the essay

Pupils cover the subject from several points of view.

Amount of considerations

Pupils produce various considerations and observations.

Lexical variety

Pupils use several words to explain and argue.

Originality

Pupils draw innovative, fantastic and amazing relations, similes and comparisons.

Logical argumentation of thinking

In the written text pupils process syllogisms (even in a non-strict way), comparisons, hypothetical propositions, final propositions, consecutive sentences and causal propositions.

Critical faculty

Pupils process judgment to assert connections and personal relationships.

Authenticity

Pupils communicate their feelings.

Layout of the essay

Pupils organize the text with a clear beginning, a body and a conclusion.

Ordering of considerations

Pupils order the sentences to facilitate the reader to understand the text.

Linking between sentences and periods

Pupils connect the sentences when the subject changes by using conjunctions in a specific and general meaning.

Organization of the sentence or period

Pupils write the text being careful to complete the sentences.

Punctuation

Pupils write the text using correct punctuation.

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Metacognitive aspects

Table 1

Grammar

Pupils write the text respecting the grammar rules.

Spelling

Pupils write the text by writing the words correctly.

Lexical features

Pupils write the text using relevant and appropriate vocabulary.

Motivation effort

Pupils write a good essay even when the subject do not interest them.

Emotional reactions

Pupils exhibit a positive attitude towards writing and themselves as writers.

Asking help

Pupils use some tools as an help (e.g. Vocabulary).

Metacomprehension

Pupils try to clarify the purpose of writing.

Self-regulation

When pupils fix a part of the text they control if corrections go well with the other parts.

Self-assessment

Pupils express judgments about their knowledge, abilities and strategies.

Planning

Pupils organize a text in relation to a goal and taking into account those who will read it.

Reviewing

The text presents several revision marks (e.g. erasures, self-corrections).

Dimensions, criteria and indicators that characterize the skill of the writing essays.

Each indicator has been declined on a three level scale (high level, middle level, beginning level), which specifies criteria achievement degree based on an ordinal scale that goes from the highest level showing the full achievement of the criteria, to the lowest indicating the minimum requirement for success. The rubric planned and built in paper format has got the limit of complexity due to the high number of criteria and indicators. This limit can be easily overcome through the digitalization of the tool. Rubric can be translated to a digital format so that they may be made available through intranet or internet. When connected to a database, it provides teachers with data that can be aggregated (Buzzetto-More & Alade, 2006). The planning of a digital rubric can be placed in a rapidly evolving area of research focusing on metacognition in computer-based learning environments. Today various online rubric generation tools are available and will likely continue to be developed as stand-alone tools as well as tools integrated in other products such as electronic portfolio (Conn, 2011). 46

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Metacognition in primary school: using digital rubric to promote thinking and learning

Digital rubrics can easily be part of e-assessment systems, which should have the following features (Smadi et al., 2009). – Flexible design to be used as a stand-alone service or to be easily integrated in existing systems. – User-friendly interfaces for both students and teachers where a user interaction and online submission of solution and evaluation can be done. – Management and (semi-)automatic support over the entire assessment lifecycle (exercises creation, storage and compilation for assessments, as well as assessment performance, grading and feedback provision). – Support of various educational objectives and subjects by using various tools sets which for example enables automatic exercise generation or selection, automatic grading and feedback provision. – Results analysis and feedback provision (immediately or timely) of the current state of user knowledge and metacognitive skills for both educators and learners and also for adapting activities and learning contents based on pupil’s models. – Standard-conform information and services to be easily sharable, reusable and exchangeable. This will include the tests’ questions, answers and students’ results, rather than any other required services. – Security and privacy where a secure logon of users based on pre-defined levels of access, and also users’ authentication based on machine (domain users) or by usernames/passwords. The digital rubric designed by the teacher is conceived as a file that the student can edit on web (Rossi & Giannandrea, 2006). With the help of the teacher every student should be able to highlight the levels and indicators acquired or to be acquired; to detail and further specify levels and indicators, where in the rubric these are felt as too general; to place linking artifacts to support the assessment. For the implementation of the digital rubric we suggest that it is better to use a collaborative writing program which allows the editing of a text, keeping in memory the previous versions.

Conclusions Rubric’s planning and construction can be configured as an occasion in which teachers and pupils engage a dialogue on the processes of learning how to write; in this way, the focus shifts from evaluative aspects of the text 47

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area to the activities and operations underlying its preparation. The rubric allows teachers and pupils to pay attention not only to the mechanical characteristics of writing, but also to the cognitive and metacognitive processes involved in the writing process. The digitization and interoperability of the tool can provide useful support to the aims of the rubric, managing to combine the request of personalization of learning with the need to provide not subjective parameters to the evaluation process. A printed rubric can hardly list all the possible levels of a marker or all of the possible indicators of competence, while personalized educational needs solicit to dwell on individual aspects. The digital rubric offers the possibility to integrate the two levels.

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Can technology enhance creativity? The role of self-regulation and self-efficacy in using ICT to foster non-linear, non-standard teaching and learning Maria Cinque

ABSTRACT

University of Udine, Via mons. Pasquale Margreth, 3 – 33100 Udine (Italy). Fondazione Rui, Viale XXI Aprile, 36 – 00186 Roma (Italy). E-mail: maria.cinque@gmail.com

Creativity is a relatively new area in technology enhanced learning: while there is wide proof that technology can effectively enhance learning, no adequate evidence has so far been gathered about the fact that ICT can stimulate divergent, out-of-the box thinking. There are many tools that claim to be capable to enforce and stimulate creativity, but there is no indication on their real efficacy. We present a literature review on creativity studies and on on-line environments — particularly learning environments and social networks — that are analysed from a metacognitive and a socio-cognitive perspective in order to evaluate their capability to generate new knowledge, ideas and concepts, or new associations between existing ideas or concepts. We found out that technology enhanced learning offers opportunities and tools to improve creativity in the learning process, enhancing non-linear and non-standard thinking, collaborative problem solving, shifting the focus from teaching to learning and stressing the participatory nature of knowledge creation. On-line environments can help establish purposeful connections among people and their ideas; they can be used to retrieve resources (publications, articles, previous projects etc), to find experts and tools, to carry out research tasks proactively, costeffectively and efficiently. Keywords: creativity; self-efficacy; self-regulation; metacognitive approach; sociocognitive approach.

Edizioni Erickson – Trento

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REM – vol. 4, no. 1, June 2012

Introduction Background The “traditional” way of teaching/learning in schools and universities seems to constrain students’ creative thinking instead of fostering those “complex” capabilities required for the “education of the future” (Morin, 1999). This happens, according to many studies (for example Sarason, 1990; Sternberg, 2006; Sharan and Chin Tan, 2008; Robinson, 2009), because much of what young people do in school is driven by an idea of “the right answer” and one standard way to get it. There is a strong need to front the challenges of changing society and of technological progress, that require a more flexible and divergent thinking attitude. Can technology enhance this attitude? Objective. Our aim is to present a literature review in order to understand if and how ICT can enhance creative skills and learning outcomes such as: complex thinking; social skills and participatory learning; personal shaping of knowledge. Methodology. We browsed different databases (ERIC, Psychoinfo, Google scholar) using different keywords and different combinations of them. The review is focused on creativity studies and on on-line environments — particularly learning environments and social networks — that are analysed from a metacognitive and a socio-cognitive perspective in order to evaluate their capability to generate new knowledge, ideas and concepts, or new associations between existing ideas or concepts. Results. Many studies have demonstrated that computers are able to capture and represent metacognitive knowledge and abilities in different ways. The so called “knowledge technologies” have been exploited to create innovative and challenging self-regulation scenarios in e-learning systems. In the discussion on technology-enhanced learning, there is a strong trend promoting the switch from Learning Management System (course centric) to a Personal Learning Environment (PLE) (people centric) and then to Personal Learning Network. Social networks are a part of most students’ online lives. Active participation in a diversity of social interactions or networks is crucial to increase the quality, quantity and scope of knowledge building. The study of social network analysis (SNA) provides a robust and established methodology for evaluating and monitoring the development of individual and team creativity. SNA offers the opportunity to identify and 54

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Can technology enhance creativity?

graphically represent the key creative individuals within a network, providing more explicit evidence of creativity as a learning outcome. Furthermore, through monitoring the evolution of student social networks teachers can determine the impact of the specific pedagogies designed to foster creative capacity. Nevertheless in order to enhance creativity through technologies, some pedagogical needs are still to be fulfilled.

Educational and research aspects related to creativity An overview of the studies All the research on creativity — whether historical, psychological (psychoanalytic, psychometric, cognitive, etc.), pedagogical, sociological, philosophical or computational — has been influenced by the complexity of the concept and by the fact that different people use the term in different ways. This is why it has generated a plethora of, often very broad and generic, definitions. Mark Runco (2004), inspired by Rhodes (1961), classified this large number of definitions around four dimensions, the four P’s of creativity: – person, the individual involved in the creative act; – product, the output resulting from the creative act; – process, the mental processes in creation; – press/environment, the social context of creative acts. On another level Wehner, Csikszentmihalyi and Magyari-Beck (1991) classified the creativity studies according to the focus, that might be on different aspects (trait, process, product), social levels (individual, group, organization, culture), with different approaches (empirical versus theoretical; qualitative versus quantitative). Initially creativity research (mid-20th century) focused on the person. Scientists were primarily interested in a person’s creative abilities and especially those of the creative genius and in clinical disorders often associated with creativity. Later, a large amount of research in psychology was focused on the development of creative capabilities, i.e. giftedness of children and adolescents in school settings. Recent research (from the 1990s onwards) studied the cognitive processes behind creativity and social environments conducive to creativity. In recent years the creative nature of an act or product has been defined in relation to the social context. Studies investigate the role of the social environment on 55

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creativity. Richard Florida (2002, 2005, 2010) has used a complex index to analyse the creativity of some cities (before in the USA, the Silicon Valley, and then, in Europe): he added to the 4 P’s the 3 T’s: Talent, Technology, and Tolerance. Considering Educational research and Pedagogical aspect, the main approaches are illustrated in Figure 1. From Functionalism, whose aim was to study the brain areas connected to creativity, to Behaviourism, which studied the Early Traits of Geniuses (this is the title of a book published in 1926 by Catherine Cox, who studied the biographies 300 talents, who had given an important contribution in different fields). Cognitivism elaborated a Computational Model of Creativity, with an attempt to extend creativity to the machines, Constructivism focused on the Process (particularly on the role of Creativity in Active Learning) and Connectivism concentrated on the creative interactions, on a networked model of creativity. This schema is not to be read diachronically: Functionalism, for example, is a still alive approach, particularly today when we have useful tools to study the human brain.

Figure 1

Different approaches in pedagogical creativity studies.

From the cognitive to the socio-cognitive perspective: creativity selfefficacy The creative cognition perspective (Finke, Ward & Smith, 1992; Ward, Smith & Finke, 1999) approaches creativity from a cognitive (educational and psychological) perspective and suggests that creativity is a “learnable” human attribute. All important activities of creative problem solving — such 56

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Can technology enhance creativity?

as articulation and communication of ideas, sense making, structuring initial knowledge, divergent and convergent thinking, finding shared understanding between peers on problem and solution and developing new interpretations of knowledge — involve cognitive transformations, i.e. learning. Through opportune creativity strategies (methods, techniques and tools) barriers can be removed and creativity traits can be enhanced. Raymond Nickerson, experimental psychologist from Tufts University composed a set of support strategies for creativity enhancement (Nickerson, 1999): establish purpose and intention during creative activities, build on the availability of creativity competences, act upon relevant domain knowledge, stimulate curiosity and exploration, provide opportunities for choice and discovery, support intrinsic motivation, afford preparedness to take risks, encourage confidence and reward risk taking, support metacognitive skills of individual person and team, support self-management of person in relation to the group, support learning by “teaching” appropriate techniques and strategies to facilitate creative performance, provide balance. Robert Sternberg (2003) argues that creativity should not be considered in isolation from other constructs of human abilities (i.e., intelligence and wisdom); rather, it is best understood in a societal context. This is why Sternberg and his colleagues (Sternberg, 2006; Sternberg & Lubart, 1991; 1996) have chosen to use a confluence approach as a basis for their work on creativity. According to their investment theory of creativity (Sternberg & Lubart, 1991; 1996), creative people are those who are willing and able to “buy low and sell high” in the realm of ideas. “Buying low” means pursuing ideas that are unknown or out of favour but that have growth potential. Often, when these ideas are first presented, they encounter resistance. The creative individual persists in the face of this resistance and eventually sells high, moving on to the next new or unpopular idea. According to the investment theory, creativity requires a confluence of six distinct but interrelated resources: intellectual abilities, knowledge, styles of thinking, personality, motivation, and environment. New componential models of creativity, as those by Sternberg (1999, 2003) and Amabile (1996) build on the socio-cognitive environment and have enriched earlier cognitive models by including multiple dimensions that contribute to creativity: personal, process-related factors plus social and context variables. Success according to Amabile (1996), Boden (2004) and Sternberg (2003) requires foremost stimulation of motivation and commitment in combination with social context dimensions. 57

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Studies on creativity have identified critical individual and contextual variables that contribute to individuals’ creative performance. However, the psychological mechanisms through which these factors influence creative performance have not yet been systematically investigated. A recent study (Choi, 2004) explored potential psychological processes that mediate the effects of various individual and contextual variables on the creative performance of individuals. The results, based on longitudinal, multisource data, show that underlying psychological processes (creative self‐efficacy and creativity intention) completely mediated the effect of individual (motivation, personality, ability) and contextual factors (social influences from leaders and peers) on creative performance. This study informs the literature of potential psychological mechanisms through which individual and contextual factors influence the creative performance of individuals. The study concluded that creative self‐efficacy and creative intention mediate the effects of individual characteristics (e.g., personality and creative ability) and social influences (e.g., supportive leadership and open group climate) on creative performance. According to the Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1977; 2011) selfefficacy refers to beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments. Creativity self-efficacy refers to «the belief one has the ability to produce creative outcomes» (Tierney & Farmer, 2002). It is a form of self-evaluation that influences decisions regarding the amount of effort and the persistence level undertaken when encountering challenges creatively (Bandura, 1977). Self-efficacy belief is a major driving force for creative actions. Growing empirical evidence has manifested direct or reciprocal links between efficacy beliefs and creativity-related outcomes (Bandura, 1997). Carmeli and Schaubroeck (2007) reported the influence of an individual’s perceived expectations of his work and that of supervisors, customers and family on the individual’s creative involvement at work. The finding is consistent with that of McNatt and Judge (2004): deliberately raising expectations led to sustained higher performance only among self-efficacious individuals. In Tierney and Farmer’s (2002) study, job self-efficacy was found to be the strong predictor of creative self-efficacy. In more recent studies (Tan, Li & Rotgans, 2011) the construct of creativity self‐efficacy includes creativity self‐efficacy related to creativity relevant processes, creativity self‐efficacy related to domain‐relevant processes, and creativity self‐efficacy related to task motivation. 58

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Self-regulation in on-line environments and creativity selfefficacy Metacognition and dysregulated behaviour Metacognitive knowledge, the highest level of knowledge, as presented in didactic taxonomies, refers to the ability and opportunity for learners to understand, control, direct and manipulate their knowledge and their learning process, i.e. their attitude to self-regulated learning (Azevedo et al., 2009). Many studies (for example, Antonietti & Cantoia, 2001; Gama 2004) have demonstrated that computers are able to capture and represent metacognitive knowledge and abilities in different ways: through graphical representation of interaction, tracking changes and recording times (to monitor for example the time spent in a task, in a process of problem solving, etc.), giving the opportunity to reflect on and compare group discussions (chats) or personal reflections (blog). Technological artifacts make visible choices, mental associations, and different approaches to learning and problem solving and can help students gaining awareness of their mental processes. A key role in learning process is represented by motivational beliefs and affective aspects (Pintrich et al., 2003). This assumption is still valid in technology enhanced learning environments. Learning expectations in technology enhanced learning environment and with computer-mediated communication tools (chat, web forum, etc.) refer to the belief that these tools can help students learn better (Garland & Noyes, 2004). Studies on elearning and on-line education have demonstrated that expectations strongly influence studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; satisfaction in the use of ICT tools (Bures et al., 2002). Expectations are furthermore mediated by studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perception of their self-efficacy in using online tools. This belief is strongly influenced by the structural model of self-motivation and self-regulation of action (Bandura, 2011). Successful learning with advanced learning technologies is based on the premise that learners adaptively regulate their cognitive and metacognitive behaviours during learning. However, there is abundant empirical evidence that suggests that learners typically do not adaptively modify their behaviour, thus suggesting that they engage in what is called dysregulated behaviour (Azevedo & Feyzi-Behnagh, 2011). 59

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As Gaeta et al. (2011) contend, knowledge technologies have been exploited to create innovative and challenging self-regulation scenarios in elearning systems. A learning environment that could act as a metacognitive artifact, suitably scaffolding learners to improve their self-regulated abilities, is still lacking though. Learning processes, especially when linked to “conceptually rich domains” (Azevedo, 2009; Lin, 2001), require strategic environments, where learning experiences are the result of a design phase that looks at a metacognitive perspective (Tsai, 2009) as a vehicle to stimulate reflexive processes on knowledge and self-knowledge. From PLE to PLN In the discussion on technology-enhanced learning, there is a strong trend promoting the switch from Learning Management System (course centric) to a Personal Learning Environment (PLE) (people centric) and then to Personal Learning Network (Downes, 2010). Social networks are a part of most students’ online lives. They offer a different look and feel to the institutionally hosted VLE (Virtual Learning Environment) and this encourages different sorts of behaviours. The focus is on user generated content whereas in a VLE the navigation and structure is fixed by the VLE/ tutor and the users have to fit into what tutors set up. Social networks represent a gradual decentralization of content and contact online. Content management systems organize people and content by hierarchy, by topic and content thread. In social networks, such associations are created by the users themselves. Topics, for example, are not assigned centrally, but are instead created by individuals that “tag” certain content with terms or categories. When applied to the higher education environment, the development of student learning communities can be seen to demand more than the generation of a single good idea or shared need in order to thrive. Alongside other institutions such as schools, libraries and museums, universities are seen to face distrust and a growing loss of faith amongst younger generations (Downes, 2010). This clash is particularly evident in terms of the linear and hierarchical ways in which universities set out to structure communication, learning and access to knowledge. Social media support forms of knowledge consumption and knowledge construction that are very different to the epistemological principles of formal education and individualized instruction. These changes are encapsu60

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lated in Douglas Thomas and John Seely-Brown’s (2011) description of a technology-enhanced “new culture of learning! — i.e. learning that is based around principles of collective exploration, play and innovation rather than individualized instruction. Thus being knowledgeable can be seen as the ability to nurture and maintain these connections (Chatti, Amine & Quix, 2010). Social networking and creativity Active participation in a diversity of social interactions or networks is crucial to increase the quality, quantity and scope of knowledge building. This fact is made apparent in the comprehensive studies of the impact of diverse social networks on creativity by sociologist Ronald Burt (2004) observed that individuals who act as “links” or “bridges” across previously disparate groups (structural holes) have richer access to information and resources than those with a more insular network structure. As Burt states, these individuals «are able to see early, see more broadly, and translate information across groups», and this in turn provides them with «a vision of options otherwise unseen». Burt describes this “translating” or brokering function as value-adding creativity. These “translators” have both the ability to move knowledge around in value-adding ways, and the capacity to initiate and maintain “boundary-spanning relationships” (Geletkanycz & Hambrick, 1997) within and outside their immediate environment. The interplay between network agility — the capacity to create “boundary spanning relationships” — and creativity is further highlighted in the research of McWilliam and Dawson (2008), who note parallels between creative teams and the “flocking behaviour” of social organisms in their elaboration of the social dynamics that facilitate the development of creativity. As McWilliam elaborates elsewhere, «flocking together allows birds to fly higher and exhibit greater scheduling and routing capacities than each bird can do alone» (McWilliam, 2008). In a learning context, student outcomes are likewise optimized through aspects of teamwork (Cockrell, Caplow & Donaldson, 2000), play (McWilliam, 2007), interchange of leadership, networking and communication (Cabrera, Colbeck & Terenzini, 2001). These characteristics are typical of a dynamic community of practice or learning community, where student engagement is both rich and diverse (Dawson, 2006; Garrison, 2007). 61

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Thinking of groups that collaborate online creatively can take the form of a networked flow (Riva, Milani & Gaggioli, 2010) or swarm creativity, an expression created in 2006 by Peter A. Gloor (2006) to indicate a better way of working together through project networks. Peter Gloor admits that the concept of project networks is not new; however, because of improved communication capabilities, such networks have reached a “tipping point”. Examples of swarm creativity are COINs, a Collaborative Innovation Networks, defined by Gloor (2006) as «cyberteams of self-motivated people with a collective vision, enabled by the Web to collaborate in achieving a common goal by sharing ideas, information, and work» (p. 4). Characteristically, COINs are self-organizing, open systems. They are not collaborative, virtual teams set up by management. In some cases, COINs can transform into “startup companies, project teams, and business units” (Gloor, 2006, p. 139), but this phenomenon, as the other “behaviours” of COINs, is casual, random.

Measuring student creativity through social network analysis The study of social network analysis (SNA) provides a robust and established methodology for evaluating and monitoring the development of individual and team creativity. SNA offers the opportunity to identify and graphically represent the key creative individuals within a network (Tepper, 2006), providing more explicit evidence of creativity as a learning outcome. Furthermore, through monitoring the evolution of student social networks teachers can determine the impact of the specific pedagogies designed to foster creative capacity. While SNA provides a robust methodology for observing and measuring student creativity, the practical matter remains of how to visualize these student networks in a scalable, automated process. The solution to this problem lies in the increasing adoption of information and communication technologies (ICTs) across the higher education sector. The vast majority of higher education institutions internationally have adopted ICTs to enhance flexibility of access to student learning resources. These ICTs have largely taken the form of commercial and open source learning management systems (LMS) such as Desire2Learn or BlackBoard, Moodle and Sakai. More recently these systems were integrated by the use of social networking environments (such as Ning, Elgg). A key feature of these systems is the 62

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Can technology enhance creativity?

ability for students to initiate interactions with peers and staff via computer mediated communication resources such as discussion forums and synchronous chat. Importantly for the task of visualization, as students engage with these systems, a history of interaction is logged or recorded in an associated database. The extraction of this student interaction data provides an opportunity for re-constructing the student social networks mediated through these ICT systems. Dawson and colleagues (Dawson, 2006; 2008; Macfadyen & Dawson, 2010) have previously demonstrated the value of broad scale data mining of institutional LMS for evaluating learning and teaching practices. Their work highlights the benefits associated with analysing LMS data in order to establish pedagogical lead indicators that can assist educators in assessing teaching practices in a proactive and timely manner. More recently, learning analytics research has investigated the capacity for extracting LMS data to measure and visualize the student social networks that transpire in discussion forum learning activities (Dawson, 2008; 2010; Dawson, Bakharia & Heathcote, 2010). While this research relates the SNA findings to students’ sense of community rather than creative capacity per se, these studies highlight the usefulness of the application of ICT data in informing and guiding educators in the implementation and evaluation of their teaching practice. Importantly, this prior work demonstrates the potential for extracting LMS data to form opportunistic representations of the student social network. As the data is tracked over time, it becomes possible to examine the evolving social network and the individual positions that students occupy within the network at significant points in the course of the learning and teaching activities. These data can be used to inform the implementation of creativity-enabling pedagogical practice. As a potential feedback mechanism, such forms of visualizations are pro-active, scalable, and naturally occurring as a result of the events and interactions within the online environment. The generation of student interactive “sociograms” provides educators with an opportunity to visualize, and then identify individual students who are bridging “structural holes” in a learning network. These visualizations potentially provide a mechanism for identifying individuals exhibiting a higher level of creative capacity — such as network and enterprise agility, teamwork and communication. McWilliam and Dawson (2008) have previously described these individuals as border crossers. Border crossers demonstrate the enterprise and agility required for bridging the network gaps and introducing new knowledge, ideas and processes to the larger network. In short, the identifi63

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cation of these individuals and the changing dynamics of the social network can differentiate some of the creative capacities developing within the student cohort. Educators can use this evidence to redesign their learning and teaching activities in a timely manner, and then observe the impact of these pedagogical modifications in the network composition. Furthermore, on-line environments can help establish purposeful connections among people and their ideas; they can be used to retrieve resources (publications, articles, previous projects, etc), to find experts and tools, to carry out research tasks proactively, cost-effectively and efficiently.

Conclusions Revising our understanding of ICT and creativity Although there is wide evidence that technology can effectively enhance learning, specific literature on technology enhanced creativity is rare: i.e. there is no adequate evidence that the use of technologies can enhance divergent, out-of-the box and effective thinking while most of the available tools focus on recommender or expert systems trying to stimulate creative thinking. There is a danger of locating the power of these features in the technologies themselves, rather than recognising how they emerge in interaction with human agency and purpose. A more helpful way of thinking about the potential of the tools that we use to support student creativity is to consider their affordances — the opportunities and constraints that they offer in relationship to wider, interactive contexts. In considering how digital technologies might support learning, the affordances of the technologies can be described in “clusters” of purposeful activities (Fisher, Higgins & Loveless, 2006). These clusters are also useful in thinking about what digital technologies might offer to foster creativity, and are outlined in Table 1. Pedagogical needs for technology enhanced creativity As the JRC report states, «new technologies, and especially social computing, provide new opportunities for education and training, as they enhance learning and teaching, and facilitate collaboration, innovation and creativity for individuals and organizations” (Ala-Mutka, Punie & 64

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• Knowledge building adapting and developing ideas modelling representing understanding in multimodal and dynamic ways • Distributed cognition accessing resources finding things out writing, composing and presenting with mediating artifacts and tools • Community and communication exchanging and sharing communication extending the context of activity extending the participating community at local and global levels • Engagement exploring and playing acknowledging risk and uncertainity working with different dimensions of interactivity responding to immediacy

Table 1

Clusters of purposeful activities with digital technologies (modified from Fisher, Higgins & Loveless, 2006).

Redecker, 2008, p. 3). The benefits of deploying social computing and ICT for learning depend on the learning approach used, emphasizing the role and the skills of the teacher and the need for supportive settings for both learners and teachers. These elements are important in order to improve the effectiveness and the efficiency of creativity education by means of development of a flexible and responsive learning environment, meeting different learning styles/needs and engaging both students and teachers. In Table 2 the different pedagogical needs for creativity education through technology. Through this literature review we found out that technology enhanced learning offers opportunities and tools to improve creativity in the learning process, enhancing non-linear and non-standard thinking, problem solving, shifting the focus from teaching to learning and stressing the participatory nature of knowledge creation, provided that the stress is on the learning process rather than on technology. An environment promoting both creativity self-efficacy and creativity intentions can help intention mediate the effects of individual characteristics (e.g., personality and creative ability) 65

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At individual level • allow learners to take control of and manage their own creativity; • provide to individual and group of students tools for learning, training and enhancing their capacity to produce new ideas, to connect different things, to make connections through different fields, to solve problems; • improve and increase students’ creativity providing them with a training in the construction of new relations between concepts or events that seemed unconnected before and in finding new knowledge entities; • enhance creativity learning using tested and experimented techniques that, stimulating creative abilities, help people to leave their usual analysis style facilitating the consideration of a wider range of alternatives, improving work productivity and quality; • allow students connect to others through shared interests rather than personal relationships, co-inventing with others on the basis of shared passion; • offer an opportunity for students to be “plugged into” and mindful of a “local neighbourhood” and a larger world of potential team members with similar interests or passions; • engender empowerment, through the perception of creativity self-efficacy; • provide a socio-cognitive environment will be endowed with capabilities to support personal Creativity Learning Environment, the connection of Creativity Learning Networks and Creativity Knowledge Management. At group level • unlock individual potentials: support intrinsic motivations; stimulate engagement in deep inquiry; encourage confidence and reward risk taking; • recognize the creative potential of heterogeneity in teams; • facilitate interaction, open communication, interchange of ideas creative knowledge building, which implies sharing and discourse; • support exploration, combination and transformation learning, affording “many path many styles”; • facilitate articulation of ideas and provide flexible tools to transform and preserve ideas as they evolve; • support interactive collaboration, reciprocity and a collective responsibility for the team’s emergent knowledge; • establish and maintain purpose and intention during creative collaboration; • enable articulation of shared perspectives or negotiated conventions by building collective artefacts; • provide both personal spaces (Creativity Learning Environments) and a social context (Creativity Learning Networks) by offering means to connect with other creativity learning environments for effective knowledge sharing and collaborative knowledge creation.

Table 2

Pedagogical needs for technology enhanced creativity.

and social influences (e.g., supportive leadership and open group climate) on creative performance. Only in this way can ICT enhance creative skills and learning outcomes such as: complex thinking, social skills and participatory learning and personal shaping of knowledge. 66

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McWilliam, E. (2007). Is creativity teachable? Conceptualising the creativity/pedagogy relationship in higher education. In Enhancing Higher Education, Theory and Scholarship. Proceedings of the 30th HERDSA Annual Conference, Adelaide: 8-11 July 2007. (http:// eprints.qut.edu.au/15508/1/15508.pdf). McWilliam, E. (2008). The creative workforce: How to launch young people into high flying future. Sydney: UNSW Press. McWilliam, E., & Dawson, S. (2008), Teaching for creativity: Towards sustainable and replicable pedagogical practice, Higher Education, 56 (6), 633-643. (http://dx.doi. org/10.1007/s10734-008-9115-7). Morin, A. (1999). Seven complex lessons for the future. Translated from French by N. Poller, Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (http://unesdoc. unesco.org/images/0011/001177/117740eo.pdf). Nickerson, R.S. (1999), Enhancing creativity. In R.J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 392-430). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Pintrich, P.R. (2003). A motivational science perspective on the role of student motivation in learning and teaching contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 667-686. Rhodes, M. (1961). An analysis of creativity. The Phi Delta Kappan, 42 (7), 305–310. Riva, G., Milani, L., & Gaggioli, A. (2010). Networked flow. Comprendere e sviluppare la creatività di Rete. Milano: LED Edizioni Universitarie. Robinson, K. (2009). The element. How finding your passion changes everything. New York, NY: Viking Books. Runco, M.A. (2004). Creativity. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 657‐687. Sarason, S. (1990). The unpredictable failure of educational reform. Can we change the course before it’s too late? San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Sharan, S., & Chin Tan, I. (2008). Organizing schools for productive learning. New York: Springer. Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T.I. (1991). An investment theory of creativity and its development. Human Development, 34 (1), 1-31. Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T.I. (1996). Investing in creativity. American Psychologist, 51 (7), 677-688. Sternberg, R.J. (1999). Handbook of creativity. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R.J. (2003). Wisdom, intelligence, and creativity synthesized. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R.J. (2006). The nature of creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 18 (1), 87-98. Tan, A.G., Li, J., & Rotgans, J. (2011). Creativity Self-Efficacy Scale as a predictor for classroom behavior in a Chinese student context. The Open Education Journal, 4 (Suppl 1:M8), 90-94. Tepper, S. (2006). Taking the measure of the creative campus, Peer Review, 8 (2), 4-7. Thomas, D., & Seely-Brown, J. (2011). A new culture of learning. Charleston, SC: Createspace. Tierney, P.A, & Farmer, S.M. (2002). Creative self-efficacy: Its potential antecedents and relationship to creative performance. Academy of Management Journal, 45 (6), 1137-1148. Tsai, M.J. (2009). The model of strategic e-learning: Understanding and evaluating student e-learning from metacognitive perspectives. Educational Technology & Society, 12 (1), 34-48.

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Web and tool 2.0 affordances for formal and informal learning strategies: the role of the educational project1 Davide Parmigiani and Valentina Pennazio

ABSTRACT

Department of Education Sciences, University of Genoa, Corso Podestà, 2 – 16128 Genova (Italy). E-mail: davide.parmigiani@unige.it

This article shows research focusing on the role of the affordances of web and tools 2.0 affecting the learning strategies of middle school pupils who use tools and web 2.0 frequently. The study was structured on three basic questions. Do web and technologies 2.0 help the pupils to be motivated to study, to plan and self-regulate their own learning processes, to use effective learning strategies? The study underlines some opportunities offered by the use of web 2.0 to train the pupils for effective learning strategies, if the teachers are able to design a wide educational project, building learning environments based on problemsolving and research-action. Keywords: learning strategies; affordances; web 2.0; learning environments.

Davide Parmigiani wrote the following paragraphs: Web and tools 2.0 at school; Research design; Results and data analysis; Conclusion: affordances or project?; Valentina Pennazio wrote: Theoretical background; Discussion. Claudia Panciroli translated the paper.

Edizioni Erickson – Trento

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Web and tools 2.0 at school In the last few years, a wide range of initiatives have still been increasing to develop the introduction and the naturalization of the use of tools and web 2.0 at school, in order to promote new teaching and learning styles and to approach progressively the formal and informal dimensions of the pupil achievements (Gordon, 2000; Bonaiuti, 2006; Ferri, 2011). This paper shows an exploratory study (Parmigiani & Pennazio, 2012) that has underlined the role of the affordances of web and tools 2.0 affecting the learning strategies of the pupils who use web and tools 2.0 at school. We aimed at identifying the learning informal strategies that pupils use with the help of tools 2.0. In this way, we were able to collect useful information and suggest appropriate planning and teaching strategies to the teachers, in order to arrange and build learning environments consistent with the challenges offered by the web 2.0. The survey has been carried out in some classes involved in the Cl@ sses 2.0 project — promoted by the Italian Department of Education in 2009 in alliance with the Italian Agency for School Autonomy Development — because they have arranged many daily learning activities centred on the use of web and technologies 2.0. The teachers led the students as marked out by the communities of learners (Brown & Campione, 1994), the communities of practice (Wenger, McDermott & Snyder, 2002) and the communities of inquiry (Garrison, Anderson & Archer, 2000; Vaughan & Garrison, 2005). During the first stage of the project, the classrooms 2.0 were provided with digital technologies (such as IWB and laptops) and, then via the Internet, they arranged daily activities in the classroom and on line. The teachers experienced different planning styles based on problem-solving and action-research (Ranieri, 2005), in order to solicit pupils to gradually reach effective learning strategies, by means of using the applications 2.0 (blogs, wikis and social networks) with awareness. In particular, the learning activities with tools 2.0 were structured as follows: – continuous on line activities (such as platforms, blogs, wikis, social networks, podcasts, etc.); – activities in the classroom linked with on line ones (and vice versa); – pupils always played the role as authors in building learning processes; – frequent interactive opportunities; – collaborative activities on line and in the classroom. 72

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Web and tool 2.0 affordances for formal and informal learning strategies: the role of the educational project

In particular, teachers and pupils used different kinds of blogs and wikis, carrying out activities started in the classrooms which, later, continued online. Students were requested to use, for example, “Google docs” for collaborative writing activities both at school and at home. Besides, they created groups on Facebook and Google Groups to discuss online topics debated in the classroom and to manage tasks and activities. Finally, they organized online platforms to carry out tasks in and out the formal learning environments.

Theoretical background Web and tool 2.0 affordances and learning «The word “affordance” has been coined by Gibson (1979) to indicate some features which are activated by the interaction between an environment and an agent (human or animal): such features emerge in accordance with a relationship, so they can not be considered as explicit potentialities» (Ranieri, 2005, p. 11). What are the affordances of web and tools 2.0 in an educational context? O’Reilly (2005) indicates the following words: participation, wiki, tagging (folksonomy) and blogging. In addition, Lambert (2008) underlines that learning 2.0 is characterized by activities based on: informal and collaborative actions; searching, bottom-up and peer to peer attitudes; grassroots content creation; mentoring and knowledge networks; tags, real-time and just in time; enabled knowledge exchange. Ultimately, the affordances of web and tools 2.0 at school can be summarized in a significant participation of the pupils, who are also authors of their own learning processes, linking formal and informal activities at school and at home, interacting and collaborating in a continuous way. For these reasons, the use of tools and web 2.0 is based on some social constructivist approaches which generate dynamic learning styles. In particular, the connectivism and the Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1988; Calvani, 2008) becomes the theoretic model to explain the online learning tendencies: not only a progressive knowledge process but also attention to the connections and links which permit the access and the development of the knowledge itself (Siemens, 2005; Bonaiuti, 2006). For example, using some web 2.0 applications — social networks, blogs or wikis — (Dickey, 2004; Deng & Yuen, 2009; 2011) pupils are tacitly 73

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solicited to elaborate their own metacognitive dimensions involved in the learning processes. The use of blogs or social networks requires critical thinking on the topics faced during the lessons, analysing specific aspects. Such learning experiences, developed beyond the formal school environment, underline a lot of reflections on the informal learning environment that becomes a place where the pupils have to organize effective mental maps, in order to explain their own ideas. Wiki allows pupils to work and collaborate in the writing of the same text; in addition the system keeps previous releases and permits continuous checks on the contributions made by the participants (Bonaiuti, 2006). The online learning platforms like Ning allow participants to create social websites and networks, in order to encourage the collaboration among web users who could upload personal comments, images, photos and musical files. The affordances of tools 2.0 (IWB, laptops, tablet, etc.) foster the development of the contents generated by the students, because they encourage learning styles based on an active approach, where the knowledge is built in a collaborative way, from the solution of problematic situations. For these reasons, the projects based on 2.0 affordances are not focused on the tools and the devices but on the changes of the learning environment supported by the use of web 2.0, underlining the relationship between opposite dimensions: formal/informal, artificial/natural, platform/network, study/enjoyment, individual/social (Bonaiuti, 2006; Jenkins et al., 2006; Ferri, 2011). The teachers’ task is to plan and design instructional activities, joining some features of the informal environments — participative culture, immediate and intuitive activism related to the serendipity (Buchem, 2011) — with the ones of the formal learning ways, addressed to coherent purposes of the educational processes (Marinelli & Ferri, 2010). So, the recognition of pupils interests and their competencies becomes an important issue (Rivoltella & Ferrari, 2010; Buchem, 2011) connected with the concept of “digital natives” (Prensky, 2001; Ferri, 2011), who, using technologies from their early childhood, would have developed new neural connections and ways to think and to learn. The critical reflection about this issue (Buckingham, 2007; Rivoltella & Ferrari, 2010; Calvani & Ranieri, 2011) should go beyond the contrast between digital and not digital natives for two reasons. On the one hand, there are not large-scale experimental studies which underline the existence of a generation gap between digital and not digital natives. On the other hand, such separation tends to spread an incorrect syllogism that connects, 74

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Web and tool 2.0 affordances for formal and informal learning strategies: the role of the educational project

implicitly, the use of tools 2.0 with better achievements and development of critical thinking (Calvani & Ranieri, 2011). In fact, the presumed digital competencies of young people do not require an immediate digital wisdom, so the teachers would not use tools 2.0 in a thoughtless way because they risk losing their educational role and authority (Calvani & Ranieri, 2011). For these reasons, the enthusiasm for the educational use of tools and web 2.0 should be accompanied by activities oriented towards the students’ awareness on their own informal practices, developing, in this way, critical thinking and assumption of responsibility in using the web 2.0. It is wrong to state that more tools correspond automatically to a higher digital competence or more achievements or innovation. These aspects demand firm planning skills from the teachers in order to transform the opportunities, due to spontaneous behaviours of the pupils, into important educational chances for the development of learning strategies. The learning strategies The affordances of 2.0 applications could influence the development of learning strategies, which can be defined as intentional processes which allow better learning and memory, through the elaboration of the contents (Pettenò, Tressoldi & Cardinale, 1990; Legrenzi, 1994; Cornoldi, De Beni & Gruppo MT, 2001). The management and the use of the cognitive resources, which are limited, depend on a range of elements such as: the context; the valorization of the foreknowledge; the interaction among learners, tasks and strategies; the instructions and materials; the motivation and the mastery levels. The Good Strategy User multicomponent model underlines that a good strategy user is the one who, not only knows about strategies themselves, but also understands their utility, understands how and when to use them, knows how to check their efficacy and he is able to apply them in a spontaneous way when they become necessary in the future (Pressley, Borkowski & O’Sullivan, 1985). Besides, there are further important elements which support the learning strategies such as: the self-knowledge of one’s learning styles; the selfregulation ability used by students in order to make different reflections on their own thought processes (Zimmerman, 1990; Calvani, 2011) and the strategic coherence useful for effective learning strategies, rejecting the less important ones. 75

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According to the phase in which the strategies can be used, it is possible to identify: metacognitive strategies (Cook & Mayer, 1983); reading strategies (Zielke, 1991) and comprehension strategies (De Beni & Pazzaglia, 1995); memory strategies (Hall, Hall & Saling, 1999); the use of mental images (De Beni, Moè & Pazzaglia, 1995) and associations. The researches highlight the importance of transforming a passive task to a problem posing connected to an active problem solving (Lumbelli, 2009) and, in order to reach this purpose, tools and web 2.0 could provide an effective support. The previous studies focused on the relationship between tools 2.0 and the learning strategies, are generally set in either on line or blended environment, addressed to a high education level (Vaughan & Garrison, 2005; De Beni, Meneghetti & Pezzullo, 2010). Our survey is focused on the lower secondary school and, in addition, is carried out in classes where teachers have been trying to change the 2.0 affordances in an everyday didactic and educational model. For these reasons, it is important to identify the opportunities and the difficulties to help teachers in building meaningful learning environments.

Research design Research questions On the basis of the theoretical framework, we structured a survey aimed at identifying the learning strategies of the pupils when they frequently study in close contact with tools characterized by 2.0 affordances. In particular, the research questions focused on the following three issues. 1. Are the pupils motivated to study? 2. Are the pupils able to plan and self-regulate their own learning process? 3. Do the pupils use effective learning strategies? Participants Six second classes of lower secondary — made up of 142 students — were involved in the study during the school year 2010/11. The classes were chosen from the ones which had taken part in the Cl@sses 2.0 project. In addition, we involved six second classes of lower secondary school which 76

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Web and tool 2.0 affordances for formal and informal learning strategies: the role of the educational project

did not carry out any technological activities, made up of 111 students. It is important to underline that these two different groups of pupils do not represent an unbiased sample of the school population, but they have been considered homogeneous enough on the basis of the school achievements and the teachers’ indications. Procedure and instruments We administered two self-report questionnaires to the participants: the Approach to Study Questionnaire and the Learning Strategies Use Questionnaire, included in AMOS 8-15 (Cornoldi et al., 2005), a group of trials oriented to analyse the strategies, abilities and the motivation to study among students aged between 8 and 15. The Approach to Study Questionnaire consists of 49 items, divided into three areas (motivation, planning/ self-regulation, strategic/cognitive), and divided again into seven scales (motivation, anxiety, school approach, organization, concentration, information elaboration and flexibility). Each item is rated on a three-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (I disagree) to 3 (I agree). The Learning Strategies Use Questionnaire consists of 32 items, 22 of which refer to functional learning strategies and 10 to non functional learning ones. In this case, each item is rated on a four-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (I never use it) to 4 (I always use it). The questionnaires were administered to all participants at the middle of the school year 2010/11 when all pupils attended the second class. It is important to underline that the questionnaires were administered in the classes 2.0 after one year and a half from the beginning of the project that started at the beginning of the first class. In this way, the pupils 2.0 filled in the questionanires after experiencing a lot of 2.0 technological activities. As indicated previously, the study is exploratory and it is aimed at taking a picture of the learning strategies used by the puils which study in technology 2.0 enhanced classrooms. We did not administer any pre-test, so we can not be certain whether the differences between the two groups are due to some pre-existing differences. For this reason, we will not use terms like “progress” or “increase” in the data analysis and the discussion to explain the differences between the groups. We will just make some comparisons in a descriptive way, focused on the mean differences, so we can not generalize the results. 77

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Results and data analysis Figure 1 shows the results of the questionnaires, pointing out the overall scores obtained by the students of the classes 2.0 and the non technological ones.

109 108

108,54

107 106 105 104,82

104 103 102

Figure 1

classes 2.0

non technological classes

Approach to Study Questionnaire overall scores.

The mean score of the pupils which use tools 2.0 (M = 108.54; SD = 9.98) is higher than the ones of non technological classes (M = 104.82; SD = 13.59). The difference is 3.72 with t = 2.42 (df = 251) that is significant for p < .01 in the independent t-test. Figure 2 analyses the detailed scores related to the scales of the questionnaires. The scores of pupils 2.0 are in black and the not technological ones in white. Classes 2.0â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s students obtain higher scores in each scale, except the one related to flexibility. The items concerning the anxiety scale were built with opposite semantic polarity so, a lower score refers to a lower anxiety level. In table 1, linked to figure 2, we highlight the means and, in brackets, the standard deviations, the differences between the means reported in each scale and, through the independent t-test, the significance level (with df = 251). 78

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Web and tool 2.0 affordances for formal and informal learning strategies: the role of the educational project

classes 2.0 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

motivation

non technological classes

anxiety

school approach

organization concentra- elaboration tion

Motivation area

Figure 2

Planning/Self regulation area

flexibility

Strategic/cognitive area

Differences in the scale scores between classes 2.0 and non technological ones.

Scale

M (SD) classes 2.0

M (SD) non technological classes

Diff

significance

motivation

16.60 (2.49)

15.13 (3.22)

1.47

4.09

p < .001

anxiety

13.92 (3.35)

14.43 (3.29)

-0.51

1.23

NO SIGN

school approach

15.25 (2.69)

14.57 (3.21)

0.68

1.83

p < .05

planning/ selfregulation

organization

17.06 (2.41)

15.96 (2.94)

1.1

3.28

p < .001

concentration

15.02 (2.81)

14.52 (3.33)

0.5

1.29

NO SIGN

strategic/ cognitive

elaboration

16.21 (2.04)

15.45 (2.22)

0.76

2.83

p < .01

flexibility

14.49 (2.02)

14.77 (2.38)

-0.28

1.01

NO SIGN

Area

motivation

Table 1

Difference significances among the scale means of the classes 2.0 and non technological ones.

The analysis of the scales shows higher scores from the pupils 2.0 compared to the non technological ones in the scales related to motivation, school approach, organization and elaboration. We do not point out significant differences in the scales related to anxiety, concentration and flexibility. To investigate more thoroughly the strategic/cognitive area, we analyzed the Learning Strategies Use Questionnaire items in order to check the use of 79

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functional and dysfunctional strategies, through the independent t-test. The analysis indicates that the pupils 2.0 use in a lower way the dysfunctional strategies (M = 2.12; SD = 1.1) as regards the non technological ones (M = 2.22; SD = 1.08). The mean difference is significant for p < .05 with t = 2.22. Besides, the pupils 2.0 use more the functional strategies (M = 2.67; SD = 1.06) as regards the non technological ones (M = 2.55; SD = 1.06). In this case, the significant difference is higher (p < .001 with t = 4.2).

Discussion We discussed the data with the teachers who have suggested some interpretations linked to the activities carried out during the year. In this way, the data analysis indicated some comments concerning the research questions. Referring to the first issue, the data show higher scores for the pupils using 2.0 in the motivation area, precisely in two scales out of three. We consider that this result is related to a learning environment re-built on the basis of the affordances of web 2.0. So, the learning environment becomes more synergistic with the student participative culture developed in the web 2.0. Nevertheless, the use of tools 2.0 may be limited to the enjoyment in doing creative activities, so the informal learning has difficulty to become meaningful. We can help the pupils to reach significant achievements, encouraging the development of the informal attitudes towards comprehension, coherency and pertinence as regards a cognitive purpose. Referring to the planning and self regulation area, the data indicate that pupils 2.0 obtain higher scores in the organization of their own learning processes. However, the similarity of the two groups in the concentration levels, refers to the previous remark: 2.0 affordances stimulate the pupils to face issues and topics but, if their use is still clinging to emotive suggestions, they can become distractive elements which cause difficulties such as discouragement and cognitive overload (Sweller & Chandler, 1994; Calvani, 2009). Referring to the last issue, the data indicate that the students 2.0 obtain higher scores in the scale related to the elaboration but not in the flexibility one. This factor is, probably, connected to the affordances of the applications 2.0. The use of wikis, blogs and social networks solicits the cognitive map elaborations which are necessary to share and explain what the students themselves want to express and show, but it could be latent and useless if 80

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Web and tool 2.0 affordances for formal and informal learning strategies: the role of the educational project

it is not supported by a method which allows students to support their own strategies consistently. It is important to underline that these observations have to be checked by further studies through experimental researches involving broad and unbiased samples.

Conclusion: affordances or project? After the project, a key issue surfaced during the discussion of the data with the teachers: in order to improve the learning strategies of the pupils; is the use of web and tools 2.0 more important than the design of the instructional process? In other words: would we have reached the same results without the use of web and tools 2.0, managing the learning environment with the characteristics indicated or are the 2.0 affordances strictly necessary? We can not answer this issue, because the design process of the project and the 2.0 affordances are totally interlaced. In fact, teachers planned 2.0 activities taking into account the characteristics of tools 2.0. Besides, a wide and meaningful educational project stimulates the teachers to design their activities more thoroughly, to create meaningful interaction between the pupils, to face the disciplinary topics in various ways. In addition, the project framework is a strong basis for the development of the team teaching among teachers involved in the project (Parmigiani, 2010). Ultimately, the teachers involved in an educational project are very motivated to build a community in the classroom. For these reasons, we can not establish or distinguish the precise role played, on the one hand, by the affordances of web and tools 2.0 and, on the other hand, by the features of the educational project, because the 2.0 affordances affected also the styles of instructional planning used by the teachers (Parmigiani, Pennazio & Panciroli, 2011). However, we can state that this study underlines some potentialities of the affordances of web 2.0 within the learning environments. Especially, it suggests that the web and tools 2.0 can help and train the pupils to a progressive awareness of the effective cognitive and metacognitive strategies. It follows that the basic point is represented by the design of dynamic and structured teaching styles at school, in order to allow a participative culture based on interaction, tutoring and peering, typical of the informal contexts. 81

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Our aim is to build bridges between the informal practices of young people and the formal educational styles at school because the relationship between formal and informal dimensions can support the training of the elaboration and cognitive strategies which can emerge from the exploration and inquiry approaches. These aspects and affordances of 2.0 applications are becoming important benchmarks for the teachers in planning teaching styles and methods, in order to encourage the awareness of effective learning strategies. They arise online or at home informally, but they might be shared at school, becoming the basis for the development of competencies useable in different contexts.

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Deng, L., & Yuen A.H.K. (2009). Blogs in higher education: implementation and issues. TechTrends, 53 (3), 95-98. Deng, L., & Yuen A.H.K. (2011). Towards a framework for educational affordances of blogs. Computers & Education, 56 (2), 441-451. Dickey, M.D. (2004). The impact of web-logs (blogs) on student perceptions of isolation and alienation in a web-based distance-learning environment. Open Learning, 19 (3), 279-291. Ferri, P. (2011). Nativi digitali. Milano: Bruno Mondadori. Garrison, D.R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment. Computer conferencing in higher education. Internet and Higher Education, 2 (2-3), 87-105. Gibson, J.J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Gordon, D.T. (2000). The digital classroom: How technology is changing the way we teach and learn. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Letter. Hall, R.H., Hall, M.A., & Saling, C.B. (1999). The effects of graphical postorganization strategies on learning from knowledge maps. Journal of Experimental Education, 67 (2), 101-112. Jenkins, H., Clinton, K., Purushotma, R., Robison, A.J., & Weigel, M. (2006). Confronting the challenges of participatory culture: Media education for the 21st century. Chicago, IL: The MacArthur Foundation. Lambert, A.G. (2008). Future of learning: Everything you wanted to know about Web 2.0. Chief Learning Officer. Legrenzi, P. (1994). Prepararsi agli esami. Tecniche e strategie per superare gli esami universitari. Bologna: Il Mulino. Lumbelli, L (2009). La comprensione come problema. Roma-Bari: Laterza. Marinelli, A., & Ferri, P. (2010). Introduzione. In H. Jenkins, R. Purushotma, M. Weigel, K. Clinton, & A. Robinson (Eds.), Culture partecipative e competenze digitali. Media education per il XXI secolo (pp. 7-53). Milano: Guerini. O’Reilly, T. (2005). What is Web 2.0?: Design patterns and business models for the next generation of software. (http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/news/2005/09/30/ what-is-web-20.html). Parmigiani, D. (2010). Creating a team teaching at school through web and technologies 2.0. In ATEE Spring Conference Proceedings: Teacher of the 21st Century. Quality Education for Quality Teaching (pp. 391-398). Riga, Latvia, May 7th-8th. Parmigiani, D, & Pennazio, V. (2012). Web e tecnologie 2.0 a scuola: strategie di apprendimento formali ed informali. TD Tecnologie Didattiche. Accepted, in press. Parmigiani, D, Pennazio, V., & Panciroli, C. (2011). Innovating learning environments through technologies 2.0. how teachers design a networked classroom. In ATEE Spring Conference Proceedings: Changing Education in a Changing Society. Vol. 1 (pp. 5-16). Vilnius, Lithuania, May 5th-7th. Pettenò, L., Tressoldi, P., & Cardinale, M. (1990). Lo studente di successo. Pagus: Treviso. Prenksy, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9 (5), 1-6. Pressley, M., Borkowski, J.G., & O’Sullivan, J. (1985). Children’s metamemory and the teaching of memory strategies. In D.L. Forrest-Pressley, G.E. MacKinnon, & T.G. Waller

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(Eds.), Metacognition, cognition, and human performance (pp. 111-153). Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Ranieri, M (2005). E-learning: modelli e strategie didattiche. Trento: Erickson. Rivoltella, P.C., & Ferrari, S. (Eds.) (2010). A scuola con i media digitali. Milano: Vita e Pensiero. Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. (http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm). Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12 (2), 257-285. Sweller, J., & Chandler, P. (1994). Why some material is difficult to learn.Â Cognition and Instruction, 12 (3), 185-233. Vaughan, N., & Garrison, D.R. (2005). Creating cognitive presence in a blended faculty development community. Internet and Education, 8 (1), 1-12. Wenger, E., McDermott, R., Snyder, W.M. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice, Boston, MA: HBS Press. Zielke, W. (1991). Le tecniche di lettura rapida. Milano, Franco Angeli. Zimmerman, B.J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement, Educational Psychologist, 25 (1), 3-17.

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ADVP technologysupported model: the development of metacognitive strategies during teacher training academic studies Giuseppa Cappuccio

ABSTRACT

Department of Psycology, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze – Ed.15 – 90128 Palermo (Italy). E-mail: giuseppa.cappuccio@unipa.it

The aim of the present study is to determine the relationship between metacognition and decision making and whether metacognitive strategy instruction is effective in improving decision-making performance. Previous research results in the field demonstrated a relationship between metacognitive awareness and decision-making performance. Regulation of cognition was shown to have a greater impact on decision making than did knowledge of cognition. Metacognitive strategy instruction was found to be beneficial to those in the below-average group, but not to those in the average or above-average groups. This study, using the elaborated learning and knowledge building model (ADVP model), derived from Pelletier & Bujold’s knowledge model for supporting career teacher development in the temporarily extended organizations of universities and schools. It investigated the main model components in the context of teachers’ professional development, the kind of technological barriers to be overcome in order to implement such a model, and the application scenarios of an ADVP model. Exactly this model has been used here with a sample of 287 students of Primary Educa-

Edizioni Erickson – Trento

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tion Taught Course, University of Palermo. The results form the basis for some general conclusions and a number of problems are identified, concerning the heterogeneity and the power of effects, the representation of self and jobs, the concept of vocational guidance for students, the boosting of their activity and the level of their goals. Keywords: decision-making; self-regulated learning; career development; metacognitive strategies.

Introduction There are several reasons why teachers do not feel part of the larger teachers’ community and why the pre-service and in-service teacher training are not a unified system. One aspect is the perceived difference in professional status between the pre- and in-service teachers. Future teachers point out that when they enter school practice, “in-service teachers do not consider the student as an equal colleague”, and the in-service teachers themselves confronted this statement. As one of the school supervisors stated, “Pre-service teachers are also shy and they knock on the door when entering the teachers” room, if they go to this room at all, because most of the time they choose to be on their own. If a young teacher, who is at school for his/her first or second experience, does not feel that s/he belongs there, it might influence the future decision about working at that school. “Teacher students felt excluded from the teachers” community, which is why they are afraid of sharing their learning material in public, the pre-service teachers admitted. Several researches have also discovered that networks and communities that integrate both teacher and teacher trainers are less common (Lambert, 2003; Helleve, 2009). Many young teachers perceive a gap between the academic knowledge acquired during teacher training studies and the knowledge that is claimed to be “really” relevant learned from more experienced colleagues (Bozhuisen, Brommen, & Gruber, 2004). Experienced practitioners often claim that knowledge gained during the academic part of the education should be forgotten because it was too abstract and not appropriate. Combining and constructing professional knowledge across the boundary between schools and teacher training institutions is rare and mainly unidirectional: from university towards schools (Jarvela, 2001). 86

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ADVP technology-supported model: the development of metacognitive strategies

There is a demand for the development of students’ complex skills, such as for self-regulated learning and for working collaboratively on research project. It is generally accepted to perceive such complex skills as integrated wholes of students’ knowledge, skills and attitudes, needed for adequately fulfilling certain tasks. Reflection is crucial in student learning (Ertmer & Newby, 1996; van Velzen, 2002), especially in learning complex skills that are needed to handle ill-structured problems (e.g., doing research). It is common to describe reflection as a mental (cognitive and effective) process of creating meaning and deep understanding from experience that stimulates learning (Andersen, Boud & Cohen, 2000). Our study aimed at examining metacognitive strategies as they occurred during thinking using the ADVP method, with a focus on comparing the use of these strategies by people with different levels of Self-regulated learning (SRL) and decision-making. The investigation was based on the proposition that individuals with differential use of metacognitive strategies would differ in their thinking performance, even though they might have comparable levels of cognitive ability, intellectual tendency and educational achievement. ADVP approach to career development recognizes the importance of metacognition and the role it plays in regulating students’ career decision-making strategies and pursuit of a purposeful career. We recommend that counselors and/or teachers implement strategies that encourage students to think about their cognitive processes by reflecting on their strengths and weaknesses and developing effective strategies for career decision-making and pursuing specific careers.

Metacognition and vocational decision-making The notion of metacognition originated in the context of information processing studies in the1970s. One of the first descriptions of metacognition comes from Flavell, who describes it as one’s knowledge concerning one’s own cognitive processes and products or anything related to them. Yet, he asserted that metacognition includes the active monitoring and consequent regulation and orchestration of information processing activities (Flavell, 1976, p. 232). Gunstone (1994) stresses that all learners are metacognitive and that the associated pedagogical goal should be to enhance 87

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metacognition. He suggests that enhanced metacognition is a learning outcome in itself, as well as a having a critical impact on the achievement of content-based learning outcomes. Bearing in mind the conceptual change model of learning, it is important that learners are appropriately metacognitive, that is that their metacognitive beliefs are applied appropriately and linked to the demands of the task at hand. Gunstone and Baird (1988) argue that enhanced and appropriate metacognitive abilities will only be achieved by means of an integrative perspective on metacognition, in which metacognitive training is recognised to be intimately bound up in issues of content and context. Some attempts have been made to teach metacognitive skills apart from the context and content within which they are to be used, in so-called study skills programs. The formulation of metacognition as knowledge, awareness and control of one’s own learning (Baird, 1990) has been most influential in studies in this area, and building on this basic description, this research project aimed to provide a more detailed picture of what “enhanced” and “appropriate” metacognition might mean in a tertiary engineering context. Literature Review. The importance of metacognition to career development is emphasized by the research of Symes and Stewart (1999), who found a significant relationship between metacognition and vocational decidedness; those who displayed higher levels of metacognitive activity also demonstrated higher levels of vocational decidedness in comparison to those with lower levels of metacognition. In addition, research has demonstrated a relationship between metacognitive awareness and decision-making and the role that metacognitive instruction plays in improving decision-making (Batha & Carroll, 2007). Metacognition, or self-awareness of one’s own thinking processes, is an essential skill in the development of vocational decision-making. Metacognition consists of knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition. Knowledge of cognition consists of knowledge of one’s abilities, knowledge of strategy implementation, and determination of when/why strategy use is appropriate, whereas regulation consists of «taking action, implementing strategies, and acting on feedback from the knowledge one has» (Batha & Carroll, 2007, p. 65). These metacognitive concepts relate to career development because they require self-appraisal of one’s abilities, the ability to appraise tasks, and the ability to strategize ways to work through a task. 88

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ADVP technology-supported model: the development of metacognitive strategies

Activation du Développement Vocationnel et Professionnel (ADVP) for teacher development The real beginning of the development of career intervention, as it is currently conceived, can be traced back to Italy during the 1980s, and the availability of the approach: Activation of Vocational and Personal Development (Activation du Développement Vocationnel et Personnel – ADVP), a method perfected by staff at Laval University in Quebec (Pellettier, Noiseux & Bujold, 1974; Pellettier & Bujold, 1984) and based on the ideas of Super (1973; 1974) and Guilford (1967); see also Viglietti (1979; 1985), Zanniello (1990). Several convergent factors explain this development, which was considerable and was not completed: the crisis of the psycho-technical model, the widespread adoption of humanist (Rogers) and cognitive (Piaget) approaches in the world of psychology, popularized the image of an active and autonomous individual. Above all, the introduction of continuing vocational guidance along with generalized access to secondary education and the development of individualistic values in all sectors of society was a contributory factor. The unemployment crisis of the 1980s and prevailing instability of the job market contributed to the development of educational concepts in guidance. In particular, the ADVP model implementing Super’s career development theory. Super’s research indicated that this important exploratory behaviour is conditioned by an individual’s attitudes toward planning and exploring the future. To denote attitudes toward planning the future, Super (1974) coined the word planfulness, which has not yet entered the dictionary although planlessness is defined in several dictionaries. Planfulness means an awareness that educational and vocational choices must be made eventually and an inclination to prepare to make these choices. Attitudes toward planning and exploration constitute the first half of ADVP model of career development. The other half of the model is comprised of two cognitive competencies involving information and decision making. Informational competence refers to knowledge about work, occupations, and career. Well-developed competence in occupational information suggests that the individual is sufficiently knowledgeable to apply occupational information to self and to begin to crystallize preferences for occupations in a particular field and level. Crystallizing preferences constitutes the first developmental task in the Exploration Stage of a career. The second competence in the structural model is knowledge of the principles 89

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and practice of decision making. Persons with well-developed decisional competence know what to consider in making educational and vocational choices. They apply these decisional principles in making choices that match their interests and abilities to corresponding occupations. According to his model, persons are mature or ready to make important career choices when decision-making knowledge is supported by an adequate fund of occupational information based on planful exploration. After specifying a choice, the third and ﬁnal task of the ADVP model is implementing the choice by securing a position in the chosen occupation and working at it for a trial period. This initial trial can be followed by stabilizing in the position or by another trial position, with an eventual zeroing in on a permanent position. The originality of the method ADVP is in the stimulation of mental abilities involved in the case of developmental tasks such as (Pelletier, Noiseux & Bujold, 1974): exploration, crystallization, specification, realization. Through the stimulation of the inherent mental abilities in the creative categorical, evaluative and implicative thinking for the realization of the exploration, crystallization, specification and realization tasks, the development of the decision making process is promoted through the discovery, classification, evaluation and experimentation steps. According to the ADVP method, teachers built — and later described — some exercises of exploration, crystallization, specification, and execution to improve the students’ process of vocational growth exploiting the content of the subjects taught during the school year. The model identifies four developmental tasks that must be attained: exploration, crystallization, specification, implementation/ actualization (Pelletier, Noiseux & Bujold, 1974; Pellettier & Bujold, 1984). 1. Exploration involves fitting oneself into society in a way that unifies one’s inner and outer worlds. This information-seeking behaviour transfers the person from occupational daydreams to employment in a job. 2. Crystallization occurs when the four tasks of the growth phase are completed and coalesce with occupational daydreams «into a publicly recognized vocational identity with corresponding preferences for a group of occupations at a particular ability level». 3. Specification of an occupational choice requires the individual to explore deeply to sift through tentative preferences in preparation for declaring an occupational choice. «Translating private vocational self-concepts into public occupational roles involves the psychosocial process of vocational identity formation». 90

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ADVP technology-supported model: the development of metacognitive strategies

4. Implementation/Actualization requires that the individual make a choice by converting ideas into actions that make it a fact. Actualizing a choice usually involves completing the necessary training and experiencing trial jobs in the specified occupation. The usual aims of the ADVP methodology have been re-interpreted in terms of assessable and verifiable objectives and a series of tasks have been created to be harmonically inserted in the teaching/learning activities thought for the class groups involved. In creating the tasks, self-regulation of learning has been considered as a crucial strategy to let students reflect on their cognitive processes.

The research The vocational guidance experimental workshop is extensively based on ADVP. In order to develop the technological support system and workflow scenarios based on the ADVP model, a case study of teachers’ professional development was conducted which identified and mapped the areas in the ADVP between the schools and universities, and among the various stakeholders related to the professional teacher development in these organizations. The following research questions were investigated. – Which are the main components of the ADVP model adapted for the context of teacher development? – What kind of barrier inhibits the implementation of the adapted ADVP model that facilitates teacher development, which is supported by existing online tools and social network? – What are the suitable workflow scenarios that effectively support the application of ADVP model for teacher development? After identifying main characteristics to the developed theoretical ADVP model and suitable workflow scenarios, we provide, as an outcome of the study, guidelines for implementation and sample tasks in a technological environment. The students involved in the study were 287, enrolled in the degree course in Primary Education, 1st year, and attending both the 72-hours course & workshop Teaching Technologies. The aims of the formative activities we planned were the students’ improvement of their studying methodology in relation to self-regulated learning and decision-making, 91

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to their self-assessment, their critical competence and cooperative learning. We assumed that a well-planned and a well-conducted sequence of teaching activities would help each student not only learn the main disciplinary topics of the activity, but also consolidate the competences which are fundamental for those who deal with education: Problem Solving, Experiential Learning, Self-Correction, Critical Reflection, and Reciprocal Learning. The activities of guidance counseling practice were identified of which one: “class exercises”, corresponds more or less to our own group career intervention methods. Exercises are well structured to develop Self-regulated learning and decision making. General objectives are clearly defined. They often go beyond the strict framework of vocational guidance and focus equally on socialization, integration at university and motivation for schoolwork. Each exercise has specific corresponding objectives that are also clearly defined. Efforts are made to develop metacognitive process, transmit knowledge and think about practical experience. Exercises involve the various parameters of vocational maturity which the methods set out to change: knowledge about professions and training schemes, self awareness, ability to explore, to decide, to plan, to mobilize resources available. Throughout a whole day, students participated in specific exercises: presentation of participants and the workshop (the problem of choice, creating a file of vocational choices, etc.); self-exploration (thinking about personal values, ranking personal characteristics, job satisfaction criteria, etc.); investigating jobs and training schemes (jobs search in relation to meeting a criteria of satisfaction, ways of accessing information, realistic job descriptions, etc.); assessing jobs (comparing the most attractive jobs, compromising, the more or less irrevocable nature of different choices, etc.); anticipation of the implications of a particular choice (looking at the future, consequences of certain choices, obstacles to be overcome, implications of certain choices, etc.), overall general assessment. Data were analysed using a qualitative framework analysis method. The main findings of the study exposed the following difficulties in applying an ADVP model for extended organizations for teacher development: teachers’ sense of identity, technical issues and organizational barriers. Several scenarios were proposed for the use of technology to facilitate the ADVP model in the teacher development context. 92

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The effects of career intervention methods The effect of the method varies according to the criteria taken into account. It is more marked with respect to the increase in the accuracy of self-awareness, self-control, and the need to succeed. It is possible that the marked effects observed could be explained by the proximity between exercises and evaluation tests. It is possible to consider, for example, that the discussion and the analysis with the subject concerning his or her test or questionnaire results could have a marked effect on the accuracy of selfawareness, especially if the latter is reduced to the subjectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s range of aptitudes and interests. Participants were more actively involved in the guidance process: they were more curious to learn more about themselves and discover the job environment; they took more steps to obtain information and were keen to continue to do so. It was therefore the students who were most committed to taking the necessary steps towards being guided, and who also performed better during the tests that proved to be the most permeable to the method. Some exercises were carried out using Facebook groups. These learning activities contributed to the blended learning profile of students group. In order to extend knowledge regarding the use of the social forum, it is worthwhile to explore which purposes students had to converse in that social network. We used a simple questionnaire to gather the responses from 1th year students on their access and participation in the Facebook group, as well as their expectations and attendance of practical design studio sessions. Responses showed that students participated on FB using both their cell phones and computers. There was a great variety of activities, ranging from ignoring the Facebook group, to not missing a single post. Some students were lurkers and others were prolific participators. One of the ways to stimulate reflection is by use of a portfolio containing selected evidence of performances and products during the activity accompanied by studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s comments and reflections. This effective organization of method has several advantages: it facilitates the work of the group leader, focuses the activity of the student and provides criteria for evaluation. However, it also often serves to motivate functions that are too analytical, in what can only be described as somewhat artificial pedagogical situations. These advantages and constraints are the same as those in pedagogy through objectives, which has left a rather significant impression on career intervention. 93

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Conclusion In this paper we propose that in teachers’ professional development, using the ADVP model might better connect individual and organizational learning and promote teacher professional development. Along with different stake-holders who are related to teachers’ professional development. We developed the ADVP scenarios for an activities-based learning environment. These scenarios follow four phases across schools and universities, and thereby support collaboration between pre-service and in-service activities in schools and universities. This study demonstrated that students are interested in organizing their future professional learning activities more systematically in order to benefit from the synergetic ADVP activities. Such an application of ADVP activities also provides synergy between group actions (such as supervising and collaboration), and individual competence development. The results have provided evidence that skilled students displayed distinct strengths in their ability to plan specific steps that guide thinking (highlevel planning) and to revise their approach upon evaluation (high-level evaluating). Both would lead to enhanced performance in thinking. Lowlevel strategies demonstrate an awareness of the need to check the steps necessary for task execution, comprehension of related information, and task progress. However, mere questioning or paraphrasing of information with no further execution of the metacognitive strategies level would help solve confusion and improve performance.

References Andersen, L., Boud, D., & Cohen, R. (2000). Experience-Based Learning. In G. Foley, Understanding adult education and training (second edition) (pp. 225-239). Sydney: Allen, & Unwin. Azevedo, R., & Witherspoon, A.M. (2009). Self-regulated learning with hypermedia. In D.J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A.C. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of metacognition in education (pp. 319-339). Mahwah, NJ: Routledge. Baird, J.R. (1990). Metacognition, purposeful enquiry and conceptual change. In E. HegartyHazel (Ed.), The student laboratory and the science curriculum. London: Routledge. Batha, K., & Carroll, M. (2007). Metacognitive training aids decision making. Australian Journal of Psychology, 59 (2), 64-69. Bozhuisen, H.P.A., R. Brommer, & Gruber, H. (2004). Professional learning: Gaps and transitions on the way from novice to expert. New York: Kluwer Academic.

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Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1996). The expert learner: strategic, self-regulated, and reflective. Instructional Science, 24, 1-24. Flavell, J.H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L.B. Resnick (Ed.), The nature of intelligence (pp. 231-236). Hillsdale: Erlbaum. Guilford, J.P. (1967), The nature of human intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill. Gunstone, R. & Baird, J. (1988). An integrative perspective on metacognition. Australian Journal of Reading, 11 (4), 238-245. Gunstone, R. (1994). The importance of specific science content in the enhancement of metacognition. In P. Fensham, R. Gunstone, & R. White (Eds.), The content of science. London: Falmer. Helleve, I. (2009). Theoretical foundations of teachers’ professional development. In J.O. Lindberg, & A.D. Olofson (Eds.), Online learning communities and teacher professional development: Methods for improved education delivery (pp. 1-19). Hershey, PA: IGI-Global. Jarvela, S. (2001). Shifting research on motivation and cognition to an integrated approach on learning and motivation in context. In S. Volet, & S. Jarvela (Eds.), Motivation in learning contexts: Theoretical advances and methodological implications. New York: Pergamon. Kieslinger, B., Pata, K., & Fabian, C.M. (2009). Participatory design approach for the support of collaborative learning and knowledge building in networked organizations. International Journal of Advanced Corporate Leaning, 2 (3), 34-38. Lambert, P. (2003). Promoting developmental transfer in vocational teacher education. In T. Tuomi-Grohn & Y. Engestrom. Between school and work. New perspectives on tansfer and boundary-crossing (pp. 233-254). Amsterdam: Pergamon. Pelletier, D. & Bujold, C. (1984). Pour une approche éducative en orientation. Quebec, Université Laval: Morin. Pelletier, D., Noiseux, G., & Bujold, C. (1974). Développement personnel et croissance personnelle. Montréal: McGraw-Hill. Stokic, D., Pata, K., Devedzic, V., Jovanovic, J., Urosevic, L., Gasevic, D., Kieslinger, B., & Wild, J. (2008). Intelligent learning extended organizations. Proceedings of TELearn. Hanoi, Vietnam: CD Edition. Super, D.E. (1973). Le théories du choix professionnel: leur évolution, leur condition courante et leur utilité pour le conseiller. In C. Laflamme & A. Petit, L’information scolaire et professionnelle dans l’orientation, approche multidisciplinaire. Sherbrooke: Université de Sherbrooke. Super, D.E. (1974). Measuring vocational maturity for counseling and evaluation. Washington, DC: National Vocational Guidance Association. Symes, B.A., & Stewart, J.B. (1999). The relationship between metacognition and vocational indecision. Canadian Journal of Counselling, 33, 195-211. van den Boom, G., Paas, F., van Merrinboer, J.J.G., & van Gog T. (2004). Reflection prompts and tutor feedback in a web-based learning environment: effects on students self-regulated learning competence. Computers in Human Behavior, 20, 551-567. Viglietti, M. (1979). L’orientamento come processo di attivazione dello sviluppo vocazionale personale. Orientamento Scolastico e Professionale, 76, 273-289. van Velzen, J.H. (2002). Instruction and self-regulated learning: promoting students’ selfreflective thinking. Dissertation. Netherlands: University Leiden.

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Viglietti, M. (1985). Il modello ADVP e la prospettiva educativa dellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;orientamento. Orientamento Scolastico e Professionale, 3/4, 240-260. Zanniello, G. (Ed.) (1990). Adolescenti oggi professionisti domani. Rimini: Maggioli. Zimmerman, B.J. (2008). Investigating self regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45 (1), 166-183. Zimmerman, B.J. (Ed.) (2001), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Incorporated.

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Rethinking language teaching and training procedures between online and offline communication An ELT training work in progress for primary teachers1 Montserrat Veyrat Rigat* and Giuseppa Compagno**

ABSTRACT

* Department of Theories of Language & Communication Sciences, University of Valencia, Av. Blasco Ibáñez, 32 – 46010 Valencia (Spain). E-mail: montserrat.veyrat@uv.es ** Department of Culture Arts History Communication, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze – Ed. 15 – 90128 Palermo (Italy). E-mail: giuseppa.compagno@unipa.it

The paper analyses the Italian National Plan for Training the English Teachers at Primary Schools. This Plan was promoted by the Italian Ministry of Education to cope with the last and most recent educational reform that introduced English as a school subject into the curriculum at primary schools. A panel of experts worked to a national training plan for English primary teachers which will soon be tested. In this paper we will deal with three main topics: 1) the teachers’ awareness of their blended professional training, 2) the theoretical foundations underpinning this new educational challenge, 3) the new teaching models

Veyrat Rigat has written the following paragraphs: Introductory remarks and theoretical hints, “The tool is not the end, but a means to achieve it”, and The process of acquiring skills through technology. Giuseppa Compagno has written the following paragraphs: The Italian National Plan for Training English Teachers at Primary School, Main structure and guidelines of the training plan, Training tools: ANSAS platform and the new offline/ online modules timesheet, and Conclusion.

Edizioni Erickson – Trento

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involving integrated technology that the Plan for Training the English Teachers at Primary School starting in September 2012 are meant to generate. Keywords: teaching/training models; new technologies; creativity and innovation; teachers’ awareness.

Introductory remarks and theoretical hints Nowadays, a paramount paradigm shift is taking place in the field of education. This momentous change is due to the integration of technology in the teaching/learning process. It is necessary to assume that this “techevolution” in the pedagogical models is modifying the way we train not only young children and adolescents, but also adult learners, such as school teachers and professional workers. In this paper we wish to focus both on the theoretical aspects that underpin the new educational challenge that is taking place in the field of teaching as well as on the new ICT models employed in the training of teachers of English at primary level. Currently there are many interesting ITC models, generally based on the so-called MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses), which were initially tested by Dave Cormier of the University of Prince Edward Island, in 2008. The first course for MOOC large online classes was taught by George Siemens of the Athabasca University and Stephen Downes of the Canada National Research Council. Among the so-called MOOCs there are the Udemy, created in 2010 and offering about 6,000 courses. There are also the Udacity (oriented training artificial intelligence, computer science and others), offering eleven free courses; Coursera, an online learning system created by Andrew Ng and Daphne Koller, both computer scientists at Stanford with a partnership with four universities: Stanford University, University of Michigan, University of Pennsylvania and Princeton University. Also, the European Union is considering the possibility of using MOOCs educational resources in the coming years. In general, the main feature of this type of courses is the massive content posted on the network. Participants come from all over the world (it is assumed that the number of participants varies from hundreds to thousands of people participating simultaneously). The class is one of many centers where 98

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interaction takes place: beside it, there are also personal blogs, portfolios, personal websites, and social networks like Facebook and Twitter. Another feature of these courses is that both participants and instructors may add, mix, and reconsider the content of the course, organizing fruitful discussions (brainstorming) and personalizing the training process. It is relevant to underline that these courses do not require specific abilities, provided that they are controlled and updated in terms of attendance and participation thanks to open discussions or debates. One last point to be made is that most of these courses are free, with the exception of the courses which have final online accreditation. When considering a course with a mixed approach, that is online technology plus classroom training (offline), we have to take into examination a number of features to verify the teaching efficiency and the successfulness of the entire course. In this paper, we will study the training of English Primary school teachers (speakers of Italian as a first language and English as a second language) instructed by selected mentors and, in parallel, we will deal with the most useful teaching techniques and strategies to be used within the primary school learning context. The starting point is the selection of proper that of selecting proper tools that constitute a set of resources to activate step by step to develop the visual, auditory and tactile sense of the people attending the courses, and possibly also evoking both taste and smell. We refer specifically to tools such as videos, podcasts, tutorials, video-games, notecards, text in different formats, attractive and colorful presentation (interactive Prezi, powerpoints with innovative features, slides, machinima, video recordings, resources from the available literature, photography, musical video, to sum up: Class 2.0 tools).

â&#x20AC;&#x153;The tool is not the end, but a means to achieve itâ&#x20AC;? When, about ten years ago, the shift of the learning paradigm began, introducing new ways of building teachers, everything seemed to be focused on the use of new tools: the first tool was Power Point which replaced the master class that showed students a few fundamental points about which they were supposed to report orally. Later on, these presentations became more dynamic, thanks to the addition of several tools such as Prezi, as well as the use of slides, links to videos, podcasts, blogs with timely information, 99

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web pages, social networking. Moreover these social networks, such as 3D Virtual Worlds, were used to share information platforms. It is worth remarking that this new teaching practice is only another way of doing the usual, which is transmitting information to the students, showing the amount of data they acquire, and give them a place within the framework of the teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s knowledge and competence. Today we want teachers to accompany their students in their self training, providing resources to customize their acquisition of knowledge in the relevant fields acquiring better communicative skills, and benefitting from cooperative group work, rather than from individual work. Virtual platforms available to both teachers and students are the ideal context where these new tools can be used to facilitate the development of the cognitive and sensory abilities of either the group or the individuals who share these online spaces. Technology, therefore, should be considered only as a means to motivate and activate creativity in our students especially in those who will, in their turn, teach what they have learnt learned and apply it in the creative and individualized teaching paths they have conceived for their own students. It goes without saying that a tool appearing as completely new today, is going to be old and completely overtaken, next year, by a further resource that incorporated its features and advantages. It is common knowledge that one of the prerequisites of current teaching is the need to be constantly updated. In the twenty-first century, the use of technology is unavoidable and this applies both to the learning process and to the teaching one. We are therefore supposed to renovate our knowledge and be aware of all the tools that appear in our tech world day after day. These tools allow teachers to experience many hitherto unexplored possibilities: e-learning, blended learning, virtual worlds, the machinima, the construction of objects in virtual worlds, the power to contact other members in the global world where we are all interconnected within a multiple net speaking different languages.

The process of acquiring skills through technology In this essay as well as in our training experience, our teaching model is that which integrates classroom activities (offline) and online activities, as it will be taken into examination below. So doing, we wish to stress the importance of building an awareness of the acquired knowledge through a 100

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mixed or blended approach, that combines online and offline media. This integrated model allows the acquisition of: 1) an enhancement of the capability of self, 2) the development of the learner responsibility, 3) the acquisition of skills which allow locating and manipulating a lot of information. The building of collaborative working groups is of capital importance because it is within these groups that the different tasks are distributed among the components of the group according to their kind of intelligence and talent. This model is characterized by innovation and creativity which are both skills that each of us possesses to varying degrees and quality. This leads straight to underline the importance of distinguishing innovation from creativity. We want to highlight again that innovation does not consist in the use of technology, but in reaching a new vision of the same object of knowledge thanks to technology; technology helps us become aware of the learning process. Today we all benefit from innovation because, for a teacher, innovation does not either mean to duplicate the former models which worked successfully, nor to create a sort of “magic” model that works for everyone and everywhere (like the lecture type model which has long been used so far). Innovation rather means to create patterns where everyone may contribute since we assume that diversity brings enrichment. We are also convinced that everyone is good at something different and would differently solve the same problems. This is why we rely on patterns that we all share, at varying degrees of excellence, and, although the variety of our experiences results in different solutions to the same problematic situations, such as those involving a second/foreign language acquisition and/or learning.

The Italian National Plan for Training English Teachers at Primary School The recent Italian educational reform introduced English as a school subject into the primary level curriculum. The aim of the reform, in tune with the EU policy concerning foreign language instruction, is to raise a future “European citizen”, who will have a large language competence and will be able to find his professional way anywhere throughout Europe. The reform promoted English language teaching at a younger age, with the immediate effect of training primary teachers to teach English as one of the fundamental subjects in their curriculum, although they might have little or no preparation at all in this language. The challenge set by the Italian 101

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Ministry of Education was that of training more than 10,000 primary teachers, already in service in Italian primary schools, in order to let them acquire a degree of competence and confidence in English at a B1 (CEFR) level. In January 2010, a national scientific panel with experts from different Italian regions was convened to develop a framework for learning materials, teaching/learning strategies and assessments criteria. The panel, initially composed of only six members,2 was renewed and enlarged at the end of 2011. Today the members of this scientific committee selected by the Minister of Education (MIUR) and by the National Agency dealing with lifelong learning and training of Italian teachers (ANSAS-INDIRE, hereafter ANSAS), are University Professors & Assistant Professors, members of ANSAS and of MIUR, and representatives of the main ELT Italian associations (such as LEND, ANILS, TESOL).3

Main structure and guidelines of the training plan The new structure configuration of the training Plan for the development of linguistic and communicative skills of English teachers at primary school was meant to take advantage of some of the chief documents in the field of European and Italian teaching, such as the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (hereafter CEFR), the Indicazioni nazionali per il curricolo (Minister of Education’s Guidelines for teaching at infant and primary schools; hereafter Indicazioni 2009) and the Primary School English Teacher (hereafter Profile 2007) commissioned by the Italian Ministry of Education. At the end of March 2012, it was possible to spot some critical issues both at a metacognitive and at a methodological level, thanks to an accurate analysis of the first Teacher Training Plan and its results on the first group of teachers trained between 2011 and 2012. First of all, teachers appeared generally averse to innovation and experimentation as far as the methods of their teaching were concerned. They did not feel at ease with the use of blended learning and showed a remarkable allegiance to the traditional 2

Nicoletta Biferale, Raffaella Carro, Giuseppa Compagno, Gisella Langé, Linda Rossi Holden, Valentina Toce. Maria Pia Basilicata (MIUR), Raffaella Carro and Sara Martinelli (ANSAS), Giuseppa Compagno (University of Palermo), Maurizio Gotti (University of Bergamo), Gisella Langé (MIUR), Lucilla Lopriore (TESOL Italy), Silvia Minardi (LEND), Gianfranco Porcelli (ANILS), Linda Rossi Holden (University of Modena and Reggio Emilia).

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face-to-face methods of instruction. On the other hand, the previous Plan based on traditional teacher training workshops, did not succeed in helping teachers to feel comfortable when using technology or to integrate it successfully into their teaching. Therefore, face-to-face learning and distance learning through technology were largely perceived as “the enemy” in modern teacher training procedures. These shortcomings once spotted led to an overall revision of the Plan in terms of its objectives and aims (including the enhancement of the English language skills of teachers, a consolidation of their linguistic-communicative competence, the proper acquisition of a methodological repertoire of strategies and techniques for English language teaching at primary school). In particular, the new Plan aims at equipping teachers with stable audio-oral skills that can be easily used in the classroom along with a sufficient fluency in the English speaking action. Now teachers also learn how to select their class management strategies and how to organize the most appropriate activities to foster the learning process of their students. On the other hand, stronger attention has been paid to the integration of the offline and online mode of training, in order to enhance the confidence between teachers and technologies and to reinforce their technologic skills addressed to the classroom practice. The importance of the interaction between face-to-face and online training is meant to better support the teachers’ self-study with further online materials available, enhance the quality — and not the quantity — of the tasks assigned to the class, align individual online study with face-to-face training activities, and finally improve the development of all the skills related to an effective and coherent management of ELT procedures. The last scheme of the Training Plan, put forward by the new scientific committee, includes the following steps: 1. A study of the criticalities of the former Training Plan, drawn from the analysis of both the online forum interactions and the offline teaching relationship between tutor and peers. 2. A greater integration between face-to-face actions and on-line activities. 3. An analysis and selection of the activities already available from MIURANSAS online platform based on specific criteria of congruence with the objectives of the new training program. 4. The creation of new activities divided into three modules (CEFR level A1, A2, B1) based on the Communicative Approach and with a special focus on audio-oral skills. 103

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5. The drafting of proper guidelines for the implementation of new activities by a group of expert authors of ELT materials. 6. A monitoring of these author’s work and validation of new activities. 7. The preparation of final mock tests with specific assessment activities to be carried out at the end of the third module. 8. The development of guidelines for mentors. It should be noted that the new training Plan for English Primary Teachers does not modify the number of the training hours of the previous Plan. The new time schedule has been reformulated according to a different scan and a different internal structure in order to increase the effectiveness of the interaction between the offline and online phase of work. The layout of the new Plan provides includes opportunities for assessment and evaluation at regular intervals, usually at the end of each segment of training. This allows tutors to monitor teachers’ progress and their learning outcomes.

Training tools: ANSAS platform and the new offline/online modules timesheet Face-to-face learning and training has been tested in several schools around Italy since June 2011. These experiments were conducted by an expert tutor who had been selected by a public announcement. Tutors work in classes of no more than 25 teachers, grouped according to their initial language level. Online activities are addressed to a full range of teachers and are meant to complete and consolidate the contents acquired in the face-to-face training, but in a self-learning environment where cooperation, collaboration and sharing of material is, however, possible at anytime. The amount of hours provided for the offline training is of 60 hours per module (the same for each one of the 3 modules), while the timing for the on-line activity is marked differently: the first two modules provide 40 hours each online and the third module 80 hours on-line. Teachers’ attendance is verified by the tutor who uses and constantly updates an online class logbook. ANSAS online training platform is characterized by several tools that facilitate the trainee’s online experience: • Home page provides access to all areas and the tools described below. Here you can visualize two paths of training: linguistic-communicative 104

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and methodological-didactic, also identified by different colors; each path is organized in different modules. – Home with subdivision of modules: tutors only may display the page with the modules details. • Class Logbook (for tutor use only): the tutor has its own logbook for the virtual class management and activities of the students to be checked and validated. • My group is an environment where the tutor may discuss with his/her colleagues and collaborate with the support of the main coordinator through synchronous and asynchronous interactions. This area opens access to the following activities: – Sharing materials: to share materials in the virtual classroom; – Chat: to communicate with other students in the group and with the tutor; – Wiki Blog: to post messages and comment like in usual blogs with the added ability to edit messages placed in a “wiki” (this application is very useful for collaborative work); – Synchronous space: to recreate a remote meeting in the presence through the use of audio/video conferencing and collaborative work; – Online Portfolio (for trainee use only): to control and update one’s personal learning path and to visualize what the tutor sees and validates step by step; – Community: a great environment to socialize with all the people joining in the training. It is a space to share their impressions, opinions, working documents; – Forum: the forum has got a double access: one for the trainee who may come in contact with the authors of the online activities and one for tutors being moderated by a mentor for each module who will be responsible for supporting and providing insights to the tutors; – Help: to send an e-mail to Help Desk service specifically designed for the ELT training plan in order to answer questions and solve any technical or administrative problem. As to Module 1 and Module 2, the new training model provides 5 thematic cores for each training module, each consisting of 12 hours of faceto-face training (total 60 hours) plus 8 hours for the on-line interaction (total of 40 hours). The table below exemplifies the breakdown of the first two training modules respectively related to the achievement of CEFR levels A1 and A2 (Table 1). 105

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Thematic core

On-line (activities available from the online platform) 8 hours per core

Offline (faceto face activities)

12 hrs

Timing covers all the activities within the core.

Self assessment test is being recorded in the online training teacher’s portfolio.

The Achievement test is being recorded in the online logbook, checked and marked by the tutor.

12 hrs

Timing covers all the activities within the core.

Self assessment test is being recorded in the online training teacher’s portfolio.

The Achievement test is being recorded in the online logbook, checked and marked by the tutor.

12 hrs

Timing covers all the activities within the core.

Self assessment test is being recorded in the online training teacher’s portfolio.

The Achievement test is being recorded in the online logbook, checked and marked by the tutor.

12 hrs

Timing covers all the activities within the core.

Self assessment test is being recorded in the online training teacher’s portfolio.

The Achievement test is being recorded in the online logbook, checked and marked by the tutor.

12 hrs

Timing covers all the activities within the core.

Self assessment test is being recorded in the online training teacher’s portfolio.

The Achievement test is being recorded in the online logbook, checked and marked by the tutor.

60 hrs

40 h

Self-learning activities 6 hrs

Self assessment test 1 hr

End-of-core Achievement test 1 hr

Total Hours: 100

Table 1

Module 1 and Module 2 structure.

As far as the third module aimed at the achievement of CEFR level B1 is concerned, the new training model provides 5 thematic cores per training module, each consisting of 12 hours of face-to-face training (total 60 hours) plus 16 hours for the on-line interaction (total 80 hours). Part of the offline and online time of this module is dedicated to preparation for the final test with simulation timing and tasks under tutors’ guidance. This new version of the MIUR-ANSAS Plan, aimed to primary English teachers, clearly shows the “new paradigm”, proposed by Carlson and Tidiane Gadio, 106

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that replaces training with lifelong professional preparedness and development of teachers. This approach includes at least three dimensions: – Initial preparation/training (pre-service) that provides teachers with a solid foundation of knowledge; competency in teaching, classroom management, and organization skills; mastery of the subject matter they will teach; and proficiency in using a variety of educational resources, including technology. – Workshops, seminars, and short courses (in-service) that offer structured opportunities for acquisition of new teaching skills and subject matter knowledge, as well as skills development in the use of technology in the classroom, that are government-certified and linked to teachers’ professional career development. – Ongoing pedagogical and technical support for teachers as they address their daily challenges and responsibilities. (Carlson and Tidiane Gadio, 2002, p. 119)

Multimedia simulations offered by the new ANSAS platform within the present teacher training plan are supposed to improve the training process by providing access to better educational resources, offering examples of real teaching practice, enhancing teacher-to-trainee cooperation, and increasing productivity of instructional drills and non-instructional tasks. Moreover, the tools shared by trainees and tutors/instructors enable teacher professional development at a distance, asynchronous training, and individualized learning opportunities. Primary school teachers often lead an isolated professional existence, with a scarce chance to collaborate with their peers or supervisors. They have to cope with large classrooms of more than 25 pupils and they plan their teaching action on the basis of what they learned in the years of their pre-service training. Therefore, when it comes to developing and putting new technological skills into use, teachers may use online social spaces to step out of their classroom and share lesson plans, assessment strategies, classroom management procedures, along with the joys and sorrows of teaching. This is why one of the main goals of the MIUR-ANSAS new Training Plan is to help teachers overcome their isolation and get in touch with other colleagues, tutors, mentors, experts in an ongoing sharing progress. Yet, this aspect easily leads to a shift in the teacher’s role, from being just a self-contained source of knowledge to being a reflexive protagonist and facilitator of the students’ learning. As far as this point is concerned, the key issue is the teacher motivation to personalize his professional growth thanks 107

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to the use of technology. Although most of them appear quite reluctant to change their teaching habits and adopt ICTs in their classroom, the creation of an authentic online teaching community may push them to consider the potential benefits of using new tools to revitalize their teaching without feeling threatened by technology and perceiving it as a continuation of the traditional offline mode of teaching/training. In order to keep a balance between the use of the offline and the online training modes, a number of key communication functions were selected on the basis of the syllabus proposed in Profile 2007, according to production and oral reception skills involved in each module. Communicative functions were grouped into 5 thematic categories providing specific online activities within the three relevant modules. The online activities respond to the 3 levels required (A1, A2, B1) and are ideally linked to the traditional faceto-face classes conducted in the presence of the tutor, although they can be carried out independently by teachers at anytime. Moreover, they are all accompanied by general and specific objectives, features, structures and vocabulary reference. They are articulated in different steps and contain links to external sites helping teachers familiarize with the online environment and to carry out their study individually and autonomously. The table 2 summarizes the core themes and functions of each on-line module. LINGUISTIC-COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTIONS

Module 1 0 – A1

Module 2 A1 – A2

Module 3 A2 – B1

Introducing oneself and other people. Greeting and taking leave.

Talking about habits and free time activities. Talking about preferences. Talking about the recent past. Talking about quantity.

Talking about preferences and giving reasons.

Giving personal information: name, surname, job, age, phone number, [marital status,] nationality. Filling in forms.

Comparing objects, places, people and animals.

Giving information about/ describing countries and cities.

Talking about one’s family.

Telling stories. Narrating in chronological sequence, using appropriate tenses and connectors. Understanding, talking/writing about past events.

Understanding, talking/ writing about past events.

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Describing holidays and incidents. Describing feelings.

Understanding a biography, the news, a story.

Talking about daily routines. Talking about peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s jobs. Telling the time. Talking about the weather. Describing present actions.

Talking about [houses] schools, rooms and furniture.

Ordering food and drink Buying things.

Giving information about something read/seen. Retelling. Giving opinions.

Table 2

Linguistic-communicative function for each module.

Conclusion The ANSAS-MIUR Plan has just begun with the selection of tutors/ mentors in each Italian region and the building of class-groups of inservice teachers all over Italy. The Plan is going to be carried out in two different phases. While this first phase of the training is focused on the acquisition and consolidation of the linguistic & communicative skills in English, the second phase will be devoted to the acquisition and promotion of the English language teaching skills. The first phase of training will start at the beginning of September 2012 and the second phase will follow. The first results of the whole program will be available by the end of Spring 2013. The current paper was meant to describe the Italian National Plan for Training Teachers of English at Primary School, providing a survey of the main teaching features, the technological tools and the organizational and strategic aspects of the Plan itself, seen in the wider theoretical framework of the integrated models of teaching/training building on technology. Future work should be dedicated to the gathering of the feedback data from both trainees and mentors and it would also examine some potential factors that might influence the ELT training process in a blended environment. This forthcoming work will aim to a) ascertain the durability of online trained teachers as compared to traditionally trained ones, b) check whether the estimated timing for the activities is in need of revision, c) assess not only their final learning/training goals, but also the effectiveness of their teaching action once back to their everyday teaching contexts. 109

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References AA.VV. (2012). Los docentes y las TICs. (http://docentesytic.wordpress.com/2012/07/16/8grandes-ideas-para-el-aprendizaje-constructivista-y-significativo/). ANSAS-MIUR (2007). Quale profilo e quali competenze per l’inglese del docente di scuola primaria. Un’esperienza di ricerca. Firenze: ANSAS. Balboni, P.E. (2002). Le sfide di Babele. Insegnare le lingue nella società complessa. Torino: UTET. Baldacci, M. (2004). I modelli della didattica. Roma: Carocci. Bernárdez, E. (1999). ¿Qué son las lenguas?. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. Bianchi, C., Corasaniti, P., & Panzarasa, N. (2004). L’inglese nella scuola primaria. L’insegnamento della lingua straniera in una dimensione europea. Roma: Carocci Faber. Carlson, S., & Tidiane Gadio, C. (2002). Teacher professional development in the use of technology. In W.D. Haddad & A. Draxler (Eds.), Technologies for education. Potentials, parameters and prospects (pp. 118-130). AED and UNESCO. (http://unesdoc.unesco. org/images/0011/001191/119129e.pdf). Castoldi, M. (2009). Valutare le competenze. Percorsi e strumenti. Roma: Carocci. Delanoy, W., & Volkmann, L. (Eds.) (2008). Future perspectives for English language teaching. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag. Ervin, S., & Osgood, C.E. (1954). Second language learning and bilingualism. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49, 139-146. European Council – Modern Language Division (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Bruxelles. (http://www.coe. int/T/DG4/Linguistic/CADRE_EN.asp). Fiorin, I. (2008, February). Curricolo verticale nella scuola di base. Paper presented at Seminario di Studi SIRD, Salerno. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind. London: Fontana. Gardner, H. (2005). Educazione e sviluppo della mente. Intelligenze multiple e apprendimento. Trento: Erickson. La Marca, A. (1999). Didattica e sviluppo della competenza metacognitiva. Voler apprendere per imparare a pensare. Palermo: Palumbo. Maccario, D. (2006). Insegnare per competenze. Torino: SEI. Marmelstein, D. (2008). Niños multilingües con problemas de aprendizaje. (http://www. cadenaser.com/entrevistas/entrevista.html?encuentro=4589&ordenacion=desc&docPa ge = 25; last accessed: 16.07.2012). Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione (2007). Indicazioni Nazionali per il curricolo per la scuola dell’infanzia e per il primo ciclo d’istruzione. Roma: Tecnodid. Perani, D., et al. (1998). The Bilingual brain. Proficiency and age of acquisition of the second language. Brain, 121, 1841-1852. Piaget, J. (1946). La formación del símbolo en el niño. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica. Piaget. J. (1962). Commentary on Vygotsky’s criticisms. New Ideas in Psychology, 13, 325-340. Serraggiotto, G. (Ed.) (2004). Le lingue straniere nella scuola. Torino: UTET.

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Vygotsky, L.S. (1934). Thinking and speech. In R.W. Rieber & A.S. Carton (Eds.), The collected works of L.S. Vygotsky, Vol. I: Problems of General Psychology (pp. 39-285). Transl. by N. Minik, New York â&#x20AC;&#x201C; London: Plenum Press, 1987. Wheeler, S. (2012). Reciprocity Learning. (http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2012/07/ reciprocity-learning.html). Wiggins, C. (2012). Can higher education afford innovation?. (http://learningcircuits.blogspot.fr/2012/07/can-higher-education-afford-innovation.html).

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New technologies to learn how to think: analysis of educational practices Loredana Lupo

ABSTRACT

University of Messina, Via Concezione, 6/8 – 98123 Messina (Italy). E-mail: lorylupo@yahoo.it

This research started with the assumption that the personalization of learning requires didactic differentiation or a teaching modality developed in varied and diversified forms. We gathered a number of personalized teaching practices aimed at developing student excellence through various forms of new technology. We used a qualitative methodology to collect and analyze data from the practices of 30 teachers from 7 Italian regions, who participated in a course in order to acquire the necessary digital competence to develop a metacognitive teaching method using new technologies. We also explored teachers’ awareness and the ways they use to design and implement some class activities using these new technologies, keeping in mind the hypothesis that they want to enhance students’ self-regulation in learning. The objectives of this research are thus formulated: to analyze the quality of teaching practices intentionally geared in response to the differentiated needs of students, and set according to the principles of educative personalization; to individualize didactic methodologies that can improve the students’ motivation in learning through the use of new technologies; to offer teachers the opportunity to reflect upon their own tasks and endeavors through the acquisition of a practice collection-analysis method, shared within their action research group. The analysis of the practices gathered in this study made it possible to verify the ways by which they test the use of digital resources and the technological infrastructures of the internet in their daily teaching practices. Keywords: metacognition; reflective practices; new technology.

Edizioni Erickson – Trento

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Introduction It is well-known that teachers are required to have an experimental mentality leading them to constantly verify the educational efficiency of their teaching actions and make new hypotheses to improve. Actually, what really happens at school is that intuition is predominant because of the lack of time, so these hypotheses are quite dim, working procedures are the fruit of almost indefinite improvisation, and assessment does not fit the need for observing the benefits and results of learning or it is not even carried out at all. Therefore, it is required for school teachers to have a strong methodological competence in the field of teaching research. We know that this kind of competence would improve thanks to a more direct teacher involvement in collecting their teaching practices and analyzing them. There follow the aims we tried to reach through our research exposed in the present paper: a) analyzing the quality of a teaching practice thought to answer the different needs of students, according to the principles of personalized education; b) providing teachers with hints for reflection on their teaching process so as to urge them into a revision of their habits, communicative styles, pedagogical & teaching methodologies, contents and tools in order to exploit all possible forms of students excellence; c) finding out teaching methods able to develop student motivation to learn. We have basically focused on the teachers: however, as the students’ results are the expression of the teachers’ methodology, we have followed two parallel paths: the evaluation of professional improvements as revealed by teachers; the evaluation of the students’ results obtained thanks to the professional growth of teachers who work to improve the quality of education. In our analysis on the teaching practices, great attention has been paid to personalized education within several educational contexts. The scheme followed has been that of Research-Action, integrated with the best quantitative and qualitative methods of research yielded by the classic teaching experimental background. The use of this research method has helped teachers individualize & personalize the teaching/learning process, while considering the efficiency of their work and comparing the same work with that of their colleagues. 114

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The reports of teachers, along with all the didactic materials produced, have been related to the previous teaching planning and classroom observation carried out by the researcher. Surveys to teachers, parents and students, focus group, classroom observation, regular observation are the means used for gathering the required data. Any single item of the research has been carefully observed and compared so as to obtain some constants in the field of individualized didactics. The teaching experiences as collected at the end of each and every research may be the starting point for teaching in educative settings similar to those described by their colleagues who joined our research programme.

Theoretical framework There is a growing body of literature on reflection in the context of teaching at school (Brookfield, 1995; Kreber, 2005; Lyons, 2006). Critical reflection helps the learner to describe experiences, to analyze what they have learnt from those experiences and to offer a process of judgment by which they might frame current of future experiences (Brookfield, 1995). According to studies of Dees et al. (2007), we have developed a teaching/learning model to provide a framework to guide reflection. The model has a number of components and of interest in this context is the teacher component of the model, which high-lights the importance of reflection along several dimensions: understanding how our own life stories impact our practice; identifying our awareness of the in-the-moment factors that affect student learning; and identifying how an individual teacher defines the role of a teacher in the process of learning (Dees et al., 2007, p. 133). Each dimension requires on-going reflection. It is our view that the analysis of the practices sessions which required preparation and provide for guided reflection before, during and after the session and also for peer feedback could contribute to supporting lectures to reflect on some of the dimension outlined above. Warin, Maddock, Pell, and Hargreaves (2006) argue that self-awareness an essential tool for teachers and that reflective practice is essential to this capacity to integrate and make sense of the self. They emphasize «a crucial and perhaps overlooked element, that is incorporated within this expansive concept; the teachers’ attentiveness to self-in practice» (Warin et al., 2006, p. 243). There is a subtle but important change of emphasis from reflective to reflexive as a way of concentrating 115

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on reflection of the self within teaching. Reflexivity is frequently confused with reflection although some would argue that the two are inextricably linked. Payne (2002) argues that: reflexivity means that we are constantly getting evidence about how effective or worthwhile our actions are, and we can change what we are doing according to the evidence of its value. To do so, of course, requires being reflective (p. 27). It is well established in the world of professional practice that in order to make sense of what we see, hear, experience and do, one needs to be able to reflect in and on practice (Schon, 1987). The reflexive turn of which Moore (2004) writes is the «capacity and willingness to carry away our experiences responses and initial understanding and to analyze them form a variety of perspectives» (p. 150). In the field of professional practice the importance of becoming reflective practitioners (Schon, 1983; 1987) has gained considerable currency in recent years. Macfarlane (2004) believes the shift in favour of reflective practitioners has been hugely influential in the emerging field of educational development for teachers in higher education. At the heart of the tension facing lectures today is the balancing of the discourse and practice of student-centeredness and active learning strategies combined with self-reflection. Race (2001) has suggested that setting up the climate and structure for peers to observe each other’s teaching provides a myriad of opportunities for the lecturer: to learn about oneself and others, to build confidence; to increase awareness of student learners; to practice how to give and receive positive and negative feedback; and to develop collegially. Research that uses what is known about maintenance and generalization to identify how teachers can best support student learning and maintenance of skills, promote generalization of strategies from one context to another, and create opportunities for metacognitive practice and skill development most effectively in classrooms would fill key gaps in the applied metacognitive research area. Determining whether there are strategies or constellations of strategies that are more useful for learning would help teachers prioritize what to teach. In a recent review, Duffy, Miller, Parson, and Meloth (2009) summarized research on the role of metacognition in teaching and whether teachers can learn to be consistently metacognitive in their teaching practice and concluded that there is limited evidence regarding precisely what a metacognitive teacher does, how he or she does it, whether doing it is key to 116

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student achievement, or how teacher educators can develop it. The conclusion reached by Duffy and colleagues may be discouraging to some, but we prefer to focus on the unequivocal direction it gives for future research. Metacognitive knowledge refers to the ability and opportunity for learners to understand, control, direct and manipulate their knowledge and their learning process (Azevedo & Witherspoon, 2009). In particular, Self Regulated Learning (SRL) is a pedagogical approach that puts learners in charge to control and direct their learning process (Zimmerman, 2008), planning learning experiences for attaining these goals, deploying a diverse set of effective learning strategies in pursuit of the goals, continuously monitoring their own understanding of the material and the appropriateness of the current information, and making adaptations to their goals. SRL is considered a cross-competency whose acquisition aids self-directed management of individualsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; learning processes (Zimmerman, 2001) and allows learning to learn (van den Boom et al., 2004).

Methodological aspects in the analysis of teaching practices The studies made in the last ten years demonstrate that, within the field of teaching practices, there is no defined teaching model of which we can assert the effectiveness at the end of the educative action as well as we usually do with hypotheses. This is because the learning/teaching process has several facets and teaching is an educational phenomenon we can approach only thanks to the aid of scientific research. This scientific research helps us building proper teaching methodologies which are specifically suitable to different contexts. Those teachers taking part in the research are observed in their routine life context while respecting the way they live their teaching experience and integrating their experience within the research process. The first question arises about the effectiveness of the data collected and the evaluation we express, the second one deals with the integration of the collected data with quantitative and qualitative tools, in a word, we ask whether it is possible to use a blended research methods with elements belonging to different scientific traditions and extrapolated from their different epistemological areas. When teachers are involved in a research project about their way of teaching, which brings about their professional improvement and, consequently, a better quality in the school service. This way of approaching 117

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research has certainly motivated both the researcher and the educator, but it has also produced some epistemological problems which usually come out when dealing with “the way teachers teach”. The solution has been that of using the Research-Action operational paradigm integrated with the best research methods yielded by classic teaching experimentations. Those who work in educational-teaching field research in everyday contexts are aware of the dynamic nature of school life and the way it may obstacle the respect of strict research procedures and protocols. We had to face similar problems during our research work, therefore we had to continuously revise and reformulate our path, although maintaining a clear operative direction in the research, a balanced sense of our methodological limits and an holistic vision towards the complex school context. The description of the participant teachers’ activities, the telling of their personal experience and the presentation of the results have been integrated with quantitative measurements and with “triangulations” and have required the intervention of external assessors. The efficiency obtained through the triangulation may be considered of a “cumulative” kind because it comes out of the combination of researchers and teachers initial predictions, the results interpretation, systematic observation, interviews, and the protagonists’ personal telling. It is possible to overcome the obstacle of results generalization (a problem common to all kinds of research in the educational context) just considering that, in similar research situations, there is a grade of pre-determined probability of gaining the same results. In Qualitative research, it is fundamental to be careful and precise in describing the students’ features, the educational situation where teachers work, teachers’ personal characteristics, and the socio-cultural context where the school is located. Although Qualitative research is valid within the context where it has been carried out and for the specific group of teachers involved, yet it is true that every scientific discipline advances thanks to the scholars’ reflection on the scientific data collected. In the field of Didactics, in order to compare the results of different researches dealing with the same topic, a researcher is required to describe the assumptions of his every teaching intervention, of the favorable or unfavorable conditions where he has operated, the limits to the accomplishment of the intervention, the final effects of the intervention itself. Therefore, though respecting the idiographic dimension of the research on teachers’ good practices, some “constants” may be drawn from the analysis of final 118

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research reports and may be useful to future actions of teachers coping with the same topics in the same contexts. We do believe that it would be generally preferable to lead two parallel research paths: one focused on the teacher’s action and the other one focused on the addressees of this teaching action. In that case, the logic-empirical tradition and the hermeneutic tradition perfectly combine because the rich information gathered about the way the teacher teaches is completed by the information related to students’ educational improvements and advancements. The research methodology we have applied to the teaching practices is mainly of a qualitative kind, although some elements of quantitative research are also taken into account. On the other hand, when dealing with the students’ learning process, we follow the lines of the classic experimental protocol because it aims at grasping the possible relations between the teacher’s actions and the students’ ones. However, along with quantitative tools (such as test, questionnaire, objective evidence, semantic differential, etc.), we sometimes used qualitative tools with students as well. This kind of instrument facilitate to catch their inner life experience while learning, thanks to the support of the teacher who is supposed to create a positive affective relationship with his students, no matter what teaching method he uses. The assessing tools we mainly used within the affective area were: participant observation, non-directive interview, life story telling, projective techniques, role-play, critical incidents technique, content analysis, and log-book. We have analyzed teaching practices to obtain a professional improvement in those teachers who have cooperated in the research. Therefore, teachers have been — at the same time — the subject and the object of research. At the end, with the help of the research, the groups of teachers involved in the experiment questioned and reflected about the improvements in their way of facing and coping with different educational situations. When carrying out a Research-Action, the researchers’ attention is rightly focused on teachers’ professional development. Yet, it is important to consider that teachers professionally grow once they decide to improve their personal contribution to the educational service. At the end of a research made with and on teachers — as it happens in any Research-Action procedure — we still have to carry out a phase of self-assessment. Considering this self-assessment phase, we noticed that the teachers’ positive or negative opinion about the research is strongly influenced by their perception of their pupils’ improve119

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ments. This is not, of course, the only element useful to evaluate the results of a Research-Action with teachers because; first of all we have to consider their human and professional growth. By the way, their interest and motivation improve once they perceive that they have been used the right educational strategies and devices to guarantee their students’ improvement. The materials we gathered, both in paper and digital format, may be considered as a precious tool for the educational training process and also for all those teachers who are willing to innovate and revitalize their teaching action. In particular, the teachers’ pieces of telling are supported by the teaching material they produced to reach precise educational objectives according to precise student profiles. We are aware of the non total objective nature of the tools we used to collect the good teaching practices, because it is natural to be influenced by the idea we have of teaching. However, we think that before expressing an opinion on someone’s way of teaching, it is necessary to have a clear concept of how a good teaching practice should be to help the students reach their complete and mature growth.

The analysis of the teaching practices The analysis of the teaching practices provides useful guidance to let the students acquire a meta-cognitive competence, conceived as the combination of motivated effort, perceived auto-efficiency, interest in the academic activities, satisfaction for studying with profit and searching for help in the conduct of intellectual work. We used a qualitative methodology to collect and analyze data from the practices of 30 teachers from 7 regions of Italy, who participated in master IUL (Italian University Line) entitled “Teaching Metacognitive: to teach and study with the new technologies.” in order to acquire the necessary digital competence to effectively develop a metacognitive teaching method using new technologies. We also explored teachers’ awareness and the ways they use to design and implement some class activities in order to personalize their teaching methods using these new technologies, keeping in mind the hypothesis that they want to enhance students’ self-regulation in learning. The objectives of this research are thus formulated: to analyze the quality of teaching practices intentionally geared in response to the differentiated needs of students, and set according to the principles of educative 120

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personalization; to individualize didactic methodologies that can improve the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; motivation in learning through the use of new technologies; to offer teachers the opportunity to reflect upon their own tasks and endeavors through the acquisition of a practice collection-analysis method, shared within their action research group. The research has been articulated into three phases: 1. assistance to teachers during the planning of the actions to conduct into the classroom (tools: teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; initial telling about their teaching practice + researchersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; observation); 2. writing practices; 3. reading and analysis of practices. Phase I: training intervention assistance to teachers during the planning of the actions to conduct into the classroom The training was taught entirely online and has been structured alternating modes: synchronous mode in the expert class, study and analysis of course materials, presentation tools, discussion within the forums, small group work and deepening of documents with an individual study. We have tried to provide opportunities for reflection on learning personalization, in order to identify useful indicators for customized teaching practices with new technologies, both to gain greater awareness and expertise about how to use new technologies to enhance their individual differences. The constant feedback within the group has encouraged openness and partnership, encouraging all teachers to get involved and make a contribution. The constant discussion in the forums or synchronous links has made it possible for each teacher to explain to others their point of view and to overcome the subjectivity and partiality of personal experience. In addition, each teacher was encouraged to reflect on himself, on their digital skills and how to implement them in real school situations. Phase II: writing practices To compare the results of designed unit of work experiments, we requested teachers to describe the assumptions made educational intervention, the effects that were followed, the underlying conditions that had helped or hindered the implementation. 121

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For 30 teachers, writing practices was an opportunity to reflect on their learning experience and to describe it in significant details. Writing, reading and analysis of practices allowed having an overview of the progress of the thirty teachers in acquiring the skills necessary to achieve an authentic personalized teaching with the help of new technologies. Specifically they were asked to draw up the records on the basis of the following points: – learning environment and organization of educational activities: what are the constraints and advantages of the use of technological resources; – observed aspects: level of motivation, attention and involvement of students; effectiveness of the designed according to the results achieved; communicative dynamics – relationship between teachers and students; – difficulty: concerning the use and management of technological setting; organizing and conducting activities. Phase III: reading and analysis of practices To collect the data we have used the analysis of initial designs, analysis of teaching practices produced and written a self-evaluation form completed by the students on teaching strategies, already used in the initial phase, the comparison of data obtained from final focus group with the initial onewere analyzed in the specific designs relating to primary 7 (5 linguistic expression, 2 logic-mathematics); 9 of secondary school degree (4 Italian, 2 English, 2 music education, and math); of 14 secondary schools (5 in Italian, 3 English, 3 science, 2 math and 1 religion). In the logbooks of 30 teachers have told all the teaching practices, which were then analyzed taking into account the identified aspects of personalization.

Feedback from participants Analysis of practices was conducted on involved teachers. After these teachers completed all procedures, we interviewed them to find out if they had encountered any ambiguities or difficulties in the process. Their responses helped to finalize the think-aloud procedures. The two main themes that emerged from the analysis were: learning from observation of peers and self observation and becoming a reflective 122

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practitioner. The use of direct quotes is used extensively in this section of the paper to provide evidence of both the shared enthusiasm for the process and also some real concerns voiced by the participants. Whenever possible by using the word of the participants themselves, this key issue will be highlighted. The participants, through analysis of practices, were learning that professional development must be an on-going process of refining skills, inquiring in to practices and developing new methods. Thought enabling each teacher to engage collegial and collaborative dialogue with other teachers in the group, all had the chance to broaden the knowledge and expertise needed to guide students toward more successful learning in their disciplines. Throughout analysis and discussion of others’ teaching styles, the participants were able to attain a level of self-awareness and observing others in the analysis of the practices group enabled participants to refine their ability to define and distinguish characteristics that promote a quality student learning experience. The analysis of the practices provided an opportunity for participants to think critically about their practices and classroom activities and many have been motivated to challenge some of their approaches and consider some change. The ability to look at their practice with “fresh eyes” and a deeper understanding of the learning processes has enabled lecturers to became more reflective and aware when planning their lessons and when making decisions in the classroom. Through a process of reflection, lecturers reported a change in the personal qualities that they were able to bring into their teaching. Some commented on feeling more enthusiastic about their job, while others wrote about feeling more confident in their teacher role. It is clear from the data, that analysis of the practices provided an opportunity for the lectures to “stand back” from the immediacy of teaching and identify aspects of their own practice. Findings from this qualitative study show that many participants have learnt from peers and from reflection on their own teaching. The learning from analysis of the practices has been reported as having a direct application particularly in terms of its impact on individual teaching practice and how participants approach course development and delivery as well as how they view the potential of collaboration with colleagues. There is an important role for educational developers to support lectures to be reflective and reflexive in order that they can create their own profes123

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REM â&#x20AC;&#x201C; vol. 4, no. 1, June 2012

sional knowledge and create spaces for sincere and collective self-reflection and open up dialogue. It is our belief that the analysis of the practices session provides an opportunity for the lecturers to gain insights into their role as teachers, to engage in dialogue, to find their own voices and to create new scripts for their work in classroom.

References Azevedo, R., Witherspoon, A.M. (2009). Self-regulated learning with hypermedia. In D.J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A.C. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of metacognition in education (pp. 319-339). Mahwah, NJ: Routledge. Brookfield, S.D. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective teacher. San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass. Brown, A. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation, and other mysterious mechanisms. In F.E. Weinert & R.H. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, motivation and understanding (pp. 65-116). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Dees, D.M., Ingram, A., Kovalik, C., Allen-Huffman, M., McClelland, A., & Justice, L. (2007). A transactional model of colleague teaching. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 19 (2), 130-139. Duffy, G.G., Miller, S., Parson, S., & Meloth, M. (2009). Teachers as metacognitive professionals. In D.J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A.C. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of metacognition in education (pp. 240-256). New York, NY: Routledge. Kreber, C. (2005). Reflecting on teaching and the scholarship of teaching: Focus on science instructors. Higher Education, 50, 323-359. Lyons, N. (2006). Reflective engagement as professional development in the lives of university teachers. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 12 (2), 323-359. Macfarlane, B. (2004). Teaching with integrity. London: Routledge Falmer. Moore, A. (2004). The good teacher. London: Routledge. Payne, M. (2002). Social work theories and reflective practice. In L. Dominelli, M. Payne, & R. Adams (Eds.), Social work: Themes. issues and critical debates (2nd ed.) (pp. 236248). Basingstoke: Palgrave/Open University. Race, P. (2001). The lecturerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s toolkit: A practical guide to learning, teaching and assessment. Abingdon: RoutledgeFalmer. Schon, D.A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books Schon, D.A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner: Towards a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. van den Boom, G., Paas, F., van Merrinboer, J.J.G., & van Gog, T. (2004). Reflection prompts and tutor feedback in a web-based learning environment: effects on students self-regulated learning competence. Computers in Human Behavior, 20, 551-567. Warin, J., Maddock, M., Pell, A., & Hargreaves, L. (2006). Resolving identity dissonance through reflective and reflexive practice in teaching. Reflective Practice, 7 (2), 233245.

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New technologies to learn how to think: analysis of educational practices

Zimmerman, B.J. (2008). Investigating self regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future Prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45 (1), 166-183. Zimmerman, B.J. (Ed.) (2001). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Incorporated.

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Note to the Authors Submissions are to be sent, as MS Word iles, to the email address of the Secretary: rem@educazionemediale.it Submission and writing-up guidelines:

To be suitable for publication in REM – Researches on Education and Media, submission should be sent electronically (as Word or RTF iles), at least 6 months prior to publication, at the address: rem@ educazionemediale.it Together with the submission, a letter should be sent, undersigned by each contributor, authorizing publication of the submitted material and guaranteeing the material’s originality and uniqueness; the letter should be sent to the address: Edizioni Centro Studi Erickson, via del Pioppeto 24, 38121 Trento. The authors should acquire all the needed permissions for the reproduction of copyrighted or previously published material. Galley copies will not be sent to the authors. The Journal acquires the literary property of the submitted articles and reproduction of the material, total or partial, is prohibited. Each article will be submitted anonymously, to two referees. Articles not composed following the editorial guidelines will not be considered. Each article should include:

1. on a separate sheet: full name, institution, address of the institution, position in the institution, e-mail, phone number of the author(s); 2. title of the submitted article; 3. abstract in English; 3. abstract in Italian (for the website); 4. keywords in English (2-5, separated by a semicolon), limited to the terms included in the European Education Thesaurus (http://redined.r020.com.ar/en/); 4. keywords in Italian (for the website) (2-5, separated by a semicolon), limited to the terms included in the European Education Thesaurus (http://redined.r020.com.ar/en/); 5. full text, subdivided in paragraphs and sub-paragraphs, titled but not numbered; 6. bibliography, following APA – American Psychological Association rules; 7. igures and tables (if any) progressively numbered, in their deinitive and graphically perfect version. Abstract and summary guidelines:

The maximum length for both summaries and abstracts is 200 words.

Article guidelines:

– the maximum length of articles – Studies and researches – is 12 pages, or about 30.000 characters, including spaces (and including graphics, tables, notes and bibliography); – footnotes, if any, should be progressively numbered, and should have only an explanatory function (no bibliographical notes); – the different paragraphs (with bold title, no numbering) and sub-paragraphs (with italic title, no numbering) should be clearly marked by leaving one line between title and text, and two lines between a paragraph and the following title; – to highlight text portions or foreign words, italics should be used, never bold or underscored; – quoted text from sources listed in the bibliography should follow the APA rules, such as in the following examples: (Bruner, 1986); or (Bruner, 1986, p. 11); or (Bruner, 1986, pp. 11-12); or (Tufte, Rasmussen & Christensen, 2005); or (Mayer et al., 2005), or (Ardizzone & Rivoltella, 2003). – iconographic documentation (igures, graphs and other documents to be included as originals) should be provided in original form (no photocopies); images extracted by newspapers or other low-quality sources should be avoided. Digital images (supports: 100 MB ZIP or cd-rom) should conform to these characteristics (the printed image will have the same size of the provided image): line drawings (in black and white) 600 to 1200 dpi resolution; grayscale images 300 dpi resolution;

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in any case the images, as also the tables, must be referred to in the body of the main text, provided with legends and progressively numbered. The editorial board reserves the right of slightly modifying the placement of images for printing purposes. As images are often copyrighted, it will be the author(s) responsibility to acquire written permission to reproduce both images and material which is part of previous publications, or not owned by them. In the case of pictures portraying people, the author(s) will have to obtain publication permission from the subject(s). Quoted texts must be listed in bibliography following strictly the standards set by APA Publication Manual (http://www.apastyle.org/) – by alphabetic order of author’s names, and in chronological order (from the oldest to the most recent publication) where works by the same author are concerned. Depending on the kind of work quoted, bibliographical reference should strictly follow these models: a) Journal articles: Messina, L. (2007). Valutazione dei prodotti mediali: il “collaudo” di Gnam! Il cibo in gioco, CADMO, XV (1), 87-114. b) Journal Articles in Press: Ricciardi, M., & Bossi, V. (in press). Convergenza tecnologica e creatività digitale. Economia dei servizi. c) Books: Rivoltella, P.C. (2006). Screen generation. Milano: Vita e Pensiero. d) Italian version of a foreign book: – if in the main text, only author and date are quoted: Novak, J.D. (1988). Learning, creating, and using knowledge: Concept Maps as facilitative tools in schools and corporations. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (Novak, J.D., L’apprendimento signiicativo: le mappe concettuali per creare e usare la conoscenza. Trento: Erickson, 2001). – if in the main text author, date and page(s) of the Italian edition are quoted: Novak, J.D. (2001). L’apprendimento signiicativo: le mappe concettuali per creare e usare la conoscenza (pp. 0-0). Trento: Erickson. (Novak, J.D., Learning, creating, and using knowledge: Concept Maps as facilitative tools in schools and corporations. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1988). – if in the main text author, date and page(s) of the foreign edition are quoted: Novak, J. D. (1988). Learning, creating, and using knowledge: Concept Maps as facilitative tools in schools and corporations (pp. 0-0). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (Novak, J.D., L’apprendimento signiicativo: le mappe concettuali per creare e usare la conoscenza, Trento: Erickson, 2001). e) Books «edited by»: Ricciardi, M. (Ed.) (2008). Interfacce della memoria. Napoli: ScriptaWeb. Rivoltella, P.C. (Ed.) (2008). Digital literacy: Tools and methodologies for information society. Hershey: IGI. f) Contributions to a collection or anthology: Limone, P. (2006). Videogiochi e pedagogia. Training level ed applicazioni didattiche. In T. GrangeSergi, & M.G. Onorati (Eds.), La sida della comunicazione all’educazione. Prospettive di media education (pp. 129-142). Milano: Franco Angeli. g) Congress papers: Galliani, L., & De Waal, P. (2005, June), Learning face to face, in action and on line: Integrating model of lifelong learning. Paper presented at Eden Annual Conference, Bringing e-learning close to lifelong learning and working life: A new period of uptake, Finland, Helsinki. Messina, L., Personeni, F., Tabone, S., & Manio, S. (2008). Lello & Lella international research project. In L. Gómez Chova, D. Martí Belenguer, & I. Candel Torres (Eds.), INTED2008 Proceedings. International Technology, Education and Development Conference (pp. 216-224). Valencia: IATED. h) Quotes from web sites: Rivoltella, P.C. (2006). Media Education e ricerca. (http://www.ilmediario.it/cont/articolo.php?artic olo=313&canale=Terza&nav=1).

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Edizioni Erickson – Software

NTI SCO IALI C SPE GLI PER NATI O ABB

Camillo Bortolato

Apprendere con il metodo analogico e la LIM 2 (libro + CD-ROM) Il calcolo scritto nella scuola primaria: le quattro operazioni Prezzo di copertina: € 55,00 Sconto abbonati 15%: € 46,75*

KIT (LIBRO + CD-ROM) ISBN 978-88-590-0030-3

Il volume presenta: una parte pratica con schede operative di difficoltà graduata; un’ampia introduzione teorica; un approfondimento delle specificità epistemologiche e metodologiche del Metodo Analogico; una serie di consigli per l’insegnante. Il CD-ROM, pensato per un utilizzo ottimale sulla Lavagna Interattiva Multimediale (LIM), mira a sviluppare e potenziare le competenze di calcolo scritto negli alunni della scuola primaria. Rappresenta quindi il completamento del precedente software dedicato ai «maxistrumenti» di matematica per il calcolo mentale. Vengono considerati uno per uno i quattro «algoritmi» fondamentali, riconosciuti comunemente come «operazioni in colonna»: addizioni, sottrazioni, moltiplicazioni e divisioni a una e a due cifre. L’ambito temporale di impiego copre un periodo molto ampio che va dalla classe seconda alla classe quinta richiedendo notevoli energie da parte dei bambini. Il CD-ROM costituisce quindi per l’insegnante un supporto quasi giornaliero alle attività didattiche in classe. Lo svolgimento delle operazioni risulta rapidissimo: ogni algoritmo appare singolarmente sulla lavagna, con evidenziata, passo dopo passo, la casella in cui il bambino deve inserire — tramite il tocco sul tastierino numerico — la cifra corretta, sulla quale viene effettuato un controllo immediato. È possibile tuttavia impostare anche un uso libero delle operazioni in modo che sia l’insegnante a decidere come verificare lo svolgimento. Ciascuna delle dieci sezioni contiene un filmato-video che esemplifica l’uso dell’algoritmo specifico. Per quanto riguarda le strategie mentali da applicare è possibile far comparire sullo schermo gli strumenti facilitatori come la linea del 20 e le tabelline.

* Lo sconto del 15% sui libri e sui Kit riservato agli abbonati è esteso al 20% nel caso di «organizzazioni non lucrative di utilità sociale, centri di formazione legalmente riconosciuti, istituzioni o centri con inalità scientiiche o di ricerca, biblioteche, archivi e musei pubblici, istituzioni scolastiche di ogni ordine e grado, educative e università» (secondo quanto previsto dalla Legge 27 luglio 2011, n. 128, «Nuova disciplina del prezzo dei libri»).

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ALFa READER 3

Ausilio per la Lettura Facilitata Guida (pp. 102) + lettore (su chiavetta USB da 8 GB) La migliore soluzione tecnologica per compensare efficacemente le difficoltà di letto-scrittura. Prezzo di copertina: € 159,00 Sconto abbonati 15%: € 135,15*

ALFa READER 3 è il primo software su chiavetta USB che permette di leggere i testi con l’aiuto della voce sintetica in modalità «karaoke» direttamente nei file PDF, Word, Writer e Internet Explorer, mantenendone l’impaginazione originale e senza dover fare «copia e incolla». Basta portare il mouse sul punto che interessa e con un clic si avvia la sintesi vocale; chi legge può facilmente fermarsi, rallentare, tornare indietro o passare ad altri punti della pagina, sempre con un immediato riscontro visivo. L’esclusivo ambiente di studio PDF permette di evidenziare testi, inserire note e altri commenti, importare testi e salvarli in nuovi documenti compatibili con tutti i principali reader PDF. ALFa READER 3 aggiunge la sintesi nei più comuni programmi di scrittura (Word e Writer) e consente quindi di utilizzare contemporaneamente sia il controllo vocale che il correttore ortografico. Contiene 3 voci preinstallate (2 italiane e 1 inglese). È possibile estendere le potenzialità del programma acquistando separatamente la voce francese, spagnola o tedesca. Può essere personalizzato e utilizzato facilmente da bambini, da ragazzi e anche da adulti con dislessia o difficoltà di lettura. È il lettore vocale che offre il miglior rapporto qualità-prezzo rispetto ai prodotti della concorrenza. Al software è allegata la guida didattica del prof. Flavio Fogarolo, che analizza le potenzialità della sintesi vocale come strumento compensativo dei disturbi di lettura e scrittura per favorire l’autonomia e l’efficacia del metodo di studio. La guida fornisce inoltre una serie di indicazioni metodologiche e consigli didattici utili per sfruttare nel modo migliore le potenzialità di ALFa READER 3. ALFa READER 3 rientra tra gli strumenti compensativi utilizzabili dall’alunno con Disturbi Specifici di Apprendimento, sia nello studio a casa sia durante lo svolgimento di prove a scuola per tutti i livelli d’istruzione (legge 170/2010).

UTILIZZO: • • • • •

compensare le difficoltà di lettura e la dislessia compensare le difficoltà di scrittura (disgrafia e disortografia) avvicinarsi alla lettura nell’ultimo anno della scuola dell’infanzia apprendere l’inglese, il francese, lo spagnolo e il tedesco apprendere l’italiano come L2

IL LETTORE VO SU CHIAVETTA CALE IN UNA NUOV USB 8 GB A ANCORA PIÙ PVERSIONE OTENTE

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CARATTERISTICHE: • è installato su una chiavetta USB da 8 GB, che permette di portare ALFa READER sempre con sé e di utilizzarlo su qualunque computer compatibile • può essere utilizzato da persone ipovedenti, purché siano in grado di selezionare il testo da ascoltare • registra il testo letto in forma di file Wav o MP3 • oltre alla regolazione della velocità di lettura, consente di scegliere tra lettura continua (si ferma solo su comando o alla fine della pagina) o per singole frasi (si ferma alla fine di ogni frase)

PUNTI DI FORZA: • ambiente di studio PDF, con possibilità di sottolineare, evidenziare, aggiungere note e commenti ai testi • speciale ottimizzazione per i PDF accessibili • evidenzia le parole lette, mentre le pronuncia, rispettando la formattazione del testo nei formati file più diffusi (Word, Writer, PDF, HTML) • permette di leggere i PDF (libri digitali) e di scegliere sezioni di brani, box di testo o elenchi • aggiunge la sintesi ai più comuni programmi di scrittura (Word e Writer) e consente quindi di utilizzare contemporaneamente sia il controllo vocale che il correttore ortografico • contiene una calcolatrice con cui legge numeri, operazioni e semplici formule matematiche • può essere personalizzato e utilizzato da bambini, da ragazzi e anche da adulti con dislessia o difficoltà di lettura • offre il miglior rapporto qualità-prezzo rispetto ai prodotti della concorrenza • il prezzo è comprensivo di IVA al 4% (per cui non è necessario presentare alcuna prescrizione dello specialista ASL)

LE NOVITÀ DI ALFa READER 3 Il software è installato su una chiavetta USB da 8 GB su cui è possibile salvare oltre 7 GB di testi in formato digitale. La finestra di configurazione rende il software più facile da utilizzare e ne permette la personalizzazione. Ottimizzazione della velocità del programma, dimezzando, i tempi di caricamento rispetto alla versione precedente,. L’ergonomia dell’interfaccia è stata ripensata e rinnovata tramite una nuova grafica semplice e accattivante. È possibile allargare la barra di comando sino a tre volte le dimensioni di partenza, rendendo il software ancora più adatto alle necessità degli ipovedenti. • Tramite un dizionario interno, liberamente modificabile, si può correggere e personalizzare la pronuncia delle parole. • Tramite la calcolatrice è possibile effettuare operazioni multifattoriali. • Ambiente di studio PDF Reader rinnovato e semplificato attraverso tre livelli d’uso. • • • • •

È disponibile l’AGGIORNAMENTO PER ALFa READER 2.0 L’aggiornamento contiene la nuova guida, un CD-ROM autoinstallante e un codice di attivazione per aggiornare il software ALFa READER 2.0 PLUS alla nuova versione 3, ancora più potente. Per informazioni sui costi, vai su www.erickson.it

Per scoprire tutte le funzionalità di ALFa READER, guardare i video di presentazione e ascoltare esempi di testo letti dalla sintesi vocale vai su www.erickson.it

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Centro Studi Erickson – Formazione CORSI DI APPRENDIMENTO ONLINE I corsi di apprendimento online sono strutturati in 4/5 moduli didattici e hanno una durata di 50 ore, comprensive dello studio dei materiali e dello svolgimento delle prove di veriica. Prevedono l’assistenza di un docente/tutor esperto della materia. Al termine del corso viene rilasciato un attestato di partecipazione ai corsisti che hanno svolto tutte le prove proposte dal tutor.

PROGRAMMA 2012 DEI CORSI ONLINE SETTEMBRE

OTTOBRE

Piano Educativo Individualizzato Tutor: Angela Dallago

Apprendimento Cooperativo Tutor: Anna La Prova

ICF

Novit2à Tutor: Mara Buffoni 201

Impariamo ad imparare. Percorso introduttivo sul metodo Feuerstein

Disturbo specifico dell’apprendimento (DSA) della letto-scrittura: caratteristiche generali e approccio didattico Autore: Giorgia Sanna

a LIM – Strategie didattiche Nduizoiovne e

Tutor: Michele Facci

Tecnologie e strategie per compensare i DSA Tutor: Flavio Fogarolo, Maria Rita Cortese, Angiolella Dalla Valle, Paolo Rizzato e Caterina Scapin

Matematica: il metodo analogico-intuitivo

Tutor: Maria Luisa Boninelli

Abilità di Counseling Autore: Annalisa Pasini

Educazione Razionale Emotiva Tutor: Elena Bassi

La comprensione del testo scritto Tutor: Susi Cazzaniga

Le Intelligenze Multiple Tutor: Giuseppina Gentili

Autore: Camillo Bortolato

Autismo: interventi psicoeducativi e clinici

Le difficoltà di apprendimento della matematica: corso avanzato

Missione compiti

Autore: Giorgia Sanna

Tutor: Germana Englaro

Tutor: Gianluca Daffi

Didattica metacognitiva: corso base

Individualizzare la didattica

Tutor: Germana Englaro e Martina Pedron

Autore: Carlo Scataglini

ACCEDERE E PARTECIPARE AI CORSI ONLINE È FACILE! Unico requisito fondamentale per iscriversi a un corso online Erickson è avere una casella di posta elettronica (indirizzo e-mail) e un computer con l’accesso a internet. Costi e modalità di iscrizione Il costo dei corsi è di € 160,00 + IVA 21% (€ 193,60), quello dei corsi avanzati è di € 180,00 + IVA 21% (€ 217,80). > sconto 10% per gli abbonati alle riviste Erickson > sconto 20% per chi si iscrive a più di 2 corsi (Per il corso in «Tecnologie e strategie per compensare i DSA» non sono previsti questi sconti) Per informazioni: Segreteria organizzativa, Centro Studi Erickson, Via del Pioppeto 24, Fraz. Gardolo – 38121 Trento; Tel. 0461 950747- Fax 0461 956733; E-mail: formazione@erickson.it

Maggiori informazioni sul programma 2012 dei corsi online su www.erickson.it

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4° Convegno internazionale sulla

Qualità del Welfare

3 ses s plen ioni arie 24 w o appr rksho p ofon dime di nto Espe rti it al e str anie iani ri

La tutela dei Minori Buone pratiche relazionali

Promosso da:

Riva del Garda (Trento), 8-9-10 novembre 2012 Convegno di alta formazione per dirigenti, coordinatori di Servizi, amministratori, operatori sociali e della giustizia minorile.

Direzione scientiica:

Segreteria organizzativa:

Pierpaolo Donati (Università di Bologna) Fabio Folgheraiter (Università Cattolica di Milano)

Tel. 0461 950747

Coordinamento scientiico: Maria Luisa Raineri (Università Cattolica di Milano)

Programma completo, informazioni e iscrizioni su:

www.erickson.it

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Direzione scientifica Maurizio Arduino (Responsabile coordinamento Autismo, ASL CN1, Mondovì), Andrea Canevaro (Università di Bologna), Dario Ianes (Università di Bolzano), Giovanni Marino (Presidente FANTASiA), Daria Riva (UO di Neurologia dello Sviluppo, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milano), Silvano Solari (Centro per l’Autismo, ASL 5, La Spezia), Michele Zappella (Direttore scientifico rivista «Autismo e disturbi dello sviluppo») Ospiti stranieri La terza edizione del Convegno Autismi ha l’onore di ospitare relatori di calibro internazionale tra cui siamo particolarmente orgogliosi di menzionare: Christopher Gillberg È uno dei massimi esperti, apprezzato e riconosciuto a livello mondiale, nel campo dell’autismo. Professore di Psichiatria dell’infanzia e dell’adolescenza presso le Università di Gothenburg, Londra, Strathclyde e presso il Karolinska Institute di Stoccolma. È inoltre dirigente medico presso la Clinica di Neuropsichiatria infantile del Queen Silvia Children’s Hospital (Sahlgrenska). Editor di numerose riviste scientifiche, tra le quali il prestigioso «Journal of European

Child and Adolescent Psychiatry», ha pubblicato più di 500 papers internazionali. La sua lettura magistrale a questa edizione 2012 del convegno «Autismi» sarà focalizzata, in modo particolare, sui trattamenti intensivi per l’autismo. Yoko Kamio È direttore del Dipartimento di salute mentale dell’infanzia e dell’adolescenza (Centro di Neurologia e Psichiatria), presso l’Istituto Nazionale di Salute Mentale di Tokyo (Giappone). Autrice di numerosi lavori scientifici pubblicati su prestigiose riviste internazionali. Durante il convegno ci presenterà le novità dalla ricerca nel campo dell’epidemiologia dell’autismo. Hilde De Clercq È professionista e trainer di grande esperienza; si è formata all’Opleidingscentrum Autisme di Anversa con Theo Peeters. Autrice di pubblicazioni sull’autismo, di cui due edite in lingua italiana da Erickson: Il labirinto dei dettagli, dove l’autrice racconta l’esperienza con suo figlio Thomas affetto da autismo, e L’autismo da dentro. Si occupa, in particolare, della formazione dei professionisti che lavorano a stretto contatto con i familiari delle persone affette da autismo, anche ad alto funzionamento e con Sindrome di Asperger.

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Programma

Quote di partecipazione

Il Convegno è strutturato in 2 sessioni plenarie e in 21 workshop di approfondimento per un totale di 15 ore di formazione (7 ore di sessioni plenarie e 8 ore di workshop di approfondimento). Il Convegno verterà su:

€ 218,00 + IVA 21% (€ 263,78 IVA compresa) per privati € 259,00 + IVA 21% (€ 313,39 IVA compresa) per enti e organizzazioni

• Linee guida italiane e internazionali sull’autismo: prospettive e opportunità • Autismo a scuola: adattamento delle attività didattiche, lavoro sulle abilità sociali e organizzazione del contesto • Indicatori e strumenti per la diagnosi precoce e l’assessment globale dei disturbi dello spettro autistico • Tecnologie informatiche per l’educazione e la riabilitazione • Autismo, servizi territoriali e qualità di vita • Integrazione sociale e sindrome di Asperger: interventi mirati alle abilità sociali e interpersonali • Sessione Buone prassi • Autismo: strategie operative per la vita di tutti i giorni • Diritti e tutele nel campo dei disturbi autistici • Ricerche di psicologia nell’autismo • Alunni con disturbi generalizzati dello sviluppo e qualità inclusiva della scuola • Progetto e qualità di vita nelle famiglie con un figlio autistico • L’uso di libri e storie con la CAA • Autismo, acquaticità e territorio • Organizzazione delle attività, interventi e strategie psicoeducative • Il lavoro con i genitori: proposte di parent training e interazione genitore-bambino • L’intervento logopedico nell’autismo • Comorbilità psichiatriche e terapie farmacologiche: pratica clinica e nuove prospettive di ricerca • Esiti dei trattamenti e degli interventi precoci nei disturbi dello spettro autistico: valutazione dell’efficacia • La riabilitazione neuro-psicomotoria nell’autismo • Autismo e autonomie personali Le sessioni plenarie si svolgeranno nella mattina di lunedì 15 ottobre dalle 9.00 alle 13.00 e nel pomeriggio di martedì 16 ottobre dalle 14.30 alle 17.30. I workshop avranno luogo nel pomeriggio di lunedì 15 ottobre e nella mattina di martedì 16 ottobre. L’opportunità di partecipare a più workshop permetterà a ogni iscritto di costruire un percorso personalizzato in base alla propria professione, ai singoli interessi e agli specifici bisogni formativi. I partecipanti potranno seguire interventi afferenti a diverse sezioni tematiche oppure approfondire un unico argomento trattato da più prospettive.

I soci di FANTASiA (ANGSA, Autismo Italia, Gruppo Asperger) che si iscriveranno al Convegno riceveranno in omaggio l’annata 2013 della rivista «Autismo e disturbi dello sviluppo». Oltre la data del 7 ottobre 2012 la quota di partecipazione sarà per tutti (privati, enti e organizzazioni) di € 300,00 + IVA 21% (€ 363,00 IVA compresa).

Accreditamenti Ministero della Sanità – Accreditamento ECM (Educazione Continua in Medicina) Sono stati richiesti i crediti ECM per le figure di Medico, Psicologo, Logopedista, Educatore professionale, Terapista della neuro e psicomotricità dell’età evolutiva. Per ottenere i crediti sono indispensabili il 100% delle ore di frequenza e il superamento del test finale di apprendimento. Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca Con decreto del 31 marzo 2003, rinnovato in data 12 giugno 2006, il Centro Studi Erickson è stato incluso nell’elenco definitivo degli enti accreditati per la formazione del personale della scuola. L’accreditamento dà diritto all’esonero dal servizio del personale della scuola che partecipi al Convegno, nei limiti previsti dalla normativa vigente. Ordine degli Assistenti Sociali È stata richiesta la possibilità di accreditamento. Accreditamento CFU (Crediti Formativi Universitari) Verrà rilasciato un certificato che attesta la regolare frequenza al Convegno, con il quale sarà possibile fare richiesta dei crediti CFU presso la propria Facoltà.

Coordinamento scientifico Sofia Cramerotti e Silvia Dalla Zuanna Centro Studi Erickson via del Pioppeto 24, Fraz. Gardolo – 38121 Trento e-mail: silvia.dallazuanna@erickson.it

Segreteria organizzativa Centro Studi Erickson via del Pioppeto 24, Fraz. Gardolo – 38121 Trento tel. 0461 950747 fax 0461 956733 e-mail: formazione@erickson.it

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SPECIAL ISSUE SELF-REGULATED LEARNING IN THE USE OF TECHNOLOGIES: CRITICAL THINKING, REFLECTION AND TEACHING METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES Self-regulation of learning: the potential technologies impact of the metacognitive approach Alessandra La Marca Facilitating critical thinking among a new generation Marta López-Jurado Puig Metacognition in primary school: using digital rubric to promote thinking and learning Francesca Pedone Can technology enhance creativity? The role of self-regulation and self-efficacy in using ICT to foster non-linear, non-standard teaching and learning Maria Cinque Web and tool 2.0 affordances for formal and informal learning strategies: the role of the educational project Davide Parmigiani and Valentina Pennazio ADVP technology-supported model: the development of metacognitive strategies during teacher training academic studies Giuseppa Cappuccio Rethinking language teaching and training procedures between online and offline communication Montserrat Veyrat Rigat and Giuseppa Compagno New technologies to learn how to think: analysis of educational practices Loredana Lupo

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