Local Context

BRIEF ORIGINS HISTORY: FROM TO INDEPENDENT VILLAGES TO SOVEREIGN NATIONS

The 19 Pueblo tribes in present day geographically spans across nine counties in the state of New Mexico and borders large cities such as cities of Santa Fe and Albuquerque. Cumulatively the Pueblo tribal land encompasses over 3585.44 square miles. 13 Historically ancestral Puebloan civilizations date back to 7000-1500 BCE and spanned across the present-day territories of New Mexico, Utah, Arizona, and Colorado.

Prior to Pueblo tribes contact with European settlers in the 16th century. Puebloan communities lived dispersed amongst approximately 40+ villages predominantly clustered along the Rio Grande River, in present day New Mexico. Villages were generally composed of members of the same family lineage and linguistic group. 14 According to scholars it is believed the Taos Pueblo first encountered the Spanish in 1540. In 1598, the Spanish established their first settlement in Pueblo Country. 15 Interestingly enough, the word “Pueblo” comes from Spanish origins and means “village or town”, in reference to the permanent dwelling complexes Puebloan communities built and lived in. 16 From 1598 to 1680, the Spanish promoted Christianity and over time began to brutally punish Puebloans, who practiced their traditional religion and customs. It is important to note the Spanish Crown also claimed title to Pueblo Country land. The Spanish Crown land title provided Puebloans ownership of land and legal protection from conquest from other colonizers, as wards and vessels of the Spanish Empire. 17 Mounting pressure to assimilate to Christianity practices and brutality from the Spanish ultimately led to the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. The Pueblo Revolt resulted in the Spanish being ousted from Pueblo Country. 18 Scholars believe much of modern-day Pueblo settlements and unification of multi-clan tribes came about as a result of Pueblo villages uniting together to oust the Spanish. 19

Almost two centuries following the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, the Mexican Republic would come to rule over Pueblo Country from 1821-1848. Unlike the Spanish, the Mexican Republic granted full citizenship to Puebloans which enabled non-Indian Mexican Republic citizens to purchase and encroach on Pueblo land. 20 This is important to note because following the Mexican Republic defeat in the Mexican-American War of 1848. A clause of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo-Article IX, stated all Mexican Republic citizens shall have the choice to choose citizenship between the Mexican Republic or the United States, and maintain control of their land. 21 The question of what to do with the Pueblo Indians following the Mexican

13 Ibid. U.S. Census Information for Native Americans. (2020). 14 Liebmann, Matthew., Ferguson, T.J., & Preucel, Robert. (2005). Pueblo Settlement, Architecture, and Social Change in the Pueblo Revolt Era, A.D. 1680 to 1696. Journal of Field Archaeology, 30(1), 45-60. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/ stable/40025825 15 Tiller, E. Veronica. (1994). American Indian Reservations and Trust Areas. Economic Development Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. 16 Ibid. Tiller, E. Veronica. (1994) 17 Lucero, Robert. (2007). State v. Romero: The Legacy of Pueblo Land Grants and the Contours of Jurisdiction in Indian Country. New Mexico Law Review, Volume 37, Issue 3 18 Brown, Tracy. (2004). Tradition and Change in Eighteenth-Century Pueblo Indian Communities. Journal of the Southwest, 46(3), 463-500. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/40170299 19 Ibid. Liebmann, Matthew., Ferguson, T.J., & Preucel, Robert. (2005) 20 Ibid. Lucero, Robert. (2007) 21 Ibid. Lucero, Robert. (2007) 12

American War left the United States government divided on a decision. Pueblo Indians had full citizenship from the Mexico Republic, titles to their land from the Spanish Crown, permanent complex dwellings and agricultural systems on their land, and non-Indians on Indian land. Following the ruling of United States v. Lucero (1869), the New Mexico Territorial Supreme Court implied that the Trade and Intercourse Act of 1834 is not permitted to Pueblo Indians, which protected Indian tribal land against encroachment from non-Indians. From this case it was implicitly implied Pueblo Indians were considered citizens of the United States. The court holding even went on to even emphasize Pueblos were not “a wild, savage, and barbarous race”. The official recognition of Pueblo tribes as Indians and sovereign nations didn’t occur until the admission of the state of New Mexico, in 1912, in the union of the United States. Additionally, the court ruling of United States v. Sandoval (1913), explicitly found Pueblo tribes to fall under federal superintendence and could be considered sovereign nations. Following the recognition of Pueblos as sovereign nations, Congress passed the 1924 Pueblo Lands Act to validate Pueblo tribes’ claim to land, resolve land conflicts between non-Indians, and compensate Pueblo tribes for loss of land that federal protection could have prevented. 22 The history of Pueblo tribes’ evolution from independent villages, ousting the Spanish Crown, absorbed into the Mexico Republic, becoming dependent sovereign nations of the United States, is unlike no other tribe in the States. The Puebloan story illustrates a rare scenario of an American Indian tribe’s ability to resist colonization and assimilation from three non-Indian nations, and effectively remain in control and reside on their traditional land.

CULTURE

Pueblo tribes by and large have been successful in preserving their traditional culture, languages, art, and religion from centuries of pressure to assimilate from Spanish and English colonizers. Linguistically Puebloan languages in New Mexico are partitioned into three families: Kerenan, Tanoan, Zunian, and five dialects: Keres, Tiwa, Towa, Tewa, and Zuni. 23 Traditionally Puebloan last names also help serve as a marker to indicate family lineage and clan. 24

Moreover, religion plays a vital role in Pueblo tribes’ culture, and is expressed through various aspects of social structure, art, festivals, and architecture. It is important to re-emphasis every tribe and even clan is different. Thus, the nuisances and between religious practices and beliefs amongst every tribe and/or clan can vary. Nonetheless there are several commonalities amongst Pueblo tribes regarding the importance of kachinas and kivas. Kachinas are understood to signify supernatural beings which serve as messengers between man and the deities. Kachinas are believed to be ancestors that can either bestow blessings or discipline to tribes. To honor kachinas, Pueblo tribes make kachina dolls or carvings, hold ceremonies/rituals in their plazas, with detailed face masked dancers who serve as hosts for kachinas to return to the Pueblo. 25 Moreover, kivas commonly refers to both as space 22 Ibid. Lucero, Robert. (2007) 23 Indian Pueblo Cultural Center. (2020). History & Culture. Retrieved from https://www.indianpueblo.org/19-pueblos/ history-culture/ 24 Hodge, F.W. (1896). Pueblo Indian Clans. American Anthropologist,9(10), 345-352. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/ stable/658901 25 13 Grugel, Andrea. (2010). Culture, Religion and Economy in the American Southwest: Zuni Pueblo and Laguna Pueblo.

used for assembly for ceremonial and ritual purposes or a specific religious group. For Pueblo tribes it is important that kivas be accurately placed on a site to ensure that ceremonies work as intended to bring wellbeing to the tribe and world at large. 26 Lastly Pueblo tribes also maintain different levels of multiculturalism and religious syncretism. According to scholars Pueblo tribes have adapted various elements from Catholicism for celebrations such as Feasting Day, in which tribes honor Patron Saints through music, dance, and meals. 27 Depending on the tribe Feasting Days might be open to non-Indian visitors through invitation.

ART & POTTERY

Pueblo tribes are renowned for their pottery and art making traditions with contemporary practices extending back hundreds of years. 28 The selling of art related products such as necklaces, earrings, dolls, pottery, and paintings, provide a viable source of income for tribal members and support tribal economies. Additionally, these art related goods can carry religious significance and connotations as well. Puebloan art and crafts often use materials such as wood, bone, leather, clay, stone, feathers, and various other fibers. Surrounding cities such as Santa Fe, which has one of the largest art markets in the United States with international attraction, provides over 1000 tribal artists the opportunity to sell their work and promote tribes’ tourism during the annual Indian Art Market in August. 29

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT

Prior to the arrival of Spanish and English settlers, Pueblo civilizations were traditionally permanent agrarian societies utilizing ditch irrigation techniques as early as 1300. Traditional crops grown include corn, beans, squash, and melons. In modern times agriculture production in addition cattle and livestock farming helps contribute to tribal economies. 30 Besides agriculture additional tribal economic activities include casino gaming, in which tribes such as Pojoaque, Santa Clara, Taos, Tesuque, San Felipe, and Santa Ana own and operate. Cultural tourism, eco-tourism and art production and selling, in which nearly all tribes actively part-take in. 31 The unemployment levels amongst the tribes at lowest sits at 2.6%, highest 22%, median 10%, and average 12%. 32 Lastly it is also important to note, many tribal members work off as well as live off tribal in surrounding cities such as Santa Fe, Albuquerque, Rio Rancho, Acomita Village, McCartys, and Anzac Village. 33

GeoJournal, 77(6), 791-803. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/23325388?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents 26 Ibid. Grugel, Andrea. (2010) 27 Blake, Kevin., & Smith, Jeffrey. (2000). Pueblo Mission Churches as Symbols of Permanence and Identity. Geographical Review,90(3), 359-380. doi:10.2307/3250858 28 Ibid. Tiller, E. Veronica. (1994) 29 Tourism Santa Fe. (2020). Santa Fe Indian Market (SFIM). Retrieved from https://swaia.org/ 30 Ibid. Tiller, E. Veronica. (1994) 31 Ibid. Tiller, E. Veronica. (1994) 32 Ibid. U.S. Census Information for Native Americans. (2020) 33 Ibid. Tiller, E. Veronica. (1994)

14

According to the 2018 US Census Bureau the highest Pueblo household median income was $52,5000 of Pueblo of Pojoaque and the lowest was $28,393 of the Taos Pueblo. In contrast to surrounding cities such as Santa Fe, Albuquerque, and Rio Rancho, the median household income of every tribe besides the Pueblo of Pojoaque. 34 Figures-1 and figure-2, illustrates the median income of the 19 Pueblo tribes in contrast to surrounding cities and the national household median income poverty line for a household of 4.

Figure 2. Pueblo Tribes & Surrounding Cities Median Household Income (2018)

(Source: U.S. Census Information for Native Americans. (2020). Retrieved from https://www.cabq.gov/census2020/u-s-census

information-for-native-americans)

34 Ibid. U.S. Census Information for Native Americans. (2020)

15

In regard to income per capita, most Pueblo tribes barely sit above the 2019 poverty line of $12,140 and are well below the per capita income level of surrounding large cities such as Santa Fe: $37,994, Albuquerque: $51,099, and Rio Rancho: $27,989. Amongst the Pueblo tribes, the Pueblo of Zia has the lowest per capita income of $12,020 and Nambe has the highest of $28,663, according to the 2018 US Census Bureau. 35

Figure 3. Pueblo Tribes & Surrounding Cities Per Capita Income (2018)

(Source: U.S. Census Information for Native Americans. (2020). Retrieved from https://www.cabq.gov/census2020/u-s-census

information-for-native-americans)

TRADITIONAL PUEBLO HOUSING TYPOLOGY

According to studies Pueblo dwellings have involved overtime to incorporate different uses of materials, shapes, and sizes. Even more so, Pueblo dwellings form and story height can vary by tribe. Historically ancient pueblo dwelling ruins going back to early as 1250 AD were predominantly composed of stone blocks. 36 It is believed following the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 and the ousting of the Spanish. Pueblo tribes adopted adobe clay as their primary material dwelling material, as well as shifted to constructing dwellings on top of mesas for better defensibility against raids and reconquest. 37

Pueblo dwellings are typically conjoined and share retaining wall and/or outdoor space. Spatially dwellings clusters are arranged in a rectangle and/or square masterplan which

35 Ibid. U.S. Census Information for Native Americans. (2020) 36 Cameron, Catherine. (1999). The Construction and Use-Life of Pueblo Structures. In Hopi Dwellings: Architectural Change at Orayvi (pp. 21-34). University of Arizona Press. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1814g1s.7 37 Ibid. Liebmann, Matthew., Ferguson, T.J., & Preucel, Robert. (2005)

16

overlooks a central plaza or surrounding plazas. Plazas serve as community spaces where tribes can hold space for celebrations, rituals, and recreational activities. Dwelling’s proximity to plazas are also important because they facilitate high social interaction and communication amongst tribal members, as well as historically provide security in numbers. 38 The primary shape of a pueblo dwelling is a large rectangular room and a flat roof. The size of a room varies depending on the availability of timber, which is used roof joist and columns. Studies have found on average the size of a pueblo dwelling is approximately 103 sq. ft, with some cases large dwellings exceeding 300 sq. ft. 39 Below a historical photograph taken in 1904, shows Pueblo dwellings and the main plaza in the Pueblo of Acoma, during a celebration.

Figure 4. Pueblo of Acoma (1904) - Feast Day

(Source: Curtis, Edward. S. (1904). Feast Day at Acoma)

Pueblo dwellings can range between 1-5 stories; each additional floor stepped back which creates a roof terrace on the proceeding level. According to studies, the step back of each proceeding level enabled Pueblo tribes to quickly build separate rectangular units and join them with an internal system of ladders to allow movement between levels. Access into multi-story pueblo dwelling is only accessible from the upper levels via exterior ladder that can be stored when not being utilized. The usage of ladders also provides an additional defense mechanism against raids and prevents entry from the base. 40 It is important to note as the need for defense decreased, overtime doors and windows were added to the first floor. 41

38 39 40 41 Ibid. Cameron, Catherine. (1999) Ibid. Cameron, Catherine. (1999) Ibid. Liebmann, Matthew., Ferguson, T.J., & Preucel, Robert. (2005) Ibid. Cameron, Catherine. (1999)

17

Contemporary pueblo dwellings are built with adobe. Adobe is a building material composed of a combination of sand, silt, clay, and straw that is mixed with water and left out into the sun to dry. Depending on the water mixture, adobe can be utilized as a mortar or casted as a brick. 42

Figure 5. Taos Pueblo multi-story dwelling (2012)

(Source: Juno Kim. (2012). Taos Pueblo)

Figure 6. Village of Acoma Pueblo (2019)

(Source: Kate Nelson. (2019). Pueblo of Acoma)

42 Brown, Paul., & Clifton, James. (1978). Adobe. I: The Properties of Adobe. Studies in Conservation, 23(4), 139-146. doi:10.2307/1505842 18