Guia do IAEA

PRESENTATION LETTER

Dear Governors, it is with great honor that we, the directors of the International Atomic Energy Agency, welcome you to the most intense and important discussion regarding safety, sustainability and power.

First of all let me introduce the Chairs. My name is Victor Dias Grinberg, I am in the third semester of International Relation here at FAAP – Fundação Armando Alvares Penteado; this is my sixth Model United Nations, my first one was in 2010 as a delegate here at Fórum FAAP de Discussão Estudantil and since then I have been staff, director of committees as well as director of the press in this and other simulations.

Beside me, as Chair, we have Leticia Astolfi Santana and Marina Fiuka de Miranda, whom both are as well on the third semester of International Relations. Together we were staff members on the 2012 edition at FAAP. I assisted the European Council, Leticia assisted the World Bank and Marina was involved with administrative support; in September of 2012 Leticia and I participated as Directors on the VI Fórum FAAP de Desenvolvimento in Ribeirão Preto. More recently we were involved in our first international simulation, II Harvard National Model of United Nations – Latin America, 2013.

Now, let’s talk about Safety. The discussion most likely will rely on three major sectors that consume nuclear materials: power plants, military facilities and medical industry.

Inside each category specific standards regarding transport, storage, maintenance, disposal and inspections will be subject to your review in order to add, modify or exclude any clauses in the Safeguards or Statue. Evidently, such changes will affect how the Agency is currently operating so it is inevitable to address topics on how we will be conducting studies, coordinating emergency responses, enforcing the Treaty of Non-Proliferations of Nuclear Weapons, reporting to the United Nations’ General Assembly and Security Council, and so forth.

In the next few pages you will find information that was carefully crafted to introduce you to the world of politics and nuclear engineering. We strongly recommend everyone to dig deep on the position that your country takes on nuclear energy, on inspections and how nuclear energy works.

We hope to see everyone in 2013!

Regards, VICTOR DIAS GRINBERG LETICIA ASTOLFI SANTANA MARINA FIUKA DE MIRANDA

INTRODUCTION Since it was established in 1957, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) it is the leading authority on the supervision, regulation of nuclear material, as well as a international forum for the topic. It is subordinated to the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) and to United Nations Security Council (UNSC). Inside the IAEA there are two branches: the Board of Governors and the General Conference.

The Agency’s Board of Governors is responsible for the analyses and drafting of recommendations regarding financial matters to the General Conference. It ratifies the safeguard agreements, points out the publication on safety standards and nominates the Director General of the Agency as well, but always with endorsement from the General Assembly. Following a strict criteria of selection based primarily on nuclear development, the members for the Board are chosen on a two years base1. The Board meets five times per year, usually in March, June, twice in September (before and after the General Conference) and in December. 2 The General Conference happens once an year, usually in September, and its function is to discuss subjects that the Director General, the Board of Governors and/or Member States think that requires the attention of the nuclear community, as well as ratify proposals and safeguards, generally introduced by the Board of Governors. The General Conference is made up of all the Agency’s Member States and it is the final policymaking body.3 From the meetings of both branches, the Agency has the responsibility to report periodically to the UNSC on matters that involve security and military threats, as well as to the UNGA and its subsidiary bodies on other subjects involving heath, nuclear development and awareness, specially when the research and projects are conducted with other UN

1

The members of the 2012-2013’s term in the Board are Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Costa Rica, Cuba, Egypt, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Korea, Rep. of, Libya, Mexico, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Sweden, Thailand, United Kingdom, Tanzania, United States of America and Uruguay.

2 INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY Policymaking Bodies. IAEA. Available at: http://www.iaea.org/About/Policy/. Accessed in 10/19/2012.

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INTERNATIONL ATOMIC ENERGY http://www.iaea.org/About/Policy/GC/

AGENCY

General

Conference.

IAEA.

Available

at:

agencies such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), World Health Organization (WHO) and other subsidiaries. 4 HISTORY OF THE COMMITTEE After the Nuclear bombs that made the World War II come to an end in August of 1945, the scenario in the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Japan) changed the perspective that the world had on war, and mass destruction weapon because culminated in a damage scale that has never been seen before. The need for supervision and control of nuclear materials first arose from the United States with the idea of creating the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) in 1946 under the initial idea was presenting meanings to reach the world peace going through national defense 5.

Both United States and Soviet Union set a series of proposes about the regulation of this type of energy, thereby, they even discussed the possibility of creating an international organization to control those activities. However, their perspective would change during 1949 when the Soviet Union carried out its first nuclear test near Semipalatinsk (Kazakhstan), increasing the tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, thus the AEC distanced itself from its initial purpose and became devote to develop material with military purposes.6 By 1953, the total of three countries had tested nuclear weapons — United Kingdom, United States and the Soviet Union. With the United States having enough production of Uranium supplies for their military intentions they became interested in promulgating the peaceful use of atomic energy, not coincidentally, after Soviet Union’s first tests. Due this issues, in the United Nations General Assembly on December 8th 1953, president Dwight D. Eisenhower made a speech7 based in the concept of “atoms for peace” warning that it was not just an American issue: I feel impelled to speak today in a language that in a sense is new (…) that new language is the language of atomic warfare. The atomic age has moved forward at such a pace that every citizen of the world should have some comprehension, at least in comparative terms, of the extent of this development, of the utmost significance to every one of us. Clearly, if the 4

SPECIALIZED AGENCIES IN THE UNITED NATIONS STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION. Available at: http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/structure/index.shtml#note2. Accessed in 10/19/2012.

2 BUCK, A.L. A History of the Atomic Energy Commission.

Available at: http://www.atomictraveler.com/HistoryofAEC.pdf. Accessed in 10/19/2012.

6 Idem 7 Eisenhower’s “Atoms for Peace” Speech.

Available at: http:// www.iaea.org/About/atomsforpeace_speech.html. Accessed in 10/19/2012.

people of the world are to conduct an intelligent search for peace, they must be armed with the significant facts of today's existence. (…) Ineed hardly point out to this Assembly, however, that this subject is global, not merely national in character.

At that point Eisenhower’s speech led toward some breakthroughs such as a series of bilateral agreements and the revision of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, allowing an international nuclear cooperation. It also motivated the development of nuclear energy in the Soviet Union by implanting the first power plant at Obininsk. After that, the development that wasn’t for peaceful use was the first nuclear submarine owned by the United States, worsening the Cold War tensions. 8 Nevertheless, in 1955 the drafts of the Agency’s Statute were started with representatives of twelve countries followed by the first United Nations International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in Geneva, Switzerland. The Statute was approved by 81 countries at the United Nations in the next year with the main purpose of incorporating responsibilities for both the control and development of nuclear energy exclusively for peaceful purposes, and what would become the International Atomic Energy Agency’s headquarter started to be settled down in Vienna (Austria) to finally, in July 29th 1957 come into existence. October of that year marked the month when the first official IAEA’s General Conference was held on its headquarter with delegates from 73 States.9 As the International Atomic Energy Agency reaches a more expressive role, it has been building more partnerships with other bodies from the United Nations. As an example, the IAEA has invested in its partnership with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

The FAO/IAEA program, aims a role of using nuclear techniques to improve food security10.

The program has helped to increase and ensure the quality of the food and agricultural commodities while facilitating international trade.

Their intention is to solve practical problems of economic significance for developing countries so that they focus primarily on the Member States´ capacities for the application of 8

BUCK, A.L. A History of the Atomic Energy Commission.

Available at: http://www.atomictraveler.com/HistoryofAEC.pdf.

9 Idem 10 Food security is defined as "when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life" in the World Food Summit in 1996. "Commonly, the concept of food security is defined as including both physical and economic access to food that meets people's dietary needs as well as their food preferences. In many countries, health problems related to dietary excess are an ever increasing threat, In fact, malnutrion and foodborne diarrhea are become double burden". WHO. Trade, foreign policy, diplomacy and health, 2013. Available at: http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story028/en/. Accessed in 10/19/2012.

international standards on irradiation as well as the use of nuclear and related analytical technologies and capacity on the management of the food and environmental risks.

Another role that the IAEA deal with during the years are the treaties regarding a extensive range of topics linked to nuclear energy. Probably the most known is the NonProliferation Treaty (NPT) in which Ireland was the one that took the first step into suggesting an international treaty for the Non- Proliferation of Nuclear Energy which was called the “Irish Resolution” in 1961 in the UNGA, following the initial goal of the IAEA about safety and regulation of nuclear energy, specially for the 4 countries that have discovered and were exploring the nuclear power – United States, Soviet Union, France and United Kingdom.11 A series of discussions were involved in the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) based on a tridimensional negotiation: the first one regarding the two biggest forces back then - the Soviet Union and the United States – as well as some bilateral agreements; the obstacle to overcome has encouraged both countries that concentrated most of the tension and were developing a military race to sign and follow its terms. The second involved the EighteenNation Disarmament Committee (ENDC) and what would be the draft for the TNP text. The third involved the United States and its North Atlantic Treaty Organization allies.

The European Atomic Energy Community12 , commonly known as Euratom13 , was suggested also with the idea of a European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957 during an international conference in Brussels, and both came into force in January 1 st, 1958 with the Rome Treaties.

The Euratom was first created to induce its Member States to pursue the peaceful uses of the nuclear energy as well as to have a control of their researches, nowadays, the Euratom sticks with their first goals, although its focus is in assisting the member on retaining the necessary supply of nuclear energy so they would not depend on external sources of energy; it also is responsible for sharing the know-how, focused in the security of the atomic energy 11

PROGRAMME FOR PROMOTING NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION. The Evolution of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Regime. PPNP [online]. Available at: http://www.ppnn.soton.ac.uk/bb1/Bb1Chap1.pdf.

Accessed in 10/19/2012.

12

EUROPERAN UNION. The European Atomic Energy Community. EU [online]. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/nuclear/euratom/euratom_en.htm. Accessed in 23/12/2012 13

EUROPEAN UNION. Treaty Establishing the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM). EU [online].Available at: http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/institutional_affairs/treaties/treaties_euratom_pt.htm.

Accessed in 23/12/2012

uses. The Euratom has similar roles as the Agency, nevertheless it is only valid for the members of the European Union (EU), whilst the IAEA have and international operation related with the United Nations System.

The Euratom and the International Atomic Energy Agency are both responsible for guaranteeing the security of their members through inspections and treaties such as the NonProliferation Treaty (NTP), seek for the safety regarding the nuclear energy, stimulate the peaceful uses and the benefits that can be reached if there is a group committed in following these purposes.

As the global population grows and the evolution of economy demands to enormously increase the production to keep the international trade moving, the IAEA has invested on its crucial work in closing the partnership with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations through a joint FAO/IAEA Program, which assumes a role to use nuclear techniques to improve food security. Manipulating nuclear technologies since 1963 the FAO/IAEA has been providing assistance and support with unique solution, they help to increase and ensure the quality of the food and agricultural commodities while facilitating international trade. 14 Their intention is to solve practical problems of economic significance for developing countries so that they focus primarily on the Member State capacities for the application of international standards on irradiation as well as the use of nuclear and related analytical technologies based on the capacity of management of the food and environmental risks. 15 The efforts made by the research of FAO/IAEA are developed in Institutions, which depends where they have been set, either they are given Research Contracts with nominal financial support, normally for developing countries, or Research Agreements with financial support only for attendance at Research Co-ordination Meetings, for the developed countries, the results are normally published and projects tend to last usually five years. 16 Some problems might be raising concerns lately regarding problems such as how to maintain the nuclear inspection, how to stimulate the use of the nuclear energy and how to

14

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY. IAEA and FAO work together to help feed the hungry.

UN [online]. Available at: http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/2012/feedhungry.html. Accessed in 10/19/2012 15

Idem

16

Ibdem

extract this energy safely, with nuclear weapons as well as to avoid accidents in nuclear power plants.

It is known that the nuclear energy would be an excellent way to dim the Carbon emissions, once it is the second most clean rentable energy source, just behind the wind energy. Moreover the sources of uranium are plentiful, this way we would achieve two goals at once: first, it would have the reduction of the greenhouse gas emission, and second, it would provide energy security, once Uranium is not the only source that can be used for nuclear energy; Plutonium can also be used, despite its cost to be enriched.17 The nations are trying to follow the disarming path with the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), for example, aiming to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons, except for countries that already had nuclear weapons before the NPT came into force in 1968, those are allowed to still have them. During the years a series of agreements were made to even these countries reduce their nuclear arsenal. A total of 189 countries signed the treaty – at its peek, 190 nations agreed but North Korea withdrawn – and that shows that most of the countries are committed with the disarming process and leading to a more rental and safe use of the benefits of the use of nuclear energy. Furthermore, with that goal in mind, they inspections will be enhanced and the regulation will achieve higher levels.

Nowadays, the International Atomic Energy Agency has its main headquarter set in Vienna, Austria. Also, it has another two Liaison Offices, one at the United Nations in New York, United States and the other in Geneva, Switzerland. Besides the official offices, the agency also has regional offices in Toronto, Canada and in Tokyo, Japan. The Agency also has laboratories set in Seibersdorf and Vienna, Austria. Another Environmental laboratory in Monaco.18 Despite the Board of Governors, the IAEA has a Secretariat running the Agency, around 2300 professionals from over 100 countries that have the mission of build and maintain the ‘Atoms for Peace’ goal set by the Agency since the beginning and also has the role of supervising the Nations that are member of the Agency and mainly, supervise, the Nations that are part of the Non-Proliferation Treaty. All of the employees responsible for

17

WORLD NUCLEAR ASSOCIATION. Nuclear Energy and Climate Change. WNA [online]. Available at: http://www.world-nuclear.org/climatechange/. Accessed in 23/12/2012 18

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY. IAEA Employees &Staff. UN [online]. Available at: http://www.iaea.org/About/staff.html. Accessed in 12/04/2013

running not just the Agency headquarter in Vienna, Austria, but also the other offices around the world.19 HISTORY OF THE PROBLEM The German chemist Martin Klaproth announced the discovery of the element Uranium, in 1789, on the lands that today we know as Czech Republic’s territory; at that point nobody, not even Klaproth, knew what were the capabilities and potential of such material.

For almost one hundred and fifty years uranium alongside other metals were used in the industries to dye materials, such as glass, giving them a yellowish coloration. The radioactive capability was only discovered in 1896 when Henri Becquerel realized that Pitchblende (a mineral containing radium and uranium) caused a photographic plate to darken; he theorized that this happened because of the alpha and beta radiations that were being emitted. In the same year Pierre and Marie Curie named this phenomenon as “radioactivity” 20.

Enrico Fermi in Italy, 1934, discovered this process while irradiating uranium with neutrons. In 1938, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann demonstrated that bombarding the uranium atom with neutrons and splitting it in two formed the elements barium and krypton.

With the contribution of chemical innovations by Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch produced the first example of nuclear fission.

On January 26th, 1939, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered a process in which the nucleus of a particular heavy element is divided and releases a great amount of energy in a form of warmth and radiation; this procedure was named “Nuclear Fission”. Related to the experiment, the chain of reaction is a series of fissions that leads to other fissions, consequentially generating enormous amount of nuclear energy. The biggest challenge and threat of this process is that an uncontrolled chain reaction results the explosions of, for example, nuclear bombs.

The fission discovery was critical to the creation of the atomic bomb, so that, in 1941, J. Robert Oppenheimer came into the project and calculated the critical mass of uranium-235, precisely the amount needed to sustain a chain reaction. A year after he assembled a group to discuss the design of the actual bomb having with him some of the best theoretical physicists

19

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY. IAEA Employees &Staff. UN [online]. Available at: http://www.iaea.org/About/staff.html. Accessed in 12/04/2013 20 Outline History of Nuclear Energy (at World Nuclear). Available at: http://www.worldnuclear.org/info/Current-and-Future-Generation/Outline-History-of-Nuclear-Energy/#.UWXRG4IVwy4.

Accessed in 10/19/2012.

in the country.

21

In that context, United Kingdom, United States and Canada came together with “The Manhattan Project” that was the research and development front to produce the atomic bomb for the context of the World War II. Under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves, concepts first observed in the Einstein-Szilárd Letter, on Fermi nuclear chain reaction and Oppenheimer’s data on Uranium served as the pillars for transforming into a reality what was being theorized for years. After months of tests and construction the bombs were ready, the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki presented the world the power of the United States of America and placed a spotlight over the Manhattan Project. Although some changes occurred on the team that produced the original bombs, the creations couldn’t stop and in July of 1946 tests were conducted with two Fat Man-type bombs - based in plutonium of such as the bomb used in Nagasaki22 -, that are a implosion-type weapon with a plutonium core, in the Bikini Atoll.

The military interest was noticeable and every test only proved the efficiency of the bomb as warfare ammunition, but a domestic debate over the permanent management of the nuclear program generated the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, the consequences of civilians responsible were the end of the project on December 31 st, 1946.

DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM Nowadays, there are a total of 437 nuclear reactors and other 64 are under construction; since its foundation, the Agency has been responsible for checking if every one of this power plants are made only for energy production and not for nuclear weapons.

Back in 1968, 61 countries signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), which outlaws any nuclear development for military purposes. When the treaty came into force, in 1970, only the five countries had their military weapons recognized and legitimated, while the other 183 remain nations were prohibited to ever develop nuclear technology with military purpose.

Nevertheless, they could not use those weapons for war purposes, develop new weapons and they were supposed to eliminate their nuclear weapons, but in the 2000’s the disarmament

21 Outline History of Nuclear Energy (at World Nuclear). Available at: http://www.worldnuclear.org/info/Current-and-Future-Generation/Outline-History-of-Nuclear-Energy/#.UWXRG4IVwy4.

Accessed in 10/19/2012.

22 National Museum of US Air Force.

Fat Man Type Bombs. http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=1016. Accessed in 10/19/2012.

have not been reached yet, since according recent data, these five States present: Country China

Total of Warheads About 240 warheads Approximately 5.500 warheads: 1.492 operational strategic warheads, approximately 2.000 Russia operational tactical warheads (not deployed) and approximately 2.000 reserve warheads in storage Fewer than 160 deployed strategic warheads (total United Kingdom stockpile of up to 225) France Fewer than 300 operational warheads Approximately 5.000 total warheads: 1.737 deployed strategic warheads, approximately 500 operational tactical weapons (around 200 deployed United States in Europe) and approximately 2.700 reserve warheads (active and inactive) in storage.

Reference: Nuclear Weapons Data from Arms Control Association.

The Non-Proliferation Treaty was crucial for international security and for establishing a distinction for the uses of nuclear material and their plants. Yet it struggles in the process of nuclear disarmament and its negotiations, because five countries - United States, United Kingdom, France, China and Russia - are allowed by the treaty to maintain its nuclear weapons, whereas when the treaty was proposed in 1968 this nations had already developed this military technology; also, not coincidentally, they are today the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, and as the following table currently they are among the ten States with more nuclear reactor:

Reference: IAEA 2012.23 Over the years, the countries start giving up their initial nuclear programs to join the Non-Proliferation Treaty, by 1995 the Treaty was extended indefinitely, 190 countries have ratified and joined it. Although, three countries have never signed the Treaty: India, Pakistan and Israel. They have not signed as wished to keep their nuclear program and already developed weapons of mass destruction.

23

Number of reactors in operation, worldwide, 2013-01-18 (IAEA 2013, modified). Available at: http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/n/nuclear-power-plant-world-wide.htm. Accessed in 10/19/2012.

Reference: Wikimedia (2012)24 As shown in the map above, the five States presented in light blue, are the ones called the Nuclear Weapon States (NWS) by the TNP: Russia, United States, United Kingdom, France and China. The States presented in red are the Non-NPT Nuclear Weapons States, although is known that the North Korea has enough plutonium for 10 warheads, Pakistan has declared to have warheads as well as India, both around 100 warheads each. The only state shown in yellow is Israel, representing undeclared nuclear weapon States. The ones presented in dark blue are the members of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) nuclear weapon sharing states, that are formerly Germany, Belgium, Netherlands, Italy and Turkey that have in their territories around 480 free-fall bombs installed by the US, they are accused of breaching the article I and II of the NPT since they are not allowed by the treaty to posses nuclear weapons, although the NATO members and the United States react saying that all those weapons are under the United States custody and control, therefore not violating the article I and II of the NPT. The States represented in green, are the ones that formally possess nuclear weapon, they are: Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine that inherited nuclear weapons from the Soviet Union, but in 1991, when the Soviet Union broke down, they returned them to Russia and signed the NPT as non- nuclear States. South Africa also in green has as well developed secretly a small number of warheads but also joined the Non-Proliferation Treaty

24

Nuclear Weapon States. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuclear_weapons_states.svg.

Accessed in 10/19/2012.

in 1991.25 Despite the military purposes of the nuclear energy is mainly used nowadays, as an energy source, representing 17% of the world’s energy. This energy is mainly based in the Uranium enrichment. More than half of the world’s Uranium mining belongs to 3 countries that are: Canada with 23%, Australia with 21% and Kazakhstan with 16% of the uranium mining. Even though those countries are responsible for the significant part of the Uranium mining of the world, among those 3 countries, only Canada has Nuclear power plants in operation, and among the other countries shown in the graphic just Russia, United States, Ukraine, China and South Africa have nuclear power plants in operation.

From the 11 countries shown in the Uranium Mining graphic below, only Australia, Canada, China, South Africa and United States are in the Board of Governors. Apart from Australia, all the other countries have nuclear power plants in operation.

Reference: Wikipedia (2007) 26 Even with the Agency’s supervision, there have been a total of 99 nuclear accidents, 33 of that total were identified as a “serious accidents”27 worldwide from 1952 to 2011, the first nuclear accident occurred in Ontario, Canada at the AECL Chalk River Laboratories. Just a few nuclear accidents caused deaths linked direct to the accident, but the environmental 25

ACRONYM INSTITUTE FOR DISARMAMENT DIPLOMACY. NATO’s Nuclear Sharing: A Cold War Anachronism That Undermines the NPT. AIDD [online]. Available at: http://www.acronym.org.uk/articles-andanalyses/natos-nuclear-sharing-cold-war-anachronism-undermines-npt. Accessed in 23/12/2012 2007 Uranium Mining. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2007Uranium.PNG. Accessed in 23/12/2012 26 27

Classified by The Guardian. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2011/mar/14/nuclearpower-plant-accidents-list-rank).

damages should be also considered. It is reported that almost two third of the nuclear accidents happened in the United States, and more than half the accidents that happened between 1952-2009, after the Chernobyl accident.

Regarding the accidents in nuclear power plants, the International Atomic Energy Agency built a scale to classify those accidents as known as the International Nuclear Events Scale (INES)28 that goes from one up to seven. The accident in Chernobyl, Ukraine (1986) is considered the worst nuclear accident, and is considered as a seven in the INES scale, causing direct deaths by the accident and also people affected by the radiation all over the northern Europe. The other relevant accidents, following the INES, were the accident in Kyshtym, Russia (1957) considered as a six by the INES, and the following accidents considered as a five by the INES are the accidents in Windscale Pile, United Kingdom (1957) and Three Mile Island, United States (1979)29.

Some accidents had a wide repercussion on the international media because of the proportion or what they represented. With details we will illustrate four cases, below, that are references when thinking of accidents in power plants.

CASE OF CHERNOBYL (UKRAINE) One of the most famous and most damaging accidents in the nuclear history is the meltdown of the Unit 4 of the nuclear reactor in Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Chernobyl, Ukraine. A post-incident analysis conducted by the IAEA on 2011, on the 25th year anniversary of the incident, estimated that 4000 people were affected by the radiation, presenting in the short and long term with a variety of cancers, aside from the 56 that died directly of the blast. The situation was contained pouring, by air, a mixture of boron and sand to prevent the fire and continuous release of harmful materials, subsequently it was filled with concrete creating a “sarcophagus�. It is important to acknowledge that this was the first time an incident reached the 7 in the INES scale.30 CASE OF FUKUSHIMA (JAPAN) The most recent accident evolving a nuclear facility was the reactor I meltdown and nuclear material leakage after a power supply outage in Fukushima Daiichi Power Plant in

28

The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (at IAEA). Available at: http://www-ns.iaea.org/techareas/emergency/ines.asp. Accessed in 10/19/2012.

29 Idem 30 25 Year Anniversary of Chernobyl Accident.

IAEA. Available at: http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/focus/chernobyl/. Accessed in 10/19/2012.

Japan. Caused by equipment damaged by the 133 ft. tsunami waves that reached the shore, the Fukushima case was also a level 7 on the INES scale because of the level of radioactivity emanating from the reactor on the first few weeks; this was categorized as the second most severe case, following Chernobyl, but this time it was the forces of nature were the trigger.

One of the biggest concerns were around the suspicions that harmful materials were leaking straight into the ocean, polluting fishes and algae that are a great part of the Japanese diet; in the same issue, the pollution could easily spread and perpetuate the nuclear materials, causing damages world wide. It took almost nine months until Tokyo Electric Power Company's (TEPCO) announced that the reactors were stable, and from that point a slow process of habitation of the areas on the surrounding started; it is important to know that extensive monitoring was conducted by TEPCO and the IAEA31.

CASE OF CESIUM-137 (BRAZIL) In 1987, not very long after Chernobyl, with a world well aware of the dangers of the nuclear power, a curious situation in Goiás, Brazil raised the attention for the importance of disposing correctly the medical equipment with nuclear material. The worldwide know case of the Ceasium-137, in reference to the substance released with the little “experiment”, tells the story of a couple of waste scavengers that invaded the premises of the "Instituto Goiano de Radioterapia" looking for old metal equipment that they could sell. 32 After finding, among other things, a machine, they sold everything on a nearby junkyard. With the intention of reutilizing the lead that protected the Cesium, the owner of the junkyard exposed 19,26 grams of the material. The accident was serious enough but a very specific propriety of the Cesium Chloritde – the fact that it glows a blue light in dark rooms – fascinated the man that not only gave it to all family member but to other friends. Soon enough a rising numbers of patients were admitted with similar symptoms in the hospitals all over the city, unfortunately they were mistakenly diagnosed with a contagious disease. Only after a month and a half that they issued an alert of nuclear contamination.33 Although this seems a simple matter, this is considered the biggest nuclear accident outside of a nuclear power plant and it was tagged as 5 in the INES scale. The process of cleanup of the infected sites weren’t enough to inspire security to the house owners in the 31

Fukushima Accident 2011. World Nuclear. Available at: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Safety-andSecurity/Safety-of-Plants/Fukushima-Accident-2011/#.UWX-HoIVwy4. Accessed in 10/19/2012.

32 ROPER. L. David, LEITE. Marco Antônio Sperb. The Goiânia Radiation Incident A Failure of Science and Society. Available at: http://arts.bev.net/roperldavid/gri.htm 33 Idem

surroundings, and this was a turning point on how the world understood nuclear waste management. 34 PANORAMAS ARGENTINA Even though Argentina has never developed any nuclear weapons, from the 1960s to the early 1990s the country aimed a greedy program of nuclear energy and technological development. During the period of the program, Argentina raised an unsafeguarded uranium enrichment facility, and also the Argentine government denied to join the Treaty on the NonProliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and did not sign the Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America (Tlatelolco Treaty, 1967).

It was in 1983, when the new president set the nuclear program under civilian control and at the same time initiated a confidence and cooperation bilateral arrangement with neighboring Brazil, which would give both countries nuclear material and facilities. Later in 1993, the Argentinian Government ratified the Treaty of Tlatelolco and became a member of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) also the country was invited to join the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) in 1994.

Argentina finally ratified the NPT as a non-nuclear weapon state in February 1995.

Regardless of Argentina's adhesion to the NPT confirm its commitment to nuclear nonproliferation, the country has not signed the Additional Protocol to its Safeguards Agreement with the IAEA which would give the Agency unlimited access to undeclared sites. However, Argentina is still the first South American country to use nuclear energy. Currently, it has two operating nuclear plants that provide 7% of the country's electricity, Atucha I and Embalse, and there is a third plant under construction, the Atucha II.35 AUSTRALIA Although Australia currently does not have nuclear power plants nor use nuclear energy its importance in the nuclear field relies on the capability as a source of extraction of uranium for exports, considering that in its territory lies 31% of the world reserves. Bearing in mind that, without using its full potential of extraction, this industry moves around A$60 millions per year in corporate taxes and royalties, expanding the operations are always a hot 34

Ibdem NUCLEAR THREAT INICIATIVE. Argentina. NTI [online]. Available at: http://www.nti.org/countryprofiles/argentina/. Accessed in 19/01/2013 35

topic.

In 1953 the Parliament approved the Atomic Energy Act establishing the Australian Atomic Energy Commission (AAEC). Handling projects and research with the purpose of develop technologies and assist the government on nuclear topics the AAEC almost made turned into reality the construction of a power plant, but the project was abandoned in 1972.

Due to a series of prohibitions acts and delays on establishing framework for nuclear operations, Australia falls back on the world’s tendency of using nuclear power to replace other forms of energy production that damage the environment. 36 BELGIUM The first power plant in Belgium began operating in 1974, by 2012 it already has seven power plants responsible for around half of the country’s electricity, despite all the unfavorable policies made by the government, those are being discussed since 1999. In 2003 it was approved a new law prohibiting the construction of new power plants and limiting the lives of the ones that already existed up to 40 years, the law was discussed throughout the years, since the nuclear energy is a fundamental energy source for Belgium and also for the fulfilling of Belgium’s long-term commitment of reduction of the Carbon Dioxide (CO2).

Besides, the internal policies about nuclear power, since 1974, Belgium is also a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), positioning itself as a non-nuclear weapon state, despite the nuclear weapons they store provided by the United States under the NATO nuclear weapons sharing, and also signed in 1998 with the Agency’s Additional Protocol regarding its safety.37 BRAZIL It was in 1970 when the Brazilian government decided to initiate their first nuclear site, currently Brazil's nuclear capabilities are the most developed in Latin America having Argentina as its only opponent. Brazil has two nuclear power plants in operation, Angra I and Angra II and one under construction Angra III. The country’s journey on producing nuclear energy began in 1975 when the government assumed a policy to become fully self-sufficient in nuclear technology and acceded an agreement with West Germany that would supply nuclear units over 15 years. The first two sites, Angra I and II were raised with the mounting 36

WORLD NUCLEAR ASSOCIATION. Australia’s Uranium. WNA [online]. Available at: http://www.worldnuclear.org/info/inf95.html. Accessed in 19/01/2013 37 WORLD NUCLEAR ASSOCIATION. Nuclear Power in Belgium. WNA [online]. Available at: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf48.html. Accessed in 19/01/2013

from Kraftwerk Union. During this time the Brazilian military began a convert nuclear weapons named “Parallel Program,” which produced two nuclear weapons. The program was stated to the public in 1988 but due to Brazil's economic problems it was interrupted in 1990. Later on it was discovered that Brazil secretly sold eight tons of uranium to Iraq in 1981.

It was in 1988 when a new stated-owned company, Indústrias Nucleares do Brasil S.A. (INB) was set up, focused on engineering aspects and the nuclear fuel cycle, the company took over Brazil’s interest on nuclear energy. Despite the bilateral agreement for peaceful uses, Brazil refused to join the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) until 1997, and in Spring 2004 Brazil faced disapproval due to its behave with the International Atomic Energy Agency when the country refused full access to its uranium enrichment facility, which raised on IAEA a concern that Brazil could have acquired nuclear materials.

Moreover, it was declared by the country's government a arranging to improve its enrichment activities for domestic use and sale to other nations while at the same time, Brazil kept the word that its nuclear program had only peaceful aims. The concern was liquidated in November 2004 when Brazil allowed IAEA inspections at its uranium enrichment site. 38 BULGARIA Currently, Bulgaria has two nuclear power plants working and other two shut down as a condition of the country to become a member of the European Union, classifying the reactors as “non-upgradable”. The two nuclear reactors working (Kozloduy 5 and Kozloduy 6) generate together 35% of Bulgaria electricity and its fuel cycle is mainly supplied by Russia.

Moreover, Bulgaria joined the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapon State in 1972.39 CANADA Currently, Canada has 17 reactors responsible for producing around 17% of Canada’s electricity and the government plans to expand the nuclear capacity constructing two more nuclear power plants. Canada was until 2009 the largest producer of Uranium (now is

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Kazakhstan) having over 22% of the world’s production, but the production tendency is to keep increasing with new mining locations being discovered. Moreover, the country also is a world leader in nuclear research and technology, and exports high-developed medical equipment especially for radioisotopes. Canada is a party of the nuclear non-proliferation treaty as a non-weapon state and also signed the Additional Protocol for safeguards by the international Atomic Energy Agency. 40 CHINA China initiated its nuclear program in the middle of the 50s and in 1992 has acceded to the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a Nuclear Weapon State, it is the only state which has corroborated with International Atomic Energy Agency with Additional Protocol and to adopt the policy of no-first use of nuclear weapons. Its first nuclear weapon was tested in 1964 and currently the state owns about 400 nuclear weapons plus a diversity of short-range and intercontinental ballistic missiles. Even tough China supported disarmament programs in the United States, the country has been improving its nuclear arsenal, modernizing it and increasing military capabilities.

It was in the 1980s and 1990s when the Chinese role as a proliferator to Saudi Arabia and Pakistan led the United States to place a pressure on the country to joint to the international nonproliferation treaties to adhere and specially export controls regime. China has managed to keep with the demands in its domestic export controls by Supplements Regulations 2002 and has a major role as a mediator between the United States and North Korea being one of the main players on North Korea’s nuclear weapons program. However, China hasn’t joined the Missile Technology Control Regime and the Nuclear Suppliers Group. 41 FRANCE France has 75% of its electricity derived form the nuclear energy from 58 nuclear power plants, the large amount of nuclear energy produced in the country started back in the 1970s after the first oil shock, when France found itself struggling with its energy resources, at that point nuclear energy presented more benefits than the other energy sources. Nowadays, 40

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France achieved the energy security they claimed as well as they achieved the lowest cost electricity in Europe and the lowest rate of CO2 per capita, specially the recycling of the nuclear fuel (that generates over 17% of France’s electricity).

All of these goals were set mainly in 2000, when the parliament set the three main planks for nuclear energy policy: security of supply (France imports more than half its energy), respect for the environment (especially re greenhouse gases) and proper attention to radioactive waste management. 42 Seen as the main exporter of electricity in Europe, having Italy and United kingdom as its costumers due the low costs of the energy production, France, has also a strong partnership with Canada, once most of the fuel used for the nuclear energy production, the uranium, comes from Areva region, in addition to Canada, Niger, Australia, Kazakhstan and Russia also export the material.

France took a part in the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) as a Nuclear weapon state in 1992, even though the country ceased the nuclear weapon production in 1996.

Furthermore, since the trilateral agreement have been set among France, Euratom and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) entered into force in 1981, the IAEA, invest its safeguards activities. 43 GERMANY The first oil shock during the 1970s also affected the German energy source due to the rise of the oil’s price and also because of the lack of energy resources that they would be capable to develop. From the entire energy source they chose the nuclear, but after the Chernobyl accident the policy suffered some changes, in the same year, 1986, the Social Democratic Party, approved a resolution of phasing out the nuclear power in ten years. Most of the issues about nuclear energy policy involve the Green Party, the government tempts to combine its moves with the green party and the companies involved.

With the issue of reducing the number of power plants, the 17 reactors currently working, would possibly be totally closed by the year of 2022, ending with the production of 42

IAEA 2003, Country nuclear power profiles.

Available at: http://wwwpub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/cnpp2003/CNPP_Webpage/PDF/2003/Documents/Documents/France%2 02003.pdf. Accessed in 10/19/2012.

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almost 25% of the country’s electricity, specially after the Fukushima accident, despite the Brightside for Russia, Poland and France that would increase their electricity export to Germany. Germany could suffer with blackouts, the increase of the electricity prices and the emissions of the carbon, disrespecting the series of international agreements to reduce it. The International Energy Agency warned the German government of the consequences of the nuclear power plants shut downs.

Germany is also a part of the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) as a nonnuclear weapon state since 1977, even though the United States has provided nuclear weapons under the NATO nuclear weapons sharing, and is under the IAEA and the Euratom safeguards agreements. 44

HUNGARY Hungary has at the present moment, four nuclear reactors generating about one-third of the electricity, but the Hungarian government has been supportive to the nuclear energy development, exemplified by the two new power reactors being built. Since 1969, Hungary signed the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) as a non-nuclear weapon State, thirteen years before its first nuclear reactor begin to operate. It also receives the benefits of the safeguards agreements from the Additional Protocol with the IAEA since 2000, besides being a member of the Nuclear Suppliers Group of Euratom since 2004. 45 INDIA As the demand for electricity in India has been growing in the past years the country is expecting to become a world leader in nuclear energy and it is one of the few countries that is expanding its production in an enormous rate. Currently there are twenty nuclear power reactors in operation over six states, seven being built and at least thirty six are being planned, also the kilowatt hours produced in 2009 was more than the triple produced 20 years before.

India, at its beginnings as an independent country stepped out at the movement for universal nuclear disarmament, having Gandhi as its political and spiritual leader, in 1948, India brought up a resolution in the United Nations’ General Assembly that implied the need 44

Idem WORLD NUCLEAR ASSOCIATION. Nuclear Power in Hungary. WNA [online]. Available at: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf92.html. Accessed in 19/01/201 45

for harsh international control of atomic energy. From that on, India tried untiring times to show the world the stress for the need to stop the nuclear testing, proposing a nondiscriminatory nonproliferation treaty in 1965, a international convention that had the aim to prohibit the use or threat of use of nuclear weapons in 1978 and finally in 1982, India appealed for a “nuclear freeze” that would ban the production of nuclear energy for weapons and related systems.

Yet, by the mid of the 1960’s the country started to reconsider its aversion to nuclear weapons due to geographic instability as the main rivals in the region have been Pakistan and China. It was November of 1964 that the Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri gave an authorization for theoretical move on the Subterranean Nuclear Explosion for Peaceful Purposes, and after that in may of 1974 India had its first nuclear test described as a “peaceful nuclear explosion” by the government. Back to nowadays, India has not a radioactive waste disposal policy and even thought the country declared having a nuclear no-first-use policy and proceeded to defend global disarmament, the country has not signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) or the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). 46 JAPAN Due to the lack of natural resources, Japan needs to imports about 84% of its energy and without favorable conditions, nuclear power plants are a reasonable and sustainable alternative. Before the Fukushima accident, nuclear energy accounted for almost 30% of the country’s total electricity production. Its research and development stated in 1954 with a considerable budget of ¥230 million, always limited be Atomic Energy Basic Law that limited the use of this technology.

After March of 2011, an Energy & Environment Council meeting was called to define the future of the energy industry until 2050. A public opinion poll was taken months after the accident and the population was conflicted between costs and results against the proportion of the accidents. In 1976 Japan signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty with its safeguards arrangements administered by the UN's International Atomic Energy Agency, and in 1999 it was one of the first countries to ratify the Additional Protocol with IAEA, accepting

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NUCLEAR FILES. India. NAPF [online]. Available at: http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/keyissues/nuclear-weapons/issues/proliferation/india/index.htm. Accessed in 19/01/2013

inspections. All this works alongside with the multiple regulatory bodies established by the government. 47 REPUBLIC OF KOREA Struggling with the internal production of energy to supply the increasing population’s demand of energy, the nuclear power became a substantial and profitable energy source. The country started its nuclear activities after was recognized as a official member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1957, and twenty years later the first nuclear power plant began its commercial operations, after that eight more reactors were constructed in the early 1980s.

Seeing the profitability in exporting nuclear technology, the Republic of Korea is nowadays, the major nuclear energy country in the business, selling supplies to the United Arab Emirates (UAE) to four reactors under construction, following the UAE, the Republic of Korea, also is marketing with Jordan, Ukraine, Jordan, Romania and some South East Asian countries. The Republic of Korea is a non-nuclear weapon state in the Nuclear NonProliferation Treaty (NPT). 48 MEXICO The interest in exploring the nuclear power began in 1956, the first nuclear power reactor start operating in 1989 and today Mexico has two nuclear reactors responsible for 4% of the national electricity supply. As it happens with the United States, Mexico’s government has shown interest in increase the nuclear energy but the low gas prices are overcoming that will. The Mexican constitution is clear in state that the nuclear energy will only be used for peaceful matters, so Mexico ratified the nuclear non-proliferation treaty in 1969 as a nonnuclear weapon state and also signed the Additional Protocol. 49 NORWAY Currently, Norway has no nuclear reactors and almost the entire electricity source used in Norway is hydro, but they see a potential in investing in nuclear energy industry as an alternative energy source to prevent electricity crises eventually. Their nuclear power would mostly use thorium instead of uranium, once Norway, has a vast source of it. Norway does 47

WORLD NUCLEAR ASSOCIATION. Nuclear Power in Japan. WNA [online]. Available at: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf79.html. Accessed in 19/01/2013 48 WORLD NUCLEAR ASSOCIATION. Nuclear Power in South Korea. WNA [online]. Available at: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf81.html. Accessed in 19/01/2013 49

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not have a defined policy about the nuclear power, but they are keen to follow the sustainable nuclear path, and are committed to use the nuclear power with peaceful endings, since they are party of the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) since 1969 as a non-nuclear weapon state. 50 PAKISTAN The nuclear power does not represent an expressive contribution for Pakistan’s total energy production. Nevertheless, it is known that the country has developed nuclear weapons, the first one, a Uranium bomb, was launched in 1972 and rose the tension in the border with India, leading to a war. In conjunction with India and Israel, the three countries formed the so called “threshold”, once they opt for not being a party of the Nuclear Non-proliferation

Treaty (NPT) due its weapon program, that behavior was frowned upon the international community, and until nowadays, Pakistan is highly excluded from international nuclear trades, which is injurious for the country’s development of nuclear energy for civil ends.

Notwithstanding, Pakistan has been willing to begin region security agreements and proclaimed that would become a party of the NPT if India also does it so. 51 RUSSIAN FEDERATION The first reactor was installed and operated in Russia in 1954, and by the 1980s they already had round 25 reactors operating, whilst the nuclear industry were facing some problems by that time, this stagnation of the Russian’s nuclear power was more drastic between the Chernobyl accident and the mid 1990s, and only recovered after the miss 1990s when the government started to be interested again in the nuclear power. In 2006 the government made a project of two reactors per year until 2030 and also exporting part of this energy that is set today as the main Russian policy and economic goal.

The nuclear electricity supplied about 16,6% of the Russia’s electricity by 2010 and the Rosatom announced a plan of reaching over 25% of electricity provided by the nuclear power by 2030. Russia has a good resource of Uranium holding up to 10% of world’s uranium resource, stimulating Russia to inaugurated in collaboration with Kazakhstan the concept of the International Uranium Enrichment Centre (IUEC) supported by the

50

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International Atomic Energy Agency. The IUEC provides assistance for the new nuclear power states with low-enriched uranium, and Russia is the major ownership of the project. In 2009, the IAEA Board approved the resolution of creating a ‘fuel bank’ control by the IAEA at IUEC. Russia is a declared nuclear weapon state, but phased out their nuclear weapon tests in 1990, and a party of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty since 1985 as one of the threedepository state (United Kingdom and United States are the two depository states remaining).

Nevertheless, Russia thinks that the IAEA safeguards procedures are not worth for a nuclear weapon state so they are not applied, regarding the Beloyarsk-3 reactor. 52

SOUTH AFRICA Since the 1980s the consumption of energy has increased in South Africa, alongside with coal, two reactors installed in the mid-80s assist producing about 5,3% of the South African total generation. In a short term there is a plan to construct another power plant to supply around 9600 MWe, if completed on time, should start operation between 2023 and be on its full capability around 2030. With a strict and well-structured legislation and organizations, South Africa was true to its intentions and when signed the Nuclear NonProliferation Treaty became the first and only country in the world that voluntarily ceased the development of nuclear weapons and its program. 53 SWEDEN The electricity consumption in Sweden is one of the highest in the world, about half coming from hydro sources and over 40% of nuclear energy coming from 10 operating reactors, the estimate numbers change according the season as well as the electricity imports and exports mainly with Denmark, Finland and Norway. However, the nuclear energy has not always been one of the foremost energy sources.

In the 1960s Sweden was focused in producing energy from hydro sources, but the seasons could difficult the management of this source and with the uncertain prices of the oil, specially during the 1970s during the oil shock the policy of nuclear energy source increased, 52

Idem WORLD NUCLEAR ASSOCIATION. Nuclear Power in South Africa. WNA [online]. Available at: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf88.html. Accessed in 19/01/2013 53

together with a strong policy of the nuclear waste management, that led Sweden to be a reference in the management of used fuel, as well as a strong supporter of the environmental policies having a important role in the climate summits after the 1990s. Even though the government had this strong call during the 1970s for the nuclear energy, the three Mile Island accident and the Chernobyl accident alarmed the authorities that resulted in a public referendum in 1980, and the parliament rushed out with the nuclear decommissioning, everything changed in 1991 with external pressures though, and in 2009, the parliament abolished the act that forbid new nuclear reactors.

As a party of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-weapon state since 1968, the country ceased all their researches in nuclear weapons after the Second World War. Sweden is also under the IAEA and Euratom’s safeguards agreements. 54

UNITED KINGDOM The United Kingdom has currently 17 nuclear reactors responsible for 19% of its electricity, all of those expected to be shut down by 2035, and new generation ones should be constructed, the aging of the reactors affects the United Kingdom since 1990s when they had around 25% of their electricity coming from nuclear reactors, but the reactors were gradually shut down.

In 2006 the government started do worry again about the nuclear matters, and the revision of policies had a space in their agenda again. They decided to construct new nuclear reactors, however they were worried about the waste management since the United Kingdom was a pioneer in the nuclear power, the country has a history of low and intermediate nuclear material disposal in the oceans (Internationally banned in 1993). The government then suggested a strengthened role of the European Union Emissions Trade Scheme (ETS) so they could develop more into the nuclear energy area.

Party of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation

Treaty as a nuclear weapon state, the United Kingdom tested over 45 nuclear weapons between 1952-1991, most of them during the 1950s in Australia. The country is under the safeguards applied by The International Atomic Energy Agency applied on all the civil nuclear activities. 55

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UNITED STATES Holding up the status of the world’s larger producer of nuclear power, the United States produce over 30% of the world nuclear electricity, from their 104 nuclear reactors, that together represent about 20% of the electricity source (not much compared to the countries in Europe), but that occurs because they dispose of other energy sources that are more rental such as from coal-fired plant and from gas, putting in doubt the projects of the construction of more nuclear reactors, the lower of the oil prices will make the plans of new units reach no more than four by 2020.

Most of the reactors currently working were built between 1967 and 1990, but the nuclear power research in the United States began right after the Second World War, in 1945, followed by the Manhattan Project, not many years later, in 1951 the first nuclear power plant started to operate. Despite the oil prices factor, the stagnation of new nuclear units during the 1970s was also due to the Three Mile Island accident (1979) which heightened the safety fears, still in the 1970s, it was set a law in California that prohibited the construction of new nuclear reactors (this law is still in effect). In spite of all the safety fears that surrounded the nuclear energy in the 1970s, the government changed and consolidated its policy during the 1990s helping the growth of the country’s nuclear capacity.

The biggest unresolved issue that the United States face nowadays, is the nuclear waste disposal. The nuclear waste used to be at pools in the reactor sites and later the Yucca Mountain in Nevada became the new disposal location, nevertheless, the mobilization of the population and the government of Nevada led to the creation of a law prohibiting the disposal of nuclear waste at the Yucca Mountain. Recently, it has been discussed other alternatives such as the ones used in Sweden of the management of used fuel.

The United States is a declared nuclear weapon state, even though, the nuclear weapon tests phased out in 1992, and is also a party of the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) since 1970.

The country also signed the Additional Protocol, even if it does not have a strong impact in their nuclear policies, once they are a nuclear weapon state, but they declared to have ratified the Additional Protocol so they could encourage other nations to join it. 56 FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

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The International Atomic Energy Agency has worked hard over the years to consolidate its role as the lead organization regarding nuclear development and, most importantly, its mandate as a regulatory commission. As far as the diplomatic channels go, the Agency tries hard to ensure the permission of the nations for periodical inspection on its facilities and access to the data collected but, in some cases, this process that should be a routine turns into a bureaucratic process that can end up in the Security Council.

Aiming to a more secure yet less armed world, the Agency tries to negotiate with all the countries to at least reduce their arsenal of nuclear weapons, independently of the assurances granted by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The most complicated aspect of the relationship between the Member States and the Agency is the enforcement of agreements, inspections and reports without overstepping national sovereignty.

Towards a more secure use of the nuclear technology, the Additional Protocol for the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty was developed in 1997 however, under the justification of protecting their sovereignty some countries have refused signing it and this represents the fragility of the Agency’s authority over the regulation of nuclear installations.

The Agency, by its Statute and several international agreements, have a strict confidentiality clause that protect the intellectual propriety and specific data acquired in the inspections and/or reports of its members states, so, there is no unfair advantage to any participant party as could be claimed to restrict the access of the field staff.

With the United Nations Security Council some great advances have been made on securing nuclear power, consequently, making the world a safer place. The Agency is always seeking a stricter channel with the Council to assist on the enforcement of rules to preserve its main goal and have “atoms for peace”, right now frequent reports are this ‘bridge’.

On this Board of Governors meeting it will be the time to make sure that the current protocols and safeguards are adequate with the politics that the Agency overcame, in other words, the way that the operations are being handled are effective or is it national interest on the ineffectiveness of some procedures being use as a loop hole for dangerous advantages.

POSITION PAPER The Position Paper is a document that the delegations must turn in to the Chair in the first session of discussion; its contents rely on the discretion of the Governors although there are some mandatory points that must be present in the text:

1.

Does your country use nuclear power? a. If yes, how many power plants does it have? How much energy does these plants produce? What are the types of reactors? Does it have deactivated reactors? b. If no, what is your position towards the use of nuclear materials for peaceful and non peaceful means?

2.

Does your country have plans to build nuclear power plants?

3.

Does your country extract raw nuclear materials? Is it a source of nuclear

materials?

4.

Does your country have a internal nuclear regulatory organization?

5.

Does your country have nuclear weapons?

6.

Did your country sign and ratify the Non-Proliferation Treaty and the

Additional Protocol? If no, why the nations has been reluctant to sign?

7.

If you have developed nuclear energy, how have ethe recent accidents in

power plants affected your nuclear program?

8.

How does your country manage nuclear waste?

After writing the text, make sure that it follows these standards: International Atomic Energy Agency’s flag in the superior left side, national emblem/coat of arms in the superior right side, the full name of the country in the center bolded, bottom of the page the signature of both ambassadors and in Times New Roman, 12 single spaced. Remember that the Position Paper should not have more than one (1) page.

GLOSSARY57 Access hatch An airtight door system that preserves the pressure integrity of the containment structure of a nuclear reactor, while allowing access to personnel and equipment.

Atomic energy The energy that is released through a nuclear reaction or radioactive decay process. Of particular interest is the process known as fission, which occurs in a nuclear reactor and produces energy usually in the form of heat. In a nuclear power plant, this heat is used to boil 57 This glossary was extracted from the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Available at: <http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/glossary/full-text.html>. Last access: 3 Nov. 2012.

water in order to produce steam that can be used to drive large turbines. This, in turn, activates generators to produce electrical power. Atomic energy is more correctly called nuclear energy.

Auxiliary feedwater Backup water supply used during nuclear plant startup and shutdown to supply water to the steam generators during accident conditions for removing decay heat from the reactor.

Boiling-water reactor (BWR) A common nuclear power reactor design in which water flows upward through the core, where it is heated by fission and allowed to boil in the reactor vessel. The resulting steam then drives turbines, which activate generators to produce electrical power. BWRs operate similarly to electrical plants using fossil fuel, except that the BWRs are powered by 370â&#x20AC;&#x201C;800 nuclear fuel assemblies in the reactor core.

Cask A heavily shielded container used for the dry storage or shipment (or both) of radioactive materials such as spent nuclear fuel or other high-level radioactive waste. Casks are often made from lead, concrete, or steel. Casks must meet regulatory requirements and are not intended for long-term disposal in a repository.

Chain reaction A reaction that initiates its own repetition. In a fission chain reaction, a fissionable nucleus absorbs a neutron and fissions spontaneously, releasing additional neutrons. These, in turn, can be absorbed by other fissionable nuclei, releasing still more neutrons. A fission chain reaction is self-sustaining when the number of neutrons released in a given time equals or exceeds the number of neutrons lost by absorption in nonfissionable material or by escape from the system.

Cleanup system A system used for continuously filtering and demineralizing a reactor coolant system to reduce contamination levels and to minimize corrosion.

Condenser A large heat exchanger designed to cool exhaust steam from a turbine below the boiling point so that it can be returned to the heat source as water. In a pressurized-water

reactor, the water is returned to the steam generator. In a boiling-water reactor, it returns to the reactor core. The heat removed from the steam by the condenser is transferred to a circulating water system and is exhausted to the environment, either through a cooling tower or directly into a body of water.

Control room The area in a nuclear power plant from which most of the plant's power production and emergency safety equipment can be operated by remote control.

Coolant A substance circulated through a nuclear reactor to remove or transfer heat. The most commonly used coolant in the United States is water. Other coolants include heavy water, air, carbon dioxide, helium, liquid sodium, and a sodium-potassium alloy.

Cooling tower A heat exchanger designed to aid in the cooling of water that was used to cool exhaust steam exiting the turbines of a power plant. Cooling towers transfer exhaust heat into the air instead of into a body of water.

Core The central portion of a nuclear reactor, which contains the fuel assemblies, moderator, neutron poisons, control rods, and support structures. The reactor core is where fission takes place.

Critical mass The smallest mass of fissionable material that will support a self-sustaining chain reaction.

Depleted uranium Uranium with a percentage of uranium-235 lower than the 0.7 percent (by mass) contained in natural uranium. (The normal residual U-235 content in depleted uranium is 0.2â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 0.3 percent, with U-238 comprising the remaining 98.7â&#x20AC;&#x201C;98.8 percent.) Depleted uranium is produced during uranium isotope separation and is typically found in spent fuel elements or byproduct tailings or residues. Depleted uranium can be blended with highly-enriched uranium, such as that from weapons, to make reactor fuel.

Dry cask storage

A method for storing spent nuclear fuel above ground in special containers known as casks. After fuel has been cooled in a spent fuel pool for at least 1 year, dry cask storage allows approximately one to six dozen spent fuel assemblies to be sealed in casks and surrounded by inert gas. The casks are large, rugged cylinders, made of steel or steelreinforced concrete (18 or more inches thick or 45.72 or more centimeters). They are welded or bolted closed, and each cask is surrounded by steel, concrete, lead, or other material to provide leak-tight containment and radiation shielding. The casks may be placed horizontally in aboveground concrete bunkers, or vertically in concrete vaults or on concrete pads.

Drywell The containment structure enclosing the vessel and recirculation system of a boilingwater reactor. The drywell provides both a pressure suppression system and a fission product barrier under accident conditions.

Electric power grid A system of synchronized power providers and consumers, connected by transmission and distribution lines and operated by one or more control centers.

Economic Simplified Boiling-Water Reactor (ESBWR) A 4,500-MWt nuclear reactor design, which has passive safety features and uses natural circulation (with no recirculation pumps or associated piping) for normal operation.

GE-Hitachi Nuclear Energy (GEH) submitted an application for final design approval and standard design certification for the ESBWR on August 24, 2005.

Emergency classifications Sets of plant conditions that indicate various levels of risk to the public and which might require response by an offsite emergency response organization to protect citizens near the site.

Both nuclear power plants and research and test reactors use the following emergency classifications: ď&#x201A;ˇ

Notification of Unusual Eventâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Events that indicate potential degradation in

the level of safety of the plant are in progress or have occurred. No release of radioactive material requiring offsite response or monitoring is expected unless further degradation occurs.



Alert—Events that involve an actual or potential substantial degradation in the

level of plant safety are in progress or have occurred. Any releases of radioactive material are expected to be limited to a small fraction of the limits set forth by the EPA. 

Site Area Emergency—Events that may result in actual or likely major failures

of plant functions needed to protect the public are in progress or have occurred. Any releases of radioactive material are not expected to exceed the limits set forth by the EPA except near the site boundary. 

General Emergency—Events that involve actual or imminent substantial core

damage or melting of reactor fuel with the potential for loss of containment integrity are in progress or have occurred. Radioactive releases can be expected to exceed the limits set forth by the EPA for more than the immediate site area.

Nuclear materials and fuel cycle facility licensees use the following emergency classifications: 

Alert—Events that could lead to a release of radioactive materials are in

progress or have occurred. The release is not expected to but the release is not expected to require a response by an offsite response organization to protect citizens near the site. 

Site Area Emergency—Events that could lead to a significant release of

radioactive materials are in progress or have occurred. The release could require a response by offsite response organizations to protect citizens near the site.

Emergency core cooling systems (ECCS) Reactor system components (pumps, valves, heat exchangers, tanks, and piping) that are specifically designed to remove residual heat from the reactor fuel rods in the event of a failure of the normal core cooling system (reactor coolant system).

Feedwater Water supplied to the reactor pressure vessel in a boiling-water reactor (BWR) or the steam generator in a pressurized-water reactor (PWR) that removes heat from the reactor fuel rods by boiling and becoming steam. The steam becomes the driving force for the plant's turbine generator.

Fission (fissioning)

The splitting of an atom, which releases a considerable amount of energy (usually in the form of heat) that can be used to produce electricity. Fission may be spontaneous, but is usually caused by the nucleus of an atom becoming unstable (or "heavy") after capturing or absorbing a neutron. During fission, the heavy nucleus splits into roughly equal parts, producing the nuclei of at least two lighter elements. In addition to energy, this reaction usually releases gamma radiation and two or more daughter neutrons.

Fuel cycle The series of steps involved in supplying fuel for nuclear power reactors include the following: 

Uranium recovery to extract (or mine) uranium ore, and concentrate (or mill)

the ore to produce "yellowcake"; 

Conversion of yellowcake into uranium hexafluoride (UF6);



Enrichment to increase the concentration of uranium-235 (U-235) in UF6;



Deconversion to reduce the hazards associated with the depleted uranium

hexafluoride (DUF6), or "tailings," produced in earlier stages of the fuel cycle 

Fuel fabrication to convert enriched UF6 into fuel for nuclear reactors



Use of the fuel in reactors (nuclear power, research, or naval propulsion)



Interim storage of spent nuclear fuel



Reprocessing of high-level waste to recover the fissionable material remaining

in the spent fuel (currently not done in the United States) 

Final disposition (disposal) of high-level waste.

Heavy water (D2O) Water containing significantly more than the natural proportions (one in 6,500) of heavy hydrogen (deuterium, D) atoms to ordinary hydrogen atoms. Heavy water is used as a moderator in some reactors because it slows down neutrons effectively and also has a low probability of absorption of neutrons.

Heavy water moderated reactor A reactor that uses heavy water as its moderator. Heavy water is an excellent moderator and thus permits the use of unenriched uranium as a fuel.

Light water Ordinary water as distinguished from heavy water.

Light water reactor A term used to describe reactors using ordinary water as coolant, including boiling water reactors (BWRs) and pressurized water reactors (PWRs), the most common types used in the United States.

Nonpower reactor (research and test reactor) A nuclear reactor that is used for research, training, or development purposes (which may include producing radioisotopes for medical and industrial uses) but has no role in producing electrical power. These reactors, which are also known as research and test reactors, contribute to almost every field of science, including physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, geology, archeology, and ecology.

Nuclear power plant An electrical generating facility using a nuclear reactor as its heat source to provide steam to a turbine generator.

Nuclear fuel Fissionable material that has been enriched to a composition that will support a selfsustaining fission chain reaction when used to fuel a nuclear reactor, thereby producing energy (usually in the form of heat or useful radiation) for use in other processes.

Nuclear reactor The heart of a nuclear power plant or nonpower reactor, in which nuclear fission may be initiated and controlled in a self-sustaining chain reaction to generate energy or produce useful radiation. Although there are many types of nuclear reactors, they all incorporate certain essential features, including the use of fissionable material as fuel, a moderator (such as water) to increase the likelihood of fission (unless reactor operation relies on fast neutrons), a reflector to conserve escaping neutrons, coolant provisions for heat removal, instruments for monitoring and controlling reactor operation, and protective devices (such as control rods and shielding).

Nuclear steam supply system

The reactor and the reactor coolant pumps (and steam generators for a pressurized water reactor) and associated piping in a nuclear power plant used to generate the steam needed to drive the turbine generator unit.

Nuclear waste A subset of radioactive waste that includes unusable byproducts produced during the various stages of the nuclear fuel cycle, including recovery (or extraction), conversion, and enrichment of uranium; fuel fabrication; and use of the fuel in nuclear reactors. Specifically, these stages produce a variety of nuclear waste materials, including uranium mill tailings, depleted uranium, and spent (depleted) fuel. (By contrast, "radioactive waste" is a broader term, which includes all wastes that contain radioactivity, regardless of how they are produced. It is not considered "nuclear waste" because it is not produced through the nuclear fuel cycle and is generally not regulated).

Operable A system, subsystem, train, component, or device is operable or has operability when it is capable of performing its specified functions and when all necessary attendant instrumentation, controls, electrical power, cooling or seal water, lubrication, or other auxiliary equipment that are required for the system, subsystem, train, component, or device to perform its functions are also capable of performing their related support functions.

Operational mode In a nuclear power reactor, an operational mode corresponds to any one inclusive combination of core reactivity condition, power level, and average reactor coolant temperature.

Pellet, fuel A thimble-sized ceramic cylinder (approximately 3/8-inch in diameter and 5/8-inch in length), consisting of uranium (typically uranium oxide, UO2), which has been enriched to increase the concentration of uranium-235 (U-235) to fuel a nuclear reactor. Modern reactor cores in pressurized-water reactors (PWRs) and boiling-water reactors (BWRs) may contain up to 10 million pellets, stacked in the fuel rods that form fuel assemblies.

Pool reactor

A reactor in which the fuel elements are suspended in a pool of water that serves as the reflector, moderator, and coolant. Popularly called a "swimming pool reactor," it is used for research and training, not for electrical generation.

Power reactor A reactor designed to produce heat for electric generation (as distinguished from reactors used for research), for producing radiation or fissionable materials or for reactor component testing.

Pressurized-water reactor (PWR) A common nuclear power reactor design in which very pure water is heated to a very high temperature by fission, kept under high pressure (to prevent it from boiling), and converted to steam by a steam generator (rather than by boiling, as in a boiling-water reactor).

The resulting steam is used to drive turbines, which activate generators to produce electrical power. A pressurized-water reactor (PWR) essentially operates like a pressure cooker, where a lid is tightly placed over a pot of heated water, causing the pressure inside to increase as the temperature increases (because the steam cannot escape) but keeping the water from boiling at the usual 212째F (100째C). About two-thirds of the operating nuclear reactor power plants in the United States are PWRs. Pressurizer A tank or vessel that acts as a head tank (or surge volume) to control the pressure in a pressurized water reactor.

Reactor coolant system The system used to remove energy from the reactor core and transfer that energy either directly or indirectly to the steam turbine.

Reactor core The central portion of a nuclear reactor, which contains the fuel assemblies, moderator, neutron poisons, control rods, and support structures. The reactor core is where fission takes place.

Reactor, nuclear The heart of a nuclear power plant or nonpower reactor, in which nuclear fission may be initiated and controlled in a self-sustaining chain reaction to generate energy or produce

useful radiation. Although there are many types of nuclear reactors, they all incorporate certain essential features, including the use of fissionable material as fuel, a moderator (such as water) to increase the likelihood of fission (unless reactor operation relies on fast neutrons), a reflector to conserve escaping neutrons, coolant provisions for heat removal, instruments for monitoring and controlling reactor operation, and protective devices (such as control rods and shielding).

Spent fuel pool An underwater storage and cooling facility for spent (depleted) fuel assemblies that have been removed from a reactor.

Spent nuclear fuel Nuclear reactor fuel that has been used to the extent that it can no longer effectively sustain a chain reaction.

Uranium fuel fabrication facility A facility that converts enriched uranium hexafluoride (UF6) into fuel for commercial light-water power reactors, research and test reactors, and other nuclear reactors. The UF6, in solid form in containers, is heated to a gaseous form and then chemically processed to form uranium dioxide (UO2) powder. This powder is then processed into ceramic pellets and loaded into metal tubes, which are subsequently bundled into fuel assemblies. Fabrication also can involve mixed-oxide (MOX) fuel, which contains plutonium oxide mixed with either natural or depleted uranium oxide, in ceramic pellet form.

Uranium hexafluoride production facility (or uranium conversion facility) A facility that receives natural uranium in the form of ore concentrate (known as â&#x20AC;&#x153;yellowcakeâ&#x20AC;?) and converts it into uranium hexafluoride (UF6), in preparation for fabricating fuel for nuclear reactors.

Waste classification (classes of waste) Classification of low-level radioactive waste (LLW) according to its radiological hazard. The classes include Class A, B, and C, with Class A being the least hazardous and accounting for 96 percent of LLW. As the waste class and hazard increase, it requires progressively greater controls to protect the health and safety of the public and the environment.

Waste, radioactive Radioactive materials at the end of their useful life or in a product that is no longer useful and requires proper disposal.

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