Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities Volume 1 by Pranit Nevrekar

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities The case of Johannesburg, South Africa Volume I

Abhinand Gopal Pulijala Pranit Ravindra Nevrekar

KU Leuven, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Urbanism Master (of Science) of Urbanism and Strategic Planning Promoted by: Prof. Kelly Shannon and Prof. Bruno de Meulder

Climate Crisis and Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies for cities The case of Johannesburg, South Africa Volume I Abhinand Gopal Pulijala Pranit Ravindra Nevrekar KU Leuven, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Urbanism Master (of Science) of Urbanism and Strategic Planning

Promoter

Prof. Kelly Shannon Prof. Bruno de Meulder Local Promoter

Ludwig Hansen

Readers

Tanzeem Razak Viviana Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Auria

ÂŠ Copyright by Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. All rights reserved. All text, images, graphics and other materials in this publication are subject to the copyright and other intellectual property rights of the authors, supervisor and co-supervisors, unless otherwise credited. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed or modified in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the supervisor. Permissions should be addressed to Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Faculty of Engineering - Kasteelpark Arenberg 1, B3001 Heverlee (Belgium). Telephone +32 16 32 13 50 and Fax +32 16 32 19 82. A written permission is also required to use methods, products, schematics and programs described in this work for industrial or commercial use, and for submitting this publication in scientific contests. All images and maps are by author unless otherwise stated. All images in this booklet are, unless credits are given, made or drawn by the authors

Acknowledgements

We would like to take a moment to cordially thank all the teachers and fellow students who have supported and guided us in our study journey in KU Leuven culminating with our thesis. We would like to thank our thesis advisor Professor Kelly Shannon for instilling the importance of landscape urbanism in our lives and Professor Bruno De Meulder for astute insights from across the world during the academic course. The keen guidance and constructive critique provided by our mentors especially during this tumultuous period of the pandemic have helped us to challenge ourselves and strive a step further from the ordinary. We are always in debt to KU Leuven university for enriching our knowledge and equipping us with the right methods and tools to become pragmatic urbanists. We would like to thank Architect Ludwig Hansen (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg) for his valuable time and critical inputs during our fieldwork visit and for giving us an opportunity to meet and work alongside his energetic team. We would like to give our special thanks to Architect Tahira Toffah (Iyer Design Studio, South Africa) for providing informative insights about the city and substantial GIS database that immensely aided in our thesis quest. We would like to especially thank all the cordial people of Gauteng who have had trusted and helped us in collecting information through colloquial interviews and informal conversations. This academic journey would not be possible without the constant support of our families and friends

Contents

Abstract 06

PART 1 | The Making of Fragile Ecosystem 1 – Introduction 12 2 – Urban Growth 14 3 – Climate Story 20

PART 2 | Peri-Urban Landscape 4 – Water as Structuring Element 29 5 – Origins: Soil, Minerals and Exploitation 39 6 – Nature: Ecology & Habitat 45 6 – Urban Fabric 53

PART 3 | Climate Crisis 7 – Projection 68 8 – Impacts 70

Research Objective 76

References 82

Abstract

Johannesburg, like all South African cities, is a culturally diverse but highly segregated megalopolis. In 1886, the city was founded in the middle of nowhere on the edge of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest goldfields. The urban agglomeration of Johannesburg is one of the largest conurbations on the African continent and accounts for more than 16% of the annual GDP of South Africa (Economic Data, n.d.). The cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economic growth in parallel to the mining is propelled by the manufacturing (consumer goods and steel), financial (banking and stock exchange), and commercial industries (services, retail and wholesale trade). Over the past century, the rapid economic success of the city attracts ambition and distress migrants from rural hinterlands of Africa leading to a colossal urban population boom and shortage of housing facilities. According to the Department of Statistics, it is estimated that South Africa urbanises at an unprecedented rate of 60-66% predominately shifting the rural population to urban centres (Stats SA, 2006; United Nations Report, 2018). The urban sprawl of Johannesburg is the product of a set of historical circumstances of hegemonic apartheid policies and top-down modernist planning intertwined with intense mining activities. The current trends of urbanisation and development place tremendous pressure on natural, economic and spatial resources of the city. The other key issues of post-apartheid development of the current regime are to give opportunities to the previously disenfranchised through land re-appropriation, decrease high rates of unemployment and rehabilitate degraded landscapes (Murray, 2010). The biggest threats to the city are the weather anomalies and associated climate events that have become the harsh reality in the city of Johannesburg (CoJ Report, 2009). Although the millennium sustainable development goals have gained momentum in Johannesburg, they are dictated in a hierarchical ad hoc basis misses out on the characteristics and opportunities of the physical landscape. The following thesis explores the intricate relationship between the spatial making of Johannesburg to its water systems, soil structure, native vegetation and diverse ecology. It analyses and investigates the rapid urban sprawl and the ecological transformations of the peri-urban fringes of the city that have become extremely prone to climate change. The study areas reflect the nuanced narratives of urbanisation from a more-human centric approach in creating equitable and liveable spaces by re-establishing the links of natural systems and settlements. The essential objective of the thesis focusses on building resilient urban landscapes, water management, and promotion of collective socioeconomic growth.

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

“Johannesburg somehow happened. It developed as needs surfaced, gratifying requirements that were current, but not always that adequately. The city was conceived with neither forethought nor love” – Ellen Palestrant, from the book Johannesburg One Hundred (1986).

Abstract

San

Ruimsig

Krugersdorp Randburg

Roodepoort

Rosebank

Constantia Kloof

Auckland Park

Park Town Chamdor Melville

Florida

Witpoortjie

Kagiso

Braamfontein

Sophiatown Mayfair

Fleurhof

Riverlea

Central Business District

Johannebsurg

Meadowsland Fordsburg

Orlando West

Dobsonville

Diepmeadow

Johannebsurg South

Soweto Pimville

Naledi

Klipriviersberg Nature Reserve

Protea Glen Eldorado Park

Kibler Park

Klip River

Westonaria

Lenasia Eikenhof

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

Zakarriya Park

ndton Alexandra

Kempton Park O.R. Tambo Airport

Edenvale

Northmead

Benoni

Jet Park

Kleinfontein

Bedfordview Bayers park

Yeoville Hillbrow

Primrose

Kensington

Germinston

Boksburg

Dalpark

Parkrand

Elsburg City Deep

Sunward Park Turffontein

Wadeville Elandsfontein Klipoortjie

Dawn Park

Brakpan

Natalspruit Mulbarton

Rondebult

Alberton

Brackenhurst Thokoza Vosloorus

Kathlehong

Tsakane

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

PART 1

The Making of Fragile Ecosystem Introduction

Urban Growth

Climate Story

The Making of Fragile Ecosystem

1 – Introduction Gauteng1 the economic engine of South Africa stretches from Pretoria in the north to Vereeniging in the South. After the abolishment of Apartheid in 1994, an amalgamation of 13 local municipalities created the Gauteng province, with Johannesburg as its administrative capital. Today, it is home to 15.2 million people, 25.8% of the country’s total population constricted in 18,182 sq.km, just about 1.4% of total land area (Statistics South Africa, 2019). The Magaliesberg mountain range in the centre and the Witwatersrand2 to its south characterized by ridgelines, hills, narrow valleys, undulating plains, and waterways bisect and make the natural barrier in the region (Murray, 2010). From the early paleolithic times, the open vastness of the region provided food, shelter, and incubation that facilitated in the evolution of Early Humans from hunter-gatherers to primitive agricultural societies. During the South African Iron Age (12-18th century), advancements in metallurgy and metalworking not only exploited the Witwatersrand ridge, but caused internal warfare amongst different tribal ethnicities resulting in large-scale depopulation of the region prior to the migration of ‘Boer’ migrants (Knight, 2018). The discovery of gold reserves on the east-west ridgeline turned farming lands into mining fields overnight, and quickly informal mining camps were established in the countryside. An isolated town was established north of the mining operations to facilitate water supply to mining operations and accommodate the huge influx of miners (Boal, 2001). At the turn of 20th century, the densely packed mining town metamorphosed into a vibrant European outpost of 120,000 residents surpassing Cape Town that had been established 200 years earlier (Murray, 2010, p. 38). For more than a century, the perpetual growth of Johannesburg, largely shaped by peripheral urbanization during the apartheid era for social control and today, it is majorly dominated by real-estate capitalism. The biggest impediment of Johannesburg’s growth as prophesied by scientific experts and authorities is that the water demand will outstrip the limited water supply as the perpetual urbanism developed away from a sustainable water resource (Heerden & Blignaut, 2009; Turton et.al, 2007). The thesis volume 1 is an urban exploration and understanding of the underlying elements that spatially connect the defragmented urban pockets of Johannesburg from the theoretical lens of climate change. The consequences of climate crisis on the larger scale of the city will be enumerated using scientific climate models. Furthermore, Vol. 2 and Vol. 3 demarcated on the map (study areas 2 and 3) delves deeper into role of nature in the spatial configuration and shall propose suitable adaptation and mitigation strategies for the climate-stressed regions of Johannesburg.

Colloquially translated as ‘place of gold’ in Sesotho language or thought to have originated from the Dutch word for gold / ’goud’ 2

‘Witwatersrand’ in Afrikaans means the ‘ridge of white-water’ denotes the intertwined landscape relationship of topography and rivers

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

Ekhurleni Metropolitan

Population - 3.8 million

City of Johannesburg

Population - 2 million

Johannesburg Metropolitan

Population - 5.8 million

Gauteng Province

Pretoria

Population - 15.2 Million

Cradle Of Humankind

2 3

Vereeniging

Ridges Fig. 1.1â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Map of Gauteng region indicating the study area in relation with natural terrine

Introduction

Urban Footprint

Mine Residue Areas

2 – Urban Growth Unlike other global cities, Johannesburg31 neither originated as an agricultural hub nor as a trading centre, it was founded in the middle of nowhere as a result of discovering the world’s largest gold reserves (Foster, 2009). The making of Johannesburg’s spatial configuration is an unanticipated outcome of an ever-changing socio-economic process superimposed on the East-West ridge landscape greatly tied to its geology (Murray, 2010). In 1886, the city of Johannesburg was founded on a triangular piece of unused land called ‘uitvelgrond’, wedged between Braamfontein, Turffontein and Doornfontein (Murray, 2010). The original town was laid out in a tight grid iron pattern of blocks consisting of small plots of lands and a compact street network as the city grew linearly in the east-west direction. From the start, the city planners, municipal authorities, wealthy miners, and property developers worked in unison to create a city as a reflection on western modernity. The shapeless jumble of historic inner city’s built fabric largely moulded by 3 different building eras; the first building boom was financed by the great financial success of the gold industry from 1900s till the First World War. The city builders used the technological advancements to experiment Victorian architecture with new steel skeletal structures, the construction of tall buildings without vertical constraints. The second phase was the outcome of a re-structured global economy after the collapse of the gold standard, and the final phase encompassed imposing imperial visions of modern city planners in the 1960s and 1970s as an offshoot of European modernism. The standardization of space into geometric patterns with little or no regard to terrain is causing imminent problems for urbanism that lie underneath the altered surface. On the contrary, city builders, planners, and municipal authorities echoed Le Corbusier’s futuristic vision in creating the modernist cityscape of Johannesburg. The push/pull factors of globalization and capitalism have contracted and expanded the city’s centre. This is often seen when many buildings and blocks are completely erased in a single stroke. Thus, transforming the cityscape. In his book ‘A City Divided’, the urban planner refers to the physical landscape features of Johannesburg as “original birthmarks” of the city that distinctively stand out in the background (Mandy, 1984). On one hand, the city seeks to redeem itself from the dusty mining town image and reconfigure it into a pan-African capital in the globalised network. Whereas on the other, the city is a virtual ghost town at night with rampant crime and fear of safety. These contradictory nuances have worked to create a dual character of the inner city.

3 The name /johannes+burg/ evolved from the names of two colonial English explorer’s Johannes Rissik and Johannes Joubert, who obtained the mining rights from British Crown till eternity. The other colloquial names of Johannesburg are Jozi and Jo’burg.

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

Urban Growth

Fig. 2.1â&#x20AC;&#x201A; The city embedded within Witwatersrand Gold Fields (Source - www.bibliopolis.com )

Fig. 2.2â&#x20AC;&#x201A; The isolated town established north of the minning operations without any sustainable watersource (Source - www.bibliopolis.com )

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

1900

1917

1938

1957

1984

Fig. 2.3â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Historic growth of settlements along the Main Reef Road

Timeline

The introduction of the Group Areas Act No. 41 in 1950 created a new set of formalized spatial and social structures based on discriminatory racial lines that significantly altered the demographic identities and forced resettlement of certain racial groups from one area to another (Knight, 2018). The ridgeline serves not only as a natural barrier but strategically employed to segregate groups based on ethnicity and wealth. Like the original town, the new townships were shaped by old farm boundaries which are disoriented and irregularly tied to each other without a coordinated plan (Knight, 2018). After a century of mining, the physical landscape on the ridgeline emerged as ready access to the gold-bearing outcrops that extend along an east-west direction (Murray, 2010. p. 40). After the end of apartheid in 1994, the combined pressures of decentralization and new opportunities for the disenfranchised resulted in a splintered megalopolis without definite city boundaries. By 1995, the inner city turned into a semi-ghetto left in ruins by the withdrawal of financial and business entities northward between Pretoria and Johannesburg (Reid, 2005).

Urban Growth

10KM

Fig. 2.4â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Historic Map of Johannesburg 1903 (source- (South Africa) Survey Department)

3 – Climate Story Johannesburg sits on a relatively flat region called the ‘Highveld’41 on the Central plateau at an altitude of 1753m above mean sea level (Knight, 2018). It is surrounded by a protective line of the Great escarpment formed by geological upliftment of the continental crust. The city experiences a strong seasonal climate of wet-austral summers; from October to February and dry-short winters; June-August (Knight, 2018). The Cold Benguela current in the Atlantic Ocean regulates the temperature of Johannesburg below 30’ Celsius and in winters drops below freezing point causing frost (Daniel K. Irurah, 2010). The region receives an average of 235 sunshine hours a month and annual precipitation of 700-720 mm mostly in the summer months caused by the moisture-laden clouds coming from the Indian Ocean (Knight, 2018). The anti-cyclonic disturbances created by the Warm Agulhas current direct the wind towards the inland plateau, but the air masses are forced to condense passing over the Great escarpment, especially over the highlands of Lesotho (Knight, 2018). The regional topography of Johannesburg is significant because it is located on the continental drainage confluence of the Orange and Limpopo river basins fed by the Klip and Jukskei rivers that eventually flow into the Atlantic and Indian Oceans respectively (Knight, 2018). The subtropical highland climate characterized by a semi-arid environment is prone to droughts and floods (Daniel K. Irurah, 2010). The anthropogenic problems are exacerbated by the global increase in average temperatures, precipitation changes, and drought occurrences.

4 The word ‘veld’ in Afrikaans means field denotes the high-altitude grasslands elevated 1500m above mean sea-level.

Fig. 3.1 The city in nestled within Highveld, an inland portion of the central plateau

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

Fig. 3.2â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Factors that influence the macro-climate of South Africa

Climate Story

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

PART 2

Peri-Urban Landscape Water as Structuring Element

Origins: Soil, Minerals and Exploitation

Nature: Ecology & Habitat

Urban Fabric

Peri-Urban Landscape

Introduction

In his book the City of Extremes (2010), urbanist Marin J. Murray implores the subject of peripheral urbanization in greater Johannesburg. The author discusses the outcome of segregationist top-down apartheid planning and the slow decay of the historic downtown with business moving out to Sandton, Midrand, and Fourways. The spatial growth patterns and disjointed urban form of the greater Johannesburg metropolitan reflect the laissez-faire land-market operations (Murray, 2010). The wholesale restructuring and fragmentation of the city was facilitated by spatial dispersal of industrial, manufacturing and commercial activities overtaking unoccupied land and absorbing surrounding towns, and the intensive conglomeration of retail outlets, upscale shopping malls, and corporate offices (Murray, 2010). The peri-urban environments of Johannesburg lie on the periphery of the galactic megalopolis of fragmented settlements held together by a network of highways. Without the conventional boundaries or signposts, the city’s rapidly urbanizing peripheries expand and engulf existing cultivation and wetlands of the Klip River and Natalspruit. As described by the urban geographer Pierce Lewis, Johannesburg resembles a city constituting a ‘galactic metropolis’: “where the residential sub-division, the shopping centres, the industrial parks seem to float in space, seen together, they resemble galaxy of stars and planets, held together by mutual gravitational attraction, but with large empty areas between clusters” (Lewis, 1983, p. 35). There are several studies conducted about the city in relation to its colonial history (Cartwright, 1965) and settlement (Johannesburg. One Hundred Years, 1986), mining landscapes and apartheid policies (Mandy, 1984) that focus primarily on the political, socio-economic demographics, and social empowerment through land re-appropriation. Only a few studies and research have considered the relationship of the physical landscape and water to urbanism and development (Toffah, 2013; Knight 2018). However, in retrospect, the following chapters decipher the peri-urban landscape character of the fragmented city and demonstrate the interdependency of water availability, soil structure, land occupation, and biodiversity. Later in chapter 8 of this volume, the impacts of climate crisis in Johannesburg are emphasized to formulate the thesis research question. The primary objective is to seek urban design mechanisms to redress the contemporary challenges of the city. Later in volumes 2 and 3, this is attempted using a set of design interventions to formulate and realise strategic urban design projects in the periurban fringes of Johannesburg (de Meulder, Shannon, & Loeckx, 2004).

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

asd

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

4 – Water as Structuring Element Johannesburg’s ridge landscape is nestled within the topographic variations of the Witwatersrand basin determines the direction and flow of surface water in the region (Knight, 2018). A myriad of fast-moving springs that originate along ridge flow north to deliver their water to Braamfontein spruit and to the south lie a vast network of slow streams which flow into the Vaal river (Murray, 2010, p. 39) . The natural water system is constituted of small rivers, spruits/streams and natural springs called fontein51 that slice the open grasslands called Savannahs (Toffah, 2013). The city of Johannesburg metamorphosed into a fragmented megalopolis without any physical boundaries or rules of its own. Thus, it is referred to as the significant case of ‘peripheral urbanization’ by urban theorists (Murray, 2010, p. 26). The settlement exploded into a galactic sprawl by building on unoccupied territories, converting rural lands, and encroaching wetlands. The spatial landscape is dotted by many manmade lakes and dams built in support of mining, growth, and development. Intensive mining carried over a century has altered the hydrological flow with several dried springs and canalized streams in conjunction with severe levels of pollution (Toffah, 2013). The disjointed urban form skewed in between water systems reflects the combination of segregationist planning schemes on a racial basis and the competitive market economy of landed property and ownership (Murray, 2010). The wetlands prone to higher flood and disease risk have been historically reserved for economically marginalized people (Knight, 2018).

5 ‘Fontein’ are natural springs that originate from the large quantities of groundwater in the dolomite bedrocks

Urban Footprint Wetlands Lake River Fissured Karst 00

Water as Structuring Element

10KM

Low permeability

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

Johannesburg Aquifer The karst and fractured are the two dominant aquifer types in the region. The infiltrating rainwater in the sedimentary rock layers like shale and dolomite give rise karst aquifers and the fractured aquifers are formed within the metamorphic rock strata. The type of aquifer affects groundwater vulnerability. For instance, the more fractured an aquifer is, the higher is the permeability. Two significant environmental problems in Johannesburg are; the contamination of aquifers by mining and spread long distances threatening human life and wetlands ecosystems (Toffah, 2013) and, the other is the formation of sinkholes by low-carbonic water seeping into precarious dolomite rocks (Council of Geoscience, 2011). However, due to the deep-level mining operations, many of the karst aquifers are not usable for domestic use (Winde, 2011).

Fissured- moderate potential Karst - moderate potential Karst - hight potential 00

Water as Structuring Element

10KM

Low permeability - low potential

Vulnerability

The weather anomalies associated with climate change have become the harsh reality in the City of Johannesburg. The natural water resources are severely impacted by uncontrolled urbanization, clogged sewers during the rainy season, ineffective use of stormwater, and aging infrastructure (CoJ Report, 2009). The cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s peripheral urban development has either destroyed wetlands or completely transformed them to an extent that it no longer functions to support life. Thus, creating a sense of ambiguity. The wetlands previously acted as natural stormwater retention and carbon sinks, but rapid urbanization has completely channelized river streams impeding natural water flows (CoJ Report, 2009). The untreated industrial wastewater is an occasional source of large-scale pollution that impacts human lives and has led to common water-borne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, diarrhoea, and dysentery posing significant health risks. With a lack of basic services, the inhabitants of informal settlements depend on local surface water for basic uses such as sewage and waste disposal (CoJ Report, 2009). Fig. 4.11 presents the groundwater vulnerability of the larger territory in South Africa and draws urgent attention to use of water resources.

Johannesburg Metropolitan area

Fig. 4.1â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Groundwater Vulnerability Map shows moderate to high vulnerability for aquifers in Gauteng area (Source - Council for Geoscience)

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

200

400

600KM

Low

High

Very Low

Low

Medium

Fig. 4.2â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Drought vulnerability and Aquifer recharge potential for different types of aquifers

Water as Structuring Element

10KM

Where does the water come from?

The perpetual urban sprawl of Johannesburg is driven by the ‘pyramid of mining’16 that puts tremendous risk on its fragile water eco-systems, habitats, and peri-urban agricultural domains. The contamination of ground and surface water made the absolute dependency on imported water, a phenomenon termed as ‘hydro-colonization’27. The Lesotho Highlands Water Project artificially diverts river water from the Drakensburg Range through a series of dams, tunnels, and canals. This caters to potable water needs of households, gardens, and swimming pools. For many decades, the city of Greater Johannesburg’s highly industrialised and densely populated settlements solely rely on imported water from Lesotho’s catchments to manage the everincreasing water demand that far exceeds local supply (Winde, 2011). Additionally, the anthropogenic effects of higher mean temperatures and irregular rainfall have accentuated water scarcity problems in both rural and urban areas. The schematic below shows the transfer of water from the highlands to Vaal River to the Johannesburg municipality.

6 A term coined by Lewis Mumford in his book ‘The Culture of Cities’, 1938, to describe the vibrant, wealthy city of Johannesburg.The term is used to describe the unlawful appropriation and control of water resources. 7 The city municipality pays an annual royalty of R780 million (about 50 million euros) to Lesotho, accounting to more than 2% of its GDP. The treaty stipulates the government of Lesotho to build more dams to generate electricity.

Klip River

Pump Storage Reservoir

Domestic Use

Purification station

Vaal Dam

Vaal River Waterval River

Wastewater Treatment Plant

Vaal River Wilge River

Klip , Natalspruit, Rietspruit, Blesbokspruit rivers

Vaal River Fig. 4.3 Diagrammatic representation of Johannesbursg’s water imports

Lesotho Highlands Water Project

Vaal River Barrage Reservoir

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

Orange River Water Reservoir

Atlantic Ocean Drinking Water supply

Natural Flow

Wastewater Treatment

City Of Johannesburg

Vaal Dam

Lesotho Highland Water Project.

Fig. 4.4â&#x20AC;&#x201A; South Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water source areas, only 10% of countries territory contributes about 50% of the water in countries rivers and dams. (Source - www.journeyofwater.co.za)

Water as Structuring Element

“Look at the city (Johannesburg), this chaos of straight lines…. The complexity impresses, yet the haphazard relation of one thing to another, the fragmentedness and the alienation, crushed the spirit. There is no center, only a void.” – David Robbins, from the book Wasteland (1986).

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

5 – Origins: Soil,Minerals and Exploitation The tale of city’s rapid urban growth was conceived two billion years ago when a gold-bearing asteroid measuring ten kilometres in size hit the Earth at Vredefort, 100 km south-west of Johannesburg. The world’s oldest and largest meteorite impact created the Witwatersrand, a stratified sedimentary crater that transformed into a lake basin depositing the heavy lustrous metal on its fluvial banks (Frimmel, 2019). As eons passed, geological intrusions in the Earth’s mantle caused groundwater migration and rock fracturing depositing large concentrations of minerals within the host conglomerate bedrocks (Frimmel, 2019; Knight 2018). The host structure termed as ‘Reefs’ are linearly laid out stratified sequences of sedimentary and igneous rocks (Knight, 2018), making it the most economically significant geological formation in human history. The rock strata are richly endowed in minerals such as iron, platinum, uranium, coal and chromium. With the discovery of gold in 1850s, the spatial and historical narratives of Johannesburg were inscribed in nature, geology and extractive economies (Murray, 2010, p. 38). With the gold rush, the geometric farmlands were instantly converted into mining syndicates and corporations transforming the ridges and valleys into a churning metallurgical landscape (Bremner, 2010, p. 203).

Sandstone Quartz Shale Basalt Dolomite Grandiorite

Origins: Soil,Minerals and Exploitation

10KM

Tonalite

Degraded Landscapes

A century of extensive mining has left a plethora of degraded landscapes scattered all over; such as mine dumps, tailing storages, huge sub-surface shafts, tunnels, and voids (Toffah, 2013). The water pours into the void from the surrounding groundwater sources and excess water was actively pumped to prevent flooding. But as mining activity ceased operations, the voids turned into an acid mine drainage (Toffah, 2013). The tailings storage facilities [TSF], a toxic landscape leftover contaminates both the surface and underground systems. The mining has adverse environmental impacts such as surface-ground subsidence, induced seismic activity, loss of wetland ecosystem. Furthermore, it poses serious health threats in the down-stream settlements (Knight, 2018). The physical identity of the city as a ‘mine belt’ is underpinned with the expansion of modern mining to the south and west of the Witwatersrand ridge.

Fig. 5.1 A new Topography and toxic environment created by Mine Dumps (Source - sciencetoday.co.za)

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

Mine activity

Mine Residue area 00

10KM

Fig. 5.2â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Mine Residue and Tailing Storage Facilities around the Ctiy

Johannesburg City

Pretoria City

Dolomite

Quartz

Johannesburg Dome (Granite)

Dolomite

Quartz

Fig. 5.3â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Conceptual North South section showing soil profile and groundwater flows. Johannesburg is water divide from where water flow away towards north and south ( Source - Abiye, Mengistu, and Demlie 2011)

Origins: Soil,Minerals and Exploitation

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

6 – Nature: Ecology & Habitat The regional geography and rainfall shape the Highveld’s semiarid environment. It is characterized as the Savannah grasslands with the presence of shrubs and trees along water channels rather than large forest canopies. The region of many ridges acts as isolated islands with a rich variety of plants, insects, birds, reptiles, and animals. In the recent past, the biodiversity is under constant threat from urban, infrastructure development, and industrial activities (C-Plan, 2014). The Gauteng Conservation Plan identifies and protects sites with Red data endangered species of flora and fauna from transforming land uses. The Johannesburg City Parks’ website reports it to be the ‘one of the most streetlined cities in the world’ and asserts the claim of a tropical humanmade forest (Joburg Parks & Zoo). In 2016, Johannesburg featured in the Top 10 Cities with most trees by World Economic Forum. However, the kind of tree species, and their immense water demand needs further scrutiny. The colonizers brought along not only principles and habits, but also visually pleasing non-native species that consume large amounts of water and invasively replace indigenous vegetation (Knight, 2018).

Urban Footprint Wetlands Lake River Agriculture

Nature: Ecology & Habitat

10KM

Protected forests/ green areas

Fig. 6.1â&#x20AC;&#x201A; asd

Agriculture

The agriculture of South Africa is two-fold: subsistence smallholder farmers in rural areas and well-developed commercial sector that practices intensive mixed-farming and cattle ranching (FAO, 2016). Agriculture plays an important role in economic development and contributes to household food security. Nonetheless, agricultureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s full potential has not been thoroughly utilized due to aridity and water scarcity. In recent years, agricultural practices have changed drastically leaning towards mono-functional crop cultivation and excessive dependence on groundwater aquifers for irrigation. While, agriculture employs 8% of the total population and contributes to 2.5% GDP (WB, 2016), a large extent of the South African economy is based on mining, services and manufacturing. The biggest problems linked to agriculture are poor access to food markets, lack of financial support, and uncertainty in service delivery by the state.

Fig. 6.2â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Diesel is the only agricultural subsidy provided by the government.

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

Fig. 6.3â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Large extents of monocultivation using sprinkler irrgation

Maize

Vegetable

Pasture

Soya beans

Fig. 6.5 Agriculture types of crops

Very Low Fig. 6.4 Agriculture Potential

Nature: Ecology & Habitat

Low

Moderate

High

Sunflower

10KM

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

7 – Urban Fabric After the end of apartheid, the economic forces behind the prosperity of Johannesburg shifted from mining and manufacturing to service industry such as tourism, finance, information technology, creatives and culture and, business services. This transformed the economic base and stimulated a wholesale revolution of the spatial landscape (Murray, 2010, p. 130). The restless urban landscape along the east-west axis is a heterogenous assembly of mini-cities incongruously connected to each other (Murray, 2010). The author provides useful facts and figures to explain the evolving spatial geography of Johannesburg and further deeply theorises about the peripheral urbanisation as a new kind of patchwork city formed by an outcome of centrifugal forces of splintering urbanism and sub-urban sprawl (Murray, 2010, p. 85). In order to refurbish the city’s image from an old-colonial mining town and erase the spatial scars of the past, 3 large development initiatives shaped the city in early 21st century: the inner city urban renewal to reverse the relationship between city and periphery, hosting the FIFA World Cup 2010 and building the necessary infrastructure and, South Africa’s first high-speed metropolitan rail network called the ‘Gautrain’. The development strategy of the inner-city renewal started as a reaction to the hollowing out of the central business district and sought to make the downtown as an economic and cultural hub with desirable living quality (Reid, 2005). The mega-sports events are high profile, but short-lived considering the massive infrastructural costs and dramatic spike in foreign tourism revenues (Murray, 2010, p. 133).

Urban Footprint Wetlands Lake River Agriculture

Urban Fabric

10KM

Protected forests/ green areas

DEMOGRAPHICS

The social-economic demographics have been significantly changed by the Group Areas Act 1950 in the Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan. This formalised the discriminatory apartheid planning across space (Knight, 2018). The spatial act designated special areas for certain ethnic groups, for example the word ‘Soweto’ is derived from SouthWest Townships, were largely low-cost housing reserved for the black communities, and Lenasia was made exclusively Indian. The designated residential areas were generally separated from one other by physical boundaries such as river lines, ridges, hills, valleys roads, and rail lines (Knight, 2018). The evolving spatial geography has resulted in varying degrees of densities radiating outward from the central core to peripheral fringes mainly constituted by low-rise residential suburbia both in formal and informal settlements. The author prescribed for a ‘nationalized’ municipal government to manage Johannesburg and Soweto as one entity (Mandy, 1984). But, circumscribing the polar opposite figures within the same system will not easily overcome the spatial legacies of racial segregation.

eople per Km2 1-30 30-100 100-300 300-1000 1000-3000 More Than 3000 Fig. 7.1 Population density across greater Johannesburg

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

1 dot = 25 People Black White Indian / Asians Coloured Fig. 7.2â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Racial Majority in the region (Source- www.sahistory.org.za )

1 dot = 25 households (unites in Rand) 0-4800 4801-19600 19601-76400 76401-307600 307601-1228800 more than 1228800

Fig. 7.3â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Household Income in the region (Source - regardssurlaterre.com)

Urban Fabric

Informal settlements Since the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s inception, the inconspicuously located informal settlements along the wetlands have often been established as an essential element. More importantly, they lack basic services of water and sanitation. In the postapartheid era, the practice of provision of land, housing and services is undertaken by State actors through a projectlinked capital subsidy program called RDP housing under the National housing subsidy scheme (Marrie, Aly, & Miriam, 2014). The informal settlements serve as the main entry point into the local economy for rural and foreign migrants referred to as reception areas. The crudely constructed structures have expanded by mirroring the layout of formalized neighbourhoods (Marrie, Aly, & Miriam, 2014). But, the provision of services such as barbers, tailors, cobblers, and beauticians within walking distances gives a multi-functional identity to an unregulated entity.

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

Mobility The convergence of transport routes in the central city comprises of rail networks interlocked in a labyrinth of roads and highways. Yet, they ensure seclusion from each other. The elaborate transportation network functions as exclusive arteries for circulation, movement of people, and transfer of goods from one locality to the other (Murray, 2010). The high-speed motorways are the result of enthusiastic urban planners who have long maintained a reputation for privileging automobiles over pedestrians and segregating living and work (Murray, 2010). The apartheid principles ensured the spatial discontinuity of urban pockets as a precautionary measure to racially segregate ethnic groups. From the 1990s, the dramatic northward departure of the economic core shifted entire business operations to the axial corridor connecting central Johannesburg with Midrand, and further to Pretoria (Murray, 2010). The motor freeway M1 was built to promote space-time compression between urban cores, but the huge volumes of automobiles have caused endless traffic jams, freighting scenes of road rage and accidents and loss of life (Murray, 2010). With an increase in urbanization and the need to reduce travel time between business cores, the Gautrain project was conceived. It is the largest transport infrastructural project on the African continent undertaken with an initial estimated cost of 25 billion Rand (approximately 1.3billion Euros) involving underground tunnels and elevated tracks spread across 80 km connecting Johannesburg centre to Pretoria (Berti, 2019). The other major forms of public transportation are BRT system (Rea Vaya), Metro bus, and Gau bus all acting in unison to transfer people but disconnected from each other. The steady increase in thoroughfare prices of private taxis has left no option for the poor, but to walk anywhere. The Urban Age Project estimates 1/3rd of all journeys in Johannesburg are covered by foot (Deyan Sudjic, 2010). Most long-distance commuter journeys are covered using the metro train network within the Gauteng province.

Gautrain Metro Train BRT GauBus Metro Bus

Urban Fabric

10KM

Highway

Informal Mobility The Johannesburg metered taxi service is operated by a consortium of 128 associations at 750 mini-bus taxi facilities across Johannesburg of which only 45 are formal taxi ranks (ARUP, 2013) The deregulation of the taxi industry led to a massive increase in the number of commuters using minibus taxis (Reid, 2005). The typical journey time across Johannesburg is approximately 60 minutes and continues to remain the preferred mode of transport for masses, as it combines informal trade on its precincts with commercial and retail activity in the buildings around them (Reid, 2005).

Spatial Development Framework 2040

The post-apartheid development has arguably aggravated the apartheid spatial patterns by building human settlements far away from centre of economic growth. The urban development process of the city and its periphery is based on a complex top-down hierarchical policymaking process. This is where the national policies direct the regional policies which in turn guide local development plans. Currently, the national integrated development plan of South Africa guides the Spatial Development Framework (SDF) 2040. It is framed as a response to rising spatial inequalities and mismatch between the work-home environment and a lack of coordination between various departments and agencies of work (Department of Development Planning, 2016). The SDF 2040 was adopted in 2016 by the city of Johannesburg as a city-wide spatial policy document that identifies the main challenges and opportunities in the larger city region. Moreover, it sets a spatial vision for the future city, and outlines a set of strategies to achieve that vision (Department of Development Planning, 2016). The SDF 2040 envisions a polycentric model to negate the repercussions of the colonial past and segregated policies (Department of Development Planning, 2016). The inner city will emerge as a strong urban core linked by efficient and integrated public transport. This will benefit dense, mixed-use residential and commercial subcentres within protected natural environment zones. It intends to bridge the spatial and social gaps and build frameworks for a spatially just city by bringing jobs to residential areas and housing opportunities in economic centres rather than merely transporting people between mono-functional places.

Current

Fig. 7.4â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Spatial strategy moving towared polycentric city ( Source - SDF, 2040).

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

Spatial Development Framework 2040

Fig. 7.5â&#x20AC;&#x201A; The SDF 2040 is used as base to develop concrete spatial strategies that constitute the key elements of the spatial framework ( Source - SDF, 2040).

Urban Fabric

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

PART 3

Climate Crisis Impacts

Projection

Climate Crisis

8 – Impacts In summary, the most critical aspects of global warming and climate change are extreme changes in temperatures and uncertain precipitation patterns. The major human-induced problems in South Africa are absolute dependency on fossil fuels for energy, and extensive surface and sub-surface mining. South Africa lists in Top 20 countries that contribute to global GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions accelerating climate change (Daniel K. Irurah, 2010). The main reason for the relatively large per-capita contribution of South Africa is the dominance of Mpumalanga coal industry as the main energy resource, the country’s 77% of total energy demand is accounted by the indigenous coalpowered stations in this region East of Johannesburg (Department of Mineral Resources and Energy, 2020). In other cases, residential energy use relies on LPG (liquified petroleum gas) and traditional wood as primary source of fuels. Parallelly, the growing coal-industry bolstered the development of the petrochemical industry which produces highvalue industrial chemicals (Daniel K. Irurah, 2010). In winters, the NE wind from Indian Ocean carries the coal dust in direction of the Gauteng province causing severe smog and associated health problems in widespread populations. In the recent past, there is growing pressure on the national government and provinces to reduce the energy use, look for alternative renewable energy sources such as solar energy and bioethanol, and build resilience to climate change. The occupational shift towards the service sector economy away from carbon intensive-mining and heavy industries is a positive step in sustainable development. But, the colonial traces of mine tailings and a network of subterranean mine shafts continue to contaminate water and soil. Furthermore, direct exposure threatens human life and ecosystems (Toffah, 2013). An eminent British economist strongly argues about the benefits of early action to mitigate climate change outweigh the financial costs; he states that “no-one can predict the consequences of climate change with complete certainty; but we now know enough to understand the risks” (Stern, 2013). Even without the inevitable consequences of climate change, the limited availability of water and growing water demand has become a critical issue in South Africa. The inequitable distribution of water resources is illustrated by the comparison of private house consumption of 50% of the country’s water supply for swimming pools and private exotic gardens against 1/10th of total water supplied to townships and informal settlements combined (Ruiters, 2010). According to the Department of Water Affairs, water is the primary medium to study the amplified effects of climate change. The scarcity of water and quality is shaped by climate variability and climatic extremes through rainfall patterns changes, severe storms, floods and droughts, changes in soil strata and surface run-off, and effects of increased evaporation (Climate Change Report, 2016). Thus, water becomes the crucial element and offers new opportunities for waterbased urbanism in Johannesburg to address and mitigate the impacts of climate change.

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

Impacts

9 – Projections The effects of climate change in South Africa are two-fold, human induced problems and natural catastrophes. The ongoing global temperature analysis by the NASA scientists at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) project an increase of 2° to 4° Celsius in the average temperatures by the end of the century and greater irregularity in rainfall over Southern Africa (Climate Change Report, 2016). The Climate Systems Analysis Group & the IPCC have scientifically observed an overall warming in Johannesburg and based on the average of seven climate models project the annualised temperatures to increase by 2.4°C in near future and 4.5°C in the far future (Climate Change Report, 2016). The weather findings from the past years as part of the Fifth IPCC Assessment Report on Climate Change indicate an average increase of 0.6°C per decade in the minimum night-time temperatures in South Africa (IPCC, 2014). The escalating temperatures are projected to increase the annual rainfall by 18% by mid-century and an increase of 27% for the period 2081-2100 will bring about stronger floods and serves as prospective water-harvesting strategy. The assessment report uses a combination of GCM (Global climate model) and RCM (Regional climate model) to determine dominant climate trends and predict the future climate scenarios in South Africa. The haphazard development in nexus with the dogmas of infinite growth have exacerbated the impacts of climate change. The repercussions of global warming are accentuated with widespread reduction in viable agriculture, food insecurity amongst economically marginalized groups, increased drought events, loss of biodiversity and displacement of livelihoods. In turn leads to distress migration from rural parts to cities. Based on climate models, the city is forecasted to have significant higher temperatures, greater irregularity in rainfall with extreme events of thunderstorms and cloudbursts followed by long dry spells (Daniel K. Irurah, 2010).

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

2036-2065

2066-2095

2036-2065

2066-2095

Higher Projection Uncertainties.

Medium Projection Uncertainties.

Lower Projection Uncertainties.

Fig. 9.1 Annual mean temperature change (ºC) relative to 1976-2005, projected for 2036-2065 and 2066-2095 under conditions of the RCP 4.5 pathway (Source - South African weather service)

Fig. 9.2 Annual total rainfall change (mm per year) relative to 1976-2005, projected for 2036-2065 and 2066-2095 under conditions of the RCP 4.5 pathway (Source - South African weather service)

Projections

Fig. 9.3 Drought - frequent occurences due to semi-arid weather conditions and prologned dry season due to irregular rainfall patterns (Source -mzansiagritalk. com_archives_3108)

Fig. 9.4 Urban Floods - decrased surfacepermeability in combibation with torrential downpour by thunder storms. (Source - twitter.com_studentspaza)

Fig. 9.5 Water Scarcity- increased dry periods and extreme temperatures result in excessive evaporation rates. Thus, affecting water storage facilities and at the same time increases water demand leading to scarcity. (Source - Nic Bothma/ EPA)

Fig. 9.6 Food insecurity- the drought can result in inadequate recharge of groundwater and limited municipal water supply to agriculture sector might hamper food production cycles in the region (Source - Waldo Swiegers/ Bloomberg).

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

Fig. 9.7 Increase in Power Demand - More than 85% of the electricity is generated by coal-powered thermal stations in Mpumalanga.

Fig. 9.8 Land Subsidence - The depletion of groundwater table by borewell irrigation leads to the formation of sink holes (Source - Council of GeoScience)

Fig. 9.9 Urban Heat Islands and heatwave - With rapid urbanisation, the paved surfaces retain direct heat energy leading to pockets of heightened microtemperatures. (Source - Nic Bothma/EPA)

Fig. 9.10 Health hazards - Heavy rainfall events and frequent flooding results in unsanitary conditions and disease outbreaks (Source - IFRC, Denis Onyodi).

Projections

Research Question The main objective of the thesis is to understand the exacerbated impacts of climate change on water availability in the Johannesburg region and how can territorial contestations between environment and urban settlements be integrated with the natural flow of systems. The urban design research investigates the characteristics of the spatial landscape and seeks alternative modes of development to redress the contemporary and future challenges of the city. Q. How can prudent water management systems be embedded within existing urbanism and future development whilst addressing imminent issues of water scarcity, degraded mining landscapes, food security and ecological rehabilitation? Q. What kind of climate resilient landscapes can be implemented to offset the effects on Anthropocene, and at the same time enhance the productivity and ecological connections of the fragmented terrain?

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

Research Question

Site 1 | Fleurhof

Site 2 | Klippoortjie agriculture hub

Fleurhof- The site is located in Witwatersrand minebelt and is considered important to implement suburban development project to link Soweto in south with Northern areas.

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

Klippoortjie agriculture hub - The peri-urban fringe is constantly under develompental pressure of housing and expanision of cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s edges.

References

Heerden, J. v., & Blignaut, J. (2009). The impact of water scarcity on economic development initiatives. Water SA, 35(4). Johannesburg. One Hundred Years. (1986). Johannesburg: Chris van Rensburg.

Text Anthony Turton, C. S. (2007). Gold, Scorched Earth and Water: The Hydropolitics of Johannesburg. International Journal of Water Resources Development , 313335 . ARUP. (2013). Transport Information Register. Johannesburg: City of Johannesburg.

Knight, J. (2018). Transforming the Physical Geography of a City: An Example of Johannesburg, South Africa. In C. D. Mary J. Thornbush, Urban Geomorphology (pp. 129-147). Johannesburg, South Africa: Science Direct. Lewis, P. (1983). The Galactic Metropolis. In M. G. Platt R.H, Beyond the Urban Fringe. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Mandy, N. (1984). A City Divided. Johannesburg: Macmillan South Africa.

Berti, A. (2019, 11 7). What now for Johannesburg’s Gautrain? Retrieved from Railway Technology: https://www.railway-technology.com/features/future-of-gautrain/

Marrie, H., Aly, K., & Miriam, M. (2014). Informal settlements. In G. G. Philip Harrison, hanging Space, Changing City: Johannesburg after apartheid - Open Access selection (pp. 154-175). Johanneburg: Wits University Press.

Boal, F. W. (2001). Ethnicity and Housing: Accommodating Differences. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment volume, 16(3), 341–343.

Murray, M. J. (2010). City of Extremes. Durham: Duke University Press.

Bremner, L. (2010). Recovering From Aparthied . In R. B. Sudjic, The Endless City (pp. 203-211). London: Phaidon.

Niang, I. O. (2014). 2014: Africa. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press.

Cartwright, A. (1965). The Corner House. The Early History of Johannesburg. Cape Town: Purnell and Sons.

Palestrant, E. (1986). Johannesburg one hundred: A pictorial history. AD. Donker

CoJ Report. (2009). Climate Change Adaptation Plan. Johannesburg: City of Johannesburg. Council of Geoscience. (2011). Sinkholes and subsidence in South Africa. Cape Town . Daniel K. Irurah, C. d. (2010). The built environment and climate change in South Africa. Building Research and Information, 240-256. de Meulder, B., Shannon, K., & Loeckx, A. (2004). A Project of Projects. In A. Loeckx, Urban Trialogues- vision, projects, co-productions (pp. 187-198). Nairobi: UN Habitat. Department of Development Planning. (2016). Sustainable Development Framework 2040. Johannesburg : City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality. Department of Environment Affairs. (2016). South Africa’s 2nd Annual Climate Change Report 2016. Pretoria: Department of Environmental Affairs: Climate Change and Air Quality Branch.

Parks, J. C. (2020). A quick history of Joburg’s trees. Retrieved from Joburg City Parks: www.jhbcityparks.com Reid, G. (2005). Remframing Johannesburg. In E. Charlesworth, City Edge: Case Studies in Cotemporary Urbanism (pp. 154-167). Oxford: Architectural Press. Ruiters, G. (2010). Environmental racism and justice in South Africa’s transition. Politikon: South African Journal of Poltical Studies, 95–103. Statistics South Africa. (2019). Mid-Year Population Estimates. Pretoria: Republic of South Africa. Stats SA. (2006). Migration and Urbanisation in South Africa. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. Stern, N. (2013). The Ecnomics of Climate Change. In S. S. Libby Robin, The Future of Nature: Documents of Global Change (pp. 465-478). Yale University Press. Toffah, T. N. (2013). Reinstating water, resurrecting the Witwatersrand. Journal of Landscape Architecture, 8(2), 24-31.

Department of Mineral Resources and Energy. (2020, 05 13). Coal Resources. Retrieved from http://www.energy.gov.za/files/coal_frame.html

United Nations Report. (2018). The World Urbanization Prospects. The 2018 Revision . New York: United Nations.

Deyan Sudjic, R. B. (2010). The Endless City. London: Phaidon.

Robbins, D. (1987). Wasteland. Lowry Publishers.

FAO. (2016). Country profile –South Africa. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation.

World Bank . (2016). World Development Indicators. Washington: World Bank.

Foster, J. (2009). From Socio-nature to Spectral Presence: Re-imagining the Once and Future Landscape of Johannesburg. The Journal of South African and American Studies, 10(2), 175–213.

Winde, F. (2011). Karst, Uranium, Gold and Water - Lessons from South Africa for Reconciling Mining Activities and Sustainable Water Use in Semi-arid Karst areas: A Case Study. In J. A. Jones, Sustaining Groundwater Resources: A Critical Element in the Global Water Crisis (pp. 35-54). New York: Springer Science & Business Media.

Frimmel, H. E. (2019). The Witwatersrand Basin and Its Gold Deposits. Regional Geology Reviews, 255-275.

Site Photos The photographs taken by the authors in Feb 2020 during fieldwork – p. 7, pp.2223, p.27, pp. 56-57, p.60, pp. 64-65, Fig. 9.7, Fig. 9.9

Fig. 7.4 & 7.5 -taken from the Gauteng Spatial Development Framework 2040 Report by City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality: Department of Development Planning (2016). Fig.9.1 & 9.2 - South African weather Service. (2017). A Climate Change Reference Atlas. https://www.weathersa.co.za/home/climatechangeatlas

Historic Maps + Images p. 15 – Archives from the Department of Architecture and Planning, University of WITS Fig. 2.1 and 2.2 - Pictorial Map of the Witwatersrand Gold Fields by SOUTH AFRICA - JOHANNESBURG VICINITY GOLD MINES MAP on oldimprints.com Retrieved May 19, 2020, from https://www.oldimprints.com/pages/books/53695/south-africa-johannesburg-vicinity-gold-mines-map/pictorial-map-of-the-witwatersrand-gold-fields Fig. 2.4 – General Map of the Witwatersrand Gold Fields, 1903 compiled by the Survey Department, South Africa. Publisher: Waterlow & Sons Ltd., London Retrieved June 20, 2020, from http://1886.u-bordeaux-montaigne.fr/items/ show/9797 Gis Data And Aerials GIS database used for base mapping is provided by IYER Design Studio, South Africa Pp. 8-9, pp. 42-43, pp. 78-79, pp. 80-81 – aerial images taken from ESRI, Digital Globe, GeoEye, i-cubed, USDA FSA, USGS, AEX, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, swisstopo, and the GIS User Community, (2019). “World Imagery” [base map].

Fig. 9.4 - South Africa – Floods Cause Havoc in Johannesburg and Gauteng – FloodList. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2020, from http://floodlist.com/africa/ south-africa-floods-johannesburg-gauteng-february-2020 Fig. 9.5 - Corcoran, B. (n.d.). South African drought is declared a national disaster. The Irish Times. Retrieved June 6, 2020, from https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ world/africa/south-african-drought-is-declared-a-national-disaster-1.3392048 Fig. 9.6 - Drought pushes up food prices. (n.d.). Retrieved June 19, 2020, from https://www.iol.co.za/business-report/economy/drought-pushes-up-food-prices-1940037 Fig. 9.8 - Oosthuizen, A. C., & Richardson, S. (2011). Sinkholes and subsidence in South Africa (No. 2011–0010; Council for Geoscience Report). Council for Geoscience. Fig. 9.10 - Warning: Climate change can harm your health. (2019, May 2). Science News for Students. https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/warningclimate-change-can-harm-your-health

Images

p. 69 – Surreal Images of Earth from Space. (2017, November 20). The Decolonial Atlas. https://decolonialatlas.wordpress.com/2017/11/19/surreal-images-ofearth-from-space/

Fig. 1.1 - Adapted from the thesis of Tahira Toffah ‘Mines of Gold, Mounds of Dust: Resurrecting the Witwatersrand’ (2012)

pp. 45-46- Image collection of birds compiled from the website www.birdguides. com

Fig. 3.2- Southern-Africa-Panorama-Map.jpg (1800×1294). (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2020, from http://www.mappery.com/maps/Southern-Africa-Panorama-Map.jpg

based on the Gauteng Conservation Plan Version 3.3 and the Ekurhuleni Environmental Management Framework Report (2007).

Fig. 4.1- Musekiwa, C., & Majola, K. (2011). Groundwater vulnerability map for South Africa (No. 2011–0063; Council for Geoscience Report). Council for Geoscience. Fig. 4.2 - SADC Groundwater—Public. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2020, from https:// apps.geodan.nl/igrac/ggis-viewer/viewer/sadcgip/public/default Fig. 4.4 - Journey of Water. (n.d.). Retrieved June 6, 2020, from http://journeyofwater.co.za/watersourceareas Fig. 5.1 - Sarah. (n.d.). Trees to the rescue – Science Today. Retrieved June 5, 2020, from https://sciencetoday.co.za/2016/11/14/trees-to-the-rescue/ Fig. 7.1 - ArcGIS - Johannesburg Population Density. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2020, from https://www.arcgis.com/home/webmap/viewer.html?webmap=ea1027e99673471e852c6e5f0bce54d2 Fig. 7.2 - Map Johannesburg—Population Density by Race | South African History Online. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2020, from https://www.sahistory.org.za/ archive/map-johannesburg-population-density-race Fig. 7.3 - Johannesburg: Targeting investments based on household income. (n.d.). A Planet for Life. Retrieved June 20, 2020, from /en/node/19882

Fig. 9.3 - News, M. A. T. (2019, November 13). R74-M for EC drought mitigation. Mzansi Agriculture Talk. https://mzansiagritalk.com/archives/3108

References

The tree species are taken from Henderson, Lesley. (2001). Alien Weeds and Invasive Plants – a complete guide to declared weeds and invaders in South Africa. Plant Protection Research Institute, Handbook No 12, Agricultural Research Council, South Africa. And the website; forestry.co.za/national-trees/

Adaptation And Mitigation Strategies For Climate Crisis In Cities

References