Acknowledgements This report was made possible thanks to contributions from a number of academics, professionals, and Vancouver Island community members, all of whom share one common goal: to ensure that British Columbia’s natural resources are used responsibly and are treated with respect. Thank you to the following people for providing extremely valuable insights:
Annette Constabel Senior Manager, Watershed Protection Integrated Water Services, Capital Regional District
Dr. Jordi Honey-Rosés Assistant Professor, SCARP; Director, Water Planning Lab, University of British Columbia
Bill Sims Manager, Water Resources, City of Nanaimo
June Ross Acting Chair, Vancouver Island Water Watch Coalition
Chris Cole Resource Specialist, Environment and Resource Integration, TimberWest
Keith Bell Editor-in-chief and Dad
Dr. Dave Spittlehouse Senior Climatologist, B.C. Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations David Maloney Forest Water Management Officer (Kamloops), B.C. Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations Doug Wahl Manager, Audits and Investigations, Forest Practices Board Edna Cox Volunteer, Save Our Valley Alliance Erik Piikkila Forest, Landscape and Disturbance Ecologist, Ladysmith Watershed Coalition Glen Zachary Senior Hydrology and Hydraulics Engineer, Urban Systems Dr. Hans Schreier Professor Emeritus, Land and Water Systems, University of British Columbia
Lori Wilson Mapping and Computer Technician, Alberni-Clayoquot Regional District Makenzie Leine Manager of Community and Government Relations, Island Timberlands Paul Manly Documentary Filmmaker, Manly Media Dr. Rita Winkler Research Hydrologist, B.C. Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations Sarah Thomas Volunteer, Watershed Forest Alliance; Planning Consultant, ECOllaborate Now TJ Watt Conservation Photographer and Campaigner, Ancient Forest Alliance Dr.Younes Alila Associate Professor, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia
I would especially like to thank Erik Piikkila, who put an extraordinary amount of time and effort into making this project a success. Finally, a special thank you to Dr. Jordi Honey-Rosés (Principal Investigator and Academic Supervisor) and Sarah Thomas (Academic Second Reader) for their hard work and support throughout this project.They provided excellent guidance, reviewed drafts, and connected me with many of the aforementioned individuals.
About the Author Patrick (PJ) Bell is a Master’s student in the School of Community and Regional Planning at the University of British Columbia. He was born and raised in Regina, Saskatchewan, and received a Bachelor of Arts in Environmental Studies from the University of Regina. His professional interests include ecological and natural resource planning, active transportation, and sustainable urban environments. At the University of Regina, PJ worked as a Research Assistant in the Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, assisting with a project that models climate impacts on Prairie environments in order to inform new sustainable management strategies. He then worked at Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada on the Drought Watch program, which monitors the agroclimate impacts of drought across Canada. During the 2015 summer, PJ worked for the City of Vancouver as a member of the Greenest City Scholars Program, a collaboration between the University of British Columbia’s Sustainability Initiative and the City of Vancouver. His research focused on improving the supply of “All Ages and Abilities (AAA)” bicycle parking for Vancouver residents. This report serves as the capstone project for PJ’s Master’s degree. After graduating in August 2016, PJ plans to return home to Saskatchewan to begin his career in planning. However, British Columbia remains a potential future destination; one can only ignore the call of the ocean, forests, and mountains for so long. pjonahbell@gmail.com
linkedin.com/in/pjonahbell
issuu.com/pjonahbell
Figure i: Moss-covered trees in the China Creek Community Watershed
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
Table of Contents Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................................................................................................2 About the Author.......................................................................................................................................................................................................3 1.0 Executive Summary..........................................................................................................................................................................................8 2.0 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................................................................12 2.1 Problem Overview..................................................................................................................................................................................13 2.2 Study Purpose and Methodology...................................................................................................................................................14 2.3 Report Layout............................................................................................................................................................................................14 3.0 Context: Port Alberni’s Forestry History........................................................................................................................................15 4.0 Issue Identification.........................................................................................................................................................................................17 4.1 Concerns from Various Stakeholders...........................................................................................................................................18 4.2 Forestry Industry Perspective............................................................................................................................................................20 4.2.1 Island Timberlands........................................................................................................................................................................20 4.2.2 TimberWest......................................................................................................................................................................................21 5.0 Watershed Ecosystem Features and Services..............................................................................................................................22 5.1 Old Growth Forest.................................................................................................................................................................................23 5.2 Critical Wildlife Habitat.........................................................................................................................................................................24 5.3 High Value Fisheries.................................................................................................................................................................................25 5.4 Karst Formations.......................................................................................................................................................................................25 5.5 Water Quantity..........................................................................................................................................................................................25 5.6 Climate Change.........................................................................................................................................................................................26 5.7 Erosion and Landslides..........................................................................................................................................................................26 5.8 Cultural and Aesthetic Values............................................................................................................................................................27 6.0 Water Quality Parameters and Regulation.....................................................................................................................................28 6.1 Water Quality Overview.....................................................................................................................................................................29 6.2 Turbidity..........................................................................................................................................................................................................29 6.3 Water Quality Regulations..................................................................................................................................................................30 6.4 Filtration Deferral in Port Alberni...................................................................................................................................................32 7.0 A Scientific Review of the Impact of Logging on Water Quality......................................................................................34 7.1 Overview of Natural Forest Hydrology......................................................................................................................................35 7.2 Natural Causes of Water Quality Issues in Forests..............................................................................................................37 7.3 Effect of Logging on Water Quality................................................................................................................................................37 7.3.1 Roads...................................................................................................................................................................................................37 7.3.2 Harvesting.........................................................................................................................................................................................39 8.0 China Creek Community Watershed Description...................................................................................................................42 8.1 Geographic and Biogeoclimatic Characteristics......................................................................................................................43 8.2 Watershed Ownership..........................................................................................................................................................................44 8.3 Regulatory Framework.........................................................................................................................................................................47 8.3.1 Regulatory Overview.........................................................................................................................................................................47 8.3.2 Forestry Regulations on Crown Land...............................................................................................................................48 4
CONTENTS
8.3.3 Forestry Regulations on Private Managed Forest Land..........................................................................................49 8.3.4 Forest Certification Systems..................................................................................................................................................50 8.4 Land Uses.....................................................................................................................................................................................................51 8.4.1 Water Source..................................................................................................................................................................................51 8.4.2 Mining..................................................................................................................................................................................................52 8.4.3 Hydroelectric Power Generation........................................................................................................................................52 8.4.4 Recreation.........................................................................................................................................................................................53 8.4.5 Logging History in the China Creek Community Watershed............................................................................53 9.0 Review of Existing Studies.........................................................................................................................................................................58 9.1 List of Studies..............................................................................................................................................................................................59 9.2 Coastal Watershed Assessment (CWAP) of China Creek Watershed (1998)...................................................59 9.3 Alberni Valley Regional Water Study Update: Final Report (2010).............................................................................61 9.4 China Creek Water Quality: A Comparison Before and After Timber Harvest and Independent Power Project Construction (2010)................................................................................................................61 9.5 Water Quality Assessment and Objectives for the China Creek Community Watershed (Overview and Technical Reports) (2011)................................................................................................................................62 9.6 Alberni Valley Drinking Water Reference Guide (Mapping Our Legacy project) (2011)...............................64 9.7 Forest Practice Standards and Water Quality in Privately Managed Land in the China Creek and Honna River Watersheds (2014)...........................................................................................................................................65 10.0 External Case Studies...............................................................................................................................................................................68 10.1 Unprotected Watersheds.................................................................................................................................................................69 10.1.1 Regional District of Nanaimo.............................................................................................................................................69 10.1.2 Comox Valley Regional District.........................................................................................................................................70 10.2 Protected Watersheds........................................................................................................................................................................72 10.2.1 Capital Regional District.........................................................................................................................................................72 10.2.2 Metro Vancouver........................................................................................................................................................................73 10.2.3 Notable International Examples........................................................................................................................................74 11.0 Discussion.........................................................................................................................................................................................................75 11.1 Overview of Results............................................................................................................................................................................76 11.2 Questions of Interest...........................................................................................................................................................................76 11.2.1 Are provincial institutions and legislation adequately managing source water and protecting community watershed ecosystems in British Columbia?.....................................................................................76 11.2.2 Are the laws governing forestry on private land sufficient to ensure the protection of drinking water sources?...........................................................................................................................................................77 11.2.3 Who should have control over a community’s water supply?..........................................................................79 11.2.4 Should private managed forest landowners take on increased responsibility for legacy and non-forestry issues on their land?............................................................................................................................80 12.0 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................................................................................82 12.1 Closing Thoughts....................................................................................................................................................................................83 12.2 Recommendations................................................................................................................................................................................83 Works Cited................................................................................................................................................................................................................85 Figure Credits..............................................................................................................................................................................................................93 5
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
List of Figures Figure i: Moss-covered trees in the China Creek Community Watershed...................................................................3 Figure 1.1: McLaughlin Ridge in the China Creek Community Watershed, with cutblocks visible in the background......................................................................................................................................................................................9 Figure 1.2: Signs of logging within the China Creek Community Watershed.................................................................11 Figure 2.1: China Creek Community Watershed location.........................................................................................................13 Figure 3.1: Annual timber harvest in B.C.............................................................................................................................................16 Figure 3.2: B.C.’s vulnerability to downturns in forest economy.............................................................................................16 Figure 4.1: Elected officials and environmental activists speaking out about the China Creek Community Watershed..........................................................................................................................................................18 Figure 4.2: Citizen concerns regarding private forestry regulations.....................................................................................20 Figure 4.3: Logging road in the China Creek Community Watershed...............................................................................21 Figure 5.1: Old growth forest in the China Creek Community Watershed....................................................................23 Figure 5.2: Remaining productive old growth in B.C....................................................................................................................24 Figure 5.3: Queen Charlotte goshawk..................................................................................................................................................24 Figure 5.4: Marbled Murrelet......................................................................................................................................................................24 Figure 5.5: Vancouver Island marmot.....................................................................................................................................................24 Figure 5.6: Wild coho salmon.....................................................................................................................................................................25 Figure 5.7: Karst landscape digram...........................................................................................................................................................25 Figure 5.8: Logging along the steep slopes of McLaughlin Ridge in the China Creek Community Watershed....................................................................................................................................................................................26 Figure 5.9: Hiking in the China Creek Community Watershed..............................................................................................27 Figure 6.1: Turbidity Sample........................................................................................................................................................................29 Figure 6.2: Drinking Water Protection Act, Part 4, Section 23................................................................................................31 Figure 6.3: 4-3-2-1-0 Objective for drinking water in B.C.........................................................................................................32 Figure 6.4: Port Alberni’s new treatment facility..............................................................................................................................33 Figure 7.1: Water flowing downhill in the watershed..................................................................................................................35 Figure 7.2: Lichen intercepts water..........................................................................................................................................................36 Figure 7.3: Fungal growth on the side of a tree...............................................................................................................................36 Figure 7.4: Water flowing in the CCCW ...........................................................................................................................................37 Figure 7.5: Logging road on McLaughlin Ridge in the China Creek Community Watershed................................38 Figure 7.6 Sand and fine gravel on a bridge in the CCCW......................................................................................................39 Figure 7.7: Harvesting on McLauughlin Ridge in CCCW............................................................................................................39 Figure 7.8: Water flowing post harvest on McLaughlin Ridge.................................................................................................40 Figure 8.1: Snow in the upper reaches of the CCCW.................................................................................................................43 Figure 8.2: Stream order classification diagram................................................................................................................................43 Figure 8.3: Low flow (top) vs. high flow (bottom) at the CCCW intake dam..............................................................43 Figure 8. 4: Elevational profile of biogeoclimatic units for south central Vancouver Island.......................................44 Figure 8. 5: The CCCW is dominated by Douglas-fir....................................................................................................................45 Figure 8. 6: Comparison of forest ownership between the province of B.C. and the CCCW..............................45 Figure 8.7: Map of the E & N Land Grants of 1884-1925.........................................................................................................46 Figure 8.8: Overview of land ownership in the China Creek Community Watershed.............................................47 Figure 8.9: The three primary forest certification standards in B.C....................................................................................50 Figure 8.10: Upnit penstock road................................................................................................................................................................53 Figure 8.11: Logging by rail in B.C..............................................................................................................................................................53 Figure 8.12: Incline Railroad for logging in B.C....................................................................................................................................54 Figure 8.13: Donkey spar tree yarding system....................................................................................................................................54 Figure 8.14: Steel tower yarding system.................................................................................................................................................54 6
CONTENTS
Figure 8.15: Grapple yarding system.........................................................................................................................................................55 Figure 8.16: China Creek Channel in 1952 and 1994, showing recovery of riparian vegetation.......................... 55 Figure 8.17: Forest cover in the China Creek Community Watershed (2000)............................................................... 56 Figure 8.18: Forest cover loss and gain in the China Creek Community Watershed between 2000 and 2014........................................................................................................................................................................................57 Figure 8.19: Forest cover loss events by year in the China Creek Community Watershed between 2000 and 2014...........................................................................................................................................................................57 Figure 9.1: Much of the riparian area in the CCCW’s second-growth forest is dominated by alder, which provides insufficient large woody debris for the stream channel...................................................59 Figure 9.2: CCCW users are warned to respect the water ...................................................................................................62 Figure 9.3: Turbidity levels in China Creek between May 2003 and January 2005 as measured on 15-minute intervals by the automated water quality monitoring sation near the City of Port Albrni intake......................................................................................................................................................................63 Figure 9.4: Turbidity levels in China Creek between January 2004 and August 2014 recorded at the City of Port Albrni intake.....................................................................................................................................................65 Figure 9.5: China Creek Main road with riprap on the road side to stabilize the channel.....................................66 Figure 9.6: A breach in the grader berm along China Creek Main road allows sediment-laden water to flow into the creek.............................................................................................................................................................66 Figure 10.1: City of Nanaimo’s new $70 million filtration facility..............................................................................................69 Figure 10.2: Comox Lake is a popular destination for recreation............................................................................................71 Figure 103: The water intake on Sooke Lake is the only anthropogeic use allowed in the watershed ..........72 Figure 12.1: Sunset over the China Creek Community Watershed........................................................................................84 Tables: Table 6.1: Forest water quality parameters and example measures..................................................................................29 Table 7.1: Naturally occuring contaminant sources and the contaminants commonly associated with them.......................................................................................................................................................................................38 Table 7.2: Forestry-related contaminant sources and the contaminants commonly associated with them.......................................................................................................................................................................................41 Table 8.1: Breakdown of Biogeoclimatic Zones in the CCCW.............................................................................................44 Table 8.2: Summary of mining activities within the China Creek Community Watershed...................................52 Table 9.1: Existing studies on the China Creek Community Watershed.........................................................................60 Table 9.2: Summary of automated turbidity data measured at China Creek at City of Port Alberni intake station from May 2003 to Feb 2005...............................................................................................................63 Table 9.3: Summary of proposed Water Quality Objectives for the China Creek Community Watershed....................................................................................................................................................................................64 Table 10.1: Selected US cities that have avoided construction of filtration plants through watershed protection.............................................................................................................................................................74
7
CHAPTER 1: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The China Creek Community Watershed (CCCW) provides drinking water to 20,000 residents in Port Alberni, Beaver Creek, and the Hupacasath Ahahswinis and Tseshaht Tsahaheh reserves.The primary water source is China Creek, with Bainbridge Lake serving as a backup source. There is concern amongst elected officials, city staff, environmental organizations, and local community members that logging and roads within the CCCW are negatively impacting water quality (Figure 1.1). Major forestry companies privately own ninety-three percent of the CCCW, with Island Timberlands controlling the majority of the watershed. While the private logging companies have been criticized for logging the watershed, they maintain that their forestry operations abide by all applicable regulations and they insist that source water protection is considered at all times.These companies have explained that there are misconceptions in the community relating to the impacts of logging on water quality. In response to these concerns and misconceptions, the Watershed Forest Alliance (WFA), a Port Alberni-based NGO, identified the need for an independent third-party study. The WFA approached the University of British Columbia (UBC), and a graduate student from the School of Community and Regional Planning at UBC initiated and completed this study. The objective of this study is to synthesize research relating to the impact of logging on water quality in the context of Vancouver Island, with a particular focus on the CCCW. The aim was not to
provide an original ecological, hydrological or economic study, but rather to summarize existing data, literature, and scientific studies, followed by an analysis of important findings. This report is designed to be a resource for those interested in the issue. A review of scientific literature and government publications revealed that logging does indeed present a number of risks to water quality—including erosion, soil compaction, and temperature changes—in addition to many other environmental and cultural elements. Road construction and use has been linked to the deposition of sediment into stream channels, which can increase turbidity. Turbidity serves as an indicator for the presence of pathogens and can interfere with disinfection processes, making it an important measure for examining water quality. In addition to sedimentation from roads, the harvesting of trees may also increase turbidity, as soil can become unstable, resulting in erosion and landslides. The removal of trees can change the way that water moves across the landscape and is absorbed into the soil, often resulting in increased flows and erosion. An undisturbed forest may filter water, so the harvesting of trees has the potential to damage this useful ecosystem service. Not all ages or species of tree are equally adept at providing ecosystem services; for example, old growth Douglas-fir forests are particularly effective at regulating water flows, because these tall, mature trees present a large crown surface and
Figure 1.1: McLaughlin Ridge in the China Creek Community Watershed, with cutblocks visible in the background
9
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
occupy an extensive volume of space (Franklin, 1988). It is important to note, however, that the impact of logging on water quality will vary greatly depending on a number of factors, the most important of which being the type of forestry practices that are followed. Modern harvesting and road building practices are significantly better at protecting water quality than those of the past. If managed properly, harvesting can result in relatively little sustained impact on the environment.
plants, despite concerns from citizens that this was the case. Instead, it appears that the increasingly strict water quality regulations necessitated the installation of filtration plants.
On the other hand, some regions of B.C., such as Metro Vancouver and the Capital Regional District, have fully protected watersheds. The Capital Regional District claims that this has significantly reduced their water treatment costs, as they were able to avoid the purchase of a costly filtration plant despite being under the same provincial regulations as the aforementioned regions. There are Additionally, forest ecosystems are extraordinarily complex, also international examples where municipalities have with climate, topography, and vegetation all representing avoided the cost of installing filtration by protecting their compounding variables that dictate the impact of any watersheds. However, it was not determined in this study disturbances. Under natural conditions, turbidity will whether or not watershed protection would have led to fluctuate based on seasonality, extreme weather events, and filtration deferrals in Port Alberni, Comox, or Nanaimo. As natural erosive processes, and various pathogens can enter mentioned earlier, a number of natural sources can cause the water due to wildlife. Additionally, anthropogenic land increased turbidity, so a protected watershed does not uses other than logging can also influence turbidity levels, automatically guarantee water quality. including mining, hydroelectric generation, and recreation. Therefore, determining the exact source of water quality While water quality does not currently appear to be an issue problems can be very challenging. in the CCCW, the research process revealed a number of questions and concerns about the overall management and An analysis of satellite imagery shows that between 2000 regulation of forestry operations in British Columbia.These and 2014, approximately 18 percent of the CCCW issues could potentially affect the CCCW in the future. was harvested. However, based on a review of existing For one, the regulatory framework dealing with logging studies that have been done on the CCCW, it cannot and water quality issues in British Columbia is complex, be said for certain that logging in the CCCW is currently and there is a perception that the regulations governing impacting water quality. Various studies found evidence of privately managed forest land lack rigour and detail. While sedimentation from roads and landslides, but it was difficult a series of professional standards and governing bodies to identify the source of the turbidity. Legacy issues— provide regulatory oversight to private forestry operations, logging operations that occurred prior to the current this oversight is less visible to the public than the oversight regulations and watershed ownership—and non-forestry on Crown land, contributing to this negative perception. land uses were identified by one study as being of greater Furthermore, there are many overlapping regulations and concern than any current forestry operations. Additionally, institutions that are tasked with protecting water quality at the time of writing, water quality in the CCCW was in watersheds, creating possible confusion as to the roles quite good, which has allowed the City of Port Alberni to and responsibilities of various government departments seek a filtration deferral from the Vancouver Island Health and potentially resulting in inefficiencies. Finally, the lack Authority. This deferral is only an option due to built-in of control over a private drinking watershed leaves system redundancy and the recent construction of a UV communities vulnerable to changes in ownership and disinfection plant, and the deferral remains contingent on forestry techniques on private land. the approval of a watershed management plan. Based on these concerns, it is suggested that the City of The regional districts of Nanaimo and Comox Valley also Port Alberni continue to push for more control over the take their drinking water from watersheds that are privately CCCW, as they have already been doing.This control could owned and with forestry activity. In order to comply with take a number of forms: outright ownership, a change in new provincial water quality standards, these communities legislation that allows increased government intervention have installed or are planning to install expensive filtration in the watershed, or some sort of co-management plants. A brief examination of these cases did not show scheme with the private landowners. Co-management is that logging was a factor in the purchase of these filtration an appealing option, as it would allow professional industry 10
CHAPTER 1: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
foresters that are removed from the election cycle to care for the watershed, while simultaneously creating enhanced oversight from elected officials who are directly accountable to the local community. The regulatory framework should also be updated so that the “community watershed” designation applies across all land, instead of only on Crown land. Clarification of the roles and authority of the ministries involved in the protection of drinking water with respect to forestry operations is also necessary. Communication and data sharing across institutions needs to be improved, as does communication with the public. Clearing up some of the misconceptions related to logging impacts would go a long way towards reducing the conflicts between private industry, government, and citizens. Finally, forestry companies should consider seeking certification under the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) program. FSC certification is internationally renowned for its strict regulations and environmentally friendly results, so certification would instantly provide added credibility for these companies.
Logging is paramount to the Port Alberni area’s heritage and economy. However, economic activity should internalize the costs of their operations; it should not come at the expense of a public good like drinking water. Additionally, when logging is negatively perceived in a “logging town” like Port Alberni, this issue can quickly become divisive in the community. The City of Port Alberni currently has a strong relationship with the private forestry companies, so these groups need to work together to ensure that proper communication between all stakeholders is achieved and that drinking water is protected for current and future generations.
Figure 1.2: Signs of logging within the China Creek Community Watershed
11
CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION
(B.C. Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, 1999). When water quality deteriorates Located on Vancouver Island at the head of Barkley Sound in China Creek, the City switches to Bainbridge Lake, and surrounded by scenic forests, mountains, and lakes, which is located just outside of CCCW in the McFarland Port Alberni, British Columbia has always had an intimate Community Watershed (Koers and Associates Engineering connection to the natural environment. From the Tseshaht Ltd., 2010). In emergency situations when both of these and Hupacasath First Nations who have long inhabited sources are unavailable, the City can draw water from the region right up to the area’s 20,000 current residents, the Somass River (Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., people in the Port Alberni area have long relied on the 2010). abundant forest and water resources (Caulfield, 2015). Today, however, these two primary resources are seemingly Local elected officials, city staff, non-governmental in conflict with one another, as there is concern that the organizations (NGOs), First Nations, and other community forest is being exploited at the expense of the area’s water members are concerned that logging within the CCCW is negatively impacting water quality. Logging has been supply. occurring in the watershed for decades and it continues The drinking water supply for the City of Port Alberni, today. While several groups conduct forest operations the unincorporated community of Beaver Creek, and the in the CCCW, the most significant is Island Timberlands, Hupacasath Ahahswinis and Tseshaht Tsahaheh reserves a large forest company that owns the majority of the comes from the China Creek Community Watershed watershed (see ownership breakdown in Section 8.2). (CCCW), which is located an hour’s drive southeast of the The rest of the watershed is split between TimberWest city (Figure 2.1) (Slepian, 2014, 2016). Since 1912, China (another major forestry company) and Crown land. Creek has served as Port Alberni’s primary water source
2.1 Problem Overview
Figure 2.1: China Creek Community Watershed location
13
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
Despite numerous scientific studies of the watershed, there remain a number of misconceptions and concerns regarding the effect of logging on water quality in the CCCW, and as a result, calls to halt logging have grown louder and louder through the years. The fact that most of the watershed is privately owned as opposed to Crown land, and therefore subject to different forestry regulations that govern harvesting practices, has been a point of particular contention.
2.2 Study Purpose and Methodology In response to these concerns and misconceptions, the Watershed Forest Alliance (WFA), a Port Alberni-based NGO, identified the need for an independent third-party study. The WFA approached the University of British Columbia, and Patrick Bell (Master’s student), supervised by Dr. Jordi Honey-Rosés (Assistant Professor), initiated and completed this study. The objective of this study is to provide research relating to the impact of logging on water quality in the context of Vancouver Island, with a particular focus on the CCCW. The aim of this study was not to provide an original ecological, hydrological, or economic study of the CCCW. Rather, this study is predominantly a synthesis of existing literature that is meant to serve as a resource for those interested in the issues surrounding logging and water quality in the CCCW. As such, a significant portion of the report is dedicated to providing background information on local context, forest hydrology, and logging regulations. Many scientific studies about the CCCW have already been completed, and these were reviewed as part of this study. The researching and writing of this report were guided by the goal of remaining objective. The author relied heavily on scientific literature and government publications, but also included a balanced mixture of media stories as well as reports from industry, environmental NGOs, and community members. The research process also included interviewing numerous stakeholders from all sides of the issue, who in turn provided comments and suggestions for further research.
Chapter 3 provides a brief overview of Port Alberni’s forestry industry, while Chapter 4 identifies the origins of the concerns about logging and water quality. Chapter 4 also contains key quotes from various stakeholders and explains the forestry industry’s perspective. Next, Chapter 5 describes the ecosystem features and services other than water quality that are provided by watersheds such as the CCCW—water quality is the primary focus of this report, but it is necessary to acknowledge the many other factors in play within the watershed. Finally, Chapter 6 reviews water quality parameters and regulations in British Columbia and describes the impact of these regulations in Port Alberni. The next section, Chapter 7, presents the results of a literature review on the impacts of logging on water quality in the Vancouver Island context. This section is not focused specifically on the CCCW; rather, it provides an overview of the potential impacts of logging within watersheds, without implying that these impacts are currently occurring within the CCCW. Again, the primary objective of this report is to examine the effect of logging on water quality, but other forestry impacts such as stream temperature and water quantity will be briefly described. Section 3 (Chapters 8 and 9) returns the focus to the CCCW. Chapter 8 provides an overview of the watershed, describing its geography, geology, climate, land uses, ownership framework, and the regulatory framework that dictates forestry practices within the watershed. Chapter 9 is an overview of the numerous studies that have previously been conducted about the CCCW, identifying who commissioned and completed each study and reviewing their key findings. The fourth section (Chapter 10) is a collection of brief case studies about watershed management in other municipalities.This section examines the difference between those areas with protected watersheds (i.e. the Capital Regional District and Metro Vancouver) and those areas with unprotected watersheds (i.e. Nanaimo and Comox Valley). Select international examples are also described.
The final section of this report attempts to bring all of these findings together and recommends further actions. Chapter 11 provides a discussion of important findings 2.3 Report Layout and identifies some unanswered questions that should be considered for further research. Chapter 12 provides This report is divided into twelve chapters that can be concluding comments and a few recommendations for loosely grouped into five main sections. The first section, CCCW stakeholders. Chapters 1 to 6, provides an introduction and context. 14
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
There are 55 million hectares of forest in British Columbia, which amounts to nearly 60 percent of the province’s land area (Ministry of Forests, Mines and Lands, 2010). As such, forestry has been a major component of B.C.’s economy since the 1800s (Ministry of Forests, Mines and Lands, 2010). Similarly, Port Alberni has been a forestry town since its inception, with the lumber, pulp, and paper industries playing prominent roles in the Alberni Valley’s economy for over a century (Gordon, Halkett, Macauley, & Saunders, 2007; Ministry of Forests, Mines and Lands, 2010). Employment in the forestry sector tends to pay as much as twelve percent higher than other industrial jobs, and in the 1950s, ‘60s, and ‘70s, Port Alberni was bustling and prosperous—a booming city with one of the bestpaid forestry labour forces in Canada (Gordon et al., 2007; Ministry of Forests, Mines and Lands, 2010). The forestry boom in B.C. was the result of increasing demand for timber and technological innovations that allowed rapid and large scale harvesting (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 5, 2016). The annual amount of timber harvested increased steadily from the early 1900s to the mid-1980s, at which point harvesting totals began to fluctuate, peaking in 1987 and again in 2005 (Figure 3.1) (Ministry of Forests, Mines and Lands, 2010). This fluctuation signified the beginning of a downward trend in many forestry-dependent communities, including Port Alberni. While the province’s economy has diversified over time, many smaller communities are still highly dependent on the forestry industry and have been heavily impacted by the decline over the past three decades (Figure 3.2) (Ministry of Forests, Mines and Lands, 2010).
population has been static and aging since the 1980s, while the resource industry has become less dominant. In 1996, 17.7 percent of the labour force was employed in agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting, but this dropped to 9.5 percent in 2006 (Alberni-Clayoquot Regional District, 2010). The forest sector is heavily reliant on export markets, so changes in international competition, trade restrictions, commodity prices, and major events such as the 2007 housing market collapse in the U.S. have had significant impacts on timber harvests in the province (Ministry of Forests, Mines and Lands, 2010). Despite this downturn, the forestry industry—which in this area is now dominated by large private companies— remains the most prominent industry in the Alberni Valley (Gordon et al., 2007). The weight of the forestry industry is important context for this analysis and report. Forestry is critical to the culture, heritage, and economy of the Alberni Valley.
Figure 3.2: B.C.’s vulnerability to downturns in forest economy
In the Alberni Valley, the downturn is evidenced by changes in demographics and employment characteristics. The
Figure 3.1: Annual timber harvest in B.C. Timber volume (millions m³)
100 Total timber harvest 90 80 70 60 50 40 Not regulated by AACs 30 Regulated by AACs 20 10 0 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Year
16
Alberni-Clayoquot Regional District Least Vulnerable Most Vulnerable Not Reported Data source: BC STATS (2009)
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
Port Alberni mayor Mike Ruttan has emphasized the importance of protecting the region’s drinking water Concerns over logging in the CCCW have come from a supply, explaining that ultimately, the City wants to control number of sources, including regional and local elected the CCCW (Slepian, 2015b). He has said that while the officials, Port Alberni city staff, professional third-party City regularly meets with Island Timberlands—the majority engineering firms, NGOs, and community members. Many landowner in the watershed—these meetings “don’t of these concerns have been voiced in local, regional, and address the real problem” of watershed control (Slepian, national publications such as the Alberni Valley News, the 2015b). Mr. Ruttan has noted that the City is working Alberni Valley Times, the Vancouver Sun, and the Globe with surrounding communities to get the attention of the and Mail, along with several smaller papers and websites. provincial government, whom they hope will be able to Figure 4.1 provides a sample of some of the key quotes provide legislative and financial assistance towards Port Alberni’s goal of purchasing the CCCW (Slepian, 2015b). from a variety of different CCCW stakeholders. Port Alberni City Councillor Denis Sauvé has expressed frustration with the provincial government over this issue,
4.1 Concerns from Various Stakeholders
Figure 4.1: Elected officials and environmental activists speaking out about the China Creek Community Watershed
Quotes from Influential Stakeholders “Water defines our city. It’s our history and our future. It’s essential, it’s powerful, it’s precious and it’s something we can’t take for granted.” (Slepian 2016) — Mike Ruttan, Mayor of Port Alberni
“Water is a basic human right, and I am gravely concerned about the negative long-term impacts that logging in and above China Creek watershed will have on First Nations and all people with whom we share the Valley.” (Wilderness Committee, 2014) — Judith Sayers, Former Chief, Hupacasath First Nation
They have every right to log. All we’re asking is for the protection of the watershed.” (Slepian, 2015b) — Denis Sauvé, Port Alberni City Councillor
“Logging on these steep oldgrowth slopes has a high potential to alter the quality and rate of water flow and the streams’ courses. [Cutblocks above China Creek] should never have been logged.” (Hume, 2015) — Scott Fraser, MLA for Alberni-Pacific Rim
Regarding Nanaimo’s watershed: “If we don’t have control of our watershed, we don’t have control of our local economy. A clean, secure source of drinking water is crucial to the health of citizens and to the economy of a community.” (Manly, 2014) — Paul Manly, Documentary Filmmaker, Manly Media “Jurisdictions that protect their watersheds as healthy, intact systems will have more stability in a changing climate. In privately owned watersheds, we see industrial development that undermines water quality. In publicly owned watersheds, we don't. The provincial government simply has to address this. Port Alberni Mayor Mike Ruttan and many others have advocated for full municipal control of watersheds, and the provincial government can help make this happen. Surely the right to safe, clean water isn't only for those of us in municipalities with large enough tax bases to purchase our watersheds.” (Coste, 2015) — Torrance Coste, Campaigner and Spokesperson, Wilderness Committee 18
CHAPTER 4: ISSUE IDENTIFICATION
indicating that while diplomatic relationships between the governments appear to be strong, there is no concrete action on the ground (Slepian, 2015b). One way that Port Alberni is lobbying to the provincial government is through the Union of B.C. Municipalities (UBCM), an organization that provides a “common voice for local government” by bringing resolutions from municipalities to the province for discussion (Union of BC Municipalities, 2016b). Throughout the years, a number of official UBCM resolutions have addressed the matter of logging and water quality in community watersheds such as the CCCW (see UBCM resolutions 2005-B27, 2006B102, 2010-B26, 2011-B50, 2011-B129, 2013-B32, 2013B105, and 2015-B58) (Union of BC Municipalities, 2016a). For example, in 2013, Port Alberni sponsored resolution 2013-B105, which stated: WHEREAS the majority of Vancouver Island communities draw drinking water from an active working forested watershed; AND WHEREAS logging companies are not required to submit a long range forestry plan: THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the Province of British Columbia enact legislation that requires all land and tenure holders logging in a local government watershed to have in place a one hundred year cut rotation plan; AND BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that all logging companies have environmental policies in place that protect the integrity of local governments’ drinking water. (Ministry of Community, 2014, p. 133) Other local elected officials who have noted concerns about the CCCW include Alberni-Pacific Rim MLA Scott Fraser and Dr. Judith Sayers, the former Chief of the Hupacasath First Nation. Dr. Sayers spoke at a rally outside of Port Alberni City Hall in 2014 and said that Alberni Valley residents “must be vigilant to assert our human right to clean water over corporate profit” (Wilderness Committee, 2014). Mr. Fraser has been active on the issue of logging and water quality for many years. In 2013, he co-signed, along with 23 local organizations, foresters, and scientists, a letter to the province expressing significant concern over the logging of the CCCW (see quote in Figure 4.1) (Hume, 2015).
Port Alberni City Engineer Guy Cicon has also weighed in on the issue of logging and water quality. During a tour of private watershed land guided by TimberWest, Mr. Cicon initiated a debate by “wondering out loud” whether or not the City would need to pay for water treatment if there were no logging in the Bainbridge Lake area, which acts as Port Alberni’s secondary water supply (Bertrand, 2013). Additionally, in 2014, Mr. Cicon was interviewed as part of an investigation of forest practice standards in the CCCW. The report states the following: Mr. Cicon attributed much of the turbidity exceedances to [Island Timberlands’] operations, particularly road building and road traffic during rain events. He indicated that he and others from the city staff had observed sedimentladen run-off from roads entering [China Creek] and its tributaries, though he states that IT was generally quick to address specific problem sites when made aware of them. (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014, p. 47) Local NGOs such as the Watershed Forest Alliance (WFA) have been voicing concerns about the CCCW for half a decade. Often, their focus is the conservation of old growth forest, but they also frequently mention the issue of water quality (Slepian, 2014). In 2013, the WFA and other conservation groups proposed the creation of a “$40-million-a-year, 10-year Parks Acquisition Fund” in order to purchase lands at risk of logging such as the CCCW (Stueck, 2013). Then in 2014, the WFA received unanimous support from Port Alberni City Council for their motion to request a moratorium on logging in McLaughlin Ridge, a section of the CCCW that contains old growth forest (Slepian, 2014). The motion included a request to set up meetings with Island Timberlands and the provincial government for discussion of the issue (Slepian, 2014). Other NGOs and environmental groups have also expressed concerns about logging and water quality in the area, including the Wilderness Committee, the Save Our Valley Alliance, the Vancouver Island Water Watch Coalition, Sierra Club BC, and the Ancient Forest Alliance (Caproff, 2014; Coste, 2015; Pierce, 2014; J. Ross, personal communication, April 26, 2016). In February 2015, the B.C. Teachers’ Federation (BCTF) voted to ask Island Timberlands to sell the McLaughlin Ridge section of the CCCW to “an organization(s) that will conserve and preserve forest lands” (Plummer, 2015). Ken Zydyk, president of the Alberni Teachers Union, said that 19
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
“there are many teachers concerned about the current practices of Island Timberlands” and that these teachers are uncertain as to whether harvesting within the CCCW ensures “the protection of our watershed so that Port Alberni can continue to have high quality, clean water” (Plummer, 2015). The BCTF’s request was then passed on to the B.C. Investment Management Corporation, which is a major Island Timberlands shareholder and which is responsible for investing teacher pensions (Plummer, 2015). Finally, many other local community members have questioned the practice of logging within the CCCW. A number of “letters to the editor” from concerned citizens have appeared in the Alberni Valley News over the past few years (see Crowley, 2015; Mannix, 2013; Randles, 2014a, 2014b; Thompson, 2014). There have been anecdotal reports of discoloured water and sediment settling in toilets following major rainstorms (S. Thomas, personal communication, November 17, 2014). A 2007 report by Macauley & Associates Consulting Inc. surveyed Port Alberni residents and reported a range of concerns (Figure 4.2) (Gordon et al., 2007).
4.2 Forestry Industry Perspective Faced with all of these concerns from elected officials, NGOs, and citizens, Island Timberlands and TimberWest have been quick to defend their practices. The following sections include comments from each company in the media and from personal communications. Western Forest Products, a forestry company who operates on Crown land within the watershed, were not contacted for comment as this report focuses primarily on private land issues.
4.2.1 Island Timberlands Island Timberlands President and CEO Darshan Sihota has stressed that the forestry company is “inextricably linked to the community” and that Island Timberlands has a “long-term” commitment to its local operations in the CCCW area (Kari, 2009). He explains that present logging operations should not be compared to the operations that took place on Vancouver Island in the past, because “[t]he way it was in the past is not efficient” (Kari, 2009). According to Mr. Sihota,“[t]here has to be some recognition of the long-term outlook for our industry” (Kari, 2009).
Figure 4.2: Citizen concerns regarding private forestry regulations
A 2007 report by Macauley & Associates Consulting Inc. identified the following Port Alberni citizen concerns related to forest management practices on private lands:
• • • • •
There are inadequate environmental standards on private lands with respect to (i) protection of water for human consumption and use, (ii) protection of fish, (iii) soil conservation, and (iv) wildlife management. There is a lack of confidence that the results-based approach to environmental protection will work. Once a fish run has been lost, it cannot be recovered. Logging on private lands introduces additional adverse environmental impacts. The size of cut blocks impacts biodiversity. Risk of flooding is increased due to denuded hillsides; riparian zones are insufficient. The federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans does not appear to be willing to protect fish in streams flowing through private lands. In comparison to the forest practice management regime on Crown lands, the regulation of forestry practices on private land seems insufficient. Over harvesting of private lands and harvesting of ‘juvenile” stands results in reduced wildlife habitat, reduced tourism and recreational opportunities and potential future loss of a local economic employment base.
The report went on to note that “[w]hile such concerns are often strongly felt, public perception cannot always be supported by technical analysis. The expert hired by the Private Managed Forest Land Council and a Ministry of Environment staff member both found no evidence of increased amounts of water or sedimentation as a result of the timber harvesting activities in cases they investigated in the Beaufort Range” (Gordon et al., 2007). 20
CHAPTER 4: ISSUE IDENTIFICATION
Morgan Kennah, Sustainability Manager for Island Timberlands, has explained that Island Timberlands works cooperatively with the City of Port Alberni in order to ensure water quality is maintained (Slepian, 2014). Ms. Kennah and has spent time explaining specific harvest practices such as riparian buffers and hillslope retention in the media in an attempt to educate the public about what goes on in the watershed (Slepian, 2015a). Island Timberlands also works with professional geologists, engineers, Registered Professional Biologists, and foresters who specialize in watershed-related studies, and Kennah explains that the company “voluntarily imposes stricter regulations on the logging contractors” that they employ (Francoeur, 2011; Slepian, 2015a).
(Bertrand, 2013). He also said that “[s]ociety is better off making use of local wood” (Bertrand, 2013). While discussing operations in nearby Comox Valley, Mr. Iannidinardo defended the company’s use of the clearcutting technique, explaining that TimberWest does “selective harvesting” and that clearcutting can be necessary because it allows the sunlight required for forest regeneration (Stanfield, 2013). Iannidinardo explained that “[i]t’s very difficult to regenerate a stand in most places in the Comox watershed without some form of clearcutting. We plant trees right away and they need sunshine right away, or invasive species and other non-desirable species take over and start to devalue the forest ecosystem” (Stanfield, 2013).
4.2.2 TimberWest
He went on to state that selective harvesting can be even more impactful than clearcutting because of the need to build and maintain a larger road network: “it’s active roads that are the biggest risk for turbidity” (Stanfield, 2013). Finally, Iannidinardo has stated that “[w]ater quality is an integral part of our forest planning process,” outlining how TimberWest leaves riparian buffer strips and monitors for turbidity (Stanfield, 2013).
TimberWest Sustainability Vice-President and Chief Forester Domenico Iannidinardo has explained that TimberWest closely monitors water quality during operations (Sun, 2013). While conducting a tour of operations near Bainbridge Lake, Mr. Iannidinardo stated that “[t]here is no science saying that what we’re doing here has an effect [on the city needing water treatment]”
Figure 4.3: Logging road in the China Creek Community Watershed. Island Timberlands and TimberWest explain that they consider environmental impacts throughout all forestry operations, including road construction, use, and maintenance.
21
CHAPTER 5: WATERSHED ECOSYSTEM FEATURES AND SERVICES
Assessing the impact of logging on water quality in the CCCW is the primary objective of this report. However, there are numerous other ecosystem features and services provided by watersheds like the CCCW that need to be examined. This section serves to briefly introduce these features, acknowledging their importance and providing impetus for future study in the CCCW. While drinking water was a major concern amongst those stakeholders described in the previous section, these groups—the NGOs in particular—have also urged the protection of the CCCW for many of the reasons below.
intensity, and frequency of past disturbances, the forest type, and the Biogeoclimatic Zone (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 24, 2016).
In B.C.’s coastal region, old growth is defined as forest more than 250 years old (Ministry of Forests Mines and Lands, 2010). Old growth forest provides crucial habitat for forest-dependent and especially old growth-dependent flora and fauna. Studies by Schaeffer and Pruitt (1991), Selva (1994), and Chubbs et al. (1993) have shown that the structures and microenvironments in old growth forests can be critical to the “survival of a whole range of organisms from lichens … to certain wide-ranging mammals such as 5.1 Old Growth Forest caribou” (as cited in Mosseler,Thompson, & Pendrel, 2003). Old growth forest is a “slowly changing but dynamic Additionally, old growth forests play an important role in ecosystem” containing live and dead trees of various nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, and the protection species, heights, canopy sizes, age classes, and densities, of both soil and water resources (Mosseler, Thompson, & along with downed and decaying logs, herbs, shrubs, moss, Pendrel, 2003). Nutrient losses and erosion both tend to and lichen (Figure 5.1) (E. Piikkila, personal communication, be low in old growth forests (Franklin & Spies, 1986). May 24, 2016; Franklin et al., 1981; Franklin & Spies, 1991a). The age, successional stage, and structure of an old growth The protection of old growth forests in the CCCW is a forest varies due to a number of factors, including the type, major motivating factor behind many citizen and NGO Figure 5.1: Old growth forest in the China Creek Community Watershed
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FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
calls for the elimination of logging in the watershed. Jane Morden of the Watershed Forest Alliance has stated that McLaughlin Ridge in the CCCW “is the largest remaining intact old growth Douglas fir forest in our area” and has estimated that only about 50 percent of the old growth on McLaughlin Ridge is left (Gulliver, 2013; Slepian, 2014). Across Vancouver Island, environmentalists have described the harvesting of old growth forest as an “ecological emergency,” with the Sierra Club stating that only onetenth of Vancouver Island’s productive old growth forest remains unharvested (Figure 5.2) (Hunter, 2016). The Government of B.C. has estimated that 46 percent of all Crown forest land is covered by old growth, but the Sierra Club claims that this “figure is inflated because the province includes less productive ecosystems such as bogs or sparsely treed high elevations” in their definition of old growth (Hunter, 2016). Figure 5.2: Remaining productive old growth in B.C.
5.2 Critical Wildlife Habitat The forests and streams of the CCCW provide valuable habitat for a variety of species, many of which are listed as threatened or endangered. The old growth on McLaughlin Ridge provides “very high value winter range for blacktail deer and habitat for the Queen Charlotte goshawk,” which is on the B.C. Red List of legally designated endangered or threatened species and is considered threatened by the Committee On the Status of Endangered Species In Canada (COSEWIC) (Figure 5.3) (Barlak, 2011a, p. 13). The Marbled Murrelet, another threatened species in B.C., spends much of its time at sea but depends on old growth forest for nesting habitat, and the species struggles when old growth stands become fragmented (Figure 5.4) 24
Other threatened species that live in the CCCW include the Vancouver Island water shrew, the red-legged frog, and the saxatilis subspecies of white-tailed ptarmigan (Barlak, 2011a). There have also been historical observations of the Vancouver Island marmot, another endangered species (Figure 5.5). Additional wildlife in the CCCW includes cougars, black bears, and many other mammals and birds (Barlak, 2011a). Figure 5.3, 5.4, and 5.5: Queen Charlotte goshawk, Marbled Murrelet, and Vancouver Island marmot (top to bottom)
CHAPTER 5: WATERSHED ECOSYSTEM FEATURES AND SERVICES
5.3 High Value Fisheries
be given to protection of this very productive landscape that supports diverse ecological systems” (Barlak, 2011b, p. 5).
The lower 11 km of China Creek is a high-value fisheries resource (Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2010). Species present in China Creek include pink, coho, chinook, Figure 5.7: Karst landscape digram and chum salmon, rainbow trout, steelhead, and Dolly Varden char (Figure 5.6) (Barlak, 2011a). Additionally, there is cutthroat trout in both Duck Lake and Bainbridge Lake, and Lizard Lake contains rainbow trout (Barlak, 2011a). Aquatic wildlife depends on healthy riparian vegetation which helps to control debris, sediment, and stream temperatures (Ministry of Forests Mines and Lands, 2010). Figure 5.6: Wild coho salmon
5.4 Karst Formations
5.5 Water Quantity
According to Bates and Jackson (1984), karst is “[a] type of topography formed over limestone, dolomite, or gypsum by dissolution and that is characterised by sinkholes, caves, and underground drainage” (as cited in Francoeur, 2011, p. 17). Over time, the host bedrock dissolves, forming waterstoring caves and conduits that can rapidly transport water over great distances (Barlak, 2011b). Figure 5.7 shows a simplified karst landscape diagram (Francoeur, 2011).These landscapes are vulnerable to disturbances such as logging (Francoeur, 2011).
In addition to water quality, forestry activities have provoked concerns about water quantity in Port Alberni. A mild winter in 2014-2015 followed by a hot, dry summer in 2015 led to water shortages across much of Vancouver Island (Slepian, 2015b). While Port Alberni did not experience critically low water levels, there was still concern. Port Alberni mayor Mike Ruttan said in 2015 that ““[i]f you do not permit any logging in the watershed then you have a far greater retention of water in that area” and emphasized that steps could be taken to maximize snow retention. However, Port Alberni’s City Engineer Guy Cicon has indicated that Port Alberni’s water system does not currently suffer from water quantity issues and that “[t]here’s sufficient capacity within our infrastructure to accommodate future growth within and outside the city” (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014; Slepian, 2016).
A study by Guthrie (2005) identified karst formations in the upper Williams Creek portion of the CCCW (as cited in Barlak, 2011b). Other preliminary studies have found that karst aquifers may play a role in recharging the China Creek water system (Caproff, 2014). A 2011 report by the B.C. Ministry of Environment stated that the karst formations in the CCCW are “highly sensitive, valuable and non-renewable” and that “[s]pecial consideration should
25
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
5.6 Climate Change
risk for the [Alberni] Valley” and predicted that the area would experience more intense winds and precipitation, more frequent hot spells, and an increase in unseasonable and unusual weather such as hail and lightning storms (as cited in Francoeur, 2011, p. 169).
Forests play a key role in minimizing the impacts of climate change.Trees act as carbon sinks, capturing and storing CO2 as long as they remain undisturbed (although if timber is used to fabricate long-lasting wood products, then the impact of harvesting can be minimal in this regard). Additionally, 5.7 Erosion and Landslides mature trees can mitigate the impact of extreme weather by stabilizing the soil and reducing erosion during heavy The root systems of mature forests help to stabilize soil, rainfall events, which are expected to increase in frequency thus reducing the impacts of erosion. This is especially as climate change continues (Kirilenko & Sedjo, 2007). important in steep-sloped watersheds such as the CCCW, as these slopes are particularly susceptible to failure during Kuraś, Alila, and Weiler (2012) found that forest harvesting high overland water flows resulting from precipitation can increase both the severity and magnitude of floods. events (Figure 5.8) (Kirilenko & Sedjo, 2007). Slope failure This effect could be worsened as climate change can contribute sediment to stream channels (Kirilenko & produces more heavy rainfall events, leaving watersheds Sedjo, 2007). The Alberni Valley has experienced landslide vulnerable to erosion (Kirilenko & Sedjo, 2007). It is problems in the past, with landslides in 2006 bringing unclear whether or not these impacts would occur within gravel into residents’ homes in Beaver Creek (Slepian, the CCCW, as any impacts would depend on site-specific 2014). Some have speculated that those landslides were a precipitation, topography, harvest technique, and any result of clearcutting in the Beauforts—a mountain range locally implemented mitigation systems. A 2008 report by north of Port Alberni—that was followed shortly by heavy the Alberni Valley Climate Change Committee explained precipitation (Slepian, 2014). that extreme weather events “pose the greatest climate Figure 5.8: Logging along the steep slopes of McLaughlin Ridge in the China Creek Community Watershed. Proper harvesting techniques can mitigate the risks of harvesting on steep slopes.
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CHAPTER 5: WATERSHED ECOSYSTEM FEATURES AND SERVICES
In Port Alberni, Economic Development Manager Pat Deakin is instead “focusing on water as the region’s primary An Alberni Valley without forests would be only a shadow attraction,” stating that there is “an opportunity to market of its current splendour. The forest has great cultural value not only the community’s abundance of drinking water but to the First Nations who have long inhabited the land as the quality of it”—a strategy meant to entice millennials well as to those who migrated to the area more recently, that are conscious of “water issues in communities” (Slepian, many of whom came to work in the forestry industry. 2015c). Logging in Port Alberni’s drinking watershed Clearly, logging is an important part of the area’s heritage seemingly runs counter to this marketing strategy. and should be celebrated as such, but even more important are the forests themselves.There is a deep intrinsic value in Hiking is popular in Port Alberni as well, with logging roads the CCCW that, it could be argued, should be preserved providing access to hiking trails on private lands in the CCCW (Figure 5.9) (Koers and Associates Engineering for future generations. Ltd., 2010). Some trail users are concerned that logging will Many municipalities are beginning to take advantage of negatively impact these forest trails, reducing access and their forests’ aesthetic values. With the forestry industry destroying scenery (Dobson, 2015). However, residents in decline, parts of the Alberni Valley are shifting towards should be cautious in calling for increased recreational tourism and recreation, with hiking becoming a popular opportunities in the watershed, because recreational regional attraction (Alberni-Clayoquot Regional District, activities—especially unregulated activities—can create 2010; Dobson, 2015). Dan Hager, President of the Port significant water quality problems. This issue will be Renfrew Chamber of Commerce, has explained that discussed later in the report. “tourists who come to see the majestic trees have created a multimillion-dollar economy along the coast and the highest value would come from stopping the logging” (Theodore, 2015).
5.8 Cultural and Aesthetic Values
Figure 5.9: Hiking in the China Creek Community Watershed
27
CHAPTER 6: WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS AND REGULATION
This chapter examines water quality, which is the primary focus of this report. Both the technical aspects and regulatory framework behind water quality in B.C. are complex, but understanding these complexities is crucial when attempting to link particular land uses to water quality issues.
6.2 Turbidity
Turbidity is simply a “measure of the relative clarity or cloudiness of water” (Figure 6.1) (Vancouver Island Health Authority, n.d.). The Vancouver Island Health Authority (VIHA) (n.d.) further explains that turbidity is “an indirect measure of the suspended particles in the water and is a general measure of the scattering and absorbing effect 6.1 Water Quality Overview that suspended particles have on light.” The standard “Water quality” is a general term that is typically used to measurement for turbidity is nephelometric turbidity describe “the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics units (NTU), which are measured by a nephelometer, a of water, usually with respect to its suitability for a particular device that detects the amount of light that is scattered use” (R. Pike, Feller, & Stednick, 2010, p.401). For example, off particles in the water (Francoeur, 2011). As turbidity the water quality standards required for potable water are increases, water will appear cloudier; water is clear to quite different than those required for watering gardens the naked eye at 1.0 NTU, detectably cloudy at 5.0 NTU, or for industrial uses (Schreier, Wilson, & Pang, n.d.). Table and visibly cloudy at 10 NTU (Vancouver Island Health 6.1 lists parameters and example measures for each of Authority, n.d.). the three general categories of water quality. In order to ensure that the scope of this report remained manageable, Figure 6.1: Turbidity Sample this discussion of water quality in the CCCW focuses predominantly on turbidity. Turbidity was chosen as a focal point because it is “the primary parameter of concern that must be addressed in order to make the Alberni Valley surface water sources suitable for drinking” (Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2010, p. 29). Other water quality measures will be briefly touched upon at various points in this report.
Table 6.1: Forest water quality parameters and example measures (R. Pike et al., 2010, p. 406)
CATEGORY PARAMETERS Physical Water temperature Sediment Chemical
Ions, dissolved constituents, and nutrients
Toxic parameters
Biological
Biological parameters
EXAMPLE MEASURES Temperature Total suspended solids Turbidity pH Electrical conductivity Total dissolved solids Dissolved oxygen Ions (e.g. sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron) Nitrogen (nitrate, ammonium) Phosphorus (various forms) Pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides) Metals (e.g. lead, mercury, cadmium, aluminum, copper, selenium, zinc) Chlorophyll a Fecal coliform Benthic invertebrate communities 29
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
There is a distinction between suspended sediments an turbidity (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014). Turbidity is a function of the suspended sediment concentration in a body of water, but it is also a function of the shape, colour, and size of the sediment particles (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014).While there is no single correlation between the two measures, turbidity at a given site will exhibit “site-specific correlation” with the suspended sediment concentration (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014, p. 47).
Anthropogenic sources of turbidity include road construction and usage, forest harvesting, agriculture, mining, urban development, sewage treatment plant effluents, and industrial effluents (Ministry of Environment, Lands, and Parks & LandData BC, 1998). The numerous potential sources of turbidity make it difficult for water purveyors to accurately identify the specific types of particulate matter in the water or their corresponding health risks; therefore, VIHA expects purveyors to apply a precautionary approach by promptly notifying customers Turbidity is an important measure for a number of reasons. of any potential issues. Short-term Boil Water Notices can Vancouver Island Health Authority indicates that while be issued for a variety of reasons, including disinfection turbidity itself does not actually cause health problems, it equipment malfunctions and increased turbidity due to can interfere with disinfection processes and it serves as an natural and anthropogenic events (Medical Health Officer indicator of the presence of pathogenic organisms (Medical & Vancouver Island Health Authority, 2014). Health Officer & Vancouver Island Health Authority, 2014). When turbidity levels become elevated, there is an increase 6.3 Water Quality Regulations in the total available surface area of suspended solids upon which bacteria can grow (Ministry of Environment, In Canada, drinking water quality legislation is developed at Lands and Parks & LandData BC, 1998). These bacteria the provincial level, meaning that each province or territory can then be sheltered by the suspended solids, rendering may have different regulations (Koers and Associates disinfection methods such as chlorination and ultraviolet Engineering Ltd., 2010). The provinces can use Health light (UV) treatment ineffective at destroying pathogens Canada’s Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality (Vancouver Island Health Authority, n.d.). (GCDWQ) to guide them in writing their own regulations as they see fit, but this is not a requirement (Koers and Additionally, turbidity is aesthetically unpleasant, although it Associates Engineering Ltd., 2010). In British Columbia, the is important to note that drinking water can appear cloudy most important pieces of legislation for determining and and discoloured yet still be safe to consume based on enforcing water quality standards are the Drinking Water other water quality parameters (Ministry of Environment, Protection Act (DWPA) and Drinking Water Protection Lands and Parks & LandData BC, 1998). Turbidity also Regulation (DWPR), which are under the provision of the reduces light penetration, impairing the photosynthesis Ministry of Health (Ministry of Health, 2014). of submerged vegetation and algae, which can in turn suppress fish productivity (Ministry of Environment, Lands Under the DWPA, water suppliers such as the City of Port and Parks & LandData BC, 1998). Alberni are mandated to “provide, to the users served by its water supply system, drinking water from the water Turbidity is highly variable and often fluctuates seasonally, supply system that (a) is potable water, and (b) meets any with increased turbidity occurring during the spring freshet additional requirements established by the regulations or (depending on rainfall events and the melting season) by its operating permit (Government of British Columbia, (H. Schreier, personal communication, May 2, 2016). 2015). “Potable” is defined as water that “(a) meets the There are many causes, including suspended organic or standards prescribed by regulations, and (b) is safe to drink colloidal materials such as silt, clay, and bacteria (Medical and fit for domestic purposes without further treatment” Health Officer & Vancouver Island Health Authority, 2014). (Ministry of Health, 2014). Part 4, Section 23 of the DWPA Natural events such as weathering, erosion, and landslides, outlines the “prohibition against contaminating drinking combined with surface runoff, increase turbidity (Medical water or tampering with system” and can be read in full Health Officer & Vancouver Island Health Authority, 2014). in Figure 6.2. Elevated turbidity is often noticed when major disturbance events (either natural or anthropogenic) are quickly In B.C., the five regional health authorities—Fraser Health followed by heavy rainfall, which washes sediment into Authority, Interior Health Authority, Northern Health water bodies. Surface water is particularly susceptible to Authority, Vancouver Coastal Health Authority, and sudden turbidity increases following these rainfall events. Vancouver Island Health Authority—are responsible for 30
CHAPTER 6: WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS AND REGULATION
Figure 6.2: Drinking Water Protection Act, Part 4, Section 23
Drinking Water Protection Act (Government of British Columbia, 2015) Part 4 — Drinking Water Protection Prohibition against contaminating drinking water or tampering with system 23(1) Subject to subsection (3), a person must not (a) introduce anything or cause or allow anything to be introduced into a domestic water system, a drinking water source, a well recharge zone or an area adjacent to a drinking water source, or (b) do or cause any other thing to be done or to occur, if this will result or is likely to result in a drinking water health hazard in relation to a domestic water system. (2) Subject to subsection (3), a person must not (a) destroy, damage or tamper with any part of a domestic water system, (b) open or close any part of a domestic water system, (c) introduce anything or cause or allow anything to be introduced into a domestic water system, a drinking water source, a well recharge zone or an area adjacent to a drinking water source, or (d) do or cause any other thing to be done or to occur, if it is reasonably foreseeable that, as a result, the owner of the domestic water system would have to limit the use of the water provided by the system on the basis that there may be a risk of a drinking water health hazard. (3) The prohibitions in subsection (1) and (2) do not apply (a) in relation to anything required for the proper operation, maintenance or repair of a domestic water system or the treatment of water in the system, (b) if the introduction or activity is authorized or required under an enactment or the person is otherwise acting with lawful authority, or (c) in relation to an activity prescribed by regulation that is undertaken in accordance with any conditions prescribed by regulation. (4) For the purposes of prosecuting a contravention of subsection (1) (a), it is not necessary to prove that the thing, if diluted at or subsequent to the point at which it was introduced, continued to result in or be likely to result in a drinking water health hazard.
the administration and implementation of the DWPA (B.C. Office of the Ombudsmen, 2008). As the name implies, the Vancouver Island Health Authority (VIHA) administers the DWPA on Vancouver Island. The DWPA authorizes Drinking Water Officers (DWO) in each of the regional health authorities to enforce the Act and Regulation by granting permits, stipulating directives to water purveyors, conducting inspections, and initiating compliance and enforcement actions (B.C. Office of the Ombudsmen, 2008; Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2010). These
legislative powers can be delegated to medical health officers, public health inspectors, environmental health officers, and public health engineers if necessary (Ministry of Health, 2014). Despite the various powers granted to DWOs, a report by the B.C. Ombudsman found that “ultimately however the DWPA puts much of the responsibility for testing, issuing notices and advisories, planning for emergencies and reporting, on the various public, not-for-profit and 31
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
private water suppliers” (B.C. Office of the Ombudsmen, 2008). Water purveyors are tasked with ensuring that their water meets the applicable standards, while the DWOs are meant to ensure that purveyors are acting appropriately (B.C. Office of the Ombudsmen, 2008). Additionally, where there is overlap between the responsibilities of DWOs and officials from other government agencies, DWOs can “collaborate” and in some cases “rely on steps being taken by other agencies if and to the extent those may address concerns held by drinking water officers in relation to the decisions of the other officials (and vice versa)” (Ministry of Health, 2014). In 2008, the VIHA adopted the “4-3-2-1-0 Drinking Water Objective” for water treatment, a province-wide initiative that set new treatment standards for water purveyors (Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2010). Figure 6.3 explains the objective in full, but the most relevant items to this report are items one and two. Item one calls for a maximum turbidity of 1.0 NTU, with VIHA explaining that the “health risk increases as turbidity increases and the health risk will increase before cloudy water is noticed” and that “[f]or disinfection and treatment systems to be effective, the water must be less than 1 NTU” (Medical Health Officer & Vancouver Island Health Authority, 2012, p. 2). Item two calls for two separate treatment processes— typically filtration and disinfection—for all drinking water sources at risk of containing pathogens, which includes all surface water sources (Medical Health Officer & Vancouver Island Health Authority, 2012, p. 2). VIHA explains that there is “no single treatment technology that can assure drinking water safety on its own” (Medical Health Officer & Vancouver Island Health Authority, 2012, p. 2). However, the 4-3-2-1-0 regulation also states “for systems with very high quality sources and effective and ongoing
watershed protection, 2 forms of disinfection may be permitted. This will generally be chlorination and UV light disinfection” (Medical Health Officer & Vancouver Island Health Authority, 2012, p. 2). Municipalities that believe their water sources meet this level of quality can apply to VIHA for a “filtration deferral,” which allows them to legally provide water without installing a filtration plant. In order to receive a filtration deferral, a water system must meet the following conditions (Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2010 ; B. Sims, personal communication, April 27, 2016):
• • • •
Daily average source water turbidity must be 1 NTU or less for 95% of the days and not above 5 NTU on more than 2 days in a 12 month period; Escherichia coli must be 20/100 ml or less in 90% of source water samples; Two primary disinfectants are provided, which together achieve a 4-log removal/inactivation of viruses and 3-log removal/ inactivation in Giardia and Cryptosporidium (usually UV and chlorination); Watershed protection or management plan is in place.
6.4 Filtration Deferral in Port Alberni The City of Port Alberni has requested a filtration deferral from VIHA, which may be granted pending the approval of a watershed management plan. As of May 2016, the City had just released the Drinking Water Source Assessment and Preliminary Protection Plan Development, which serves as this plan. Port Alberni anticipates being able to achieve this filtration deferral because of generally high water quality, but also because of the redundancy that is built into their water system; when turbidity becomes elevated in China Creek, the City switches over to Bainbridge Lake (Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2010). While lakes and other still water sources tend to have a higher base turbidity than flowing water, lakes experience fewer fluctuations in
Figure 6.3: 4-3-2-1-0 Objective for drinking water in B.C.
4-3-2-1-0 Objective (Medical Health Officer & Vancouver Island Health Authority, 2012) 4 refers to a 4-log (99.99%) reduction in viruses; 3 refers to the 3-log (99.9%) removal or inactivation of parasites; 2 refers to two treatment processes for all surface water or unprotected groundwater, usually filtration and disinfection; 1 refers to maintaining a turbidity of less than 1 NTU; 0 refers to Bacterial Indicators (E. Coli, fecal coliform and total coliform) 32
CHAPTER 6: WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS AND REGULATION
turbidity from high flow and surface runoff events such as storms and freshets, making them a relatively stable backup water source (S. Thomas, personal communication, January 21, 2016).
recently completed or commissioned in Nanaimo and Comox Valley, respectively (Slepian, 2015d). Chapter 10 describes these cases in greater detail.
Despite this redundancy, the City of Port Alberni was still Figure 6.4: Port Alberni’s new treatment facility required to upgrade their water treatment facility, as they were using only one disinfectant (chlorine) to treat their drinking water. In December 2015, the city opened a new $4 million water treatment plant at Bainbridge Lake that treats water from both China Creek and Bainbridge Lake using chlorine and UV disinfection (Figure 6.4) (Slepian, 2015e). The chlorine system has also been upgraded from chlorine gas to a liquid chlorine system, which is safer for both operators and the environment (Slepian, 2015d). Receiving the filtration deferral from VIHA is important for Port Alberni because it would mean avoiding the construction of an expensive filtration facility, which could cost as much as $50-70 million based on plants that were
33
CHAPTER 7: A SCIENTIFIC REVIEW OF THE IMPACT OF LOGGING ON WATER QUALITY
This chapter presents the results of a literature review on the impacts of logging on water quality in the Vancouver Island context.This section is not focused specifically on the CCCW. Rather, it provides an overview of forest hydrology and the potential impacts of logging within watersheds, without implying that all of these impacts are currently occurring within the CCCW. The primary objective of this report is to examine the effect of logging on water quality, but other forestry impacts such as stream temperature and water quantity will be briefly described.
4, 2016; Winkler, Moore, Redding, Spittlehouse, CarlyleMoses, et al., 2010). Trees of various species, ages, and heights can intercept a significant amount of precipitation, after which it either evaporates, sublimates, or drips slowly to the ground (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 4, 2016; Winkler, Moore, Redding, Spittlehouse, CarlyleMoses, et al., 2010; Watts & Tolland, 2013).
Numerous studies have demonstrated that interception tends to increase as forests age, because the leaf area index—and hence, the interception potential—increases 7.1 Overview of Natural Forest Hydrology as trees grow (Watts & Tolland, 2013). Interception reduces the total amount of water reaching the Earth’s surface Before discussing the impacts of logging on water quality, and minimizes splash erosion (Department of Primary it is first necessary to gain a basic understanding of Industries, Parks,Water and Environment (Tasmania), 2016). how water normally moves through a forest ecosystem. In addition to the trees themselves, lichens and moss that Understanding the base hydrological condition of an hang from tree branches increase the vegetative surface undisturbed forested watershed allows researchers to area that can capture precipitation, thereby increasing the make pre- and post-disturbance comparisons. To start, it is amount of interception (Figure 7.2) (E. Piikkila, personal important to recall that water, nutrients, sediments, organic matter, and other dissolved substances generally flow with Figure 7.1: Water flowing downhill in the watershed gravity from the headwaters to the lower reaches of a watershed. This means that disturbances on hillslopes all throughout the watershed—including even the uppermost reaches—could eventually impact downstream reaches (Figure 7.1) (Watts & Tolland, 2013). According to Moore, “[i]t is this connectivity that necessitates consideration of the hydrologic impacts of forest operations within a watershed context” (Watts & Tolland, 2013, p. 122). Erik Piikkila, a forest ecologist who studies the history of logging on the landscape, offered his expertise for this report. In addition to learning through his own professional experience, Mr. Piikkila studied under Dr. Jerry Franklin, a professor at the University of Washington who specializes in forest ecology and sustainable resource management (Franklin, 1988; Franklin et al., 1981; Franklin & Spies, 1986; Franklin & Spies, 1991a; Franklin & Spies, 1991b). As a result, Mr. Piikkila has acquired a significant amount of knowledge pertaining to forest and landscape ecology, especially relating to old growth forest. Mr. Piikkila uses the phrase “Slowing Water on the Landscape” to describe the way that water moves in natural forest ecosystems, and in particular in the old growth forests of Coastal B.C. and the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. In their undisturbed, centuries-old state, these forests slow the movement of water across the landscape and directly affect the amount of water available for streamflow (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 35
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
communication, May 4, 2016).
4, 2016). The rest will gradually percolate through layers of soil, getting filtered by these layers as it recharges soil Once water passes through the tree canopy, it encounters moisture levels (Schreier, Brown, & Pang, n.d.; E. Piikkila, even more obstacles. Undergrowth such as salal, personal communication, May 4, 2016). Water stored as salmonberry, and ferns will intercept precipitation, while soil moisture will eventually make its way back into the rotting logs and “thick mats” of moss, fungus, and fine flowing water system or become stored in groundwater debris such as decaying leaves and needles will absorb aquifers (Schreier, Brown, & Pang, n.d.; E. Piikkila, personal moisture (Figure 7.3) (Franklin et al., 1981). Water that is communication, May 4, 2016). not lost through evaporation, sublimation, or absorption may become surface runoff, working its way downhill Forests, as part of the water cycle, also contribute to the into rivulets, streams, rivers, wetlands, lakes and eventually production of precipitation. Transpiration—the release of the ocean (Figure 7.4). Because this water is impeded by water vapor by vegetation—contributes about ten percent surface vegetation, its erosive force is reduced (E. Piikkila, of the moisture present in the atmosphere (U.S. Geological personal communication, May 4, 2016). All of the layers of Survey Water, n.d.). Additionally, mushrooms on the forest a forest, from the top of the canopy to ground vegetation, floor can release millions of spores that are blown high into have an important role to play in “Slowing Water on the the atmosphere, triggering condensation and producing Landscape,” and this is especially critical during large rain and rain (Hassett, Fischer, & Money, 2015). This is similar to the rain on snow events (E. Piikkila, personal communication, action of dust and air particles in the atmosphere. May 4, 2016). Finally, undisturbed forests will naturally contain wellSome of the water that reaches the forest floor will also established riparian areas, which are crucial to water quality infiltrate the soil. A portion of this infiltration is captured and flow characteristics in a watershed. A riparian area is and absorbed by massive subterranean fungal and tree “[a]n area of land adjacent to a stream, river, lake or wetland root systems (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May that contains vegetation that, due to the presence of water, Figure 7.2: Lichen intercepts water
36
Figure 7.3: Fungal growth on the side of a tree
CHAPTER 7: A SCIENTIFIC REVIEW OF THE IMPACT OF LOGGING ON WATER QUALITY
Figure 7.4: Water flowing in the CCCW
7.2 Natural Causes of Water Quality Issues in Forests A variety of natural events can cause turbidity and other water quality issues in forested watersheds. This can make it extremely challenging to determine the exact source of a turbidity event (H. Schreier, personal communication, May 2, 2016). Harr and Fredriksen (1988) have found that processes such as weathering and erosion, landslides, wildfire, and blowdown can impact water quality by “creating temporarily increased concentrations of sediment, increased stream temperatures, and (or) increased nutrient concentrations” (as cited in R. Pike et al., 2010, p. 401). Surface erosion in undeveloped forested watersheds is typically “limited to exposed mineral surfaces at landslide scars” because “the soil surface is protected by the surface organic horizons and root network,” as described above (Watts & Tolland, 2013, p.139).
Water chemistry can be altered as a result of soil, vegetation, and bedrock interactions, as natural contaminants like arsenic and uranium may be present (R. Pike et al., 2010; Francoeur, 2011). Wildlife excrement also introduces harmful pathogens into the water. Additionally, storm events and seasonal variations in streamflow contribute to variations in water quality over time (R. Pike et al., 2010). When streamflow in forests increases, the concentration of dissolved constituents generally decreases, a relationship that can be measured using electrical conductivity as is distinctly different from the vegetation of adjacent upland a proxy (R. Pike et al., 2010). In areas like the CCCW, areas,” and these areas are influenced by and influence the natural turbidity is generally higher in the fall and winter adjacent body of water (Roger G. Pike et al., 2010, p. 761). months due to heavy rainfall events (Vancouver Island Health Authority, n.d.). Turbidity can also increase during Riparian vegetation performs a number of critical functions: the spring freshet as rapid snowmelt occurs (H. Schreier, it buffers water bodies from sedimentation and pollution personal communication, May 2, 2016). Table 7.1 provides in surface runoff, provides food, nutrients, and organic an overview of naturally occurring potential contaminant matter to streams, stabilizes soils and stream banks thanks sources. to a vigorous mass of roots, and moderates stream temperatures by providing shade (Government of British 7.3 Effect of Logging on Water Quality Columbia, 2006; Private Managed Forest Landowners Association, 2001; Richardson & R.D. Moore, 2010). 7.3.1 Roads Large woody debris from streamside vegetation helps regulate streamflow, contributes to channel stability, In order to access logging sites and transport timber, roads and creates pools and riffles which enhance fish habitat must be constructed (assuming truck logging is the method (Private Managed Forest Landowners Association, 2001). being conducted) (Figure 7.5). Numerous studies have Ultimately, any disturbance to forest composition, canopy shown that road construction and usage is “a dominant size, undergrowth characteristics, or riparian areas can source of fine sediment in most harvested watersheds” disrupt the water quality, flow, and balance in a watershed (Watts & Tolland, 2013, p. 141). How and where roads are (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 4, 2016). constructed is critical in determining their impact on the 37
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
Table 7.1: Naturally occuring contaminant sources and the contaminants commonly associated with them (Ministry of Health, 2010)
SOURCE Rocks and soils
HEALTH, ENVIRONMENTAL OR AESTHETIC CONTAMINANT(S) Aesthetic contaminants: iron and iron bacteria; manganese; calcium and magnesium (hardness) Health and environmental contaminants: Arsenic; asbestos; metals; chlorides, fluorides; sulphates; sulphate-reducing bateria and othermicroorganisms
Contaminated water
Excessive sodium; bacteria; viruses; low pH (acidic) water
Sediment sources Wildlife
Increases Turbidity Pathogens including E-Coli, Cryptosporidium parvum; Giardia lamblia; Toxoplasma gondii Bacteria; odour; colour, taste Uranium deposits; radon gas Surface water contimation of well; sediment, bacteria
Decaying organic matter Geological radioactive gas 100-year floodplain Upstream reservoirs (surface water only) Natural hydrogeological events and formations
Sediment during and after a storm Salt-water/brackish water intrution (or intrutions of other poor quality water); contamination by a variety of substances through sink-hole infiltration in limestone terrains
Figure 7.5: Logging road on McLaughlin Ridge in the China Creek Community Watershed
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CHAPTER 7: A SCIENTIFIC REVIEW OF THE IMPACT OF LOGGING ON WATER QUALITY
watershed, as proper construction and management can Figure 7.6 Sand and fine gravel on a bridge in the CCCW. This mitigate impacts. However, when improperly managed, material is deposited primarily by truck tires when hauling. Sand and gravel does not contribute to turbidity, but mud has likely roads can be a major source of turbidity. already washed into the creek (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014) For example, it can be cheaper and easier to build roads near or along a floodplain, but this clearly results in a greater flood and sedimentation risk (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 5, 2016). Additionally, if construction leaves large amounts of gravel on the sides of the road or the fill slope enters the floodplain, these deposits can end up washing into nearby water bodies (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 5, 2016). All road sections must be properly constructed, as Henderson and Toews (2001) have found that even a relatively small portion of the road network is capable of producing the majority of all roadgenerated sediment in a given watershed (as cited in Watts & Tolland, 2013). Roads disrupt the natural flow of water over the landscape, intercepting surface runoff and shallow groundwater and channeling it into gullies or ditches (Horel, 1998). This can both concentrate the flow and increase the speed of the water, enhancing its erosive potential (Horel, 1998). The size and placement of culverts is also important; they should be positioned in a way that minimizes the channeling of surface runoff and they must be built large enough to withstand heavy precipitation and flood events (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 5, 2016). These culverts must be kept clear of debris to ensure that they do not back up and inundate the road, as this can cause the road bed to fail, releasing significant amounts of sediment (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 5, 2016; Watts & Tolland, 2013). Stream crossings are particularly problematic, as they “are known to be common contributors of sediment in watersheds” (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014, p. 22). Standard practice when constructing a road in a watershed is to leave a riparian buffer strip between the road and any bodies of water, but this is clearly impossible when constructing a bridge. Sediment can enter the water from drainage ditches on the sides of the crossing, from road surface erosion, and from the wheel wash of trucks and other machinery (Figure 7.6) (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014). Wheel wash is more likely to occur when operating in wet conditions, which are quite common due to the coastal climate—it would be prohibitively expensive and inefficient to halt all logging in watersheds on Vancouver Island every time that the roads were wet from rain (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014).
The intensity of road usage is also a key factor, as Reid and Dunne (1984) demonstrated that “intensely used roads generated 130 times more sediment than abandoned roads” (as cited in Watts & Tolland, 2013, p. 141). Roads that will not be used until a later date need to be seasonally deactivated with cross ditches and waterbars—a raised surface similar to a speed bump—in order to direct water from the roads’ surfaces onto the hillsides, especially if the road segments have a steep grade (E. Piikkila, personal communication, June 1, 2016). However, even unused logging roads will continue to release sediment into the watershed, so when roads will no longer be used, they need to be properly decommissioned. This includes fill slope pull back and recontouring the road surface and cut slopes above and below the road, restoring natural runoff pathways by removing culverts, digging cross ditches or large, deep trenches, and replanting the roadway and disturbed fill slopes in order to prevent large volume water events that can erode forest soils (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 5, 2016).
7.3.2 Harvesting Timber harvesting may also negatively impact water quality, particularly by increasing the rate of sediment input into streams (Watts & Tolland, 2013). Landslides, gullies and stream channel bank erosion are some of the primary forestry-related sources of sediment (Horel, 1998). These problems result from soil instability, which itself occurs due to the removal of stabilizing forest vegetation (Figure 7.7). Landslides and erosion can occur immediately after 39
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
harvesting as a result of direct soil disturbance, but they may also occur years later when the root systems of harvested trees decay, compromising the internal soil cohesion (Buschhaus, 2010; Watts & Tolland, 2013). Sidle (1992) found that “[t]here is a critical period from about 5 to 15 years following logging, in which the strength of dead roots has decayed below critical levels, and before new roots become sufficiently established to restore soil cohesion,” when landslides are especially likely to occur (as cited in Watts & Tolland, 2013, p. 140). If left unvegetated, landslide scars can continue contributing sediment long after the initial event (Watts & Tolland, 2013). Another non-immediate harvesting impact is windthrow, where exposed trees in unharvested riparian buffers are blown over. Windthrow reduces the buffer size and further destabilizes soil, and it can occur anywhere from 3 to 15 years after harvesting (Buschhaus, 2010). The sediment that results from these soil disturbances must be washed into channels in order to impact water quality. Harvesting changes the way that precipitation and overland flow affect a watershed (Figure 7.8). A reduction in forest cover can result in an increase in net precipitation, because while gross precipitation remains unchanged, the amount that is intercepted and lost due to evaporation and sublimation will decrease after harvesting (Winkler, Moore, Redding, Spittlehouse, Smerdon, et al., 2010). While some understory will remain postharvest, interception from this vegetation tends to be smaller than that from intact forest canopies (Winkler, Moore, Redding, Spittlehouse,
Smerdon, et al., 2010). At the same time, the increase in direct throughfall will cause more splash erosion to occur. Studies in B.C. have shown that anywhere from “5–70% more water can accumulate as snow in clearcuts than in the forest, depending on the winter precipitation in a given year and forest cover type” (Winkler, Moore, Redding, Spittlehouse, Smerdon, et al., 2010, p. 179). Harestad and Bunnell (1982) and Moore and McCaughey (1997) found that “[r]eductions in snow interception and increases in net precipitation are generally proportional to reductions in canopy cover or to percent basal area removal” (as cited in Winkler, Moore, Redding, Spittlehouse, Smerdon, et al., 2010, p. 180). While a larger snowpack will accumulate in harvested areas, it will generally melt faster because it will be exposed to greater amounts of wind and incident solar radiation (Watts & Tolland, 2013). In fact, Toews and Gluns (1986) found that exposed snow can melt as much as 30 to 50 percent faster than snow protected by a forest canopy (as cited in Watts & Tolland, 2013). This has consequences for water retention and flow rates. As a result of increased net precipitation as well as alterations to the physical properties of soils, soil moisture levels will increase after harvesting (Winkler, Moore, Redding, Spittlehouse, Smerdon, et al., 2010). Some studies have reported that harvesting raises the water table, which can increase the risk of slope failure in steep, mountainous watersheds (Winkler, Moore, Redding, Spittlehouse, Smerdon, et al., 2010).
Figures 7.7 and 7.8: Harvesting on McLauughlin Ridge in CCCW (left); water flowing post harvest on McLaughlin Ridge
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CHAPTER 7: A SCIENTIFIC REVIEW OF THE IMPACT OF LOGGING ON WATER QUALITY
Surface runoff can also increase because of reduced infiltration rates from soil compaction (Winkler, Moore, Redding, Spittlehouse, Smerdon, et al., 2010). Higher soil moisture and increased runoff can each increase the water available for streamflow, resulting in greater peak flows that can erode stream banks (Winkler, Moore, Redding, Spittlehouse, Smerdon, et al., 2010). Overland flow not only causes its own surface erosion, but may also wash sediments caused by other soil disturbances into stream channels (Watts & Tolland, 2013).
located at the ocean; however, water transportation of logs is still the dominant method on Western and Northern Vancouver Island, the Central and North Coast, and Haida Gwaii (E. Piikkila, personal communication, June 1, 2016).
It is important to note that not all sediment generated by forestry operations will end up in a stream or lake and furthermore, not all streams or lakes connect to the water body containing the water intake in a drinking watershed. When sediment is generated directly adjacent to a channel (at a stream crossing, for instance), it is highly likely that Part of harvesting timber is transporting the logs to the the sediment will wash into that channel (Watts & Tolland, market, which occurs in a three-stage process. Primary 2013). However, the impact of soil disturbances that occur transportation involves moving logs from the stump to further from a stream channel are less certain; if there a nearby location where intermediate transportation is no continuous line of overland flow from the point of begins (Vyse, Bendickson, Hannam, Cuzner, & Bladon, disturbance to the channel, the sediment will simply be 2010). Yarding and skidding are examples of primary deposited on the soil surface (Watts & Tolland, 2013). In a transportation (Vyse et al., 2010). Log skidding can produce study of watersheds in southeastern B.C., Henderson and sediment as it involves dragging logs along the soil surface Toews (2001) “estimated that only 36% of the sediment (Watts & Tolland, 2013). eroded from road surfaces was delivered to the channel network” (as cited in Watts & Tolland, 2013, p. 139). Intermediate transportation (e.g. truck hauling) involves the accumulation of logs on landings to prepare them for As mentioned in previous sections, sedimentation is not the more cost-efficient movement—this stage uses roads and only forestry-related risk to water quality. Table X [Forest therefore can contribute sediment, as discussed above Related Sources] provides a brief overview of some of (Watts & Tolland, 2013). Logs are brought to a dryland sort these additional sources of contaminants, as described in where the logs are bundled by grade and dumped into the by the Ministry of Health (2010). Factors such as water ocean (E. Piikkila, personal communication, June 1, 2016). chemistry and stream temperature also play important roles in water quality and watershed ecosystem health. Market transportation is the third stage, where large However, these issues will remain topics for further study, amounts of logs are transported from the forest as the scope of this report is limited to a discussion of operation’s sort or dump site to a mill for processing sediment-based water quality issues. (Watts & Tolland, 2013). For over a century, water transportation has dominated this stage because it is by far the most efficient method available (Watts & Tolland, 2013). Increasingly, truck transportation of logs, especially Second Growth, is occurring directly from the landing out in the woods to a mill, or a dryland sort or log dump Table 7.2: Forestry-related contaminant sources and the contaminants commonly associated with them (Ministry of Health, 2010)
SOURCE Landslides connected to water source Log sorts Logging camps Logging roads Cutblocks Channels in logged areas
HEALTH, ENVIRONMENTAL OR AESTHETIC CONTAMINANT(S) Suspended sediments; turbidity Leachate from decomposing wood waste Fecal coliform; motor fuel; oil Suspended sediment; turbidity Elevated concentrations of nitrate; decrease in pH (small watersheds most susceptible) Turbidity due to increased channel scour and destabilization 41
CHAPTER 8: CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED DESCRIPTION
8.1 Geographic and Biogeoclimatic Characteristics The CCCW has an area of 5,681 ha and measures 14 km in length from its headwaters to the municipal water intake at its base (Barlak, 2011a; Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2016). It is actually part of a larger watershed called the China Creek Watershed, which has an area of 11,158 ha (Barlak, 2011a). CCCW ranges in elevation from 190 m at the water intake to approximately 1,575 m at the headwaters near Mount McQuillan (Barlak, 2011a).
1998, p. 3). There are several small tributaries to China Creek within the CCCW boundaries, including McLaughlin Creek, Mineral Creek, McQuillan Creek, and Williams Creek, which connects to Lizard Lake (Barlak, 2011a). Vancouver Island contains a number of Biogeoclimatic Zones, which are defined as geographic areas “having similar patterns of energy flow, vegetation and soils, as a result of Figure 8.2: Stream order classification diagram
The main watershed valley is “a narrow U-shape with a narrow valley floor,” with moderate to steep valley slopes rising up to rounded or hummocky bedrock ridges at the watershed drainage divide (Horel, 1998, p. 4). Rugged rock ridges with evidence of rockslides and avalanches characterize certain portions of the headwater area (Horel, 1998). While there are no perennial snow packs or icefields, the higher elevation areas in the upper watershed sustain snow throughout much of the winter (Figure 8.1) (Horel, 1998). Figure 8.3: Low flow (top) vs. high flow (bottom) at the CCCW The water intake is located on China Creek, a fourth-order intake dam stream measuring 21 km in length (Barlak, 2011a). Stream orders are a hierarchical system in which headwater streams with no tributaries are classified as first order streams (Schreier, H., Brown, S., & Pang, G., n.d.). When two first order streams merge, a second order stream is created; when two second order streams merge, a third order stream is created, and so on (Schreier, H., Brown, S., & Pang, G., n.d.) (Figure 8.2). China Creek is the mainstem in the CCCW and is “a fairly high energy system with a large peak to low flow ratio,” meaning that flow levels change significantly with the seasons (Figure 8.3) (Horel, Figure 8.1: Snow in the upper reaches of the CCCW
43
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
a broadly homogeneous macroclimate” (Forest Practices Board, 2016b). The CCCW is located in the Coastal Western Hemlock CWH xm2 (xeric (dry) maritime) subzone from 0 – 650 m in elevation and the CWH mm2 (montane moist maritime) subzone from 650 – 1000 m in elevation, with areas above 1000 m in elevation falling within the Mountain Hemlock (windward moist montane, MHmm1) subzone and areas above 1,600 m in the Alpine Tundra parkland (ATp) zone (Figure 8.4) (Barlak, 2011a; Green & Klinka, 1994). The approximate area breakdown is shown in Table 8.1 (Barlak, 2011a; E. Piikkila, personal communication, June 2, 2016): Douglas-fir is the dominant tree species in the CWH Table 8.1: Breakdown of Biogeoclimatic Zones in the CCCW
Biogeoclimatic Zone/Subzone CWH mm2 CWH xm2 MH mm1 ATp
Estimated Area 45% 35% 20% 0%
includes Alaskan blueberry, salal, oval-leaved blueberry, and black huckleberry (Barlak, 2011a). CCCW receives approximately 2450 mm of precipitation per year (Buschhaus, 2010). In the lower reaches, only about six percent of this precipitation occurs as snow, but 81 percent falls as snow in the upper reaches, “giving the watershed a hybrid, or rain and snow dominated, hydrological regime” (Buschhaus, 2010, p.7). The nearest Environment Canada weather station is the “Port Alberni Cox Lake” station, about 10 km away at an elevation of 100 m (Environment Canada, 2013). Data from this station indicates that between 1981 and 2010, mean annual rainfall was 2,114 mm, with 79 percent of that falling between October and March (Environment Canada, 2013). The month of January averages 340.2 mm of rain, compared to an average of only 31.3 mm in July (Environment Canada, 2013).
8.2 Watershed Ownership
The CCCW is almost entirely privately owned. Of the 5,681 total hectares, Island Timberlands owns 4,958 ha (87.3%) and TimberWest owns 336 ha (5.9%) (Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2016). The remaining 387 ha (6.8%) is Crown land within Tree Farm Licence (TFL) 44 and is managed by Western Forest Products (Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2016) (Figure 8.6). When compared to B.C. forests as a whole, this ownership structure is unusual; as shown in Figure 8.6, 95 percent of all land and forests in B.C. are owned by the Crown, while only about four percent is privately owned (Ministry of The soils of the CCCW consist primarily of volcanic Forests Mines and Lands, 2010). However, private forest rock, glacial deposits, and limestone (Barlak, 2011a). The ownership is common along the east coast of Vancouver limestone bedrock can contribute calcium inputs into the Island due to the Esquimalt & Nanaimo (E & N) Land Grant, water, which causes a “neutral to slightly basic pH” (Barlak, a massive 19th century land grant of great significance. 2011a, p. 10).The forest is composed primarily of Douglasfir, western red cedar, amabilis fir, and western hemlock In 1875, the Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway Act transferred (Figure 8.5) (Barlak, 2011a). Understory vegetation 760,000 ha of land from the Crown to the Esquimalt and xm2, and is dominant or relatively dominant in 6 out of 10 Site Series in the CWH mm2 (Green & Klinka, 1994). The CCCW has the exact same Biogeoclimatic Zone and subzone elevational profile that exists from the shores of Cameron Lake and Cathedral Grove in MacMillan Provincial Park, up ever-increasing slopes to the top of Mt. Arrowsmith, a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (Green & Klinka, 1994; E. Piikkila, personal communication, June 2, 2016).
Figure 8. 4: Elevational profile of biogeoclimatic units for south central Vancouver Island
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CHAPTER 8: CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED DESCRIPTION
Figure 8. 5: The CCCW is dominated by Douglas-fir
Figure 8. 6: Comparison of forest ownership between the province of B.C. and the CCCW. Green represents public (Crown) ownership, whereas brown represents private ownership.
.
Total land base: 94,872,896 ha
Crown Provincial 89,512,571 ha
First Nations 134,878 ha
Crown Provincial 387 ha Private: TimberWest 336 ha
CCCW
PROVINC EO FB
.C
Private Ownership 4,188,346 ha
Crown Federal 1,037,102 ha
Private: Island Timberlands 4,958 ha
Total land base: 5,681 ha
Sources: Ministry of Forests, Mines and Lands, 2010; Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2016
45
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
Nanaimo Railway Company, run by Robert Dunsmuir (Watts & Tolland, 2013; Taylor, 1975). Known as the “E & N Land Grant,” this transfer was one of many that occurred in the 19th century to promote railway construction— for example, the federal government received 5.6 million hectares from the province of B.C. to build the Canadian Pacific Railway (Watts & Tolland, 2013). While much of this land eventually reverted back to the province, all of the land from the E & N Land Grant remained private (Figure 8.7). According to Dr. Haley from the Faculty of Forestry at the University of British Columbia, the E & N lands “comprise the most important area of private forestland in the province” (Watts & Tolland, 2013, p. 2).
and was granted approval, which removed 80,000 ha from the TFLs, including 74,000 ha around the CCCW (Office of the Auditor General of British Columbia, 2008). Again, there was a significant negative reaction from the public and from First Nations (Office of the Auditor General of British Columbia, 2008).
This negative reaction was due to the fact that “[t]he public, rightly or wrongly, equated the deletion of private land to increased harvesting on private land and increased export of timber from private land” (Office of the Auditor General of British Columbia, 2008, p. 40). First Nations also strongly objected to the lack of consultation over the decision to remove these lands. Furthermore, there was The private forestry giant MacMillan Bloedel owned most concern that the new regulatory framework would lack of the land in the CCCW for much of the twentieth the ability to protect the watershed. The Auditor General century (Gordon et al., 2007). Throughout this time, of B.C. indicated in a report that “once a private land MacMillan Bloedel was the largest forestry company in B.C. removal decision is made the land is no longer subject and in the Port Alberni area, where the company owned to the regulatory requirements of a TFL and instead can sawmills, pulp and paper mills, and plywood mills, and also fall under the less stringent requirements of the PMFLA had tenure over a large area of Crown land (Gordon et [Private Managed Forest Land Act]. This change can have al., 2007). economic, environmental and social consequences” (Office of the Auditor General of British Columbia, 2008, p. 53). In 1955, Tree Farm Licence (TFL) 44 was granted to MacMillan Bloedel, giving them a one million hectare In 2005, Weyerhaeuser sold all of its assets on Vancouver tenure that included over 70,000 hectares of private Island to Brascan (now Brookfield Asset Managements), land in the area (Steel, 2011). A TFL is “[a]n area based who then moved all the private lands to Island Timberlands, tenure agreement that issues the rights to harvest an which had been formed as a result of the initial purchase allowable annual cut in a specified area” but under the (Island Timberlands, 2016b; Dodd, 2005). Island Timberlands general supervision of the provincial Forest Service, which has been the majority landowner in the CCCW since provides cutting services to the licence holder (Forest Practices Board, 2016b). When TFLs were established in the 1950s, the condition for receiving a TFL was that all Figure 8.7: Map of the E & N Land Grants of 1884-1925 private land had to be included within the TFL as Managed Forest Land (Sloan, 1956). According to the Honorable Gordon Sloan, the Chief Justice of British Columbia in 1956, the tree farm legislation was “an attempt to compel other owners of forest land, even small parcels, to manage their properties on a sustained-yield basis, under equally, rigid Government control, in the same manner as forest management licensees” (Sloan, 1956, p. 142). In 1999, MacMillan Bloedel requested the release of its private land from TFLs 39 and 44 but was denied by the provincial government because of “significant and negative public reaction” (Office of the Auditor General of British Columbia, 2008, p. 32). That same year, the Weyerhaeuser Corporation acquired MacMillan Bloedel’s forest assets (Gordon et al., 2007). Then in 2004, Weyerhaeuser requested the removal of private lands from TFLs 39 and 44 46
CHAPTER 8: CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED DESCRIPTION
then. Only a few small pockets of TFL 44 land remain in the CCCW. This history is relevant because it explains why the CCCW is predominantly private land, which has important legislative implications that are described in the next section.
8.3 Regulatory Framework 8.3.1 Regulatory Overview The regulatory framework for the CCCW is complex due to a myriad of overlapping pieces of legislation and because of the private land throughout the watershed. It is important to understand this framework in order to assess what can and is being done to regulate water quality and land uses within the watershed. While the key pieces of legislation with respect to logging and water quality exist predominantly at the provincial level, there are numerous other parties involved in this framework. Firstly, the entire watershed is on the unceded territory of the Tseshaht and Hupacasath First Nations (Hupacasath First Nation, 2016; Tseshaht First Nation, 2012). The First Nations are key stakeholders in the CCCW as they continue to live in the area and rely on drinking water from the CCCW.
Next, there are relevant pieces of federal legislation such as the Fisheries Act and the Species at Risk Act. For example, the Fisheries Act prohibits the deposit of “deleterious substances”—anything that degrades water quality—in water frequented by fish, such as China Creek (Government of Canada, 2016). CCCW is also within the jurisdiction of three different Regional Districts: the bulk of the watershed falls within the Alberni-Clayoquot Regional District, but small sections also extend into the Regional District of Nanaimo and the Cowichan Valley Regional District (Figure 8.8) (Government of British Columbia, 2016). Finally, the City of Port Alberni clearly has a significant interest in the CCCW as it relies on drinking water from China Creek. The City owns a small piece of land at the base of the watershed where the municipal water intake is located (Figure 8.8). While the City frequently meets with the private landowners to discuss watershed issues, the municipal government has no jurisdiction over what happens on private land within the CCCW. There are many pieces of provincial legislation under different ministries that are relevant for the management of logging and water quality in the CCCW. Provincial water quality regulations were discussed in Chapter 6, although other water-related legislation such as the Water Act and
Figure 8.8: Overview of land ownership in the China Creek Community Watershed
47
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
the Water Sustainability Act are also relevant (Managed Forest Council, n.d.). Additionally, the Assessment Act, Environmental Management Act, Environmental Assessment Act, Groundwater Protection Act, Fish Protection Act, Foresters Act, Integrated Pest Management Act, Land Act, Mines Act, Wildlife Act, and Wildfire Act all contain passages relevant to either the management of forest land or the protection of drinking water (Managed Forest Council, n.d.; R. Pike et al., 2010). Likely the most relevant pieces of legislation to this report are the Forest and Range Practices Act (FRPA), which governs Crown land and any private land land under a Tree Farm License (TFL), Forest License (FL), woodlot license, or community forest agreement, and the Private Managed Forest Land Act (PMFLA), which governs forestry activities on privately managed forest land. Prior to 2005 when the private land in the CCCW was managed under TFL 44, the entire watershed was managed under the FRPA. However, when private lands were removed from TFL 44, the PMFLA become the principal piece of legislation governing activities within the watershed. Many people see this change in regulation as a critical moment in the tale of the CCCW; therefore, it is necessary to review and compare the Crown and private legislation (Office of the Auditor General of British Columbia, 2008).
8.3.2 Forestry Regulations on Crown Land FRPA was born out of the former Forest Practices Code (1995 – 2003) and enacted in 2004 (Forest Practices Board, 2014). At the time of this legislative change, the former Forest Practices Code was considered by the incoming provincial government as “complex paper processes” rather than “actual work on the ground,” which is why the FRPA was created (Ministry of Forests, 2004). The FRPA “maintains high levels of protection for forest values including watersheds and wildlife habitat,” “creates efficiencies for both government and industry through streamlined planning processes,” and “encourages innovation by skilled resource professionals and holds industry responsible for outcomes” (Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, 2016). It is a relatively long and detailed act with major sections on the plans required prior to harvesting, forest practices, and the protection of resources, along with compliance and enforcement (Government of British Columbia, 2002). The Act is accompanied by the Forest Planning and Practices Regulation (FPPR), a lengthy document that details everything from road maintenance and culvert 48
construction to fish passage and invasive species protection (Government of British Columbia, 2004a). The FRPA is a Results-Based Code, meaning that it is the end result that is important, not the way in which that result was achieved (Ministry of Forests, 2004). There are regulations that prohibit forest licensees from negatively impacting water quality, fish habitat, and many other elements, but how the licensee goes about “not impacting” these elements is left up to them—as long as they are following all regulations in the FRPA and all other provincial and federal legislation. An important component of the FRPA is the requirement to prepare a Forest Stewardship Plan (FSP) and submit it to the Minister of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations for approval prior to the commencement of any road construction or harvesting, as compared to the previously required Forest Development Plan (FDP) (Government of British Columbia, 2002). The FSP is the only plan that is subject to public review and comment as well as government approval, making it a key element in the forestry process (Forest Practices Board, 2016b). In a FSP, licensees are required to identify measurable results and strategies that are consistent with ten specific government objectives that are outlined in the FPPR (Forest Practices Board, 2016b; Government of British Columbia, 2004a):
• • • • • • • • • •
Soils Timber Wildlife Water, fish, wildlife and biodiversity within riparian areas Fish habitat in fisheries sensitive watersheds Water in community watersheds Wildlife and biodiversity — landscape level Wildlife and biodiversity — stand level Visual quality Cultural heritage resources
Another notable element of the FRPA is that it mandates the existence of community watersheds. Community watersheds were originally designated in 1995 under the Forest Practices Code and were grandfathered into the FRPA in 2004 (Forest Practices Board, 2014). To qualify, a watershed must contain a licenced water intake that is on a stream (Ministry of Environment, 2016). The designation “infers a level of protection,” as the purpose is “to conserve the quality, quantity and timing of water flow or prevent cumulative hydrological effects” (Barlak, 2011a, p.
CHAPTER 8: CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED DESCRIPTION
4). Watersheds are designated if there is reason to believe that they require “special management” in order to achieve the objectives listed above (Ministry of Environment, 2016). However, because community watersheds are legislated under the FRPA, they only have legal effect on Crown land and not on private land such as the CCCW (Barlak, 2011a, p. 4). Prior to the removal of CCCW from TFL 44, community watershed legislation applied in the CCCW.
landowners. By contrast, the major forestry companies such as Island Timberlands and TimberWest operate on PMFL, which is subject to all private forestry regulations (Gordon et al., 2007). In order to call a parcel of land “private managed forest land,” the landowner must submit a “proposed management commitment” to the Managed Forest Council that contains details about the site, longterm forest management objectives, inventories of existing roads and forest cover, and other details (Government of Currently, there are 466 community watersheds in B.C., British Columbia, 2007). covering an area of over 1.4 million hectares—about 1.5 percent of B.C.’s total land area (Ministry of Environment, The Managed Forest Council (formerly known as the 2016). Seventy-four percent of all community watershed Private Managed Forest Land Council) is a provincial area is on Crown land while the remaining 26 percent is agency that administers PMFL legislation and performs on private land, First Nations reserves or treaty land, or four broad functions: strategic planning, reporting, program provincial and federal park and reserve land (Ministry of administration; setting and monitoring forest practice Environment, 2016). Prior to their designation in 1995, standards; enforcing standards and performing audits; and 295 of the 466 community watersheds had experienced reviewing landowner applications to enter managed forest harvesting activity (Ministry of Environment, 2016). While class (Managed Forest Council, n.d.). The Council consists harvesting has continued in many of these watersheds, the of two provincially-appointed members and two members pace has slowed down significantly since their designations who are elected by private managed forest landowners, in 1995 (Ministry of Environment, 2016). plus one chair jointly appointed by the other four council members (Managed Forest Council, n.d.). Forest practices on land administered under the FRPA are monitored by the Forest Practices Board, “BC’s The main piece of private forestry legislation is the PMFLA, independent watchdog for sound forest practices” (Forest which came into effect in 2003. Sections 12 to 16 of Practices Board, 2016a). While the Forest Practices Board the PMFLA mandates that the Managed Forest Council was created by the province, it operates at “arm’s length” address five areas of concern: soil conservation, water from the government, performing audits and investigating quality, fish habitat, critical wildlife habitat, and reforestation complaints (Forest Practices Board, 2016a). The Forest (Government of British Columbia, 2003). The PMFLA Practices Board cannot enforce the FRPA by imposing contains administrative procedures for managed forest land penalties, but by its own admission, “its recommendations and prescribes some basic forestry regulations pertaining have led directly to improved forest practices such as to sediment transportation, stream buffers, and road stronger government decision-making processes and better maintenance (Government of British Columbia, 2003). The communication among forestry professionals to manage PMFLA is significantly shorter in length and less detailed risks to the environment” (Forest Practices Board, 2016a). than the FRPA. The Forest Practices Board examines forestry practices on Crown lands only and has no jurisdiction on private The Private Managed Forest Land Council Regulation managed forest land (Forest Practices Board, 2016a). provides additional detail on aspects such as the placement of roads next to streams and soil conservation (Government of British Columbia, 2007). This regulation is 8.3.3 Forestry Regulations on Private essentially the private land equivalent of the FPPR, although Managed Forest Land it is less comprehensive. Next, the Private Managed Forest Land Council Matters Regulation is a very short piece of For the purposes of forestry regulation, there are two legislation consisting mostly of definitions and explanations types of private land: Private Managed Forest Land (PMFL) of the Managed Forest Council’s powers (Government and private unmanaged forest land. On unmanaged land, of British Columbia, 2004b). Finally, the Private Managed no forestry legislation applies because it is not classified as Forest Land Regulation is another short piece of legislation PMFL or included in a TFL, woodlot licence, or community that deals with critical wildlife habitat (Managed Forest forest agreement (Gordon et al., 2007). This typically Council, 2015b). occurs on smaller parcels of land owned by individual 49
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
The most detailed document dealing with forestry practices on private land is the Managed Forest Council’s Field Practices Guide. The guide is meant to “aid owners in their field decisions and meeting their practice obligations, providing a brief overview of land administration, road construction, maintenance, and deactivation, harvesting, reforestation, stream classification, and riparian tree retention (Managed Forest Council, p. 2). The guide contains definitions, pictures, and drawings that help to illustrate the points, making it a very user-friendly document. However, this document contains only guidelines and recommendations, not legally mandated requirements. Like the FRPA, the suite of private managed forest legislation uses results-based language, emphasizing proper due diligence on the part of the forestry companies. If a problem occurs on private land and it is determined that the owner did not follow the guidelines in the Field Practice Guide, then they would be found by the Council to have not practiced due diligence, putting them in contravention of the legislation.Therefore, although the Field Practices Guide is not legally mandated, there is legal incentive for foresters to follow the guidelines. The Managed Forest Council hire independent Registered Professional Foresters, Biologists, and Engineers to perform annual audits of their members, while the Forest Practices Board hires these same types of professionals to perform inspections, investigations, and sometimes comprehensive audits (E. Piikkila, personal communication, June 2, 2016).
8.3.4 Forest Certification Systems Forest certification systems inspect and audit forest management practices against a set of standards, with the end goal of certifying that a product on the market comes from a “well-managed forest” (Pearce, 2008). A company may choose to become certified for a variety of reasons, including enhancing their image and credibility, risk reduction, and to reach new markets (Forest Certification and BC Community Forests may 29 2008). These systems Figure 8.9: The three primary forest certification standards in B.C.
50
are complementary to regulatory systems and thus not directly part of the regulatory framework, as they are voluntary and independent of government (Pearce, 2008). Both Island Timberlands and TimberWest are certified, a fact that is often used to defend the rigor and sustainability of their practices. Therefore, it is worth briefly examining the different standards being used in B.C. The three main forest certification standards in B.C. are the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), the Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI), and the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) (se Figure 8.9) (Masters, Tikina, & Larson, 2010). In B.C., CSA and SFI are much more common than FSC, although FSC has the strongest international reputation (Ministry of Forests, Mines and Lands, 2010). Island Timberlands and TimberWest are each certified under the SFI, which has been common practice on private land in the region since 2007 (S.Thomas, personal communication, May 5, 2016). CSA, meanwhile, is Canada’s official national standard for sustainable forest management and is used on Crown land (CSA SFM User Group, 2016). Island Timberlands and TimberWest are also each certified under The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14001, which sets requirements for environmental management systems, helping organizations to “improve their environmental performance through more efficient use of resources and reduction of waste, gaining a competitive advantage and the trust of stakeholders” (ISO, 2015; TimberWest, 2010; Island Timberlands, 2016a). ISO is not specific to the forestry industry, but it adds an extra layer of due diligence to operations. When assessing forest certification systems, it is important to differentiate between system standards and performance standards (Ozinga, 2004). System standards specify management practices within an organization and can be powerful tools to improve organizational performance (Ozinga, 2004). However, they do not actually specify a minimum standard of performance that must
CHAPTER 8: CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED DESCRIPTION
be achieved: e.g., a system standard may say “biodiversity should be monitored” (Ozinga, 2004). According to FERN, a group that promotes sustainable forestry in Europe, “[t] he lack of defined performance requirements means that two forest companies both certified to the same system standard could achieve very different results in the forest;” therefore, “system standards do not provide any guarantee of product quality” (Ozinga, 2004, p. 10). Performance standards, meanwhile, specify actual results that must be achieved on the ground: e.g. one might specify that “10% of a forest management unit must be set aside for conservation” (Ozinga, 2004).
industry-owned forests in the US and whose board is “still dominated by forestry industry interests” (Ozinga, 2004, p. 23), initiated the SFI. Environmental group Stand (formerly Forest Ethics) has accused SFI of “greenwashing” and producing misleading labels, stating that SFI is “an industry creating its own watchdog” (Dharmarajah, 2015). The new SFI 2015-2019 standards have added performance measures to address water, wetland, and riparian protection, which is a step forward (The Sustainable Forestry Initiative Inc., 2015). Overall, however, it appears to be a relatively weak certification system.
FERN found that CSA and SFI consist primarily of system- 8.4 Land Uses based elements without clear performance standards, while FSC’s standards are all performance-based (Ozinga, 2004). 8.4.1 Water Source They state that “FSC remains by far the most independent, rigorous and, therefore, credible certification system,” While logging is the focus of this report, there are a variety which is why the B.C. Teachers’ Federation recently passed of other land uses in the CCCW that could potentially a motion requesting Island Timberlands to adopt FSC impact water quality. Given that the CCCW is a designated rather than SFI (Ozinga, 2004, p. 21; Plummer, 2015). community watershed, its role as a water source should be considered a primary “land use,” even if this is more The David Suzuki Foundation, Greenpeace, and numerous of a protective use than an active use. Waterworks other environmental organizations recently co-signed a infrastructure has existed in the CCCW since the 1930s similar letter to the U.S. Green Building Council and Canada (Turner, 1990). Currently, there are six different water Green Building Council, requesting that they do not give licences issued for the China Creek mainstem, but only two out LEED credits for using SFI-accredited products (at the of these licences are actually located within the boundaries time,, the two Councils only endorsed FSC products but of the CCCW (Barlak, 2011a). The City of Port Alberni were considering endorsing SFI products as well) (Moola owns a water intake at the base of the CCCW and can et al., 2009).The letter describes an analysis by the Ivey withdraw 8,935,454 cubic metres per year for domestic Foundation that compared SFI and FSC. It found that “SFI’s use (Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2016). The system requires significant strengthening before it can be City can also store 645,110 cubic metres per year in Lizard considered a legitimate tool for advancing sustainability” Lake for use in relieving low summer flows (Koers and (Moola et al., 2009, p. 1). SFI’s audit teams were on average Associates Engineering Ltd., 2016). three times smaller than FSC’s, spent five times less time in the field completing the audit, and were comprised, on Bainbridge Lake, Port Alberni’s secondary water supply, average, of only two foresters (Moola et al., 2009). This is located just outside of the CCCW in the McFarland was in contrast to FSC teams that “consistently were Community Watershed (Koers and Associates Engineering comprised of 2 foresters and at least 1 ecologist/biologist Ltd., 2010). The lake drains into McFarland Creek, a and 1 aboriginal/community consultation specialist” (Moola tributary of China Creek that joins the mainstem below et al., 2009, p. 2). the City’s water intake (Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2010). The Somass River, also outside of the CCCW, Additionally, SFI audits were extremely easy to pass: while is used only as an emergency supply because the water FSC audits found an average of 23 non-conformances quality is poor compared to China Creek and Bainbridge between the company’s operations and FSC standards, Lake (Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2010). Water SFI audits found on average only two (Moola et al., 2009). from China Creek enter a gravity-feed system, whereas Essentially, SFI audits represent a “[c]ertification of near water from Bainbridge Lake can be gravity fed but requires status quo” (Ozinga, 2004, p. 23). Furthermore, SFI’s pumping during high demand periods (Francoeur, 2011). independence has been questioned. The American Forest The Somass River requires pumping at all times (Francoeur, & Paper Association, whose members control most of the 2011). 51
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
8.4.2 Mining Historical records describe mining activity, which includes excavations, road and dam construction, and water diversions, as early as the 1860s in the CCCW (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014; Horel, 1998). Placer mining, as well as mining for other minerals, have occurred in the area, and the potential exists for further activity in the future (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014; Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2010).Table 8.2 summarizes the mining activities in the CCCW (Barlak, 2011b).
case is acid mine drainage from the Britannia Mine, which caused severe pollution in Howe Sound (Britannia Mine Museum, 2016).
8.4.3 Hydroelectric Power Generation
Upnit Power Corporation, a small 6.5 MW run-of-the-river hydroelectric project, has a water intake 2.5 km upstream of the City’s intake on China Creek and a licence to remove 16,396,000 m3 per year for power generation (Barlak, 2011b). That water travels down a four km penstock to a power station on China Creek and is released back Between 2005 and 2010, a “considerable amount of into the mainstem 2.9 km downstream of the municipal exploration activity” occurred around the Mineral Creek intake (Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2010; Barlak, gold zone in the upper portion of the CCCW (Butt & 2011a). The Hupacasath First Nation, in partnership with Hughes-Adams, 2014). As part of conducting its broader Synex Energy Resources Ltd., Ucluelet First Nation, and investigation into community watersheds provincially, the City of Port Alberni developed this project in 2005 which included the CCCW, Forest Practices Board (Barlak, 2011b). At peak operation, the plant produces investigators observed one inactive placer mine operation power for 6,000 homes (Barlak, 2011b). Due to low flows, that seemed to pose a potential risk to water quality; the project does not operate in August and September, however, an assessment of the risk was not undertaken and it is sometimes forced to shut down earlier due to dry (D. Wahl, personal communication, May 13, 2016). A study conditions (Barlak, 2011a). by Koers & Associates Engineering Ltd. explained that “within a relatively small watershed such as China Creek, The Upnit project necessitated the construction of a two an extensive mining operation would have a significant and km road along China Creek between the Port Alberni potentially negative impact on fisheries and drinking water water intake and the hydroelectric intake (Barlak, 2011a). quality and the two uses are likely not compatible” (Koers This road “is travelled weekly by an operator on an ATV and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2010, p. 22). from November through March, but not by any licenced vehicles” (Barlak, 2011b, p. 11). The road was built through Mining can impact water quality by introducing high deep glacial deposits, resulting in “difficult construction concentrations of metals and sediment into the water with very large, steep and potentially unstable cutbanks supply and by contributing to acidification (Barlak, 2011a). and fillslopes” (Figure 8.10) (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014, There are several examples of the negative impacts of p. 35). Aerial imagery from Google Earth appears to show mining legacies on water quality in Coastal B.C. One case exposed soil along the penstock route where the road is is the Tsolum River at the base of Mount Washington located, but it is unclear from these images whether or not in the Comox Valley, which has suffered decades of acid this exposure poses any risk to water quality. mine drainage due to copper leaching from an abandoned copper mine (Kangasniemi & Erickson, 1986). Another Table 8.2: Summary of mining activities within the China Creek Community Watershed
MINE TYPE Abandoned/closed Abandoned/closed Abandoned/closed Abandoned/closed Placer Developed prospect Prospect 52
MINE NAME Grizzly Gillespie Havilah Debbie China Creek 900 Regina
METALS MINED Arsenic, silver, gold Gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc Gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc Gold, silver, copper, zinc Gold Gold Gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc
MOST RECENT EXPLORATION 1924 1936–39 1936 1989 1895 1987 1987
CHAPTER 8: CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED DESCRIPTION
Figure 8.10: Upnit penstock road. Butt & Hughes-Adams (2014) state that the through-cut left high and excessively steep cutbanks in deep glacial till deposits, and they point out cracks in the fill slope in the lower right of this photo.
8.4.5 Logging History in the China Creek Community Watershed There is a long history of logging the CCCW, with forest cover maps from MacMillan Bloedel indicating that harvesting began in 1921 (Horel, 1998). Harvesting proceeded at a rapid pace: according to Epps et al. (2010), approximately 70 percent of the CCCW was logged in the 1930s and 1940s (as cited in Buschhaus, 2010). Until the 1940s, logging in the CCCW was done by rail (Figure 8.11) (Turner, 1990; E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 5, 2016). This included the use of an Incline Railroad above Lizard Lake (Figure 8.12) (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 5, 2016). In fact, sections of the China Main road were built on old railway grade (Horel, 1998; E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 5, 2016). Turner (1990) states that the conversion from railroad logging to truck logging in the CCCW area occurred in 1946.
Early logging techniques were much more destructive than the techniques practiced today. Much of the harvesting in the 1930s and 1940s went right to the streambank While no formal studies have been conducted to determine (Buschhaus, 2010). Aerial photographs from the 1950s the recreational usage of the CCCW, numerous reports show “[e]xtensive logging of riparian zones” and “severe indicate that it is a well-used recreational destination.There disturbance of the alluvial channel reaches (Reach 9, 11 are three categories of trail in the region: those on public and 19) of China Creek and McQuillan Creek including land with public trails; those on private land with marked bank erosion, sediment aggradation and channel widening” trails and an agreement in place with the landowner for (Horel, 1998, p. 5). This was due to logging methods that public access; and those on private land with no marked “employed cross-stream yarding and did not leave stream trails, but which see occasional public use regardless (S. buffers” (Horel, 1998, p. 5). By the 1950s, much of the main Thomas, personal communication, January 21, 2016). Users valley had been logged, from China Creek well into the of the latter trails could be asked to leave by the landowner, upper portions of the watershed (Horel, 1998). as it is private land (S. Thomas, personal communication, January 21, 2016).
8.4.4 Recreation
Hikers, hunters, people fishing, and all-terrain vehicle (ATV) Figure 8.11: Logging by rail in B.C. users are the primary trail users in the CCCW (Barlak, 2011a).There is “a significant network of ATV trails located in the upper watershed that are utilized on a regular basis” (Barlak, 2011a, p. 12). Picnics and campfires are common, resulting in garbage dumping and human waste deposits (Francoeur, 2011). This type of recreational use can be problematic in terms of water quality and is very difficult to manage and enforce, as watersheds are large areas that can be accessed in a variety of ways by individual users at any given day or time.
53
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
Figure 8.12: Incline Railroad for logging in B.C.
Techniques advanced throughout the years: truck logging replaced railroad logging beginning in the 1940s and continues to this day as the primary method of transporting logs out of the woods (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 5, 2016). Large steam donkey spar tree yarding systems lasted until the 1960s (Figure 8.13) and were replaced by steel towers up to the 1980s (Figure 8.14) (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 5, 2016). Grapple yarding and mechanical cutting were introduced in the 1980s and the 2000s respectively (Figure 8.15) (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 5, 2016). Today, a combination of these techniques is practiced. The introduction of grapple yarders to replace steel tower systems in the 1980s necessitated the construction of additional roads across logging sites because the distances that these machines could reach out to grab logs was less than steel towers and steam donkey yarding systems (Krag, Wong, & Henderson, 1993). Additionally, until the mid1990s, most areas across B.C. were clearcut (Ministry of Forests, Mines and Lands, 2010). Today, the most common silvicultural practices in the province are clearcutting, clearcutting with reserves, and some variable retention harvesting, and the percent of harvested area taken up by roads has declined since the 1990s (Ministry of Forests Mines and Lands, 2010). 54
Figure 8.13: Donkey spar tree yarding system
Figure 8.14: Steel tower yarding system
CHAPTER 8: CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED DESCRIPTION
Figure 8.15: Grapple yarding system
In summary, it is important to keep in mind that the CCCW has a history of intensive logging using damaging techniques, and this legacy may still be affecting the watershed. As of 2010, much of the watershed consisted of 70 to 80-yearold second growth forest (Buschhaus, 2010). Horel (1998) compared airphotos from 1952 and 1994 and found that “channel positions in these disturbed reaches have stabilized, the banks and bars have revegetated, and the heavy sediment accumulations in the channel have diminished” (Figure 8.16) (Horel, 1998, p. 5). However, as Chapter 9 will discuss, legacy impacts remain evident in the watershed. In recent years, logging has ramped up in the CCCW. In a recent analysis of Island Timberlands operations, Butt and Hughes-Adams (2014) compared the equivalent clearcut area (ECA) of the CCCW in 2005 and 2013 and found that Island Timberlands “has been logging intensively in China Creek watershed in that period” (p. 10). Despite this increase in harvesting, the ECA was an average of 16
Figure 8.16: China Creek Channel in 1952 (left) and 1994 (right), showing recovery of riparian vegetation
55
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
percent, which is below the “generally accepted threshold” 2000 and 2014. During this time, approximately 18 percent of 30 percent (Butt and Hughes-Adams, 2014). (1,000 ha) of the CCCW was harvested. Equivalent clearcut area describes a second-growth block of trees in terms of its hydrological equivalent as a clearcut; “[a]s second growth develops, the hydrological impact on a site is reduced” (Government of British Columbia, 1996). The height of second growth trees is used to calculate ECA: “[f]or example, a 20 ha block with 6 m tree heights is 50 per cent recovered so the ECA of the block is 10 ha (20 ha x 50 per cent)” (Government of British Columbia, 1996). The ECA, plus the amount of road in a watershed, is then used to calculate the peak flow index, which “describes the risk of a change in peak flows for an entire watershed” (Government of British Columbia, 1996).
Figure 8.19 shows forest cover loss by year, with lighter colours representing older cuts and darker colours representing the most recent cuts. Recent logging along the steep slopes of McLaughlin Ridge is evident (Figure 5.8). As described in Section 5.1, McLaughlin Ridge contains a significant amount of old growth forest, which is typically good at preventing erosion (Gulliver, 2013; Slepian, 2014; Franklin & Spies, 1986). Data for forest gain by year was unavailable.
Maps created using the Hansen et al. Global Forest Change data show where exactly this logging has taken place (Hansen et al., 2013). This data is at a spatial resolution of 30m and shows tree cover extent, gain, and loss (allocated annually) (Hansen et al., 2013). Figure 8.17 shows forest cover extent in the year 2000, acting as a reference point for the other maps. It is important to note that while old growth forest remains in the CCCW, a significant amount also consists of second growth forest. Figure 8.18 shows forest cover gained (in blue) and lost (in red) between Figure 8.17: Forest cover in the China Creek Community Watershed (2000)
Legend Forest Cover (2000)
Bainbridge Lake
0%
Roads Streams
100%
Defined as canopy closure for all Lakes & Rivers vegetation taller than 5m in height
Ch
China Creek Community Watershed
McLa ugh lin R idge in a
McFarland Community Watershed
Creek
Municipal Water Intake Alberni-Clayoquot Regional District Regional District of Nanaimo
Lizard Lake
Cowichan Valley Regional District Public Land under Tree Farm Licence 44 Private Land
Sources: Hansen/UMD/Google/USGS/NASA; DataBC
56
0
1.5
3
6
KM
CHAPTER 8: CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED DESCRIPTION
Figure 8.18: Forest cover loss and gain in the China Creek Community Watershed between 2000 and 2014
LegendCover Loss & Forest Roads Gain (2000–2014)
Bainbridge Lake
Streams
Forest Cover Loss during Lakes &2000–2014 Rivers the period McLa ughl in R Ch
in a
China Creek
Forest Cover Gain during Community Watershed the period 2000–2014
idge
McFarland Community
Watershed Note: From 2000-2014, approximately Municipal Water Intake 18% of the watershed was harvested
Creek
Alberni-Clayoquot Regional District Regional District of Nanaimo
Lizard Lake
Cowichan Valley Regional District Public Land under Tree Farm Licence 44 Private Land
Sources: Hansen/UMD/Google/USGS/NASA; DataBC
0
1.5
3
6
KM
Figure 8.19: Forest cover loss events by year in the China Creek Community Watershed between 2000 and 2014
LegendCover Loss Forest Events byRoads Year
Bainbridge Lake
2000
Ch
Lakes & Rivers
2014
Creek Data encodedChina as either 0 (no loss) Community Watershed or else a value in the range 1-13, McFarland Community representing loss detected primarily Watershed respectively. in the year 2001-2014,
McLa ughl in R idge in a
Streams
Creek
Municipal Water Intake
For example, Alberni-Clayoquot the lightest patches represent forest loss from Regional District 2000-2001, while the darkest Regional District patches represent forest loss from of Nanaimo 2013-2014.
Lizard Lake
Cowichan Valley Regional District
Public Land under Tree Farm Licence 44 Private Land Sources: Hansen/UMD/Google/USGS/NASA; DataBC
0
1.5
3
6
KM
57
CHAPTER 9: REVIEW OF EXISTING STUDIES
9.1 List of Studies
Forest Landowners Association, 2001).
Over the years, numerous studies have been conducted by government agencies, academics, NGOs, and engineering firms on the impact of logging on water quality in the CCCW. Table 9.1 lists the studies that were analyzed as part of this report.; The list is not meant to be exhaustive, as other studies may exist. Table 9.1 also lists the study recipient, i.e. the group who commissioned the study. While each study should, in principle, be scientific and unbiased, it is important to understand a study’s background before assessing its findings. Most of these studies have already been referenced at various points throughout this report, but this chapter will specifically examine their findings with respect to the impact of logging on water quality in the CCCW.
This study contained a number of other useful findings. Horel (1998) states that high turbidity and peak streamflows are closely related in the CCCW; high turbidity typically only lasts for a few days, and turbidity levels decrease rapidly when flows return to normal. Horel (1998) also found that “[t]here is considerable sediment stored in the low-gradient alluvial reaches of the channel available to mobilize and transport downstream during peak flow events,” which at the time of Horel’s writing were the main sources of sediment in the channel (p. 12). Additionally, there is “a low potential for post-harvesting open-slope or gully failures” and a low frequency of post-harvest landslides (Horel, 1998, p. 12). Finally, it should be noted that there are no swamps or lakes to act as sediment sinks along the mainstem or major tributaries, so “events in the watershed are felt directly at the dam” (Horel, 1998, p. 12).
9.2 Coastal Watershed Assessment (CWAP) of China Creek Watershed (1998) This is the most dated study that was examined, so while it provides useful background context, the situation in CCCW today could be quite different than indicated in this study. At the time of this study, private forest lands were still being managed under Tree Farm Licences, so the regulations were different than they are today. Horel (1998) states that riparian impacts “rank high throughout the watershed, reflecting extensive past logging of riparian zones” (p. 9). The logging of erodible channel banks in the alluvial reaches of China Creek caused “increased bank erosion, channel widening and severe sediment aggradation” (Horel, 1998, p. 9). Horel (1998) performed a historical analysis, examining airphotos from 1952 and comparing them to airphotos from 1994, and found that there has been “significant recovery of the channel” (Figure 8.16) (p. 9).
Horel (1998) indicates that the management of the road system is the primary concern with regards to sediment sources in the CCCW. In 1994, there were approximately 99 kilometres of road in the CCCW, giving the watershed a “moderate” road density (Horel, 1998, p. 8). Horel (1998) recommended practicing good road construction and maintenance, deactivating unused roads in a timely manner, assessing stream crossings, stabilizing roads as necessary, and minimizing the construction of new roads.
Figure 9.1: Much of the riparian area in the CCCW’s secondgrowth forest is dominated by alder, which provides insufficient large woody debris for the stream channel.
There are still residual impacts from past logging in riparian areas, including moderate sediment aggradation and some bank erosion in some stream reaches (Horel, 1998). Additionally, alder dominates much of the second growth riparian forest, which is problematic because this species of tree does not provide the same large woody debris that would be deposited in stream channels by coniferous trees (Figure 9.1) (Horel, 1998). This has implications for water quality because, as described in Section 7.1, large woody debris contributes to channel stability, thus reducing erosion and sediment input into streams (Private Managed 59
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
Table 9.1: Existing studies on the China Creek Community Watershed
NAME G. Horel
STUDY AUTHOR TITLE ORGANIZATION P. Eng., Ostapowich Geological Engineering Engineer Services Ltd.
*2005 Watershed assessment – China Creek watershed
Unknown
Unknown
2010
D.A. Koers (Project Manager) C. Buschhaus
P .Eng.
R. Barlak
Water Ministry of Stewardship Environment Division staff
Ministry of Environment
Government
A. Francoeur
BSc. Water Resource Consultant
NGO
G. Butt & K. HughesAdams
M.Sc., Madrone P .Ag., P.Geo. Environmental & M.Eng., P Services Ltd. .Eng.
K. Doll & C. Downey
P.Eng, & P.Eng Koers & Associates Engineering Ltd.
Save Our Valley Alliance Public Education Committee Private Managed Forest Land Council (now Managed Forest Council) City of Port Alberni
YEAR TITLE 1998
2010
2011
2011
2014
†
2016
Coastal Watershed Assessment (CWAP) of China Creek Watershed
Alberni Valley Regional Water Study Update: Final Report China Creek Water Quality: A Comparison Before and After Timber Harvest and Independent Power Project Construction Water Quality Assessment and Objectives for the China Creek Community Watershed (Overview and Technical Reports) Alberni Valley Drinking Water Reference Guide (Mapping Our Legacy project) Forest Practice Standards and Water Quality in Privately Managed Land in the China Creek and Honna River Watersheds Drinking Water Source Assessment and Preliminary Protection Plan Development
B.Sc. Candidate, Forest Sciences
STUDY RECIPIENT NAME CATEGORY MacMillan Forestry Bloedel Limited, Industry West Island Woodlands Division Streamline Weyerhaeuser Forestry Environmental South Island Industry Consulting Ltd. Timberlands and Ostapowich West Island Engineering Services Timberlands Ltd. Koers & Associates AlberniGovernment Engineering Ltd. Clayoquot Regional District Faculty of Forestry, Faculty of Academic University of British Forestry, Columbia University of British Columbia
Consultant
Forestry Industry
Government
* Island Timberland’s Watershed Assessment Plan is a key planning document that describes detailed watershed attributes and harvest plans. Unfortunately, this report is not a public document and, though requested, access was not granted. Therefore, the report was not examined. †
60
This plan was released on June 1, 2016, which was after the research period for this study had ended. Therefore, there was insufficent time to examine it for this study.
CHAPTER 9: REVIEW OF EXISTING STUDIES
temperature (°C), daily maximum air temperature (°C), and daily average specific conductance (μS/cm) showed a statistically significant difference before and after Due to the fact that the Alberni-Clayoquot Regional District disturbance” (p. i). During low flows, stream temperature commissioned this study, it has a regional focus, describing increased by approximately 1°C following disturbance the Alberni Valley water system and assessing future (Buschhaus, 2010, p. i). While it was not shown that stream water quality and quantity requirements. The only specific temperature increased in the summer months following reference to logging and water quality in the CCCW is a harvest disturbance, Moore et al. (2005) indicate that brief description of the watershed assessment that was this is not unusual because “there is a faster temperature carried out by Streamline Environmental Consulting Ltd. response where streams are shallower than in deeper and Ostapowich Engineering Services Ltd. in 2005. This reaches and pools” (as cited in Buschhaus, 2010, p. 26). watershed assessment “reported on the general condition The sonde used to record data is located in an artificial of the watershed, identified impacts of past forest pool on China Creek, so Buschhaus (2010) believes that development activities on the condition of streams, and “it may be that the volume of water buffers changes in provided guidance to develop appropriate management temperature, and hence the impacts of forest harvest in strategies for future forest operations in the watershed increasing stream temperature are only observed during while minimizing such impacts” (Koers and Associates low flows” (p. 26). Engineering Ltd., 2010, p. 21). As mentioned earlier, the 2005 watershed assessment report is not accessible to Both timber harvesting and the construction of the Upnit the public and can only be viewed with permission from hydroelectric project disturbed the CCCW during the study Island Timberlands or the City of Port Alberni (S. Thomas, period. Buschhaus (2010) explains that “[t]he overlapping disturbances make it complicated to determine whether personal communication, May 2, 2016). changes are due to harvesting, [independent power This study also notes the City of Port Alberni meets regularly project] weir intake construction, or natural factors such with forestry companies to discuss harvesting plans and as storm events” (p. 27). Additionally, Buschhaus (2010) mitigation strategies to address water quality concerns, and had incomplete knowledge of harvesting dates, making it that “[i]n general, this has resulted in reasonable protection difficult to make comparisons to other watershed studies.
9.3 Alberni Valley Regional Water Study Update: Final Report (2010)
of the public water supply” (p. 22). However, the authors do encourage Port Alberni “to strive for stricter control measures in the watershed, if not future ownership” (Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2010, p. 22).
9.4 China Creek Water Quality: A Comparison Before and After Timber Harvest and Independent Power Project Construction (2010) A student in the Faculty of Forestry at the University of British Columbia conducted this study, and as such it takes a very technical approach to the analysis of water quality, relying on statistical analysis of stream temperature and water chemistry. Additionally, the study focuses on chemical and biological water quality, as opposed to physical water quality (the primary focus of this report). However, there are still useful findings to report. Buschhaus (2010) found that “[m]odelled relationships between key physical variables collected at the Port Alberni water intake weir, including daily maximum stream
According to Moore et al. (2005), even if the harvest information had been comprehensive, the comparison of logging impacts across different watersheds and studies can be very complex due to variations in watershed characteristics (as cited in Buschhaus, 2010). These characteristics can cause compounding effects: for example, a change in vegetation type may alter the watershed’s hydrology and increase shading on a stream (Buschhaus, 2010). This was discussed in one of the Carnation Creek studies, as “the physical conditions that changed with logging recovered at different rates” (Buschhaus, 2010, p. 28). Carnation Creek is an experimental watershed located approximately 20 km northeast of Bamfield on the south shore of Barkley Sound, relatively close to Port Alberni (Tschaplinski, 2010). Since the 1970s, the watershed has been used to analyze the impacts of logging on water quality in the Vancouver Island context (Tschaplinski, 2010). Due to its proximity to the CCCW, the Carnation Creek experiments could serve as a good comparison to the CCCW; due to time constraints, however, a detailed 61
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
analysis of these experiments was not included in this study. Figure 9.2: CCCW users are warned to respect the water Buschhaus (2010) states that there was “insufficient data to conclude whether significant changes in chemical or biological water quality measures occurred after disturbance in the watershed by timber harvest and a power plant weir construction” (p. 31). However, regardless of whether or not these changes were caused by logging, power plant construction, or some other factor, overall water quality measures “remained largely below BC Water Quality Guidelines,” meaning that the water was safe to treat and consume (Buschhaus, 2010, p. 31).
9.5 Water Quality Assessment and Objectives for the China Creek Community Watershed (Overview and Technical Reports) (2011)
Mining was identified as a risk, with the author recommending “continued monitoring for metals” in order to ensure the protection of aquatic life, which is especially sensitive to mining inputs (Barlak, 2011a, p. 19). The study For this Ministry of Environment study, water quality was also states that “the history of mining activities within the monitored between 1998 and 2005 (Barlak, 2011b). watershed, coupled with the possibility of future mining, It is worth noting that since 2005, logging has increased suggest that acid rock drainage may be a concern and pH significantly in the CCCW (see Section 8.4.5 of this should be monitored on an ongoing basis” (Barlak, 2011b, report). Additionally, the report states that “[a]s there was p .18). little activity upstream of the China Creek Port Alberni intake during the time of this study site, [all water quality] Road runoff is seen as a potential source of turbidity, objectives [proposed in this study] were developed using especially during road grading and construction (Barlak, the background concentration approach, whereby data 2011a). In 2004, the length of roads in the CCCW measured collected from this site up until December 2004 reflects the 123.2 km, meaning that about 24 km had been constructed natural or background conditions in the watershed” (Barlak, since 1998 (Barlak, 2011b). Of the 123.2 km of roadway, 2011a, p. 21). Nonetheless, “[t]he results of this monitoring the study indicates that “7.2 km was considered to have a indicated that the overall state of the water quality is very high sediment delivery potential, 10.9 km was considered good,” as “[a]ll chemical, physical and biological parameters to have a moderate sediment delivery potential, 5.7 km a meet provincial water quality guidelines with the exception low sediment delivery potential and the remainder (99.4 of turbidity and Escherichia coli, which exceeded the km) a very low sediment delivery potential” (Barlak, 2011b, drinking water guidelines on occasion” (Barlak, 2011b). p. 11). The study describes the impact of the various land uses in the CCCW. For example, the study address the risks posed by recreation, which include the possibility of water contamination from vehicle fuel and fecal waste from humans and domestic animals (Barlak, 2011a). It indicates that while no studies have been conducted on the impact of recreation within the CCCW, “they are likely to be significant due to the high use of the area by ATV vehicles and other recreational users” (Figure 9.2) (Barlak, 2011a). Wildlife in the watershed also poses a risk of water contamination from microorganisms such as Giardia lamblia (Barlak, 2011a).
62
The Ministry of Environment report states “[t]urbidity is a significant water quality concern in China Creek, as elevated turbidity levels force the City of Port Alberni to switch to an alternative water source” (Barlak, 2011b, p. 22). However, the study found that turbidity levels based on Ministry of Environment readings “are generally very good throughout the year” (Barlak, 2011a, p. 19). Turbidity values ranged from <0.1 NTU to 5.5 NTU and averaged only 0.6 NTU for the 43 samples collected throughout the Ministry of Environment monitoring program (Barlak, 2011b). Elevated levels tended to occur in the winter months and were typically associated with rainfall events (Barlak, 2011a).
CHAPTER 9: REVIEW OF EXISTING STUDIES
The study also examines turbidity data collected by the City of Port Alberni between 1994 and 1997, finding that “maximum monthly turbidity values exceeded 5 NTU on nine occasions, always between the months of October and March when peak flows occur, with a maximum value of 50 NTU recorded in November 1995” (Barlak, 2011b, p. 22). Furthermore, automated data collected between 2003 and 2005 shows that turbidity remained below one NTU for over 94 percent of the time (see Table 9.2) (Barlak, 2011b). Turbidity exceeded five NTU only 3.7 percent of the time (Barlak, 2011b). However, the study explains that “[t]urbidity is notoriously difficult to measure accurately with automated equipment due to the wide variety of factors that can affect measurements, including fish and other aquatic organisms, algae, and air bubbles” (Barlak, 2011b, p. 22). The study emphasizes that when considering the impact of turbidity on drinking water,“[i]t is important to consider not
Table 9.2: Summary of automated turbidity data measured at China Creek at City of Port Alberni intake station from May 2003 to Feb 2005 (Barlak, 2011b)
TURBIDITY (NTU) ≤1 > 1, ≤ 5 > 5, ≤ 10 > 10, ≤ 50 > 50 TOTAL:
NUMBER
%
CUMULATIVE %
52,933 1,066 442 1,016 593 56,050
94.4% 1.9% 0.8% 1.8% 1.1% 100.0%
94.4% 96.3% 97.1% 98.9% 100.0%
only the total amount of time the criterion was exceeded, but also how long each exceedance lasted”—for example, a turbidity event of five consecutive hours is more likely to affect water quality than five one-hour events that are spaced apart (Barlak, 2011b, p. 23). Figure 9.3 shows that turbidity events in the CCCW occurred mostly in the fall
Figure 9.3: Turbidity levels in China Creek between May 2003 and January 2005 as measured on 15-minute intervals by the automated water quality monitoring sation near the City of Port Albrni intake. Due to equipment malfunction, data gaps exist for the winter of 2004.
63
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
and winter and were of relatively short duration (Barlak, 2011b).
9.6 Alberni Valley Drinking Water Reference Guide (Mapping Our Legacy As part of the study, the Ministry of Environment set a project) (2011) number of water quality objectives for the CCCW (see Table 9.3). The study states that these objectives “provide direction for resource managers, serve as a guide for issuing permits, licences, and orders by MOE, and establish benchmarks for assessing the Ministry’s performance in protecting water quality” (Barlak, 2011b, p. 1). The objectives are guidelines rather than requirements; binding water quality legislation is found in the Ministry of Health’s DWPA, as outlined in Chapter 6.
This report provides an extensive overview of drinking water issues in the Alberni Valley, including watershed history, pertinent legislation, and the water systems and requirements of each community. Chapter 4.1 of the study discusses Port Alberni’s water system, conducting an asset inventory and describing the water testing procedures. Section 4.1.5 contains “identified threats to water supply” (Francoeur, 2011, p. 133).
On a related note, more recent City of Port Alberni water quality data indicates similar trends to those found in the Ministry of Environment report. Figure 9.4 displays all turbidity levels between January 2004 and August 2014 as recorded at the China Creek Intake Turbidity Meter (City of Port Alberni, 2014). During this time, a total of 2,380 measurements were taken, which covers 60% of all days. Turbidity exceeded one NTU only 114 times (4.8% of total readings) and exceeded five NTU only 13 times (0.5% of total readings) (City of Port Alberni, 2014). The incidences of turbidity exceeding 5 NTU occurred predominantly between 2005 and 2007, with the last reading over 5 NTU coming in January of 2012 (City of Port Alberni, 2014).
Francoeur (2011) indicates that these are “real and perceived” threats that have been identified by a combination of her own research and that of the Save Our Valley Alliance Public Education Committee, “an Alberni Valley alliance that invites participation from volunteer organizations, individual citizens, all levels of government, First Nations, labour groups, and the business sector” (Save Our Valley Alliance, 2016). These identified threats are climate change, the lack of a watershed protection plan, the lack of zoning bylaws to protect the watershed, the lack of community involvement, and the industrial operations occurring within the watershed (Francoeur, 2011). Francoeur (2011) also identifies challenges to water management in B.C.: accountability, legislative continuity,
Table 9.3: Summary of proposed Water Quality Objectives for the China Creek Community Watershed
VARIABLE Escherichia coli Turbidity pH Temperature True colour Total organic carbon Non-filterable residue (TSS)
OBJECTIVE VALUE ≤ CFU/100 mL (90th percentile) Dec-Sept (based on a minimum 5 weekly samples collected over a 30-day period) October to April: 5 NTU maximum May to September: 2 NTU maximum 6.5 - 8.5 pH units 15°C maximum (long-term) 15 TCU maximum 4.0 mg/L maximum October to April: 28 mg/L maximum in a 24-hour period 8 mg/L average (based on a minimum of five weekly samples collected over a 30-day period) May to September: 26 mg/L maximum in a 24-hour period 6 mg/L average (based on a minimum of five weekly samples collected over a 30-day period)
Designated water uses: drinking water, aquatic life, and wildlife 64
CHAPTER 9: REVIEW OF EXISTING STUDIES
Figure 9.4: Turbidity levels in China Creek between January 2004 and August 2014 recorded at the City of Port Albrni intake 22 20 18 16
12 10 8
Turbidity (NTU)
14
6 4 2 0 2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Date
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Data Source: City of Port Alberni, 2014
enforcement, funding, and sustainable water use. These will be discussed further in Chapter 11.
above the coastal average in areas of terrain stability, blowdown, and hydrological assessments” and was in high compliance with its forest certification standards (Private Managed Forest Land Council, 2014). There were “minor 9.7 Forest Practice Standards and Water isolated instances of sediment generation relating to road Quality in Privately Managed Land in the construction and maintenance, bridge maintenance, and China Creek and Honna River Watersheds riparian blowdown which could cumulatively impact water (2014) quality,” but “outside of legacy issues associated with past forest management activities, it was the development of This Madrone Environmental Services Ltd. Study, conducted non forest related industries (e.g. independent power by Butt and Hughes-Adams, was initiated by the Managed projects, abandoned mines) that could possibly have the Forest Council in response to forest management concerns greatest impact on water quality and fisheries resources from the Forest Practices Board (Butt & Hughes-Adams, in the watersheds that were studied” (Private Managed 2014). The study consisted of a one-day field visit, a review Forest Land Council, 2014). of past studies, and interviews with “key operational staff members of the private managed forest land owner Butt and Hughes-Adams (2014) found “isolated instances (Island Timberlands)” (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014, p. 1). of sediment generation,” including (p. ii): Importantly, Butt and Hughes-Adams admit that “[t]he assessment is subjective: no specific measurements were • Sloughing cutbanks depositing sediment in ditches taken; we did not quantitatively evaluate the effectiveness that will eventually deliver sediment to streams of riparian buffers, nor measure turbidity above and below • Culvert intakes (and outlets) being partially buried stream crossings” (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014, p. 1). by fill because roads were built wider than necessary • Bridges acting as collection points for wheel-splash The study found that Island Timberlands was “performing sediment accumulations in some cases from water 65
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
•
flowing down adjacent road grades. Blowdown along riparian areas disturbing channel banks or on gully sidewalls triggering small slides that deliver debris to streams
The authors explain that while these issues are very minor in isolation, “collectively there will likely be cumulative effects on water quality, although these would be very difficult to quantify” (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014, p. ii). Another issue identified was that blowdown was in some cases limiting the effectiveness of riparian buffers, with one particular incident in 2006 resulting in debris accumulation in the municipal water intake (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014). However, Butt and Hughes-Adams (2014) state that blowdown was insignificant in the majority of the watershed’s riparian buffers. The study indicates that while turbidity occasionally exceeds the water quality objectives for the CCCW, these “[e] xceedances only occur for short durations associated with heavy rainfall” and “[i]t is not clear that these exceedances are associated with land use activities” (Butt & HughesAdams, 2014, p. iii). In response to concerns about turbidity in the watershed, Butt & Hughes-Adams said the following (2014, p. iii): All logging operations cause elevated turbidity over and above natural levels. While the City of Port Alberni water purveyor may believe that IT operations are a principal cause of periodic high turbidity, it would be very difficult to disentangle the source of turbidity from ‘legacy’ issues (China and Queen Charlotte mainlines), background turbidity (such as naturally occurring avalanches in the upper watershed) and operations for which IT is not responsible…. The amount of data that would be required to disentangle the sedimentation caused by IT’s activities from the confounding factors made it impractical to measure the results of those activities, at least within the time and budgetary constraints [under] which this report was prepared. Legacy issues, as mentioned in the passage above, are a major focal point in the Butt & Hughes-Adams study. Legacy issues are things that occurred prior to Island Timberlands taking possession of the land and prior to current forestry regulations being in place. For example, the China Creek Main road, which was built prior to existing regulations, is identified as a significant sediment risk, as it was constructed too close to the mainstem stream channel and therefore lacks adequate riparian buffering (Figures 9.5 and 9.6) (Butt 66
& Hughes-Adams, 2014).Truck traffic along this road during heavy rain results in sediment deposition in China Creek (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014). However, roads such as this are “grandfathered” into the watershed as legacy features and are not subject to the regulations (Butt & HughesAdams, 2014, p. 19). Another legacy problem is that of the alder-dominated second growth in riparian areas, which was discussed in Section 9.2. Butt and Hughes-Adams (2014) explain that China Creek is “depauperate in effective LWD [large woody debris], and has been for decades” (p. 33). This large woody debris “might offer opportunities for storing some of the suspended sediment responsible for turbidity Figure 9.5: China Creek Main road. Island Timberlands has placed riprap on the road side to stabilize the channel, because the road was built too close to the channel.
Figure 9.6: A breach in the grader berm along China Creek Main road allows sediment-laden water to flow into the creek.
CHAPTER 9: REVIEW OF EXISTING STUDIES
(e.g. very fine sand)” (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014, p.33). Additionally, alders do not provide the same bank stability as large conifer roots, so there is greater potential for channel erosion (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014). Overall, this study is quite complimentary of Island Timberland’s forestry practices. The authors state that “IT has done its homework with respect to management of hazardous terrain and watershed assessment; in our opinion they have made investments in knowledge well above the industry standard. We have not seen a higher level of [cut]block and road layout, mapping and instruction to contractors” (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014, p.39).
Furthermore, they explain that while there are minor improvements in forestry practices that could be made, “IT is a business that cannot operate for sustained periods with a loss and as such must always consider costs in all activities” (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014, p.39). One final interesting point addressed in the study is the observation that whereas in the past, water quality was strongly influenced by a small number of high-magnitude events, today water quality in watersheds is more often “influenced by the cumulative effects of many small sources” (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014, p.40).
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This section of the report steps outside of the Port Alberni area and briefly examines other watersheds, both near and far. The CCCW is certainly not the only watershed in the world, or even on Vancouver Island for that matter, to run into issues of land use and water quality. The case studies that follow are divided into two categories: “unprotected watersheds” like the CCCW, where a number of different land uses and users are allowed within the watershed boundaries, and “protected watersheds,” which purposefully restrict all human access (other than for the purposes of operating a municipal water intake).These case studies focus primarily on examples that are local to the Coastal B.C. area, but a few notable international examples are also included.
10.1 Unprotected Watersheds
Figure 10.1: City of Nanaimo’s new $70 million filtration facility
stated that “[i]t is our belief that if the watershed was not privately owned by Island Timberlands and Timber West and all but clear-cut, we would have never needed our multi-million dollar water filtration plant” (J. Ross, personal communication, April 26, 2016).
June Ross and Paul Manly, a documentary filmmaker with Manly Media, have expressed concerns about the City The City of Nanaimo gets its drinking water from the Jump of Nanaimo’s lack of control over the privately-owned Lake Community Watershed (JLCW) (Regional District of watershed, as “[t]here are no written agreements with Nanaimo, 2016). The water source is the South Fork of the logging companies that guarantee the city access to the Nanaimo River, which has been dammed to create the the watershed” (Cunningham, 2015; Manly Media, 2013). Jump Lake Reservoir (Regional District of Nanaimo, 2016). Those who share similar concerns in Port Alberni are The JLCW shares many similarities with the CCCW; as worried that if logging in the CCCW continues, the city part of the E & N Land Grant, the watershed has long been will eventually have to purchase a filtration plant just like private land and is now owned by Island Timberlands and Nanaimo’s or else pursue an alternative source, which TimberWest (City of Nanaimo, 2016b; Manly, 2014). The would also be costly. watershed has been actively logged since 1943 (Turner, However, Bill Sims, the City of Nanaimo Water Resources 1990). Manager, explains that “this is a far more complex issue than In April 2015, the City of Nanaimo opened a new Water drawing a straight line between forestry and the need to Treatment Plant with filtration technology, which cost build a filtration plant. This is a popular and understandably upwards of $70 million to construct (Figure 10.1) (City intuitive line to draw, but it is simply not that simple. of Nanaimo, 2016a; General Electric Canada Inc., 2016). The reality is that they are two separate issues” (B. Sims, The facility was built in order to comply with the VIHA personal communication, April 25, 2016). Sims explains regulations that were implemented in 2008 (City of that raw water quality in Nanaimo has improved—not Nanaimo, 2016a). According to the City of Nanaimo decreased—over the years, but “public expectation and (2016a), filtration deferral—the option that Port Alberni regulations have evolved to a much higher standard,” is pursuing—was not possible because the City’s water culminating with the VIHA regulations in 2008 (B. Sims, source turbidity “exceeds 1 NTU an average of 35 days per personal communication, April 25, 2016).
10.1.1 Regional District of Nanaimo
year, and exceeds 5 NTU 5-8 days per year,” with extreme weather occasionally raising turbidity above 50 NTU (City of Nanaimo, 2016a). Additionally, Nanaimo was only using a single disinfection treatment (chlorine), whereas two are required for deferral (City of Nanaimo, 2016a).
Many community members and environmental groups claim that logging in the JLCW is what necessitated investment in the costly filtration facility. June Ross, Acting Chair of the Vancouver Island Water Watch Coalition, has
According to Sims, “there is likely relatively little direct impact from harvesting activities” in Nanaimo’s drinking watershed,” and he observed, “current forestry practices are actually being managed from the viewpoint of protecting drinking water quality and environmental values” (B. Sims, personal communication, April 25, 2016). Instead, changes in turbidity in the watershed are largely due to heavy rainfall and rapid snowmelt (B. Sims, personal communication, April 25, 2016). Sims indicated that while the watershed 69
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
is a large 200 km2 area, the drinking water ends up being funnelled through a narrow 50 m wide canyon towards the municipal water intake (B. Sims, personal communication, April 25, 2016). During heavy precipitation and snowmelt, river levels can rise rapidly, causing scour and sediment transport (B. Sims, personal communication, April 25, 2016). Sims stated “[t]he relative land area that is logged and ‘exposed’ to the elements at any given time is very small, relative to the size of the watershed” (B. Sims, personal communication, April 25, 2016). Additionally, Sims explained that on Vancouver Island, there has not been the same level of investment in drinking water systems as elsewhere in B.C. because historically, water quality has always been “very good,” especially compared to other parts of the continent (B. Sims, personal communication, April 25, 2016). Many people across the Island feel that water quality is already “good enough” and “are struggling to understand the need for filtration plants” (B. Sims, personal communication, April 25, 2016). Sims emphasized that “untreated water from Nanaimo’s watershed, even during turbidity events, is of good quality,” but that still does not guarantee safety for all users, especially vulnerable segments of the population such as infants, the elderly, and the immunocompromised (B. Sims, personal communication, April 25, 2016). Therefore, the VIHA regulations are simply a “raising of the bar” to ensure that water quality is sufficiently safe (B. Sims, personal communication, April 25, 2016).
responsible jurisdictions along the shore of Comox Lake, and the watershed is a popular recreational destination (Figure 10.2) (Comox Valley Regional District, 2016). On top of that, there is active logging throughout the watershed as well as hydroelectric power generation (Comox Valley Regional District, 2016). Due to the VIHA regulations, Comox Valley is considering the construction of a filtration plant, which is estimated to cost between $50 and $70 million (Caulfield, 2015; Slepian, 2015b). Logging around Comox Lake began around 1929 near the shoreline and moved inland after 1934 when railroad logging took over as the harvesting system (Mackie, 2009). Railroad logging continued until the 1940s, at which point truck logging began (E. Piikkila, personal communication, June 5, 2016). Truck logging lasted until the 1980s, when the remaining old growth was deemed too expensive to harvest and the second growth was not yet old enough to harvest (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 6, 2016). In 1995, the logging returned to the watershed thanks to the use of helicopter logging and mechanical harvesting, which allowed for cost-effective harvesting (E. Piikkila, personal communication, May 6, 2016). Logging continues to this day, but this study has not identified a link between logging and the need for filtration in the Comox Valley.
A watershed assessment was completed by CH2M Hill in 2006 and describes a number of potential hazards to water quality from land uses within the watershed. The report indicates that land use in the watershed “is While the filtration plant was an expensive investment for dominated by the forestry industry, with the majority of the City of Nanaimo, Sims said that it is worth it: “[i]f you the uplands surrounding Comox Lake Reservoir being were to conduct a survey of citizens and municipal water privately-owned lands managed for forestry” along with a suppliers, I’d wager that very few people would suggest number of forestry properties in the lower portions of that having water quality of the highest standard isn’t of the watershed (CH2M Hill, 2006, p. 3-2). The two major the utmost importance” (B. Sims, personal communication, forestry companies are TimberWest and Hancock Timber April 25, 2016). He indicated that the City has received Resource Group, which together own 65 percent of the positive feedback from Nanaimo citizens about the watershed (CH2M Hill, 2006; Gower, 2016). upgraded water quality and “very few complaints (zero) about having clearer, better tasting water with less chlorine” The watershed assessment report identifies transportation (B. Sims, personal communication, April 25, 2016). on logging roads over the Puntledge River Bridge as well as near the Puntledge River as some of highest risk contaminant sources in the watershed (CH2M Hill, 2006). 10.1.2 Comox Valley Regional District The other highest risk sources identified were boating on Another community affected by the historic E & N Land the Puntledge River and intentional harm to the water Grant, the Comox Lake Watershed is also a “multi-use source (CH2M Hill, 2006). The assessment report also watershed with multiple owners,” which poses significant indicates that mining, agriculture, residential developments, management challenges for the Comox Valley Regional and recreation are all potential sources of contamination District (CVRD) (Comox Valley Regional District, 2016). (CH2M Hill, 2006). There are nine different categories of landowners or 70
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Figure 10.2: Comox Lake is a popular destination for recreation
To address the management of the watershed, the CVRD prepared the Comox Lake Watershed Protection Plan (WPP), an updated and more intensive version of the CH2M Hill plan that was approved in April 2016 but was not yet publically available at the time of writing. However, Tanis Gower, a Registered Professional Biologist from the Comox Valley who works on projects for the Watershed Watch Salmon Society, has reviewed the new WPP. Gower (2016) explains that the WPP identifies 29 different risks of various severities and reports that “[t]he risk relating to logging extent and locations is “high,” while off-road vehicle use, camping in undesignated areas, wildfire, flooding and augmentation/concentration of streamflows are the risk factors that are “very high.”” Most of the 54 recommendations in the WPP deal with aspects other than logging, which Gower says is unsurprising given that the CVRD has no jurisdiction over logging practices on private land (Gower, 2016). According to Gower (2016), “[d]rinking water quality is a hot topic in the Comox Valley, especially since we taxpayers will be required to pay for upgrades to our water
system.” She poses the question: “[h]as our drinking water quality declined over time, or have standards changed? It looks to be a bit of both” (Gower, 2016). David Stapley, Project Manager for the Comox Valley Conservation Strategy Community Partnership, contends that “slides that deposited sediment into a creek may have been caused by the cumulative impacts of a century of timber harvesting, even when the loggers are observing best forest management practices” (Shore, 2015). Additionally, many community members have written letters to local newspapers and have posted online “rants” that blame logging for the deposition of sediment into Comox Lake (Shore, 2015). Despite this concern from community members, water quality in Comox Lake is generally good. Marc Rutten, General Manager of Engineering Services at the CVRD, explains that high turbidity during storm events is the number one issue for water quality (Caulfield, 2015).These storms occur frequently enough that turbidity ratings exceed VIHA requirements (Gower, 2016). While storms are a natural phenomenon, environmental groups such 71
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
as the Comox Valley Conservation Strategy Community Partnership are concerned that “extreme weather events are coming more frequently than ever and that simply logging by existing rules and regulations may not be good enough in a changing world” (Shore, 2015).
10.2 Protected Watersheds 10.2.1 Capital Regional District The Capital Regional District (CRD), home to the city of Victoria, has a vastly different watershed management situation than Port Alberni, Nanaimo, or the Comox Valley. The Sooke and Goldstream watersheds currently supply drinking water to the CRD, with the Leech Watershed reserved as a future source for when additional capacity is required (Capital Regional District, 2016).The vast majority of each of these watersheds is owned by the CRD: the Sooke is 98 percent CRD-owned, the Goldstream 97 percent, and the Leech 92 percent (A. Constabel, personal communication, May 10, 2016). As such, the regional district has total control over these watersheds, as opposed to the above case studies where regional districts and municipalities have little to no jurisdiction over their own watersheds. Currently in the CRD, watershed access is fully restricted: there is no commercial forest harvesting, no mining, and no recreation allowed within the Sooke and Goldstream watersheds, with the water intake being the only anthropogenic use (Figure 10.3) (A. Constabel, personal communication, May 10, 2016). In the Leech watershed, which is not yet being used as a water source, there are placer and mineral tenures as well as limited recreational use.
the Goldstream and Sooke Lake watersheds (Sooke Region Museum, 1990).The Sooke Lake watershed harvesting was to occur in the Leechtown area (Sooke Region Museum, 1990). In 1928, another logging company began logging operations near Sooke Lake, and in 1934, a cash-strapped City of Victoria issued more harvesting permits to the second company for logging in the Goldstream Watershed for the small sum of $62,000 on the condition that no logging would occur within 400 feet of a lake shore and that the company would minimize and take responsibility for any fire hazards (Sooke Region Museum, 1990). Another company was logging near the Sooke Road summit in the 1920s and 1930s (Sooke Region Museum, 1990). All of these logging companies used Railroad Logging systems (Sooke Region Museum, 1990). A fourth logging company began operations south of the Leechtown area in 1934 but used logging trucks on a planked road (Sooke Region Museum, 1990). In 1938, this last company used gravel logging roads to begin logging in the Leech River drainage system (Sooke Region Museum, 1990). In the 1950s, the Greater Victoria Water District continued logging in the watersheds and using the timber sale profits to fund infrastructure construction and maintenance (A. Constabel, personal communication, May 10, 2016). Harvesting continued until the early 1990s, when a controversial and highly-publicised court case resulted in a moratorium on logging (A. Constabel, personal communication, May 10, 2016; Manly Media, 2013). Ms. Constabel notes that while this decision was celebrated as a victory for environmentalists against the logging of watersheds, the verdict in the court case did not rule whether or not logging is harmful to watersheds (A. Constabel, personal communication, May 10, 2016). Rather,
As with the previous examples, the CRD’s watersheds Figure 103: The water intake on Sooke Lake is the only were at one point included in the E & N Land Grant. In anthropogeic use allowed in the watershed 1915, the CRD decided to acquire the Sooke watershed, followed by the Goldstream watershed in 1925; the CRD purchased most of the land and expropriated the rest (A. Constabel, personal communication, May 10, 2016). Annette Constabel, Senior Manager of Watershed Protection with the CRD, believes that the vision behind this historic purchase was simply that controlling what happens in the watershed is the best way to protect the land and the water that it provides (A. Constabel, personal communication, May 10, 2016). However, in 1926, the City of Victoria issued a timber harvesting agreement with the first logging company to log 72
CHAPTER 10: EXTERNAL CASE STUDIES
the case was won on a technicality related to the water While this may be true, managing three large watersheds district’s authority to sell timber products (A. Constabel, certainly comes with a cost. The CRD has an entire personal communication, May 10, 2016). division of 24 full time employees dedicated to watershed protection (A. Constabel, personal communication, May Nonetheless, logging in the watershed was halted, and 10, 2016). CRD staff deals with all sorts of issues, from since that time, the CRD watersheds have been under invasive species management to watershed security (A. strict management—“you can’t even walk your dog up to Constabel, personal communication, May 10, 2016). These Sooke Lake” (Coste, 2015). Ms. Constabel explains that this are things that are dealt with, and paid for, by the private is necessary because the CRD’s water treatment system landowner—i.e., the forestry companies—in the Nanaimo, does not include filtration. The system therefore has little Comox Valley, and Port Alberni watersheds. However, the capacity to deal with large sediment inputs, meaning that CRD’s philosophy is that it is ultimately less expensive the watersheds must remain in pristine condition (A. (and more environmentally friendly) to spend resources Constabel, personal communication, May 10, 2016). on source water protection than on filtration facilities (A. Constabel, personal communication, May 10, 2016). According to Jack Hull, former General Manager of Integrated Water Services with the CRD, water treatment 10.2.2 Metro Vancouver costs in the CRD are very low because the watershed is fully protected and also because their water sources Metro Vancouver’s drinking water comes from the were of very high quality to begin with (Manly Media, Capilano, Seymour, and Coquitlam watersheds, all of which 2013). Based on the success of this arrangement, the CRD are owned by Metro Vancouver and closed to the public decided to purchase the Leech watershed in 2007 and to protect them from erosion, pollution, fire, and other 2010 so that it could be restored and protected for future hazards (Metro Vancouver, 2015). Railroad logging began use (A. Constabel, personal communication, May 10, 2016; in the Capilano watershed in 1918 and continued until Manly Media, 2013). Prior to the purchase, 95 percent 1934 when the Capilano Timber Company dissolved after of the Leech was logged, so the CRD “is undertaking several disastrous forest fires and increasing environmental an extensive watershed restoration program to prepare conditions imposed by the Vancouver Water District (Reesfor future water supply needs” (Capital Regional District, Thomas, 1979; E. Piikkila, personal communications May 6, 2016). 2016). The regional district took control of the watersheds in 1927, and Water District Commissioner E.A. Cleveland Interestingly, even fully protected watersheds can invite is credited with putting a stop to logging in the watersheds complaints from the public. Upon purchase of the (Smith, 2006). Leech watershed, some elected officials and community members argued that recreation by permit should be Logging in the watersheds resumed in the1960s and allowed in the watershed until such a time that the area continued for almost 40 years (B.C. Tap Water Association is actually needed for drinking water supply (A. Constabel, (BCTWA), n.d.). A public campaign by the Western Canada personal communication, May 10, 2016). Those arguing for Wilderness Committee (now known as the Wilderness recreational access say that the watershed likely won’t be Committee) in 1988 brought attention to logging in the needed for at least 27 years, during which time community watersheds, which contributed to the initiation of a public members “can continue to access these lands that were enquiry in 1991 and, eventually, a halt to logging in 1995 purchased on their behalf in a safe way to provide for their (B.C. Tap Water Association (BCTWA), n.d.). quality of life” (Cleverley, 2016). At the time of writing, a final management decision on the Leech watershed had Like the CRD, Metro Vancouver now has a fully protected not yet been made (A. Constabel, personal communication, watershed. However, unlike the CRD, Metro Vancouver May 10, 2016). recently installed a filtration plant. The Seymour Capilano Filtration Plant was completed in 2009 and filters water Postel and Thompson (2005) explain that compared to the from the Seymour and Capilano watersheds (Metro construction of costly filtration infrastructure, proactive Vancouver, 2013). This is the largest filtration plant in watershed protection is a relatively inexpensive alternative Canada, with the capacity to produce 1.8 billion litres of to filtration and provides myriad other benefits, such filtered water per day (Metro Vancouver, 2013). as carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation. 73
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
10.2.3 Notable International Examples Numerous examples of watershed protection exist around the world, and providing a comprehensive overview of these cases is beyond the scope of this report. However, Postel and Thompson (2005) have provided a useful overview of some of the best examples of filtration avoidance in the U.S., where municipalities have been able to avoid the construction of expensive water filtration facilities by protecting their watersheds.Table X International Examples [POSTEL] (Postel & Thompson, 2005) lists these examples and shows how much money each city saved as a result of their actions.
City’s Watershed Protection Program “is by far the largest scheme in the world putting into effect direct payments by a beneficiary of hydrological services to the providers of those services” and “[i]t demonstrates that watershed protection can be a highly cost-effective alternative to technological treatment in meeting specific water quality standards” (Postel and Thompson, 2005, p. 105).
New York City’s Watershed Protection Program includes restoration on hundreds of thousands of acres in upper New York State and is based on a 2007 Filtration Avoidance Determination (FAD). The FAD includes a voluntary Watershed Forestry program that “provides financial incentives and technical assistance to loggers, Cities such as Boston and Seattle were able to achieve foresters, and landowners to encourage the protection these savings because their municipal water authorities and restoration of riparian buffers through long-term forest owned their watersheds, as in Metro Vancouver and stewardship” (NY State Department of Health, 2011). The the CRD. New York City’s Catskill-Delaware watershed, Watershed Forestry Program’s primary purpose “is to however, is 75 percent privately owned, so the state has maintain unfragmented forested land and promote the relied on “a multi-faceted agreement with watershed use of management practices to prevent non-point source communities,” purchasing land from willing sellers and pollution during timber harvests” (NY State Department negotiating contracted conservation easements in many of Health, 2011). This is an interesting model of watershed other cases (Postel and Thompson, 2005, p. 99). New York protection that deserves further examination. Table 10.1: Selected US cities that have avoided construction of filtration plants through watershed protection
METROPOLITAN AREA New York City
74
POPULATION (thousands) 9,000
Boston, Massachusetts Seattle, Washington Portland, Oregon
2,300 1,300 825
Portland, Maine
160
Syracuse, New York Auburn, Maine
150 23
AVOIDED COSTS THROUGH WATERSHED PROTECTION $1.5 billion spent on watershed protection over 10 years to avoid at least $6 billion in capital costs and $300 million in annual operating costs. The City is currently being required to construct a $687 million filtration plant for the more-developed Croton watershed, which supplies about 10% of the city’s water. The filtration waiver applies to the Catskills/ Delaware watershed, which supplies 90% of the city’s water. $180 million (gross) avoided cost $150-200 million (gross) avoided cost $920,000 spent annually to protect watershed is avoiding $200 million capital cost $729,000 spent annually to protect watershed has avoided $25 million in capital costs and $725,000 in operating costs $10 million watershed plan is avoiding $45-60 million in capital costs $570,000 spent to acquire watershed land is avoiding $30 million cost and $750,000 in annual operating costs
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
11.1 Overview of Results
11.2 Questions of Interest
The story of logging and water quality in the CCCW is complex, with a plethora of factors at play both within the watershed itself and out in the greater Port Alberni community. Based on the scientific literature, government reports, and numerous studies, logging within a watershed clearly poses a potential risk to water quality and many other environmental and cultural elements if proper forest management practices are not followed.The likelihood and severity of these risks is dependent on multiple factors, including climate, topography, and harvesting technique, so the actual outcome of harvesting will be watershed-specific or even site-specific. This makes it difficult to apply the findings of a study in one watershed to another watershed, even if they are in close proximity to one another.
11.2.1 Are provincial institutions and legislation adequately managing source water and protecting community watershed ecosystems in British Columbia?
The review of existing CCCW studies presented in Chapter 9 found that at the moment, logging in the CCCW is not impacting water quality to any significant degree. Various studies found evidence of sedimentation from roads and landslides, but it was difficult to isolate and identify the actual source(s) of the turbidity in the water. Additionally, water quality was shown to be relatively good in the CCCW. During a 2014 assessment of Crown land activities in the CCCW, which was part of the broader special investigation of community watersheds, a number of roads belonging to Island Timberlands or TimberWest were observed and appeared to be well managed with no obvious signs of erosion or sedimentation into creeks (D. Wahl, personal communication, May 3, 2016).
Forestry and watershed protection are indeed complex subjects, so it follows that the corresponding legislation would also be complex. However, if the legislation is too difficult to navigate, this could potentially lead to inefficiencies or mistakes. Francoeur (2011) explains that in B.C., it is difficult to determine “which government agencies have which responsibilities and to whom they are accountable,” noting that “[a]t each level of governance, multiple acts and regulations exist, many of which contain escape clauses embedded in other pieces of legislation enacted by other government ministries and departments” (p. 36).
As described throughout this report, the legislative framework dealing with the issue of logging and water quality is relatively complex. Numerous regulations, acts, and provincial ministries each address small pieces of the puzzle, but there is no single department nor act that has the authority to manage it all. This web of legislation can be difficult to untangle, as are the individual pieces of legislation.
Furthermore, even the Forestry Practices Board—a provincial agency tasked with examining forestry practices However, as long as logging continues in the watershed, on provincial land—puts a fair bit of effort into correctly the potential for water quality impacts remains present, interpreting the precise meaning of FRPAs requirements especially if climate change results in more frequent (D. Wahl, personal communication, May 3, 2016). If the and intense rainfall events in the Alberni Valley. There is government finds their own regulations confusing, how can some question as to whether or not the institutions and the general public or those conducting business on Crown regulatory framework that are currently in place have the land be expected to fully understand the requirements? capacity to address these potential impacts. This report has raised a lot of questions about forestry regulations in Doug Wahl indicates that the sharing of information B.C. The following section will dig into this issue as well as between various government departments is also a some of the other broader questions that arose during challenge. For example, as part of its effectiveness monitoring the researching and writing of this report. Hopefully, this regime, the Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource discussion will inspire future research, as many questions Operations (MFLNRO) collects information on sediment deposited into streams (D. Wahl, personal communication, remain unanswered. May 3, 2016). However, the FRPA “has very little authority on source drinking water protection outside of community watersheds” The primary authority is with the Ministry of Health, who administers the DWPA (D. Wahl, personal communication, May 3, 2016). Therefore, the Ministry that 76
CHAPTER 11: DISCUSSION
really needs information on sediment levels in watersheds is the Ministry of Health. Unfortunately, this information may not be shared between these two ministries, meaning that those officials with the authority to enforce drinking water regulations are left without useful information about water quality (D. Wahl, personal communication, May 3, 2016). The MFLNRO has stated that “source water protection is a shared responsibility and can only be achieved through cooperation between all levels of government, industry and the public” (Ministry of Community, 2014, p.50). This cooperation is not even happening at the government level, let alone between industry and the public. Enforcement of the DWPA can be challenging compared to enforcement of the FRPA, because whereas the FRPA has many staff members across B.C., there is only one Drinking Water Officer (DWO)—the individual with the authority to enforce the DWPA—in each health region. DWOs prioritize their assignments based on immediate risk to human health, so something like a chemical spill or meat cutting will likely command their attention before elevated turbidity in a watershed. This is because the former examples represent a more severe health risk and also because the DWOs know that there are FRPA staff who are watching out for water quality in forested areas. The Ministry of Health’s Drinking Water Officers’ Guide states that “[t]he multi-barrier approach to drinking water protection begins at the water source, and this can raise complex questions regarding the relationship between the Act and Regulation and other legislation, including potentially complex and controversial issues associated with competing land use decisions. This is particularly for situations in which limiting activities to protect a water source would benefit a water supplier and users of a water supply system, but might have adverse consequences for other parties” (Ministry of Health, 2014, p. 100). According to this guide, there are a number of “options or steps that drinking water officers should consider and pursue as appropriate when source protection issues exist.” (Ministry of Health, 2014, p. 100). Drinking Water Officers can order the completion of a water source assessment as well as the establishment of a drinking water protection plan (Ministry of Health, 2014). They can also recommend that a provincial health officers reports to the minister about problems concerning government action (Ministry of Health, 2014).
The Guide notes that “[t]hese provisions complement, but do not replace, informal consultation among agencies and individuals involved in drinking water protection issues” (Ministry of Health, 2014, p. 101). The question is, are DWOs regularly consulting with MFLNRO staff to address watershed issues? Mr. Wahl explains that the MFLNRO and the Forest Practices Board receive complaints from citizens about turbidity and drinking water (D. Wahl, personal communication, May 3, 2016). Who should be responding to these complaints? The MFLNRO, who are watching out for forestry issues but have no real jurisdiction over source water quality issues? Or should it be the DWO, who has the legislative authority but who is likely busy dealing with a water quality issue that does not already have an entire institution watching over it?
11.2.2 Are the laws governing forestry on private land sufficient to ensure the protection of drinking water sources? An in-depth comparison of the detailed forestry practices mandated in each of the Crown and private regulations is beyond the scope of this report and would be impossible without expert knowledge of forest harvesting, forest hydrology, and silviculture. However, based on more general aspects of the legislation as well as the findings of various studies, it is possible to identify some key differences between these two sets of legislation. Arguably the most significant and practical difference between Crown and private forestry regulations is the requirement on Crown land to present a publiclyaccessible Forest Stewardship Plan to the province for approval before any logging activities begin. This initial step instantly provides public oversight and accountability to all harvesting operations. Additionally, once that plan is approved, a licensee still needs to acquire specific approvals for forestry activities, such as road building permits and harvest permits, and in some cases Silviculture Site Plans for specific cutblocks. No such approvals are required on private land—the closest parallel to a Forest Stewardship Plan on private land is the initial management commitment that must be submitted when registering managed forest land. Another clear difference is that the PMFLA only contains five primary objectives, compared to ten in the FRPA (these objectives were listed in the previous sections). Elements such as biodiversity, visual quality, and cultural 77
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heritage are not considered or mandated in the private forest and land legislation. The protection or management of these elements is not seen as the responsibility of a private landowner, meaning that for something like wildlife protection, there is a much greater level of regulation on Crown land. However, despite the lack of legally-binding regulation, a large company like Island Timberlands will often voluntarily work with the local community to meet some of these extra objectives in the interest of being a good neighbour and community member. This does not happen in all cases and this extra work may focus on one issue over another—basically, it is up to the good will of the company to manage many of these issues.
and community drinking watersheds” (Union of BC Municipalities, 2010, p. 18). Resolution 2011-B50 stated that “...WHEREAS private managed forest land regulations are inferior to Crown land forest regulations with respect to protecting key environmental, watershed and community interests: THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that UBCM petition the Province of B.C. to revise the Private Managed Forest Land Act and appurtenant regulations to improve forestry practices on private managed forestlands to a standard equivalent or better than Crown forest land regulations, thereby better protecting community interests” (Union of BC Municipalities, 2011, p. 50). In part, the province’s response to resolution 2011B50 stated that “[i]n British Columbia, governance for environmental stewardship on private land is a multiagency responsibility,” explaining that the Ministry of Health, Ministry of Environment, and Fisheries and Oceans Canada all play a role (Ministry of Community, 2011, p. 70). The response went on say that “[b]ased on the monitoring results received to date, government is satisfied that current standards are ensuring that the objectives for key environmental values as set out in the Private Managed Forest Land Act are being met” (Ministry of Community, 2011, p. 70). As noted earlier though, those objectives are less detailed and encompassing than those in the FRPA.
As noted earlier in this report, a study by the Office of the Auditor General of British Columbia (2008) reported significant concerns about the impact that switching from the FRPA to the PMFLA had on the CCCW. West Coast Environmental Law has stated that the objectives set out in the PMFLA are too general and has indicated that the “minimal” forest practice rules on private land are resulting in negative impacts to community watersheds, although the nature of these negative impacts was not specified (Francoeur, 2011, p. 62). Gordon et al. (2007) noted that the PMFLA regulations “were substantially transferred from Forest Land Reserve Act and there is a widespread concern that they do not provide sufficient rigour… In particular, the concern is that standards prescribed are not In defense of the private regulations, it is difficult to sufficiently developed to permit effective enforcement” (p. compare them directly to Crown regulations because 34). they apply across different scales. The reason that private regulations are more general on private land is that there Over the years, the Union of BC Municipalities has is a massive difference in the scale of operations of the presented the provincial government with a number of various private managed forest land plots; while companies resolutions seeking to address the imbalance between like Island Timberlands manage immense areas of land, private and Crown forestry regulations. In 2006, the some private landowners occupy relatively small pieces of Alberni-Clayoquot Regional District (ACRD) sponsored land with tiny forestry operations. These small operations resolution 2006-B102, which resolved “that the Union would be disproportionately impacted by more detailed of BC Municipalities petition the provincial government regulations. Additionally, the regulations should be judged to change the legislation and policies to enable a local on the results that they produce, rather than the size or government to establish a Community Watershed Bylaw complexity of the legislative document. that extends over any public or private lands within the watershed” (Ministry of Community Services, 2006, p. Another aspect worth mentioning is the perception 109). This is an important resolution because currently, that private forestry lacks rigour and accountability. This the “community watershed” designation has absolutely no perception is due to the fact that the plans and operations meaning on private land. of private forestry companies are not typically open to the public, and they are not required to get the same public Resolution 2010-B26 sought to address the fact that approvals as Crown forestry operations. However, this does the PMFLA “does not impose ecosystem-based riparian not mean that there is no legal accountability behind these regulations and permits selective harvesting to the water’s private operations. Professional foresters, biologists, and edge on all water courses including fish-bearing streams engineers are accountable to their own sets of professional 78
CHAPTER 11: DISCUSSION
ethics and by-laws, and the province uses a “professional reliance model” that puts the responsibility for complying with applicable regulations on these professionals (C. Cole, personal communication, May 30, 2016). Therefore, it is the professional associations that provide oversight on private land. This oversight is less visible to the public, which has contributed to these negative perceptions.These professional ethics and standards were not evaluated as part of this study. On top of that, the FRPA is far from perfect, so the Crown regulations should not be held as the model regulation to follow. In a special investigation on community watersheds, the Forest Practices Board (2014) found that FRPA protection of community watersheds is inadequate, finding “issues at all levels of the FRPA framework, from objectives through to practices on the ground” (p. i). Additionally, the investigation found that the FRPA “seems to emphasize water treatment at the waterworks instead of source water protection” (Forest Practices Board, 2014, p. 10). Therefore, while it could be argued that the Crown regulations are more rigorous than the private regulations, they are not guaranteed to protect source water such as the CCCW. Ultimately, both sets of regulations are in need of an update—and perhaps a merger at the same time that could draw some wisdom from the Forest Stewardship Council guidelines.
This lack of protection is the case throughout most of the province, as evidenced by Vancouver Island communities such as Nanaimo, Comox Valley, and Port Alberni. In fact, this is the norm throughout most of world (J. Honey-Rosés, personal communication, June 1, 2016). This has resulted in struggles for many communities regarding all sorts of land uses, not just logging. For example, in 2015, the Shawnigan Residents Association held a rally at the B.C. legislature in Victoria to fight against a gravel company that was dumping contaminated industrial soil into pits next to Shawnigan Lake Creek, an important source of water for Shawnigan Lake, the community’s drinking water source (Coste, 2015). At the rally, Shawnigan Residents Association head Calvin Cook exclaimed that “[w]e’ve had to fight our own Ministry of Environment for clean drinking water” (Coste, 2015). While reporting on that rally for the Huffington Post, Wilderness Committee campaigner and spokesperson Torrance Coste commented that “[s]urely the right to safe, clean water isn’t only for those of us in municipalities with large enough tax bases to purchase our watersheds” (Coste, 2015).
Chris Cole of TimberWest makes an interesting point, saying that there is little disagreement about the need to balance environmental protection, economics, and social interests; what many discussions about watershed management truly boil down to is the issue of “control” (C. Cole, personal communication, May 30, 2016). 11.2.3 Who should have control over a Municipalities, understandably, want control over their key community’s water supply? assets, such as drinking water watersheds. However, there is some question as to whether government control is Is it purely chance that the province’s two largest, richest, really the best way to protect a watershed. and most influential centres—Metro Vancouver and the Capital Regional District—enjoy pristine, protected Governments, whether federal, provincial, regional, or watersheds, while elsewhere in B.C., communities have municipal, are tasked with protecting the “greater good,” unprotected watersheds and are struggling to meet or the interests of the people over which they govern. filtration requirements? Of course it makes sense that This would imply crafting and implementing a long-term these larger regional districts would have more funds vision, as governments should be striving to ensure that available to purchase their watersheds, but for something their citizens thrive both now and in the future. At the as important as source drinking water protection, it should same time, however, the nature of politics means that there be expected that upper levels of government would is rapid turnover of elected officials and, thus, values; one assist smaller communities in protecting their watersheds. government may prioritize environmental protection while Whereas the CRD has an entire department for watershed the next may prioritize economic growth, which can mean protection, in B.C.’s interior, virtually anything can happen very different results on the ground. Government staff may within a watershed: forestry, rangelands, utilities, recreation, remain in place and dedicated to their work throughout and even private cabins at the edges of lakes that serve as the government turnover, but budgets and priorities can drinking water sources for downstream communities (D. be reallocated, taking away the staff ’s abilities to follow Wahl, personal communication, May 3, 2016). through with certain projects. 79
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
Meanwhile, it could be argued that if a watershed is governed by a private company that is insulated from the election cycle, there may at least be more consistency in the management of that watershed. Chris Cole explains that “watershed management is a long-term commitment that is currently implemented by dedicated Professional staff at forestry companies who commit their entire working career to managing and improving a watershed’s health while balancing environmental protection, economics, and social interests with the goal of leaving a well-balanced healthy watershed to the next generation of staff and local public citizens” (C. Cole, personal communication, May 30, 2016). This argument holds as long as the staff and, more importantly, the management of these forestry companies truly value and prioritize environmental protection throughout their operations. If a company is committed to sustainable operations and is a good neighbour to the local community, private management could be beneficial—the company acts as watershed stewards while saving taxpayer dollars. On the other hand, if a forestry company does not prioritize environmental protection and is instead focused solely on short-term economic gain, this could cause serious problems for local communities that are dependent on a private watershed. Ultimately, the safest course of action may be some sort of co-management arrangement, where the government, forestry companies, and potentially other important stakeholder groups such as NGOs, First Nations, and citizen groups, come together to ensure balanced watershed management. In that way, the dedicated industry professionals can remain removed from the election cycle, but government and other stakeholders can maintain public oversight to ensure that social, environmental, and economic aspects are considered at all times. While this sort of arrangement could present logistical challenges, it would likely provide peace of mind to citizens and allow forestry operations to function with much less opposition than the current situation.
11.2.4 Should private managed forest landowners take on increased responsibility for legacy and non-forestry issues on their land? The Madrone Environmental Services Ltd. study described in Section 9.7 noted that legacy issues such as poor harvesting 80
and road building practices continue to negatively impact the CCCW (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014). For example, China Creek Main road presents a risk of sedimentation in the CCCW (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014). If the China Creek Main road were to be constructed today by Island Timberlands, “it would contravene Section 16 of the PMFLC Regulation that requires a road to be more than 30 m from a Class A or B stream” (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014, p. 25). As noted earlier, roads such as this, which were built prior to current regulations, are “grandfathered” as legacy features and are not subject to the regulations (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014, p. 19). The problem is, Island Timberlands continues to use this road today, despite the fact that “[w]ith the proximity to the creek it is inevitable that some sediment will be transported from the road to the stream” (Butt & HughesAdams, 2014, p. 27). Butt and Hughes-Adams (2014) indicate that while typically, there is a grader berm along the roadside to restrict sediment-laden water from washing off the road into the creek, that berm must be breached in places in order to keep road dry enough for truck hauling, which allows water (and sediment) to runoff into the stream (Figure 9.6). The authors of the report do indicate that Island Timberlands, “to its credit, has moved the road away from the mainstem channel in two locations” (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014, p. 27). Even if they are legally allowed to do so, should Island Timberlands be using the China Creek Main road at all if they know that it does not meet modern standards and is contributing sediment into China Creek? Private forestry regulations state that road use must not adversely impact water quality or fish habitat, so Island Timberlands is required to factor in the potential impacts before using a road. Additionally, the regulations require Island Timberlands to maintain all of the roads that they use, regardless of whether or not they were the ones who built those roads in the first place. Therefore, having a legacy road in the watershed does not provide a forestry company with a ‘free pass’ to use it as they please; they are still bound by regulation. As discussed above, however, there is some question as to whether or not these private regulations are tough, or detailed, enough to deal with issues such as this. The Upnit Hydroelectric project is another interesting case. The power generation facility is located on private Island Timberlands property, meaning that it is out of the Crown’s jurisdiction. As described in section 8.4.3, the project necessitated the construction of a two km road
CHAPTER 11: DISCUSSION
along China Creek, which was built on relatively unstable terrain (Barlak, 2011a; Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014). Butt and Hughes-Adams (2014) indicate that while the road has been stabilized, there remains ongoing risk of sedimentation. Furthermore, Butt and Hughes-Adams believe that “this road in terms of location, design, construction, maintenance and drainage does not meet modern coastal industry standards or the [Managed Forest Council] Regulation … it is likely that this development has affected turbidity in [China Creek] at some time in the past and may continue to do so” (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014, p. 36). It is important to note that roads constructed for nonforestry purposes are not legally required to meet any Managed Forest Council regulations. Barlak (2011) has indicated that “[d]ue to the proximity of the road to the creek, and the fact that the road is located just upstream from the City of Port Alberni intake, this road will likely be a significant source of turbidity” (p. 14). According to Port Alberni City Engineer Guy Cicon, the Upnit roads are poorly rehabilitated and introduce sediment into China Creek, but he feels that “this represented only a minor source of turbidity” (Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014, p. 47). All roads in the CCCW have the potential to divert natural water flows and increase sedimentation, regardless of whether the person driving on that road works for Island Timberlands, the Upnit Power Corporation, or a mining
exploration company. Various sources have indicated that Island Timberlands meets or exceeds the high road building standards required of private forestry companies (D. Wahl, personal communication, May 3, 2016; Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014). Why are non-forestry roads not held to the same standards? As mentioned earlier, even a relatively small portion of the road network is capable of producing the majority of all road-generated sediment in a given watershed (Watts & Tolland, 2013). Therefore, it follows that even if the forestry roads in the CCCW are perfect, the unregulated Upnit road could still be a significant problem. The only regulations that apply to the Upnit road are the water quality and fisheries regulations from the provincial and federal governments (D. Wahl, personal communication, May 3, 2016). These regulations prohibit the deposition of deleterious substances, but they do not offer any road building guidance, like that provided in the FRPA and the PMFLA. This section is not meant to blame Upnit Power Corporation for all sediment problems in the watershed or to paint them as a negligent company. Simply put, if all land uses on private managed forest land were required to follow a set of overarching community watershed regulations, everyone would at least be on the same page, potentially making watershed management more efficient and effective.
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CHAPTER 12: CONCLUSION
12.1 Closing Thoughts
12.2 Recommendations
For many B.C. communities, watershed management has become more and more challenging over the years. Provincial water treatment requirements have become stricter and municipalities are on a timeline to comply. Meanwhile, many communities have no control over their source water, meaning that their only option is to purchase expensive filtration systems or to switch over to alternative sources, which comes with its own costs and challenges. This lack of control over drinking water has left many elected officials, NGOs, and community members concerned. In certain cases, such as in Nanaimo and the Comox Valley, filtration is the only option: the source water in these areas is simply not good enough to comply with the new water quality regulations.
For one, the provincial legislation that deals with logging in drinking watersheds should be updated and better explained, as these regulations are negatively perceived by many citizens and community groups. Clarification of the roles and authority of the ministries involved in the protection of drinking water with respect to forestry operations is also necessary. There are many overlapping regulations and institutions that are tasked with protecting water quality in watersheds, creating possible confusion as to the roles and responsibilities of various government departments and potentially resulting in inefficiencies. Source water protection needs to be prioritized and given a clear chain of authority because at the moment, it seems to be floating between various ministries without truly grabbing the attention of any one in particular.
Port Alberni differs from these municipalities in that at the moment, water quality within the CCCW is good enough to qualify for a filtration deferral, contingent on the approval of a watershed management plan.This is thanks to a generally high-quality water source, built-in system redundancy, and recent investments in disinfection technology. However, a filtration deferral is not permanent: if source water quality in the CCCW were to drop below provincial standards, the deferral would be revoked and the City would be forced to install costly filtration infrastructure or seek out alternative water sources. The City of Port Alberni is at a crossroad between filtration and deferral, and it wants to avoid passing the provincial water quality threshold and being forced down the costlier path. Logging is paramount to the heritage and economy of many B.C. communities, and private companies have the right to operate on their property and to seek a profit. However, this right should not come at the expense of clean drinking water, or any other public or environmental good such as the protection of endangered species or the preservation of culturally important land. Water quality does not currently appear to be an issue in the CCCW, but the research process revealed a number of questions and concerns about forestry and watershed management in British Columbia as a whole.These issues have the potential to negatively impact the CCCW at some point in the future, so in order to be safe, the precautionary principle should be followed: “[w]here there is the possibility that a practice may cause serious or irreversible damage to the environment, that practice should be modified or curtailed” (Francoeur, 2011). On that note, a few actions are recommended.
Communication and data sharing across institutions needs to be improved, as does general communication with the public. The perceived lack of transparency and public oversight has damaged the reputation of private forestry companies. Clearing up some of the misconceptions related to logging impacts, regulations, and professional accountability would go a long way towards reducing the conflicts between private industry, government, and citizens. When logging is negatively perceived in a “logging town” like Port Alberni, this issue can quickly become divisive in the community. There may be proprietary information that forestry companies do not want to share, but all information about harvesting and water quality that can be shared, should be shared. Forestry companies should also consider seeking certification under the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) program. Island Timberlands and TimberWest are already certified under the Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI) program, which is a positive step that adds a layer of due diligence to their operations. However, the SFI certification program has been accused of having relatively weak standards, producing misleading labels, and lacking independence from the forestry industry. This has damaged its credibility in some circles, particularly amongst the NGOs and community groups that frequently oppose logging. FSC certification is internationally renowned for its strict regulations and environmentally friendly results, so certification under this program would instantly provide added credibility for the forestry companies.
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The issue of watershed control is also important to consider. Postel and Thompson (2005) explain that “[i]n the parlance of ecological economics, watersheds are natural assets that deliver a stream of goods and services to society. Commercial markets, however, value these services only partially if at all” (Postel and Thompson, 2005, p. 98). They found that watersheds lacking adequate protection “inevitably deliver less clean, less reliable water to their downstream dependents” (Postel and Thompson, 2005, p. 99). Postel and Thompson (2005) emphasize the importance of acting early to protect watersheds: “[t]he opportunity costs of watershed protection are rising over time as land values and the worth of foregone land uses increase; delaying action therefore often makes watershed protection costlier or even prohibitive. Where outright purchasing of watershed land is not feasible, regulations or payment schemes are necessary to ensure that the use of land within the watershed does not unduly compromise the watershed’s purification and water-supply functions” (p. 106).
On top of any management scheme, the “community watershed” designation should be adjusted so that it applies across all land, instead of only on Crown land. This designation implies the need for greater care and protection in the interest of protecting drinking water, so it makes sense that this extra attention should be given to both public and private watersheds.
It is important to remember that government control does not automatically ensure clean drinking water. For one, there are many natural sources of turbidity and pathogens in a watershed, so closing the watershed to anthropogenic uses does not guarantee a filtration deferral. Additionally, as discussed in Section 11.2.3, the effectiveness of government protection can be impaired by the short-term nature of the election cycle, meaning that a seemingly great management scheme can quickly be deprioritized and have its budget reallocated.
The CCCW Drinking Water Source Assessment and Preliminary Protection Plan Development, which has recently been produced by the City of Port Alberni in communication with watershed stakeholders, including Island Timberlands, represents a crucial step towards ensuring the continued presence of high quality drinking water in CCCW. Hopefully, the contents and implementation of that plan will provide a path towards effective source water protection and natural filtration, ensuring clean drinking water for current and future Port Alberni residents.
According to Port Alberni mayor Mike Ruttan, the City currently has “both very high-quality water and good relations with the forest companies,” which is a testament to the quality of current forestry practices in the CCCW (Caulfield, 2015). It is important that the City of Port Alberni maintain those good relations, because in the current regulatory framework, it is essentially up to the forestry companies to maintain water quality. This may work when the regulations are strong and the forest companies follow sustainable forestry practices, but it leaves the community vulnerable to any changes in land ownership or management style.
Therefore, while it seems prudent that local and provincial Figure 12.1: Sunset over the China Creek Community Watershed governments should continue to strive for increased control over forestry practices in community watersheds, it could be argued that full control is not necessary, nor necessarily beneficial, in all cases. Some sort of comanagement scheme with the private landowners and other important stakeholders may be the best option for watersheds like the CCCW. Co-management is an appealing option because it would allow professional industry foresters that are removed from the election cycle to care for the watershed, while simultaneously creating enhanced oversight from elected officials who are directly accountable to the local community and from third-party stakeholder groups who provide an independent opinion. While potentially complicated, this management scheme could help to ease tensions surrounding watershed logging.
FOREST HARVESTING AND WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHINA CREEK COMMUNITY WATERSHED
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WORKS CITED
Figure Credits Cover Images (front, back, and chapters): Patrick Bell Figure Author i TJ Watt 1.1 TJ Watt 1.2 TJ Watt 2.1 Patrick Bell, with data from DataBC, Hansen/ UMD/Google/USGS/NASA 3.1 Ministry of Forests Mines and Lands, 2010 3.2 Ministry of Forests Mines and Lands, 2010 4.1 Mutiple sources (listed in Figure 4.1) 4.2 Gordon et al., 2007 4.3 TJ Watt 5.1 TJ Watt 5.2 Sierra Club BC (found in Hunter, 2016) 5.3 Center for Biological Diversity 5.4 US National Park Service 5.5 Marmot Recovery Foundation 5.6 Our Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Trust 5.7 Vancouver Island University 5.8 TJ Watt 5.9 TJ Watt 6.1 P. Teti 6.2 Government of British Columbia, 2015 6.3 Medical Health Officer & Vancouver Island Health Authority, 2012 6.4 Katya Slepian 7.1 TJ Watt 7.2 TJ Watt 7.3 TJ Watt 7.4 TJ Watt 7.5 TJ Watt 7.6 Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014 7.7 TJ Watt 7.8 TJ Watt 8.1 Sarah Thomas 8.2 Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group, 1998 8.3 Horel, 1998
8.4 Green & Klinka, 1994 8.5 TJ Watt 8.6 Ministry of Forests, Mines and Lands, 2010; Koers and Associates Engineering Ltd., 2016 8.7 Taylor, 1975 8.8 Patrick Bell with data from DataBC 8.9 Real Cedar; TerraMai; Logging and Sawmilling Journal and TimberWest Journal 8.10 Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014 8.11 Museum at Campbell River 8.12 Mendocino Coast Model Railroad & Historical Society 8.13 Museum at Campbell River 8.14 Madill Equipment (heavyequipmentforums.com) 8.15 Contract Logger (heavyequipmentforums.com) 8.16 Horel, 1998 8.17 Patrick Bell, with data from DataBC, Hansen/ UMD/Google/USGS/NASA 8.18 Patrick Bell, with data from DataBC, Hansen/ UMD/Google/USGS/NASA 8.19 Patrick Bell, with data from DataBC, Hansen/ UMD/Google/USGS/NASA 9.1 Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014 9.2 Ancient Forest Alliance 9.3 Barlak, 2011b 9.4 Patrick Bell, with data from City of Port Alberni, 2014 9.5 Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014 9.6 Butt & Hughes-Adams, 2014 10.1 Kenaidan 10.2 VancouverIsland.com 10.3 VibrantVictoria.ca 12.1
TJ Watt
Figure Credits
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