34 minute read
HOW CATS ARE MADE: NATURE, NURTURE, AND THE NOW
c o v e r How Cats Are Made: Nature, Nurture, and the Now
Paula Garber examines the many factors involved in a cat’s development and the influence they have on a cat’s behavior and personality, so that newly- adopted-cat owners can help their pets adapt to their new home life and prevent possible behavior problems arising
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© Can Stock Photo / dirkr In contrast to dogs and other domesticated animals, the cats on our couches remain quite similar to their African wildcat ancestor, Felis sylvestris lybica
Aquestion on my behavior consulting intake form asks, “What do you know about your cat’s early history?” More often than not, the client’s response is, “Nothing.” Sometimes, this is because the cat was taken in as a stray or was relinquished to a shelter or rescue group by an owner who didn’t know or didn’t share the information. Other times, the client didn’t ask about the cat’s history when the cat was acquired. I see this not only with clients who adopted their cats from a shelter or rescue, but also with clients who buy kittens from breeders.
When adopting or purchasing a new puppy, breed and breed characteristics are important factors that many potential dog owners consider to help align their expectations for the size, appearance, and behavior of the puppy when it grows to be an adult (Karsh & Turner, 1988). While different breeds of dogs were developed primarily to serve specific purposes for humans and also exhibit certain behaviors, cat breeds were developed primarily to achieve certain physical characteristics (Moffatt, 2020). In fact, “cats virtually never were selected to perform in a working role for humans” (Hart et al., 2014).
Appearance
Since cats have been primarily bred for their visual appeal to humans, it makes sense that the length, color, and pattern of the coat are some of the most important factors to adopters of kittens (Karsh & Turner, 1988). Actually, when choosing a cat of any age, it is not uncommon for adopters to base their decision primarily on the cat’s outward appearance and be less interested, or not interested at all, in the cat’s socialization history, life experiences, and behavior. In Karsh’s study on placing adult cats, she found that “appearance of the cat, particularly the cat’s color, was usually the most important factor” to the person acquiring a cat (Karsh & Turner, 1988). The lack of interest in the behavioral history of cats could also be the result of the assumption (and the expectation) that all cats behave similarly. In other words, “a cat is a cat.” In particular, negative behaviors related to stress in cats (e.g., hissing, swatting, hiding) are often “normalized” (Delgado, 2020). Just look at all the memes on social media that portray cats as “mean,” “fractious,” or “spiteful” while also implying (or flatout stating) that this is typical cat behavior.
Karsh also found that “people often seem to have a prototype or idealized image of what a cat should look like …often based on a cat they have known and liked” (Karsh & Turner, 1988). This idea of an “ideal” might also extend to cat behavior. How many times have we heard this type of comment from clients?: “I’ve never had a cat who [insert cat behavior of your choice]. What’s wrong with him?!” It is well known among cat behavior professionals that cats are often misunderstood. On a daily basis, we see cats’ communication signals being misinterpreted, missed entirely, or ignored, and the cat often blamed when something goes wrong.
Domesticated Species?
Some of the misunderstanding could be due to the cat’s unique domestication history. Domestication of cats started 8,000 to 10,000 years ago around the time when humans changed their behavior from primarily hunting and gathering for food to farming and storing grains. Rodents soon invaded the grain stores, which attracted small wildcats. Eventually, many of these cats became household pets, and thus began the process of domestication (Hart et al., 2014). In contrast to dogs and other domesticated animals, the cats on our couches remain quite similar to their African wildcat ancestor, Felis sylvestris lybica. Our modern cats, even those that have been selectively bred, are considered not fully domesticated because of several retained “wildcat” behaviors: hunting, territoriality, and the ability of many cats to survive without direct support from humans (CrowellDavis, 2020). Domestic cats live among humans along a spectrum ranging from residing indoors with people to living outdoors with little to no human support.
Nature vs. Nurture
At this point, I’d like to address the myth that cats are naturally “independent” and inherently able to “survive on their own.” This myth is based in the “nature vs. nurture” debate, which is a false dichotomy. Cats are not automatically born with hunting skills or the ability to navigate life outdoors (or indoors, for that matter). There are no 100% “genetic” or “innate” behaviors, in cats or any other species. Nature (genes) and nurture (the environment) are both required to develop behavior, and different environments may cause the expression of different genes (Bateson, 2000).
Cats are an altricial species, which means they are “born in a very immature and helpless condition so as to require care for some time.” (MerriamWebster, 2021). At birth, kittens’ eyes and ears are closed, and they are entirely dependent on their mother for food (CrowellDavis, 2007). By contrast, the young of precocial species like deer and horses are born more developed and are “capable of a high degree of independent activity from birth.” (MerriamWebster, 2021). The sensitive period of socialization in altricial species increases their adaptability to a variety of environments and situations, which is helpful when the environment at birth is consistent with what the animal will experience as an adult. This enables individual members of a species to adapt to a variety of different environments into which they might be born and will remain through adulthood (Casey, 2009).
The disadvantage is that, if the early environment differs from that experienced as an adult (typically as a result of human intervention), what’s called “phenotypic mismatch” occurs. An example is when kit
Fig. 1
SPECTRUM OF FELINE SOCIABILITY TO HUMANS
House Cat
Raised and socialized by humans from a young age Lives in a home with one or more humans Lives indoors full time or with some outdoor access
Semiferal Cat
Lives outside with human support Fearful of humans, but may become less afraid over time Often spayed or neutered as part of a TNR* program
Feral Cat
Lives outside with minimal to no human support Fearful of humans and avoids them May breed freely or be spayed or neutered as part of a TNR* program
*TNR: trap-neuter-return
Adapted from Crowell-Davis, S. (2020). "Social butterflies: cats are not really solitary animals" in Decoding Your Cat, Herron, M.E., Horwitz, D.F. & Siracusa, C., eds. New York: American College of Veterinary Behaviorists, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; 71-92.
© Paula Garber
© Can Stock Photo / phbcz Cats are an altricial species, meaning they are born in a immature and helpless state that requires care for some time: at birth, kittens’ eyes and ears are closed, and they are entirely dependent on their mother for food
tens are born and raised in an outdoor environment having limited contact with humans, and then, near the end of the sensitive period of socialization (78 weeks), the kittens are moved to an indoor environment in close proximity to humans. During the first 7 to 8 weeks of life, kittens learn what is normal and safe in their environment, and when they are then moved to an unfamiliar environment, they lack the behaviors necessary to successfully navigate the environment and survive (Casey, 2009). Clearly, there are significant welfare implications for cats raised indoors among humans who are then abandoned outdoors, and for cats raised outdoors with limited human contact who are then brought into a shelter or human home. (See also Fig. 1, Spectrum of Feline Sociability to Humans, on previous page.)
Friedman (2021) famously said that behavior is always a “study of one.” She also explained that the development of behaviors “starts with random movement, within the limits of biology, and is refined with the natural process of differential reinforcement.” In other words, an individual’s behaviors are determined through learning. Consequences select or deselect for behaviors (Friedman, 2016). Imagine the variety of behaviors possible through the different combinations of genes, environments, and endless learning opportunities. It’s mind blowing!
Friendliness
So, what goes into making cats who are good pets and will live happily in our homes? “Friendliness” is a desired behavior by most cat owners, and being friendly toward humans also increases cat welfare. McCune (1995) suggests that “appropriate breeding and rearing strategies” should be considered that “enable cats to be raised that are better able to meet the challenge of living alongside people.” Mendl and Harcourt (2000) developed a schema of factors that interact together with features of a cat’s current environment to help predict the degree of expression of “friendliness to humans.” These factors are “early social experience with mother and siblings, paternity, breed, coat color, maternal care, duration and quality of interaction with humans (and probably timing and context as well), and environmental complexity” (Bernstein, 2007).
In this article, I’m first going to explore the research that has been done on how some of these factors impact feline behavior. I will then discuss how life experiences and current environmental conditions contribute to a cat’s behavior, and I will conclude with guidance on how to set up cats for success as human companions.
Paternity and “Boldness”
Studies done on cats living in colonies in the 1980s suggested that genes from the father cat have a positive effect on kitten friendliness toward humans. Because behavior is not directly inherited and the kittens had no contact with their fathers, the researchers inferred that friendly behavior likely develops through an indirect route linked to the father’s genes, for example, “by affecting growth rate which may in turn affect socialization to humans in a colony situation and thereby affect subsequent ‘friendliness’” (Turner et al., 1986).
A study by McCune (1995) found that this effect extended beyond friendliness toward people to exploring a novel object. Two groups of kittens were studied: the “socialized” group was handled between 2 and 12 weeks of age, and the “unsocialized” group was not handled at all. Handling consisted of the kittens being placed onto the handler’s lap and having their “head and body petted while being spoken to gently” (McCune, 1995). The kittens were the offspring of a “friendly” father and an “unfriendly” father. At one year of age, the kittens were tested with regard to their (1) response to a familiar person, (2) response to a stranger, and (3) response to a novel object (an unfamiliar wooden box). Cats that were socialized and had friendly fathers were friendlier toward unfamiliar people than cats that were unsocialized and had unfriendly fathers. Both socialized and unsocialized cats had similar responses to the novel object, but the cats with friendly fathers approached and explored the object quicker than the cats with unfriendly fathers.
McCune’s study showed that “[p]aternity influenced a general response to unfamiliar or novel stimuli, irrespective of whether these were people or inanimate objects” (Mendl & Harcourt, 2000). In other words, the previously reported paternal effect on “friendliness” was really a more generalized effect on “boldness.” This discovery has important implications for feline welfare, as the socialized cats with friendly fathers experienced better welfare than the unsocialized cats with unfriendly fathers. When approached and handled by a stranger, the socialized, friendlyfathered cats “were less likely to show behaviour associated with distress and more likely to show behaviour associated with being relaxed.” (McCune, 1995).
Breed and Gender
Just how genes influence cat behavior is unknown (Mendl & Harcourt, 2000), but some studies have shown the effects of selective breeding on behavior in purebred cats. In a study by Turner (2000), data were collected on cat owner perceptions and researcher observations of interactions between cat owners and their cats in their homes, comparing purebred Persian and Siamese cats, and nonpedigreed domestic “mix” cats. Differences were identified between all the breeds, but fewer differences were found between the Siamese and Persian cats, suggesting that social behaviors that appeal to cat owners (e.g., “affection to owner,” “proximity,” “friendliness to strangers”) were selectively bred.
In 2013, Hart et al. published the results of their study on breedspecific behaviors in cats in which they interviewed “80 feline veterinary practitioners who had seen many cats of all breeds and types and who had heard cat owners complain and boast about their pets” (Hart et al., 2014). Fifteen purebred cat breeds and the domestic short hair and domestic long hair were ranked on 12 behavior characteristics. Again, the influence of selective breeding was seen in the results: For “activity
level,” Bengal and Abyssinian ranked highest and Persian and Ragdoll ranked lowest; for “affection toward human family members,” Ragdoll ranked highest and Bengal ranked lowest; for “aggression toward human family members,” Bengal ranked highest and Ragdoll ranked lowest (Hart et al., 2014).
In the same study by Hart et al., prior to being asked to rank cat breeds, the 80 feline veterinary practitioners were asked to rank spayed female cats and neutered male cats on the same 12 behavior characteristics, independent of breed. Their findings showed that for “outgoing and affectionate,” males significantly outranked females; for “aggression,” females significantly outranked males; and for “likelihood of urine marking in the house” males significantly outranked females (previous studies have found that roughly 10% of all neutered males will urine mark) (Hart et al., 2014).
Maternal Malnutrition and Stress
Martin and Bateson (1988) summarized several studies on the effects of undernourished mother cats on the behavior and growth of their kittens.
Kittens of undernourished mothers showed lack of growth in certain parts of the brain and delays in the development of behaviors like suckling, crawling, and opening their eyes. An overall reduction in learning ability and increase in fear and aggression was also seen. Even with adequate nutrition after weaning, at 4 months of age kittens had more “accidents” during play, male kittens were more aggressive when playing with other kittens, and female kittens did less climbing and engaged in more random running. Some of these effects carried over to the next generation, though to a lesser degree.
Malnutrition is only one of many stressors a mother cat might experience during her pregnancy. Stress triggers the production of stress hormones in the mother cat that can negatively impact the physical and behavioral development of her kittens. Other stressors include conflicts with other pets, environmental and social changes in the home, litter box setup that is inadequate, resting and safe hiding places not being easily accessible, sudden changes in temperature, and lack of control over the environment and social interactions (Atkinson, 2018).
Separation of the mother from her kittens shortly after the birth also appears to increase stress for kittens. Lowell et al. (2020) studied the effect on orphaned neonatal kittens of being separated from their nest and siblings. As mentioned earlier, cats are altricial, so separation of kittens from their mother during the first several weeks of life is believed to be a significant stressor as it greatly reduces the likelihood of their survival. Stress was identified as increased activity and distress calls, which serve to help mother cats locate and return kittens to the nest or help kittens find the nest on their own. The researchers found that compared with kittens reared by their mothers, orphaned kittens showed increases in both activity and distress calls during separation from the nest, and these effects were longlasting, which suggests that being separated from the mother cat results in longterm changes in kittens’ responses to stress.
Early and Abrupt Weaning
Early weaning refers to the permanent separation of kittens from the mother cat prior to when it would naturally occur. According to Bradshaw et al. (2012), “[f]eral cats wean their kittens at four to eight weeks of age, but kittens usually stay with their mother for the first four months of their lives.” It was believed that cat behavior stabilized at 8 weeks following the socialization period (Bernstein, 2007), but a recent study found otherwise.
Ahola et al. (2017) studied the effects of early weaning on the behavior of pet cats. They considered cats to have been early weaned if they were separated from their mother before 12 weeks of age. Their study included close to 6,000 cats representing 40 breeds. Their results
Fig. 2
SOCIALIZED UNSOCIALIZED
V E RSUS
Socialized Cat
(had positive experiences w/people at 2-7 weeks) Unsocialized Cat
(had negative or limited experiences w/people at 2-7 weeks)
Quickly generalizes positive experiences to unfamiliar people (will exhibit social behaviors toward new person after a few positive interactions)
Repeated negative experiences with people are necessary to “undo” the positive early socialization effect Quickly generalizes negative experiences to unfamiliar people (will exhibit fearful/ avoidance behaviors toward new people)
Repeated positive experiences with a person are necessary to “override” the cat’s negative or lack of experiences (exhibit social behaviors toward the person)
Does not generalize positive experiences with an unfamiliar person to other unfamiliar people (must learn to trust each new person it encounters)
Adapted from Turner, D.C. (2000). The human-cat relationship. In The Domestic Cat: The Biology of Its Behaviour, 2nd Ed. Turner, D.C. & Bateson, P. New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 197. Quickly and strongly generalizes even minor negative encounters with a person to other people
© Paula Garber
Modern cats, even those that have been selectively bred, are considered not fully domesticated because of several retained “wildcat” behaviors: hunting, territoriality, and the ability of many cats to survive without direct support from humans (Crowell-Davis, 2020).
showed that cats who were weaned before 8 weeks were more likely to be aggressive, and cats weaned at 12 weeks were more likely to exhibit excessive grooming. Cats who were weaned after 14 weeks were less likely be aggressive toward strangers and also less likely to excessively groom than cats weaned at 12 weeks. Cats weaned as adults or not weaned at all were less likely to be aggressive, shy, and exhibit abnormal behavior than all other weaned groups. The researchers concluded that the extended care kittens received from the mother cat up to and beyond 14 weeks resulted in a decrease in aggression and other abnormal behaviors, and recommended that the weaning of kittens be delayed until 14 weeks to improve the welfare of pet cats.
Another consideration is the abrupt weaning of kittens. Frustration experienced by kittens during the natural weaning process is important to teaching them predatory behaviors and how to cope with feelings of frustration. Cats who are unable to cope with frustration are more likely to be stressed and become aggressive when their expectations are not met or are delayed (Atkinson, 2018).
Why Early Learning Lasts
Let’s get a little “brainy” and dig into the science behind the development of the cat brain. Remember that cats are altricial, meaning they are born not fully developed and require a great deal of care when they are young. When a kitten is still in the womb, nerve cells start to rapidly generate, but nerve cell production peaks during the period shortly after birth. During the first few weeks of life, the new nerve cells grow quickly and produce large numbers of axons. The nerve cells whose axons connect with other neurons survive, and those that don’t, die. The surviving neural network consists of nerve cells that were active during the animal’s early development. The neural networks and connections made in the brain during this time are very strong and long lasting, and set up cats for successful living in an environment similar to that in which they spent their first few weeks of life (Casey, 2009).
The Sensitive Period
Since most cat owners prefer cats who are social and friendly, and these characteristics contribute to good welfare for pet cats, the sensitive period of socialization is an extremely important time in the life of a cat destined to become a pet in a home environment. Cats are a social species and are born with the capacity to learn social skills, but they are not born with specific social skills (CrowellDavis, 2007). The “socialization period” is the early period in life when kittens must be handled in order to remain socialized to humans in adulthood. A more encompassing term is “sensitive period,” since it is a time when “plasticity to learning about [all] environmental stimuli is more pronounced,” of which socialization to humans is just one component (Casey, 2009).
The sensitive period of socialization for cats begins at 2 weeks of age and significantly tapers off by 7 weeks (Karsh & Turner, 1988). During this time, kittens form strong social bonds and learn to generalize responses to stimuli with similar characteristics, and also to respond differently to (or discriminate) specific features of stimuli. This period ends by 8 weeks of age and may be signaled by the kitten’s cautious or fearful behavior in the presence of unfamiliar stimuli. If socialization to people began before the 8week time point, kittens’ responses to humans will continue to develop and change for an additional 2 months,
© Can Stock Photo / Virgonira Kittens born and raised in an outdoor environment having limited contact with humans learn during their first 7 to 8 weeks what is normal and safe in their environment; when they are then moved to an unfamiliar environment, such as inside a home, they lack the behaviors necessary to successfully navigate the environment and survive
and the amount and type of handling kittens receive during this time will be evident in their responses to handling at 4 months, but will remain consistent thereafter (Casey, 2009).
Early Handling
Handling kittens during the sensitive period has lasting effects, resulting in cats that bond quite readily to other people. Karsh studied the effect of the amount of handling kittens received during the sensitive period on cathuman attachment using kittens raised in a laboratory and handled for 15 minutes or 40 minutes per day and kittens raised in a home environment starting at 4 weeks of age. The laboratory kittens held for 40 minutes per day stayed longer during a holding test, approached a person faster, and stayed with the person a little longer than the laboratory kittens held for 15 minutes per day. But results for the homeraised kittens were significantly better than those for the laboratory kittens held for 40 minutes daily. Their mean holding test results were 111 seconds (versus 73 seconds) and the mean time spent with a person was 127 seconds (versus 88 seconds). The homereared kittens were attended to (feeding and cleaning) and petted for an average of 86 minutes per day and had more opportunities to interact socially with people and in different ways, while the laboratory kittens’ environment was quite lacking in variety and richness (Karsh & Turner, 1988).
After the Sensitive Period
As mentioned, the effects of positive and negative experiences with people during the sensitive period of socialization are longlasting. (See Fig. 2, Socialized versus Unsocialized, on p.19 for the social and behav‐ioral effects of a cat’s early experiences with humans.)
How to Make Pet Cats
As you can see, there’s much more to a cat than his or her physical appearance, and expecting a cat to live up to an idealized prototype is unrealistic, to say the least. Making cats who will be happy household pets can be a complex task, and many important factors are out of our control. In the United States alone, thousands (possibly millions) of kittens
Fig. 3
Socializing Kittens to People
SEE THE ACCOMPANYING TEXT FOR IMPORTANT HANDLING CONSIDERATIONS AND SAFETY TIPS
Under 2 weeks of age
Minimal handling only by the person the mother cat is most comfortable with
Starting at 3 weeks
Only people the mother cat knows and trusts should handle the kittens Talk to the kittens while stroking them in their nest Pick up one kitten at a time, hold kitten and stroke all over the body for 30-60 seconds, then return kitten to the nest If kitten or mother appears distressed, return kitten to the nest or allow kitten to sit on your lap instead of being held
Starting at 5 weeks
Increase handling to 5+ minutes at a time Introduce play with a wand or similar type toy Repeat handling and interactive play several times a day with various people
At 7-9 weeks
Increase length and frequency of play and handling sessions away from mother and littermates Starting at 2 weeks
Only people the mother cat knows and trusts should handle the kittens Talk to the kittens while stroking them in their nest Pick up one kitten at a time, cradle in hands for a few seconds, then return kitten to the nest
Starting at 4 weeks
Allow other people to handle the kittens (strangers should interact with mother first) If mother cat is fearful or aggressive, allow time for her to acclimate to the person before handling her kittens If mother cat remains fearful or aggressive, handle the kittens away from the mother but with littermates present Gradually increase handling to 2-3 minutes at a time
Starting at 6 weeks
While handling, occasionally (and briefly) carry kitten a short distance away from mother and littermates Increase play with interactive toys
Adapted from Atkinson, T. (2018) Practical Feline Behaviour: Understanding Cat Behaviour and Improving Welfare . Boston: CABI; 127-128.
© Paula Garber are born outdoors to unsocialized mothers, are orphaned due to the death of the mother or her neglect, or are separated from their mothers by wellmeaning humans (Lowell et al., 2020). Cats and kittens are also frequently relinquished or abandoned due to a house move, the inability to pay for food and veterinary care, cat allergies, conflict with other pets in the home, or other behavior issues (Campbell, 2017; Casey et al., 2009). The following sections provide tips and guidance to help set up kittens and cats for success as household pets.
Breeders
Breeders of purebred cats have a distinct advantage, as they can control most of the factors that contribute to making cats who are good pets. In addition to being healthy, free from genetic defects, fully vaccinated, and mature (at least 1.5 to 2 years of age), both the mother and father cat should be friendly toward people, well socialized, confident (not fearful), and free of problematic behaviors. The mother cat especially should not exhibit any problem behaviors, as kittens are observational learners and might learn those unwanted behaviors from their mother (Atkinson, 2018).
Caregivers of Pregnant Moms
Stress for the pregnant mom should be minimized, and she should have access to several different nest options, as it is normal for mother cats to move their kittens at least once before they are weaned. The nests should be in areas that are warm, dry, quiet, not drafty, and in permanent semidarkness, and mother cats should never be confined to a nest site (Atkinson, 2018).
Kitten Caregivers
Preparing kittens for their future lives as pets in people’s homes is an important job for kitten caregivers. The work begins as soon as the kittens are born. The mother and kittens should be disturbed as little as possible during the first week or so after birth. Don’t separate kittens from their mother or interrupt the weaning process unless absolutely necessary. The frustration kittens go through during natural weaning is normal and an important learning experience. It also is normal for mother cats to show some aggression toward their kittens during weaning. Intervention is unnecessary unless the mother is hurting the kittens (Atkinson, 2018).
If kittens are being hand raised and will not experience natural weaning, steps should be taken to help the kittens develop skills to cope with frustration and decrease the risk of frustrationrelated behaviors when they are adults (Atkinson, 2018): • Do not offer solid food by hand. Mix solid food with kitten formula in a shallow dish, and gradually reduce the amount of formula and increase the amount of solid food. • When weaning starts (at about 3 to 4 weeks of age), start making the feeding schedule more unpredictable, and do not feed on demand. • When the kittens start eating solid food or solid food mixed with formula, end bottlefeeding sessions when there is still a little bit of formula left in the bottle. • Once the kittens are consistently eating solid food, start introducing easy food puzzles and treasure hunts with food.
During the sensitive period (2 to 7 weeks of age), kittens should be exposed, in a positive way, to a variety of people, other animals, environments, sounds, objects, and experiences that they will likely encounter in adulthood. The experiences kittens have during this brief “window” need to match as closely as possible what they are likely to experience later in life. Make your own list, and check items off as you expose the kittens to the different things. Remember that a normal routine for many cats will be spending time alone while family members
are at work or are preoccupied at home, so too much interaction and excitement during the sensitive period will not likely match the kitten’s future home situation. Also keep in mind that aversive or scary experiences during this time can have profound effects on a cat in adulthood (Casey, 2009).
Fig. 3, Socializing Kittens to People (see opposite page), offers specific tips on when and how much to handle kittens during the socialization period. Following are some important handling tips to keep in mind (Atkinson, 2018): • Do not disturb the mother or her kittens if they are sleeping. • Allow the kittens plenty of time to play with their littermates and explore their environment. • After 2 to 3 weeks of age, the minimum total daily handling time for the kittens should be 30 to 60 minutes, broken up into short periods. • Starting at about 4 weeks, the kittens should be handled by several people of different ages, genders, and appearance. • Before strangers handle the kittens they should wash their hands and also drape a clean blanket or towel, or one with familiar scents, over their lap to minimize the kitten’s contact with unfamiliar smells and provide comfort. • Always closely supervise handlers, especially children, to ensure that the kittens are being handled gently and that the kittens and mother cat do not appear stressed.
Matchmaking
Shelters and rescue groups should try to learn as much as possible about the socialization history and life experiences of kittens and cats during intake and from foster caregivers, and keep this information in each animal’s record. Combined with data from observations of the cat’s behavior in various situations, the cat’s “behavioral style” or general behavior patterns and distinguishing features, including interactions with people and other animals, can be determined (Mendl & Harcourt, 2000). This information can then be used to give potential adopters a more complete picture of a cat, beyond just physical appearance, so they can make a more educated decision about whether a particular cat will be a good fit for their family. The ASPCA has developed a tool to help match the personalities and lifestyles of adopters and cats (and dogs) called Meet Your Match (ASPCA, 2017).
Adopters who are interested in a kitten should be encouraged to adopt a pair, as kittens raised singly are more likely to develop behavior problems as adults (Delgado, 2014). Also keep in mind that behavioral assessments of kittens before 7 weeks of age are unreliable and don’t accurately predict how kittens will behave as adults. As mentioned previously, feline personalities tend to stabilize after 4 to 5 months of age, so assessments of a cat’s behavior after this time point are more accurate (Moffat, 2020).
Considerations for Cat Guardians
Bringing an animal into a home and providing them with care for their lifetime is a big responsibility. When behavior problems arise, the pet is often blamed, but it is primarily up to pet guardians to do what they can to prevent problems from developing in the first place. Many problems can be avoided by taking some steps before acquiring a new pet.
Tips When Acquiring a Kitten (Atkinson, 2018):
• Arrange to meet the mother cat (and father cat, if possible). Both should be healthy, full grown, friendly toward people, well socialized, and confident. • Arrange to see where the kitten was raised. Kittens raised “under foot” or as an active member of a typical household are most suitable as pets. • Interact with and handle the kitten. If you are not allowed to do
this, be wary. • If you already have a cat, dog, or child, or plan to add to your family in the future, make sure the kitten has been around an adult cat (other than the mother), a dog, or children, and ask to observe the kitten’s interactions with them. • Arrange to visit the kitten more than once. Kitten behavior doesn’t stabilize until 4 months of age, and there can be a lot of behavioral variation during the first 2 to 3 months. Spending more time with the kitten can give you some insight into the kitten’s behavioral development. • If the kitten will be an only cat, consider getting two kittens instead of one (Delgado, 2014). • Arrange for the kitten to stay with its mother and siblings until 14 weeks of age. If this isn’t possible, after the kitten has settled into your home, work on exposing the kitten to different people, other pets, sounds, objects, and places in a gradual and positive way (Moffat, 2020). • Download International Cat Care’s The Kitten Checklist for addi‐tional guidance.
© Can Stock Photo / famveldman Handling kittens during the sensitive period of 27 weeks of age has lasting effects on their future friendliness, resulting in cats that bond quite readily to other people
Tips When Acquiring an Adult Cat or Older Kitten (Atkinson, 2018):
• Learn as much as you can about the cat’s social and behavioral history. A cat or older kitten who wasn’t well socialized in a home
environment or has spent most of its life outdoors is not for everyone. Not only can it take a long time for the cat for form bonds with family members, living in a home among humans can be extremely stressful. • Interact with and handle the cat or older kitten. The cat should be friendly, confident, and rebound quickly if startled or initially shy. • Understand that shelters and some rescue situations are often very stressful environments for adult cats and older kittens, and the cat might behave differently in your home. • See International Cat Care tips on Choosing an Adult Cat for addi‐tional guidance.
If your kitten is a little shy or you adopted an adult cat and missed the socialization period, don’t despair! Cats are always learning, and they can learn new behaviors at any age.
If your cat did not have positive early social experiences, she can still learn social skills—the process is just much slower and requires a lot of patience. If you and your cat are not making progress, consult the Pet Professional Guild’s member directory to find a cat behavior professional in your area who can help. n
References
Ahola, M. K., Vapalahti, K., & Lohi, H. (2017). Early weaning increases aggression and stereotypic behaviour in cats. Scientific Reports 7: 10412, 109 ASPCA. (2017). Meet Your Match Atkinson, T. (2018). Practical feline behaviour: Understanding cat behaviour and improving welfare. Wallingford, UK: CABI Bateson, P. (2000). Behavioural development in the cat. In D. C. Turner & P. Bateson (Eds.), The Domestic Cat: The Biology of Its Behaviour (2nd ed., pp. 9-22). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press Bernstein, P. L. (2007). The human-cat relationship. In I. Rochlitz (Ed.), The Welfare of Cats (Animal Welfare Series Vol. 3, pp. 47-89). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer Bradshaw, J. W. S., Casey, R., & Brown, S. (2012). The behaviour of the domestic cat. Wallingford, UK: CABI Campbell, S. (2017, March 15). 4 common reasons cats & kittens are abandoned after a foreclosure. FixNation Casey, R. (2009, October 2-4). The science behind feline socialization. In Proceedings of the Southern European Veterinary Conference, Barcelona, Spain. IVIS Casey, R. A., Vandenbussche, S., Bradshaw, J. W. S., & Roberts, M. A. (2009). Reasons for relinquishment and return of domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus) to rescue shelters in the UK. Anthrozoös 22 (4) 347359 Crowell-Davis, S. L. (2007). Cat behaviour: social organization, communication and development. In I. Rochlitz (Ed.), The Welfare of Cats (Animal Welfare Series Vol. 3, pp. 1-22). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer Crowell-Davis, S. L. (2020). Social butterflies: cats are not really solitary animals. In M. E. Herron, D. F. Horwitz, & C. Siracusa (Eds.), Decoding Your Cat (pp. 71-92). American College of Veterinary Behaviorists. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Delgado, M. (2014, June 2). Is early spay/neuter related to the development of behavior problems in kittens? What Your Cat Wants Delgado, M. (Presenter). (2020, October). [Webinar] Inter-cat aggression. Morris Animal Foundation Feline Behavior Webinar Series Friedman, S. (Presenter). (2016, June 4-5). Living and learning with animals. Dog Training Club of Chester County. Exton, PA Friedman, S. (2021). Behavior Works Hart, B. L., Lyons, L. A., & Hart, L. A. (2014). Breed and gender differences: relation to the ancient history and origin of the domestic cat. In D. C. Turner & P. Bateson (Eds.), The Domestic Cat: The Biology of Its Behaviour (3rd ed., pp. 155-165). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press Karsh, E. B., & Turner, D. C. (1988). The human-cat relationship. In D. C. Turner & P. Bateson (Eds.), The Domestic Cat: The Biology of Its Behaviour (pp. 159-177). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press Lowell, K. J., Mederos, S. L., Delgado, M. M., & Bain, M. J. (2020). The effect of premature maternal separation on distress vocalizations and activity in kittens (Felis catus) during a brief nest separation. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 232 1-5 Martin, P., & Bateson, P. (1988). Behavioral development in the cat. In D. C. Turner & P. Bateson (Eds.), The Domestic Cat: The Biology of Its Behaviour (pp. 9-22). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press McCune, S. (1995). The impact of paternity and early socialisation on the development of cats' behaviour to people and novel objects. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 45 109-124 Mendl, M., & Harcourt, R. (2000). Individuality in the domestic cat: origins, development, and stability. In D. C. Turner & P. Bateson (Eds.), The Domestic Cat: The Biology of Its Behaviour (2nd ed., pp. 47-64). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Merriam-Webster, Inc. (2021, August). Altricial. In Merriam-Webster Dictionary Merriam-Webster, Inc. (2021, August). Precocial. In Merriam-Webster Dictionary Moffat, K. (2020). Welcoming your new best friend: setting up your new cat for a lifetime of health and happiness. In M. E. Herron, D. F. Horwitz, & C. Siracusa (Eds.), Decoding Your Cat (pp. 27-48). American College of Veterinary Behaviorists. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Turner, D. C. (2000). The human-cat relationship. In D. C. Turner & P. Bateson (Eds.), The Domestic Cat: The Biology of Its Behaviour (2nd ed., pp. 193-206). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press Turner, D. C., Feaver, J., Mendl, M., & Bateson, P. (1986). Variations in domestic cat behaviour towards humans: a paternal effect. Animal Behaviour 34 1890-1892
Paula Garber is a cat behavior professional and owner of LIFELINE Cat Behavior Solutions in Westchester County, New York. She holds a master’s in education from the University of Colorado at Boulder and a diploma in feline behavior science and technology from the Companion Animal Sciences Institute. She is also a certified animal training and enrichment professional and certified feline training and behavior specialist through the Animal Behavior Institute, a Fear Free certified animal trainer, and is certified in Low-Stress Handling for Dogs and Cats. She is chair of the Pet Professional Guild’s Feline Division and serves on PPG’s Steering Committee, and she recently joined the faculty of DogNostics Career Center. She is a proud member of the Association of Animal Behavior Professionals and the Animal Training Academy, and serves as president and cofounder of the Cat Protection Council of Westchester, a non-profit organization whose mission is to better the lives of community cats through advocacy, education, and community outreach. She resides in Westchester County, New York, with her husband and four rescued cats.
Resources
International Cat Care. (2018). Choosing an Adult Cat International Cat Care. (n.d.). The Kitten Checklist
