CULTURAL GUIDES
Peru
Smithsonian Journeys Cultural Guide: Peru By Andrew Kolasinski With additional reporting by Melissa Wiley and Linda Poon
Table of Contents HISTORY
CLIMATE
CRADLE OF CIVILIZATION The land-bridge theory Agricultural societies The oldest city in the Americas Chavín culture Moche culture The Nazca The Tiwanaku, Chimú, and other cultures
FAUNA Mammals The role of llamas and alpacas (Box) Reptiles and amphibians Birds Insects Fish
THE MIGHTY INCAS The rise of Cuzco Inca society Secrets of the quipu (Box) Religion Economy, commerce, and justice Farming The Inca diet Science and medicine Incan brain surgery (Box) Education Weapons and warfare Roads and bridges Architecture and building Incan homes (Box) Clothing and style Gold and jewelry Art Music Entertainment, spectacles, and sports THE DEFEAT OF THE INCAS Puppet ruler Jungle hideout SPANISH RULE Reviving the Inca cause A lasting legacy Conversion to Catholicism The revolutionary era THE MODERN PERIOD THE NATURAL WORLD GEOGRAPHY The source of the Amazon (Box)
FLORA AGRICULTURE Potatoes: Peru’s gift to the world Corn’s early origins Tobacco Nineteenth-century exploration (Box) PERUVIAN PEOPLE, SOCIETY AND CULTURE POPULATION ECONOMY CULTURE Peru in the movies (Box) CULTURAL TOUCHSTONES Ancient fishing boats Weaving A healing canine Guinea pig cuisine Music of the Andes FIESTAS Peru’s national dance (Box) FAMOUS PERUVIANS SIGHTS AND ATTRACTIONS LIMA Arrival Getting oriented A rich history Museums Miraflores
Parque de las Leyendas Pacific coast pastimes Guano kingdom (Box) Lima’s craft markets CUZCO Around Plaza de Armas Koricancha Sacsayhuaman, an Inca fortress NORTHEAST OF CUZCO Qenko Salapunco, the Temple of the Moon Chacon and Quispe Huare Puca Pacara Tambomachay, the Inca baths THE SACRED VALLEY Pisaq Calca and Yucay Urubamba Moray, Maras, and Salineras Ollantaytambo The Inca Trail Permits, guides, and porters (Box) Aguas Calientes Machu Picchu Hiram Bingham (Box)
SHOPPING Handicrafts and souvenirs Ceramics Textiles Jewelry Alpaca products MEDICAL CONCERNS Altitude sickness Rabies and dog attacks Malaria Yellow fever and dengue fever Hepatitis Dysentery, diarrhea, and food poisoning Sunburn and heat stroke Toxic bites: snakes, spiders, scorpions, bees, insects NATURAL DISASTERS: FLOODING, LANDSLIDES, AND EARTHQUAKES WILDLIFE AND NATURAL HAZARDS ROBBERY, STREET VIOLENCE, TERRORISM, KIDNAPPING, CIVIL UNREST COUNTERFEIT MONEY
PRACTICALITIES AND TRAVELERS’ RESOURCES ENTRY REQUIREMENTS: VISAS AND PASSPORTS
LEGAL PROBLEMS, ILLEGAL DRUGS WOMEN TRAVELERS TRAFFIC AND PEDESTRIAN HAZARDS
Photo: Inca doorway, Machu Picchu HISTORY CRADLE OF CIVILIZATION Peru has a remarkable array of habitats and ecosystems. Of the 117 life zones found on our planet, 84 exist somewhere within the boundaries of modern Peru. Whether along the Pacific shore, in the High Andes, or deep in the Amazon rainforest, this natural diversity enabled humans to flourish along the west side of South America, spawning a series of advanced civilizations that culminated in the Incas. Although none of these societies developed any form of writing that has yet been detected, they were highly sophisticated in many other ways. Their cities were among the most impressive of the ancient world. Cuzco, Chan Chan, Túcume, and Machu Picchu endure as proof that ancient civilization in the western hemisphere attained and sometimes surpassed the feats of those in the east. The practice of mummification among Peru’s ancient peoples has
added greatly to our understanding of their cultures and lifestyles. Mostly uncovered high in the Andes, where the dry air, thin atmosphere, and cold temperatures have helped preserve the bodies, mummies are regularly found by explorers. The celebrated Momia Juanita—the Inca “ice maiden”—was discovered in 1995 by National Geographic explorer-in-residence Johan Reinhard and his Peruvian guide Miguel Zárate on Peru’s Mount Ampato. An autopsy showed that Juanita was killed by blunt trauma to the head, suggesting she was a victim of human sacrifice. Inca kings and leaders were also mummified, though none of their remains have been found. Pre-Inca cultures also preserved their dead. The mummy of a heavily tattooed woman thought to have been a warrior queen was excavated in 2006 at a ceremonial site called El Brujo (The Sorcerer) on the north coast of Peru. Señora de Cao, as she was named, has helped expand our knowledge of the ancient Moche culture, which preceded the Incas. Chauchilla Cemetery near Nazca has also yielded a trove of mummies, some dating back 1,000 years. The land bridge theory Archaeological evidence shows that the first humans settled in Peru around 13,000 years ago, with the earliest traces along the coast south of Lima. No consensus has emerged on how they migrated into the region. Historical convention has long held that all of the indigenous peoples of the western hemisphere arrived from Asia via Beringia, a land bridge during the last Ice Age that connected what are now Alaska and eastern Russia. However, newer theories propose that humans from Polynesia and Asia may have also arrived on long-distance voyages across the Pacific. While their exact origin is a mystery, the earliest Peruvians left physical evidence of their habits and lifestyles. Small settlements of fewer than 100 people living in extended family groups developed along the coast near river mouths. These people survived mostly by harvesting the ocean, though some migrated to higher ground seasonally to hunt animals and gather plants. Quebrada Tacahuay, near modern-day Tacna, inhabited from around 10,700 BC, was typical of these early settlements. Its residents lived on the coast most of the time, netting and trapping small fish, collecting shellfish, and hunting seabirds, but they migrated into the highlands for part of the year. Agricultural societies
The ancient Peruvians eventually evolved from hunter-gatherers into agriculturalists. Evidence shows they domesticated llamas as a source of meat and wool around 5,000 to 6,000 years ago, while guinea pigs first appeared as a food source in households around 5000 BC. The origins of farming can likewise be dated to about 5000 BC, with the cultivation of potatoes, beans, and peanuts followed soon after by cotton. The development of agriculture led to the emergence of more advanced civilizations by 3000 BC—around the same time as the flowering of other proto-cultures in China, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley. Although much of the Peruvian coast is desert, agriculture was possible around the river valleys with the help of irrigation. Creating, maintaining, and defending large-scale irrigation systems required the organized labor of many people. As a result, Peru’s earliest urban centers emerged in coastal river valleys. The oldest city in the Americas The remains of a vast ancient city called Caral, dating from about 2600 BC, are now under intense study. Discovered in 1905 near Trujillo on Peru’s north coast, the site is considered the oldest city in the Americas, its age determined by the carbon-dating of reed baskets, musical instruments, clothing, and animal remains. The settlement featured residential areas and pyramids reaching 40 feet in height. Archaeologists surmise that seafood, peanuts, and beans formed a large part of the diet of the inhabitants, who cooked over hot rocks in this pre-ceramic society, grew and wove cotton for clothing, and played bone flutes to provide music at events held in a central amphitheater. The people traded as far as the Andes and Amazon.
THE MIGHTY INCAS Although it flourished for little more than a century, the Inca Empire has emerged as the best known of South America’s ancient civilizations because of its vast extent, incredible architecture, and interaction with the Spanish. The exact origin of the Incas is still shrouded in mystery. Some Inca origin myths describe how their ancestors emerged from a cave at a place called Pacaritambo (“The Inn of Dawn”) about 22 miles south of Cuzco. According to the tale, the first Incas were four pairs of married siblings, four men and four women, led by the eldest, a man called Manco Capac. Eventually these siblings made their way to Cuzco, and upon seeing the wide valley before
them decided to make it the capital of their future empire. Other creation stories claim the first Incas came from Lake Titicaca in modern Bolivia, reaching Pacaritambo via underground paths from the lake.
Photo: Manco Capac Inca historical narratives are typically contradictory, shaped by the changing political requirements, making it difficult to make sense of the various revisions or to sort historical truth from legend. Archaeology offers little evidence that the Incas came from anywhere other than Cuzco itself. The pre-Inca occupants of Cuzco are referred to as the Killke, who appeared around A.D. 1000. Remnants of their buildings are found directly beneath many Inca sites, suggesting continuity between the Killke and Inca periods. The relationship between the Incas and the Killke is still unclear, and it is not even certain that the Killke culture represents a
distinct people. Some archaeologists believe the Killke were the ancestors of the Incas, or regard them as the Incas before they became an imperial people. Only the last few rulers on the ancient list of Inca kings are considered by modern scholars to be historical rather than legendary, beginning with the eighth leader, Viracocha Inca. The ninth name on the list—Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, who reigned from AD 1438 to 1471—is usually credited as the great founder of the empire, who conquered most of its vast territory. However, Pachacuti’s own descendants often provided the stories of his achievements, so they may have sought to embellish reality. What is known is that by the mid-15th century, the Inca had established themselves as the prevailing cultural and military force in Peru and surrounding areas. The empire embraced a network of large cities filled with monumental stone structures linked by 20,000 miles of roads and developed an elaborate culture based on an intricate cosmology and the power of the ruling dynasty. The emperor was called the Sapa Inca (The Unique Inca), who was believed to be a descendant of the sun god, Inti. The ruler had many concubines but only one official wife, usually his sister; this ensured that the family bloodline endured. The Sapa Inca chose top administrators from among all of his offspring, but only a son from his official wife could succeed him. Inca nobles (curacas) were distant relatives of the Sapa Inca. Those of non-Inca bloodlines could be adopted into the Inca nobility through merit, loyalty, or the strategic expansion of alliances. Through alliances, marriage, and military conquest, the Inca Empire came to absorb and encompass a huge landmass. Almost 3,300 miles of South America’s west coast came under Inca control, and millions of diverse people spoke the Quechua language and paid tribute to the Inca leadership. The empire consisted of four parts (suyus). Each of these was governed by a member of the emperor’s family and divided into ten sections, each containing about 10,000 residents. Each section was itself subdivided into 10, ruled by successively distant cousins of the Sapa Inca. It was a top-heavy administration of overseers and managers, with around 1,300 government officers for every 10,000 residents. The rise of Cuzco Set in the Sacred Valley of central Peru, Cuzco became the capital of the Inca Empire at some point in the 13th century. Later, the city was redesigned, reputedly in the shape of a puma, with the central plaza (today’s Plaza de Armas) as the belly, Sacsayhuaman fortress as the head, and
the Río Tullumayo as its spine, though the alleged likeness to a puma, which was sacred to the Incas, may have been metaphorical rather than physical. The empire reached the zenith of its power and geographical extent under Huyana Capac, who ruled from around 1493 until his death in 1525. He had intended to leave the crown to his eldest son, Ninan Cuyochi, but the heir apparent died before assuming leadership. By 1530, Huyana Capac’s two younger sons (Huáscar and Atahualpa) were jointly ruling the empire. Based in Cuzco, Huáscar was lord of the south while Atahualpa ruled the north from Quito (Ecuador) and Cajamarca (north–central Peru). The brothers could not agree to share the realm and began a battle for control that amounted to civil war. Huáscar scored an early win and had his brother arrested, but Atahualpa escaped and organized his revenge. After throwing his brother in prison, Atahualpa had just returned to his stronghold in Cajamarca when the Spanish arrived in Peru led by Francisco Pizarro.
Photo: Andenes
Farming The Incas raised crops on a grand scale, and thanks to the andenes were able to feed a population estimated at about 15 million around the time of the Spanish conquest. Farmers layered fertile soil over a base of coarse rock for drainage and stability. They edged the fields with stone to prevent erosion, and watered their crops via irrigation systems that also supplied water to towns and cities. Remarkably, andenes farming terraces are still in use and have been productive since ancient times. While agricultural terraces had existed in Peru before their empire emerged, the Incas perfected, expanded, and standardized the system. As a result, the Incas pioneered farmed foods that are now staples for half the world’s population. Horticulture was another Inca forte. The andenes helped them selectively breed seed stock for maximum efficiency and productivity under a variety of conditions, from the harsh cold of the high Andes to the tropics of the valley floors. At a site called Moray near the fertile Sacred Valley, the Incas created an experimental farm to optimize different crops at various altitudes. Temperatures vary substantially from the upper terraces, where the sun’s exposure is more direct, and the lower shaded terraces. Thousands of types of potatoes and dozens of varieties of corn were selectively bred for maximum yield under a wide range of conditions. Peanuts, beans, peppers, and quinoa grain are among other well-known Inca crops. The Incas never developed the wheel, so their agriculture depended on intensive human labor. Taclla plows were propelled by human power. They also lacked working animals such as oxen or horses to drag plows and carry heavy loads, though they did use domesticated llamas to carry some burdens. In addition to llamas, several animal species were domesticated as sources of food, fur, hides, or wool. The Incas raised alpacas for their wool and meat. Vicuùa, the smallest of the South American camelids, were not so much tamed as rounded up and harvested for their fine wool. Guinea pigs were reared as a convenient source of meat, and Incas kept ducks for meat and eggs. Dung and offal from slaughtered animals were used as fertilizer.
Photo: Alpaca in front of Machu Picchu/Smithsonian magazine/11th photo contest
The Inca diet The bounty of their agriculture and grain storage systems ensured that Incas only rarely experienced hunger. Quinoa, which has gained a following among health food fans in recent years, was a staple of their diet. Providing a remarkable amount of fiber and nutrients, the grain was boiled as a hearty porridge and added to stews as well as milled to make a flatbread. Corn kernels were also stored in the granaries, and the Incas were pioneers of popcorn. A process akin to flash freezing was used to preserve their foodstuffs. In the icy cold and bone-dry air of the High Andes, moisture was evaporated from potato pulp to create a versatile flour called chu単o, which remained edible for years. This system was also used to preserve alpaca and llama meat, resulting in a type of jerky that could be softened in boiling water. Incas began their day with a sustaining meal of chicha, a thick corn-based beer still available throughout Peru, and a stew of meat and peppers with boiled corn or chu単o accompanied by flatbread made of chu単o or quinoa. A second substantial meal was taken in the
early afternoon. Once again, this comprised stew and unleavened bread or hardtack washed down with more chicha. Throughout the working day, farmers and other laboring people invigorated themselves by chewing coca leaves or drinking coca tea. In coastal areas, the diet relied heavily on seafood rather than alpaca meat. Messengers could bring fresh seafood from the coast along the road system. Cakes of shark meat, bottom fish, anchovies, shellfish, and even marine mammals such as sea lions were dried in the sun and remained edible for long periods. Incas also ate ants, beetles, and insect larvae, often dried as a cake. The skin of guinea pigs could be dried and used as a flavoring, reconstituted in hot water like bouillon. The common people of the Inca Empire cooked their meals in communal stone or brick ovens similar to those found in Peru’s present-day pollorias, or roast chicken restaurants. These ovens were a shared resource of each ayllu. For other meals, Incas set flattened stones directly on the fire in their homes and used them like frying pans. Dropping stones heated on the fire into pottery vessels was a common way to boil water or cook stew. Science and medicine Priests were also scientists and physicians, and the sciences flourished during the Inca era. Astronomy developed hand-in-hand with religion. Astronomical observations connected humans to the heavens and directed daily life, guiding everything from crop cycles to festivals, business transactions, home construction, and marriages. The priests attending the ritual stones called intihuatanas (hitching posts of the sun) made celestial observations and kept a schedule for religious ceremonies. Solar equinoxes and the movements of the moon and stars were crucial to Inca agriculture and architecture. Buildings were designed to align precisely with celestial bodies, as is apparent in the Temple of the Sun at Machu Picchu, the spectacular Inca city perched above the Río Urubamba. The Inca calendar—based on the movements of the sun, moon, and the stars—consisted of 365 days and 12 months of 30 days; weeks were 10 days long. Astronomers called yancas, who recorded their data on a quipu, kept the calendar. Accurate measurement was also crucial in planning elaborate building, road, and irrigation systems. The basic unit of measurement was similar to the modern nautical fathom (64 inches long), though land was segmented into units based not on similar size but on comparable productivity. Inca priests and priestesses also fulfilled the duties of doctors and nurses. They set bones and stitched wounds. They were knowledgeable about a range of curative plants, using
coca, tobacco, and chicha as painkillers and anesthesia. Traces of antibacterial compounds made from balsam and other plants reveal Inca physicians’ sophisticated practices. Education The children of commoners (hatunruna) received no formal education. They learned farming skills in order to help their parents and looked after the family’s domesticated guinea pigs and, as they grew older, llamas. Children were later assigned tasks included in a family’s mit’a (labor tax) obligation: Boys might hunt birds to gather colorful feathers for Inca ceremonial garb, while girls would gather flowers, bugs, and minerals for fabric dyes. Elders taught more specialized skills, such as stonework and the construction of irrigation systems. Musicians and artisans also passed their trades down to their children. Religion was imparted to young commoners through temple ceremonies and institutions. For the children of Inca nobles it was a different matter altogether. Many things had to be learned in order to rule over the sprawling empire. Such children were instructed by the amautas, a class of gifted non-Incas with specialized knowledge and wisdom. They showed these privileged youngsters how to use the quipu (see above), trained them in fighting and physical fitness, and taught them about the history of the Incas, the gods, justice, and philosophy. As the Incas had no form of writing, lessons were memorized from oral recitations. Many of these lessons, histories, and moral stories took the form of poetry, making them easier to remember. Graduates of Inca training officially became “children of the sun,” as the Incas referred to themselves, and were presented to the emperor in a ceremony in which they had their ears pierced and received a garment of adulthood called a wara. Weapons and warfare Male citizens of the Inca Empire were required to complete four years of military service. This was the only form of training that the state provided to commoners. In addition to learning about military discipline, weaponry, and physical fitness, a promising young recruit might pick up other knowledge. Learning the quipu, for example, opened up greater opportunities to serve the state. Each recruit specialized in a specific weapon. The most widely used weapon was the macana, a long-handled club with a star-shaped head. Shorter clubs with spiked heads were used in close combat. Inca archers wielded longbows of great range and power. Throwers or
launchers called estolicas hurled small spears. The Inca arsenal also included slingshots (huaracas) made of woven fabric that could launch stones with great force to a range of more than 200 feet. They were used to weaken the enemy before an infantry attack. Another airborne weapon called the ayllo, known to the Spanish as a bola—a rope weighted down with heavy rocks—was thrown to wound and entangle enemies in close-range encounters. To protect themselves, Inca warriors carried shields made of copper and wood and wore breastplates of leather and copper with cotton padding. A helmet made of wood or copper completed the ensemble. Officers were professional solders who had dedicated their lives to the royal military. They commanded groups of various sizes, from companies of five men to battalions of 10,000. A general might command many battalions. All Inca men remained on army reserve for their entire lives. A call to arms could quickly rally huge armies of more than 100,000 soldiers, which almost always proved superior to enemy forces. To intimidate the opposition, the generals paraded their troops in organized formations with a show of squadron banners. Sometimes a military band accompanied these displays while Inca soldiers maintained an eerie silence, uttering war cries only upon attack. Their generals favored frontal attacks, with flanking forces cutting off the enemy’s escape. The vast extent of the empire meant that the army included soldiers used to many different types of terrain, from jungles and deserts to high mountains. The Incas also relied on diplomacy and covert actions to achieve their geopolitical and military aims and included spies, advance scouts, and saboteurs in their arsenal. They preferred to resolve conflict through negotiation and sent envoys to seek surrender from their enemies whenever possible. Defeated troops and civilians of conquered territory were absorbed into the empire and usually became subject to the mit’a labor obligation, further enriching the empire. These subject people were forced to use the Quechua language and pay homage to Inca gods. Defeated enemy generals and kings were not put to death unless they refused to accept defeat.
Photo: The last intact Inca bridge, Huinchiri
Roads and bridges The Inca Empire was crisscrossed by more than 20,000 miles of roads, constructed for cargo carried on llama back and citizens moving from place to place on foot. They enabled Inca armies to reach all corners of the empire quickly and acted as supply lines, while professional relay runners carried messages along them. A message or a small piece of cargo could be carried up to 250 miles in a single day by trained relay runners. Official permission was required for non-Incas to use most roadways. Two major routes ran north to south from present-day Quito in Ecuador to near modern-day Santiago in central Chile, with one plying the coastal plain and the other passing through the high puna grasslands. Minor routes ran east to west, linking the High Andes with the coast. Major crossroads were marked by government-run way stations called tambos, where messengers and other travelers could find refreshment and lodging. Roads ranged in width from 3 feet to 66 feet, depending on the terrain and the importance of the route. Inca engineers crafted comfortable grades through the mountains to avoid steep climbs, with stairways cut into the rock at key points. Important routes were paved with flat stones placed over a smooth, excavated base and a fill of rubble and progressively smaller rocks. Minor routes might be