Thajya - Idol Making from Nepal

Thajya Idol Making (Patan - Nepal)

Guided By: Ms. Krishna Amin-Patel Written, edited, illustrated and photographed by: Gautam Kumar, Priya Yadav, Shweta Yadav M.Des | Lifestyle Accessory Design | Batch 2017 CopyrightŠ 2018-2019 NID No parts of this document may be reproduced,distributed of transmitted in any formor by any means,including photocopy,recording or other electronic or mechanical methods,without the prior written permission of Institute.

Published in 2019, Processed at National Institute of Design,Gandhinagar.

Digitally printed at Chaap Digital,Ahmendabad.

Thajya Idol Making (Patan - Nepal)

Documented By Gautam Kumar Priya Yadav Shweta Yadav

Lifestyle Accessory Design’17

Guided By Ms. Krishna Amin-Patel Dean,NID Gandhinagar Campus

Acknowledgment Foremost, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to the National Institute of Design, Gandhinagar for providing us the opportunity of documenting this entrancing craft. We thank our dean and course faculty Ms. Krishna Amin-Patel for her constant guidance and encouragement throughout the course of Craft Documentation. Her interest and expertise in the subject helped us in understanding the craft even more extensively. We would also like to thank our department lead, Mr. Amresh Panigrahi for his constant motivation and support towards the subject.

We would also like to express our heartiest gratitude towards Mr. Tejesh Man Shakya (Former teaching assistant at Kathmandu University, Centre for Art & Design), Mr. Prabin Man Shakya (Owner of Dhanaraj Handicraft, Lalitpur) for taking out time for us and helping us understand the process of idol making and accommodating us in their workshops throughout the day and arranging more workshop for us around Lalitpur. Their corporation has been essential for us to understand and document the extensive craft. Their knowledge of the history of the country and the craft helped us dwell deeper in the research and discover new insights regarding the craft process, culture, and people around Nepal. We would also like to extend our thanks to all the craftsmen for their friendliness and politeness towards us and our questions even if the language was a constraint.

A special thanks to Ms. Bisheshta Dhakwa and Mr. Tushar Verma, students of National Institute of Design, Gandhinagar for constantly helping and providing us with vital contacts and information about Nepal and the craft. They were constant support before and during our stay in Nepal. Lastly, this research and documentation were not possible without the support of our families, friends, and peers throughout the project.

Preface Craft is an expressive memory or a message transferred from one hand to another through community practices. Craft is a manifestation of historical, geographical, political, economic, demographic, metaphorical, cultural composition of an era which travels and evolves through time and dimensions it touches in its path. As a design student, the journey of documenting a craft provided us with an opportunity to perceive the cultural geography of our neighboring country enabling us to understand the human being examined in the real human geographies and life lead in an environment through a form. The form thus becomes the chariot of such a journey which enables a student to connect dots in the context of the present day and opening our eyes to the life around, to which we were ignorant up-till now.

Lifestyle Accessory Design, Gandhinagar gave us this opportunity to unfold and understand our role as designer through craft documentation as a part of our curriculum, where we went ahead to conduct a focused group ethnography constructed around the study of the craft of Thajya- Idol making in Nepal and documented the process of making the idol and the life - culture of the craftsmen involved in such process, through a lived-in experience of the society around this craft. Our journey into unraveling the craft was experienced and guided through professors, artisans, students and the local people, who opened their doors for three students of India who were confused and curious about a radiating craft and the embedded rich culture passed on from generations.

Table of Contents 01.The Journey

01-06

02.Nepal

07-08

03.History

09-11

04.Geography

12-15

05.Climate

16-17

06.Widlife 6.1 Mammal 6.2 Reptiles 6.3 Birds

18-20

07.Plants

21-22

08.People of Nepal 7.1 Cultural Evidence 7.2 Diversity in Food 7.3 Festivals and Celebrations

23-29

09.Architecture

30-34

10.Art

35-38

11.Introduction to Buddhism 11.1 About Buddhism 11.2 Thirty - two marks and Eighty Exemplifications 11.2.1 Thirty - Two marks 11.2.2 Eighty Exemplifications 11.3 Ritual attributes and symbols 11.4 The Ashatamangalas

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12.The Buddhas 12.1 Manushi Buddhas 12.2 Transcendental Buddha 12.3 The Buddhas of Medicine 12.4 The Bodhisattvas 12.5 Sculpture 13.The Metallurgical Art in Nepal 13.1 Casting 13.2 Lost wax casting 13.3 Sculpting the wax model 13.3.1 Multiple dentical sculptures from model 13.3.2 Attaching sprue and runners 13.4 Coring with clay and husk mixture 13.5 De-waxing 13.6 Metal casting 13.7 Finishing 14.Market for Sculptures

61-76

77-108

109-110

15.Insights and Perspectives

112

16.References

115

17.Biblography

116

The Journey

1.1- The view of Himalayan range from the airplane from New Delhi to Nepal.

En-route to Nepal on an early morning flight with extra leg room space, we underwent the approximate journey of 8 hours from Indira Gandhi international airport Delhi to Nepal International airport Kathmandu, which includes two hours of alluring experience of the beautiful skyline. An immersive experience right from the musical sound of unknown words of announcement falling on to our ears to the ravishing Himalayas standing tall through the clouds looked heavenly. The excited chattering suddenly turned into breathtaking silence at the sight of the magnificent mountains with the snow-covered crest peeking through the clouds, those glorious mountains had a picturesque landscapes which one will cherish in one’s memories 1

forever, so high still so grounded it felt as though these mountains where embracing the hardship of life yet celebrating the one which flourishes on the bank of the one which flows from these mountains bestowing life to humans and all the organisms dependent on them.

The geographies shifted but we never felt we left India.

Kathmandu received us with sunny bright landscapes and cold December winds. Our 45 minutes drive from the airport to Patan felt similar to that of any other developing city of north India, the coexistence of amalgamated architectural development in the traditional realm of the existing city connects the history of the place with the modernity of 21st century.

It felt as if the whole city was newly constructed to which the driver told us that the city was indeed getting rebuilt after the April 2015 earthquake. It is said, roads are the lifeline of any city shaping the life and establishments around it, driving from Kathmandu to Patan the tall concrete buildings with a flavor of modernity are very different from the baked brick houses in the interiors of the valley. The city has

an extravagant morass of chaos and sophistication all layered together on its roads. These roads then unsnarl to the communities and their cultural practices thriving in the interiors of the city, as you move along them experiencing the beautiful fusion of traditional practices, modernity, and mountains the city unfolds itself to the largest clusters of craft breeding life in the valley.

There are two major craft clusters in and around Kathmandu with 43,000 cottage and small industries employing approximately 1.6 million people concentrated in Kathmandu valley and in the Eastern Tarai areas. Moving 8 miles towards the east are the potter’s cluster at Bhaktapur and to the south lies the city of arts Lalitpur historically Patan, consisting of the jewelers, carpet weavers, painters (Thangka Paintings), wood carvers and blacksmiths, the greatest contributors to Nepal’s economy. Lalitpur is on the elevated track land of Kathmandu situated on the south of the Bagmati river, which separates it from the city of Kathmandu on the northern and western side. Lalitpur

1.2-The new developing city of Patan- view from the rented house. https://www.videoblocks.com/video/time-lapse-of-kathmandu-city-as-seen-from-patan-nepal-sqlnogetithc9c7x

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Kathmandu Valley, Patan became a melting pot of two influential religions, Hinduism, and Buddhism.

The pious Krishna (Hindu) temple, beautifully rests in the middle of the town whose entire architecture was dedicated to the philosophy of the Buddhist DharmaChakra (the Wheel of Righteousness) molds Patan, to this date, as a glorious city of culture, religion, art, and heritage.

Patan is merely 5 km away from the capital city, Kathmandu, but, despite such proximity, its preserved ancestral uniqueness can be experienced once you reach Patan. Overlooking the beautiful mountain we reached our rented place with an interesting architecture among the row houses built on stilt floors on the terrains of the landscape, we then stepped out to explore the city before it sleeps. Patan, in recent years, has become a favorite spot for Diplomats, INGO, and NGO. Perhaps for its peaceful environment, despite being close to the capital city, or just because the city is plain beautiful, in itself, with numerous cafe, pubs, and shops. We Spotted a small local cafe with a rustic interior and savory cuisine, owned by a young Newari boy, who gave us a glimpse of the city through his narrations. Delighted at the hospitality of the city our day ended with a peaceful walk, back to house.

1.3-Evening view of Darbar Square,Patan.

was once the capital of an independent kingdom, now subsumed into the greater Kathmandu conurbation, it has its own quieter and better-preserved historic district, marked by numerous Buddhist Bahal (monastery compounds, some still active), proud artistry, and a conspicuous community of foreign residents, predominantly the staff of international NGO and charities.

Once, an independent and mighty kingdom of the 3

The next morning started with an expensive fifteenminute cab drive to Tejesh’s house since the cab is not a popular mode of transport in Nepal it is comparatively expensive as against the local transport. Tejesh ji was our first point of contact with the craft and culture.

Tejesh Man Shakya, age 41, Former Teaching assistant at Kathmandu University, Centre for Art & Design, craftsmanship runs in his blood, his family is in the profession of sculpting Buddha idol through lost wax casting in gold from many centuries. He told us how as a kid he has learned the craft from his father Tez Ratan Shakya who was the head craftsman in his community, working alongside to other apprentices he understood the intricacies and acquired skills required for wax modeling, clay modeling and casting. He further took this craft to students in and around Nepal and currently

was teaching the craft in a gurukul.

Walking uphill to Tejesh ji’s house through narrow streets one can experience craftsman working in small workshops on these lanes interestingly co-existing with the local vendors of daily supplies. It was fascinating to see how the art was breathing through the daily life of the locals. Upon reaching Tejesh’s house we saw a small two-story house with a small iron gate ornamented with beautiful plants and fragrances. We sat in the living room which he uses as his library or the reading space where he unfolded the historical stories and beliefs around the craft and that of his own ancestors. There was a small workshop on the first floor dedicated to his experimentation and exploration with wax, however, he usually doesn’t cast the wax sculpture himself but rather get them cast through an external agency.

The system of this craft functions as an interdependent network of workshops each specialized in a specific stage in the making of the craft where a sculpture passes through hands of various craftsman before it reaches the market. He told us how initially the craft was introduced only to the Shakya community and later other communities were also welcomed to learn the craft which became their source of livelihood. He further took us around Lalitpur to various workshops practicing the craft in varied scale, transforming from family to community practice depending on the scale.

He arranged different workshops for us and we couldn’t ask for more. He took us through the experience of understanding wax as a medium of self expression by giving us an opportunity to work around with wax in his studio, the real-time experience of the material through time and space gave us a greater understanding of the dominance and nuances of working with the material which really illuminated us with new insights. Further for our greater understanding of the stages and process involved, we were introduced to Praveen Ji, owner of one of the big foundries in Lalitpur, for whom, like many others, Buddha idol making was his family business. We are filled with gratitude for Praveen Ji an amusing person who patiently and eagerly addressed

1.4-Tejesh Ji’s wax molding workshop in his house where he took us through the basics of wax molding and wax sculpture casting.

our curiosity. The process of idol making is so extensive and engaging that we didn’t even notice our days flying.

The people made it really easy for us to accommodate everywhere we went. There were labors and craftsman who enjoyed sharing their wisdom and experience with us, from the knowledge of skills to early morning tea with flavors of love and laughter they touched us at various layers. Practices around the craft and the energy consisting the human geographies have enough pieces of evidence to support epistemology of Lalitpur and its divine historical journey.

Walking down the streets at dawn every day we were going through indulgent experiences of serenity and silence manifested in dusty roads, curvy terrains, small houses amidst the green lush and cold winter winds. We were absorbed by the life and the reality of humans on these streets exchanging smiles and energies with them.

Our daily routine included numerous small exchanges with the surroundings, from the caretakers of the bridge we crossed every morning while they sweep to the smell of food being cooked in the houses surprising our nostril and senses with pleasure, simple things like esthetic beauty of the water flowing down the slope after cleaning the house and the small kids playing on 4

1.5-The integrated market area and seating spaces in Darbar Square,Patan. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/nepal/articles/how-to-spend-24-hours-in-kathmandu-nepal/

the streets filled our memories with beautiful moments we will revisit always. The most stirring experience was that of the Patan Darbar square situated at the center of the city also known as the heart of the city. Darbar Square is a marvel of Newar architecture, tiled with red bricks flooring there are many temples and idols in the area. The main temples are aligned opposite of the western face of the palace of Malla Kings. The entrance of the temples faces east, towards the palace. There is also a bell situated in the alignment beside the main temples. The Square also holds old Newari residential houses. There are other temples and structures in and around Patan Durbar Square built by the Newari 5

people. Patan is one of the oldest Buddhist cities. It is a center of both Hinduism and Buddhism with 136 Bahals or courtyards and 55 major temples. Most of these structures are in the vicinity of the Darbar Square including the patan museum which gave us an essence of the history of the city and the crafts. After the earthquake of 2015, a lot of infrastructure on the square was destroyed and were being restored under the joint efforts of UNESCO with the state bodies.

Thus the city was very dusty and polluted yet a beautiful testimony of its rich cultural practices, religion, art, and food were being beautifully offered to anybody and everybody who wish to be a part of this heritage.

1.6-A view of Phewa lake with Annapurna Mountain Range.

to find in cities. Nepal being a neighboring country of India has a lot of similarities especially with the northeastern part of India. The gods and goddesses they worship, the food they eat ( dal bhat ), the lifestyle they live and the traditional technologies they are using in their practices have a great resemblance to that of India. Traditional technology is the national heritage of any country and the form which develops from these technologies are the true reflection of the life and welfare of the people of the country. Thus in the following chapters, we have tried to uncoil the stories around the craft to understand the larger system of Buddha idol making breeding throughout the country through various lenses of perspective, through secondary research, primary experiences and discussions with our mentors. An employment of double diamond approach have been followed in the flow of the information where the journey starts from the top of the diamond understanding the bigger context of space, here Nepal and then sprawling into it’s political, geographical, demographic and architectural evolution which converge into a form at the bottom end evolving through art and religious practices being the touch points of such a journey.

Away from all the dust and noise was the city of Pokhara a city on Phewa Lake located 200 kilometers (120 miles) west of the capital Kathmandu where we concluded our immersive journey of Nepal, lying calmly in between three of the ten highest mountains in the world — Dhaulagiri, Annapurna I and Manaslu.

Pokhara is considered the tourism capital of Nepal, is a base for trekkers undertaking the Annapurna Circuit through the Annapurna Conservation Area region of the Annapurna ranges in the Himalayas. The city is also home to a large number of elite Gurkha soldiers.

It welcomes all kinds of people with a warm heart, there’s much more to Pokhara than its laid-back charm.

It also boasts a booming adventure-sports industry: it is arguably the best paragliding venue on the globe and is surrounded by white-water rivers. Pokhara is a lakeside city with tranquilizing experience hard 6

Nepal

2.1-Annapurna Mountain Range (6,993m) from Sarangkot, Nepal.

Lying along the southern slopes of the Himalayan mountain ranges, Nepal is one of the beautiful countries of Asia. It is a landlocked country located between India and China with an area of 147,181 square kilometers and a population of approximately 30 million. Kathmandu is the nation’s capital and the country’s largest metropolitan city. Not only for the Hindus but also for the Buddhists Nepal offers a unique -place of pilgrimage as it happens to be the birthplace of Lord Buddha, the apostle of peace and compassion.

Nepal does not show a simultaneous and uniform development of history everywhere. It is difficult to know how early men settled in Nepal and from which 7

racial stock they came. The first evidence in Nepal of the Paleolithic period was found in the Gandaki river basin up to the Tribeni Rive in the Naval Parasi district.

Isolated Neolithic findings are more widespread. In terms of absolute chronology, the Tarai of central Nepal has produced the earliest historical evidence so far. The mountainous location of the country also generated a conservative outlook which led to the preservation of traditions and resistance to change.

All aspects of cultural life, art and architecture show a striking continuity from the Lichivis to the Shahs.

Although a small country, Nepal showed a tremendous ability to assimilate all elements present in its midst.

People coming from all directions were received and ultimately absorbed beyond recognition into the life of the land. Newari society today is not just made up of a single socio-ethnic strain. It is made of people who have come from Nepal from different areas and at different epochs.

Nepal, this is a place of festivals, with some part of the kingdom or the other celebrating some festival during every day of the year. Festivals may be linked with the remembrance of the departed soul, to herald the different seasons, to mark the beginning or end of the agricultural cycle, to mark the national events or just family celebrations. On a festive day, the Nepalese take their ritual bath, worship different gods and goddesses, visit the temple, observe fasting and undertake to feast. The most important aspect of Nepali culture is the religious harmony and understanding prevailing among the Hindus and Buddhist. Nepal is one of the few places in the world where Buddhism and Hinduism have coexisted peacefully for almost 2,000 years. Although Hinduism is the state religion, the two religions are not only historically entwined but also share many similar aspirations that make them far less distinguishable than in theory.

Nepalese objects involved in rituals and domestic life are majorly cast by pouring molten metal into a prepared mold through lost wax casting or hammered out of sheet metal that is repousse. The skill in

transmitting metal into superb work of piety and art is an outstanding Nepalese achievement. When and from whom artist and craftsman learned these skills are unknown but they were most likely introduced by way of the Indian subcontinent.

Some three millennia B.C. at urban centers such as Mohenjo-Daro images were already being cast by what appears to be the highly complex “ lost wax� technique and by the second century A.D. there are Indian Literary references to it.

In a tradition that continues today in Lalitpur, Patan, there are no large scale foundries or factories, however, metalworking is a small-scale family affair of certain Newari castes, who conduct it at home and the work is distributed in various stages among the members of the family and sometimes among the community. Till the mid-eighteenth century, cult objects literally poured from these workshops, not only to satisfy local needs, Hindu and Buddhist, but also foreign ones and through the study of the form of this craft we wish to penetrate inside the life and conduct of human of that era till today.

2.2-A small scale foundry on the way to Lalitpur Market in Patan.

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History

3.1-One of the oldest photo of Kathmandu Durbar Square On the right is old palace building before existing neo-classical Palace (Gaddhi bhaithak) was built Unknown Date. https://www.digitalarchaeologyfoundation.com/historicalphotographs-of-kathmandu-durbar-square/

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The archaeological investment carried out so far are the only source covering the earliest period of Nepali history for which no epigraphic or Numismatic evidence is available. The Gopalas and Mahishapalas believed to have been the earliest rulers with their capital at Matatirtha, the south-west corner of the Kathmandu Valley. From the 7th or 8th Century B.C. the Kirantis are said to have ruled the valley. Their famous King Yalumber is even mentioned in the epic, ‘Mahabharat’. Around 300 A.D. the Lichhavis arrived from northern India and overthrew the Kirantis. One of the legacies of the Lichhavis is the Changu Narayan Temple near Bhaktapur, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (Culture), which dates back to the 5th Century. In

the early 7th Century, Amshuvarma, the first Thakuri king took over the throne from his father-in-law who was a Lichhavi. He married off his daughter Bhrikuti to the famous Tibetan King Tsong Tsen Gampo thus establishing good relations with Tibet. The Lichhavis brought art and architecture to the valley but the golden age of creativity arrived in 1200 A.D with the Mallas. During their 550 year rule, the Mallas built numerous temples and splendid palaces with picturesque squares. It was also during their rule that society and the cities became well organized; religious festivals were introduced and literature, music and art were encouraged. After the death of Yaksha Malla, the valley was divided into three kingdoms: Kathmandu (Kantipur), Bhaktapur (Bhadgaon) and Patan (Lalitpur).

Around this time, the Nepal as we know it today was divided into about 46 independent principalities. One among these was the kingdom of Gorkha with a Shah ruler. Much of Kathmandu Valley’s history around this time was recorded by Capuchin friars who lived in the valley on their way in and out of Tibet.

An ambitious Gorkha King named Prithvi Narayan Shah embarked on a conquering mission that led to the defeat of all the kingdoms in the valley (including Kirtipur which was an independent state) by 1769.

Instead of annexing the newly acquired states to his

3.2-Kings Palace Gorkha, Nepal. https://www.world-discovery.co.uk/packages/nepal-heritage_246.htm

kingdom of Gorkha, Prithvi Narayan decided to move his capital to Kathmandu establishing the Shah dynasty which ruled unified Nepal from 1769 to 2008.

The history of the Gorkha state goes back to 1559 when Dravya Shah established a kingdom in an area chiefly inhabited by Magars. During the 17th and early 18th centuries, Gorkha continued a slow expansion, conquering various states while forging alliances with others. Prithvi Narayan dedicated himself at an early age to the conquest of the Kathmandu Valley. Recognizing the threat of the British Raj in India, he dismissed European missionaries from the country and for more than a century, Nepal remained in isolation.

During the mid-19th Century Jung Bahadur Rana became Nepal’s first prime minister to wield absolute power relegating the Shah king to mere figureheads. He started a hereditary reign of the Rana Prime Ministers that lasted for 104 years. The Ranas were overthrown in a democracy movement of the early 1950s with support from the-then monarch of Nepal, King Tribhuvan.

Soon after the overthrow of the Ranas, King Tribhuvan was reinstated as the Head of the State. In early 1959, Tribhuvan’s son King Mahendra issued a new constitution, and the first democratic elections for a national assembly were held. The Nepali Congress Party was victorious and their leader, Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala formed a government and served as prime minister. But by 1960, King Mahendra had changed his mind and dissolved Parliament, dismissing the first democratic government.

After many years of struggle when the political parties were banned, they finally mustered enough courage to start a People’s Movement in 1990. Paving way for democracy, the then-King Birendra accepted constitutional reforms and established a multiparty parliament with King as the Head of State and an executive Prime Minister. In May 1991, Nepal held its first parliamentary elections. In February 1996, the Maoist parties declared People’s War against monarchy and the elected government.

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3.3-Bhaktapur’s Darbar Square, before the earthquake. The pagoda-style Harishankhana temple is in the far background. In front of it, to the right, is the eight-cornered Cyasilin Mandap, both of which were destroyed during the earthquake of 1934. https://www.videoblocks.com/video/bhaktapur-durbar-square-kathmandu-nepal-gi438pt

Then on 1st June 2001, a horrific tragedy wiped out the entire royal family including King Birendra and Queen Aishwarya with many of their closest relatives. With only King Birendra’s brother, Gyanendra and his family surviving, he was crowned the king. King Gyanendra abided by the elected government for some time and then dismissed the elected Parliament to wield absolute power. In April 2006, another People’s Movement was launched jointly by the democratic parties focusing most energy in Kathmandu which led to a 19-day curfew. Eventually, King Gyanendra relinquished his power and reinstated the Parliament.On November 21, 2006, Prime Minister Girija Prasad Koirala and Maoist chairman Prachanda signed the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) 2006, committing to democracy and peace for the progress of the country and people. A Constituent Assembly election was held on April 10, 11

2008. On May 28,2008, the newly elected Constituent Assembly declared Nepal a Federal Democratic Republic, abolishing the 240 year-old monarchy. Nepal today has a President as Head of State and a Prime Minister heading the Government.

Geography

4.1-A Map of Nepal with International Boundaries and Internal Divisions. https://ipfs.io/ipfsQmXoypizjW3WknFiJnKLwHCnL72vedxjQkDDP1mXWo6uco/wiki/Nepal_Railways.html

The Himalayan orogenesis is of very recent date, it is usually believed that the formation of this great chain of mountains coincide in time with the formation of the Alps in the tertiary era. But there is reason to believe that the birth of the himalayas took place towards the last few periods of the tertiary era or even in the beginning of the quaternary era. If the first phase of the rise of the himalayas dated back about 20-25 million 12

years,the present height of the everest is believed to have formed about 8,00,000 years ago. From many symptoms studied by geology and tectonics it appears that the genetic process, or better still the process of adjustment is still going on. The peculiar disposition of the rivers and valleys which rise in the north of the great range and cutting across it flow into the Indo-Gangetic plain (Indus, sutlej, tista, arun) or other rivers which skirt around this range to run towards the south (Brahmaputra), has convinced scholars that the hydrographical system existed before the rise of this range and that the rivers have deepened their tracks with a recessive erosion from the south.

As in case of Alps and other great ranges many have been responsible for the Himalayan corrugation which might have been caused by collision between the continental blocks originating from the deccan and siberia due to a northward drifting movement of the autochthon. The enormous pressure generated might have compressed, bent, or broken all sedimentary rocks deposited in the remotest times on the bed of the

4.2-Nepal Ecological Belt: Population Size,Number,Total http://dataforall.org/dashboard/nepalcensus/

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asiatic mediterranean sea called Tethys and made them slid down towards the south of a huge plastic masses formed by different rocks. As compared to himalayan range the tibetan plateau is more ancient (Mario Fantin, Sherpa himalaya nepal) The contrast closure of the nepalese frontier foreigners has resulted in the extremely small number of expeditions. The kingdom of Nepal, an elongated rectangular boundary lying along the slopes of the mighty Himalayas, stretches for five hundred miles from east to west and lies between 80° and 88° East longitude. Barely a hundred miles wide and stretching from 26 to 30 north latitude, its latitude range from a few feet above the sea level to highest point on earth. The highest point in the country is Mt. Everest (8,848 m) while the lowest point is in the Tarai plains of Kechana Kalan in Jhapa (60 m). While the total land area is 147,181 sq. km including water area of the country that is 3,830 sq. km. Nepal falls in the temperate zone north of the Tropic of Cancer. Nepal’s ecological zones run east to west about 800 km along

its Himalayan axis, 150 to 250 km north to south, and is vertically intersected by the river systems.

The country can be divided into three main geographical regions: Himalayan region, mid hill region and Tarai region where the Himalayan region occupies about 16 percent of total land area of the country inhibited by the Sherpa people. The Middle hill region is spread in 65 percent of the total land with greater population inhibited by various different communities rest of the 17 percent is described as Tarai region. The southern lowland Tarai continues to the Bhabar belt covered with the Char Kose Jhadi forests known for rich wildlife. Further north, the Siwalik zone (700 – 1,500 m) and the Mahabharat range (1,500m - 2,700m) give way to the Duns (valleys), such as Trijuga, Sindhuli, Chitwan, Dang and Surkhet. The Midlands (600 – 3,500 m), north of the Mahabharat range is where two valleys of Kathmandu and Pokhara lie covered in terraced rice fields and surrounded by forested watersheds.

fertile alluvial soil, the backbone of the agrarian economy, these rivers present great possibilities for hydroelectric and irrigation development.

The eastern part of the country is drained by the Kosi River, which has seven tributaries. It is locally known as the Sapta Kosi, which means seven Kosi rivers (Tamor, Likhu Dudhkoshi, Sunkoshi, Indrawati, Tamakoshi, and Arun). The principal tributary is the Arun, which rises about 150 kilometers inside the Tibetan Plateau. The

The Himalayas (above 3,000 m) comprises mountains, alpine pastures and temperate forests limited by the tree-line (4,000 m) and snow line (5,500 m). Eight of the 14 eight-thousanders of the world lie in Nepal: Sagarmatha or Mount Everest (8,848 m), Kanchenjunga (8,586 m), Lhotse (8,516 m), Makalu (8,463 m), Cho Oyu (8,201m), Dhaulagiri (8,167 m), Manaslu (8,163 m) and Annapurna (8,091 m). The inner Himalayan valley (above 3,600 m) such as Mustang and Dolpa are cold deserts sharing topographical characteristics with the Tibetan plateau.

Nepal is divided into three major river systems from east to west: the Kosi, the Gandaki and the Karnali.

All ultimately become major tributaries of the Ganges River in northern India. After plunging through deep gorges, these rivers deposit their heavy sediments and debris on the plains, thereby nurturing them and renewing their alluvial soil fertility. Once they reach the Tarai Region, they often overflow their banks onto wide floodplains during the summer monsoon season, periodically shifting their courses. Besides providing

4.3-Kali Gandaki river just beyond Besisahar, Annapurna Circuit Trail https://www.ncpedia.org/media/kali-gandaki-gorge

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There are more than 30 natural caves in the country out of which only a few are accessible by road.

Maratika Cave (also known as Haleshi) is a pilgrimage site associated with Buddhism and Hinduism. Siddha Cave is near Bimalnagar along the Kathmandu-Pokhara highway. Pokhara is also known for caves namely Bats’ shed, Batulechar, Gupteswar, Patale Chhango. The numerous caves around Lo Manthang in Mustang include Luri and Tashi Kabum which house ancient murals and chhortens dating back to the 13th century.

4.4-Water body inside the Gupteswar Cave

Narayani River drains the central part of Nepal and also has seven major tributaries (Daraudi, Seti, Madi, Kali, Marsyandi, Budhi, and Trisuli). The Kali, which flows between the Dhaulagiri Himalaya and the Annapurna Himalaya is the main river of this drainage system. The river system draining the western part of Nepal is the Karnali. Its three immediate tributaries are the Bheri, Seti, and Karnali rivers, the latter being the major one.

The Mahakali, which also is known as the Kali and which flows along the Nepal-India border on the west side, and the Rapti River also are considered tributaries of the Karnali.

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Climate

5.1-Spatial variation of Mean Annual Temperature (°C) in Nepal https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Spatial-variation-of-meanannual-air-temperature-C-in-Nepal_fig1_280034906

The climate of Nepal largely depends upon the attitudinal features according to which it is divided into five climatic zones : the tropical and subtropical zone lying below 1,200 meter altitude, the cool, temperate zone lying in between altitude of 1,200 to 2,400 meters; the cold zone lying between altitude of 2,400 to 3,600 meters; the subarctic climatic zone of lying between altitude of 3,600 to 4,400 meters and the arctic zone lying above altitude of 4,400 meters. Nepal has a wide range of altitudinal variation ranging from 70 meters above the sea level to 8848 meters above sea level. The Geography of Nepal has divided it wholly into three main regions the Himalayan Region, Mountain Region, and the Terai region from north to south direction.

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winter dry in Nepal. The northern Rain shadow side of the Himalayan massif especially the Tibetan plateaus receives very less rainfall hence making it the drier region.

Whereas the east and the south facing slope receives the precipitation due to the moisture created by the gradual increase of the slopes.

The pre-monsoon period in Nepal occurs between April to May and with the temperature of about 40-degree centigrade in the lowland of the country. The summer monsoon starts with lightning and thunderstorm from June and lasts up to September. During the period the decrease in precipitation occurs from southeast to northwest direction. Post monsoon commences from September and by mid- October it stops precipitation bringing into cool and dry climate up to December.

From December starts the winter monsoon brings short rainfall in lowlands and snowfall in the high land caused by the strong North easterlies wind.

5.2-Climatic conditions of Nepal are favorable for the rice farming.

Above picture shows Rice terraces in Nepal provide the primary food source of the people. http://bloximages.chicago2.vip.townnews.com/napavalleyregister. com/content/tncms/assets/v3/editorial/6/ac/6ac981ce-a7d511e3-8e4f-001a4bcf887a/531ce32336991.preview-620.jpg

The Himalayan massif dominating the northern part of the country ranging from east to west also plays a vital role in the climatic alteration. Along with the climatic factor, the altitude also affects the vegetation pattern and precipitation. The climate of Nepal can also be divided into four parts: pre-monsoon, summer monsoon, post-monsoon and winter monsoon. Summer monsoon usually starts from June with continuous rainfall for several days and ends in September. The northwestward moment of the moisture-laden air blowing from the Bay of Bengal brings bursts out the summer monsoon in Nepal. Conversely, in the winter, the great Himalayan range prevents the outbursts of cold air from Inner Asia from reaching southern Nepal which makes the 17

Wildlife

6.1 - Elephant safari in the Chitwan National Park-a rich natural area in the Terai, the subtropical southern part of Nepal. https://nepalecoadventure.com/blog/wildlife-in-nepal/

Nepal is abundantly blessed with natural beauties. Apart from the elegant crown of the White Himalayas she wears, the wildlife diversity of the country is exemplary.

Of the total number of species found globally, 3.96 percent mammals, 3.72 percent butterflies and 8.9 percent of birds. Wildlife of Nepal is officially classified into two main categories: common and protected. The common category lists such species as common leopard, spotted deer, Himalayan tahr, blue sheep and others. These species are commonly seen in the wild. The protected species include 26 mammals, nine birds and three reptiles. These rare animals are confined to their prime habitats. The endemic fauna are: Himalayan field mouse, spiny babbler, Nepali kalij, 14 herpetofauna, and six types of fishes.

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Mammals: Nepal has 185 species of mammals found in various parts of the country. Found in Nepal’s dense Terai jungles are exotic animals like the Asiatic elephant, the one-horned rhinoceros, the Royal Bengal tiger among others. Also found here are the leopard, monkey, langur, hyena, jackal, wild boar, antelope, wild cat, wolf, sloth bear, chital or spotted deer and barking deer. Wild buffalo locally called “Arna” is found in the Koshi Tappu region. The western Terai jungles of Suklaphanta is home of the of swamp deer, while the endangered blackbucks are found in the Bardia region. Nepal Government has made an effort to preserve blackbucks by declaring an area of 15.95 sq. km. in Bardia as Blackbuck Conservation Area.

Nepal even has its own variety of dolphins found in the fresh waters of Narayani and Karnali rivers. The Himalayan region is also home to the elusive snow leopard and the red panda. Red panda, a rare sight because of its shy nature, may be found from Langtang region to Kanchenjunga region. Other mammals that live in high altitude areas are yak, blue sheep, Himalayan tahr and musk deer. While otters are found in the Rara region north west, the Dhorpatan hunting grounds is home of the blue sheep and Himalayan tahr.

6.2 - Cow is declared as ‘National Animal Of Nepal’ , Now Cow has Constitutional Protection and Cow Slaughter all over Nepal Has also been Banned. https://www.rvcj.com/nepal-declares-cow-national-animal/

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6.2-Tiger found in Bardia National Park in Nepal and the Khata wildlife corridor in the Terai Arc Landscape. https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/more-tigers-in-nepal

Reptiles: Nepal has two indigenous species of crocodile: the fish eating gharial with the long narrow snout and the marsh mugger which is omnivorous, eating anything it can catch. A very successful breeding project has brought the gharial back from extinction. Some of the snakes found in Nepal are: cobras, kraits, vipers and the Indian

6.3-Himalyan Monal https://scontent-prg1-1.cdninstagram.com/

6.4-Sarus cranes being conserved in Lumbini https://www.pintrest.com

python. Other reptiles found in the country are turtles and monitor lizards. Some of these reptiles can be seen in the Chitwan National Park and Bardia National Park.

Birds: Nepal has more than 850 recorded species of birds.

Amazingly, half of these birds can be seen in and around the Kathmandu valley alone. The hills around the valley especially Nagarjun, Godavari and Phulchowki are popular birding areas. Phulchowki at 2,760 m boasts about 90 bird species including the endemic spiny babbler, which was thought to be extinct until it was spotted in Nepal. Another rare species of bird, the red-headed trogan, was also sighted here in April 2000.

National parks like Chitwan and Bardia harbor a wide variety of birds too. In Chitwan, endangered vultures are being protected from contaminated food by establishing “Vulture Restaurant� which feeds them safe carcasses. The Koshi Tappu region is home to a large species of resident and migratory birds. It has about 26 varieties of ducks alone. About 485 species have been sighted here, including storks, vultures and eagles among others. In the higher Himalayan region are found different species of the raptors and birds of prey.

Nepal’s national bird, the Danphe or Impeyen Pheasant, is also found in the Himalayan region. Over the past few years a conservation group has worked specifically in the Lumbini area to conserve the Sarus crane.

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Plants

7.1-The subtropical forests of the Terai to the great peaks of the Himalayas in the north, Nepal abounds with some of the most spectacular sceneries in the whole of Asia, with a variety of fauna and flora also unparalleled elsewhere in the region. https://www.equatorinitiative.org/knowledge-center/nature-based-solutions-database/page/33/?paginate=true

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The forests, known in Nepal as“Bhaber” or“ Jhadi”, rise abruptly and stretch from east to west. They are composed mainly of Sal trees (Shorea robustus) intermingled with Simal (silk-cotton) trees with a slight undergrowth of grass and scrub. This forest also covers the slopes of the Siwaliks (the sandstone range) bordering the northern margin of the sub-Himalayan region, which lies beyond. Of the total number of species found globally, Nepal possesses 2.80 percent of plants. Record from 2006 shows that Nepal has 6,391 flowering plant species, representing 1,590 genera and 231 families. Nepal’s share of flowering plant species is 2.76 percent of the global total compared to earlier records of 2.36 percent. Nepal’s share of pteridophytes

is 5.15 percent compared to earlier records of 4.45 percent.

There are 2,532 species of vascular plants represented by 1,034 genera and 199 families in the protected sites.

Some 130 endemic species are found in the protected sites.

For ecology and vegetation purpose Nepal could be divided into four floristic regions i.e. (a) Western (b) North-Western (c) Central, and (d) Eastern and bio-climatically these are broken down into twenty regions from a humid tropical climate to the arid, alpine regions.

There are 399 endemic flowering plants in Nepal of which about 63 percent are from the high mountains, 38 percent from the mid-hills, and only 5 percent from the Terai and Siwaliks. Similarly, the central region contains 66 percent of the total endemic species followed by 32

percent in the western and 29 percent in the eastern regions.

Medicinal Plants: The Himalayas are famous for medicinal plants and have even been mentioned in the Ayurveda. Many of the herbs and plants found in the Himalayas are used in traditional healing systems like Ayurvedic, Homoeopathic, Amchi, etc. Some of these plants are even used for allopathic medicine. Medicinal plants are abundantly found in: the Terai region of Nawalparasi, Chitwan, Bardia, Dhanusha, mid hill region of Makhwanpur, Syangja, Kaski, Lamgjung, Dolakha, Parvat, Ilam, Ramechhap, Nuwakot, and the Himalayan region of Dolpa, Mugu, Humla, Jumla, Manang, Mustang and Solukhumbu.

Orchids: In ancient Rome, Theophrastus, a student of Plato, was intrigued by the sight of a plant with a pair of roots.

Orchis was the name he gave them, the Greek word for testicles. Worldwide, there are some 500 to 600 genera and some 20,000 to 35,000 names, the largest of all plant families, and out of this, Nepal has 57 genera (27 Terrestrials and 30 Epiphytic) with a few Lithophytes.

Nepal is endowed with an incredible variety of orchids scattered across the country. Dendrobium is the largest species, followed by Habenaria and Bulbophyllum.

Anthogonium and Lusia are some of the other varieties amongst the nearly two dozen single species families.

7.2-Rhododendron: National flower of Nepal. A fibrous plant which has medicinal properties. http://www.rock-cafe.info/suggest/nepal-flowers-name6e6570616c.html

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People of Nepal

8.1-Priest of the Rudra Varna Mahavihra Monastery, Lalitpur, Nepal.

According to the Nepalese calendar the year 1973 corresponds to the year 2030 of Bikrami sambat. This calendar originated in 57 B.C. the year which saw the beginning of the region of emperor Bikramaditya. Out of the numerous large or small Himalayan kingdoms traditionally independent only the famous traid of Bhutan, Sikkim, and Nepal have survived. Nepal, sandwiched between two great ethnic groups Tibetans and Indians has felt impact of all the historical events which sparked off a two way migratory traffic between the Asiatic people. The country has also been 23

influenced by internal historical events which have resulted in a complex diversification and multiplication of the Nepalese ethnic groups which can be classifiable in about a dozen principal clans. Division of its territory in numerous valleys, which favours isolation of every single ethnic group with consequent endogamy, have resulted in the present day pattern of population distribution which remains the same as in centuries past. Nepali’s population is not homogeneou, it seems a centuries old fusion of the aboriginals and those from the surrounding areas, of northern or mongolian people with the indian or native Nepalese people.

Nepal is therefore, inhabited by four main groups: the Tibeto-Nepalese, the Indo-Nepalese, the tibetan group and the indians. The Tibeto-Nepalese group also includes the ancient Nepalese aboriginal people Newari, Magar, Gurung, Thamang, Sunwar, Tharu, Bura, Limbu, Rai, Rukha and Kiranti. The Tibetan group includes the Sherpas, the Bhutia and the Thakali. The Indo-nepalese ethnic group also comprises of the old Nepalese groups such as the Thakuria, the Bramanis, the Gurkhas, the Chetris, the Khas and Indian groups such as the Hindu or Mithils, the Garhwalis and the Kumaons.

Southern plain are dominated by the ethnic groups of Indian origin because the climate and the surrounding suits them. In the north settled the people of tibetan origin who likes to live on the high altitudes owing to the human geography that they come from.

The entire intermediary mountainous region is inhabited by people who may be called Nepalese and by the ancient ethnic groups who may be called the aboriginals. Several ethnic groups live in the middle hills and valleys. Among them are the Magars, Gurungs, Tamangs, Sunuwars, Newars, Thakalis, Chepangs, Brahmins, Chhetris and Thakuris. There are also occupational castes namely: Damai (tailor), Sarki (cobbler), Kami (blacksmith) and Sunar (goldsmiths).

Whatever be the basis of the division of these ethnic group, the Nepalese are generally gay in the context of

traits, proverbially honest, remarkably hardworking, of proven courage, extreme fidelity to the ideals of the family and the country.

Nepalese treats foreigners on equal terms and are capable to show objective self-criticism and knowhow to face adversity with conscious resignation which can never be equated with passive fatalism. Upto the last view years, the population was still officially divided into various castes. These caste have been abolished but some discrimination still persists. Today Gurkhas are the most dominant caste in Nepal, who were driven out by muslim invasion of western India. The population of Nepal is divided in 64 castes since 1300 CE, a classification put by the Malla King includes all the inhabitants whether Hindu or Buddhist.

The population of Nepal was recorded to be about 26.62 million according to a recent survey done by the 24

8.3-People of Nepal enjoying afternoon at Patan Museum, Darbar Square. The Patan Museum displays the traditional sacred arts of Nepal in an illustrious architectural setting. Its home is an old residential court of Patan Darbar, one of the royal palaces of former Malla Kings of the Kathmandu Valley. The Museum’s exhibits cover a long span of Nepal’s cultural and religious history and some rare objects are among its treasures. Most of the objects are cast bronzes and gilt copper repousse work, traditional crafts for which Patan is famous.

Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal. The population comprises of about a 101 ethnic groups speaking over 92 languages. The distinction in caste and ethnicity is understood more easily with a view of customary layout of the population.Though, there exist numerous dialects, the language of unification is the national language, Nepali. Nepali is the official language of the state, spoken and understood by majority of the population. Multiple ethnic groups have their own mother tongues. English is spoken by many in 25

Government and business offices. It is the mode of education in most private schools of Nepal.

A few decades ago there were no schools and colleges in Nepal. Some of the wealthier class had tutors, either Europeans or bengali babus, to teach their children english, but there was no provision for education of any sort. Every man taught his own children , or employed the family priest or pandit for the purpose. The lower classes on the contrary had no access to education.

However, today there are many schools, colleges and

India and Tibet were the two countries from which Nepal received cultural contributions and through which Nepal passed her achievements to the outside worlds. Many people from India and Tibet migrated to Nepal and settled their which has created a fusion of beliefs in the Nepalese lifestyle.

Intellectualism has been the main guiding principle of Nepalese culture. Numerous ancient works on different subjects are the components of the sages which have guided Nepal’s cultural activities. The principles of the sages organize the society. These very works of the intellectuals form an explanation to each and every action of our culture. Class and religious distinction is the main component of Nepali socio-economic and cultural body, which also could be determined as a peculiar nature of civilized society to mobilize its social, cultural and religious activities, a reality whose layers have practices of inequality. However in Nepal the apparent inequality in society has never been rigorous in practice and hurdle to the development of the country.

It is believed by intellectuals that such class distinction among Nepalese has contributed to the characterization of about half of Nepalese population as warrior tribes owning to the political ambitions of Nepali kings of different ages. Religionism is another main source of Nepali culture on which all the sublime aspects of the Nepali culture be it art, architecture, fair, festivals and other customs are based.

8.4-A Tibetan woman using the Prayer Wheel. https://i.pinimg.com/736x/ad/d9/57/add9574b743a7b06f704d669641da0a9.jpg

universities, although education remains beyond the reach of most rural communities due to its geography.

Cultural Evidences: Nepal is wedged between India on the south and Tibet on the north, and this intermediary position has had a definite bearing on the development of her culture.

Nepal was declared a secular country by the Parliament on May 18, 2006. Religions practiced in Nepal are: Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Jainism, Sikhism, Bon, ancestor worship and animism. The majority of Nepalis are either Hindus or Buddhism.

The two have co-existed in harmony through centuries.

Buddha is widely worshiped by both Buddhists and Hindus of Nepal.

The five Dhyani Buddhas; Vairochana, Akshobhaya, Rathasambhava, Amitabha and Amoghasiddhi, represent the five basic elements: earth, fire, water, air and ether. Buddhist philosophy conceives these deities 26

to be the manifestations of Sunya or absolute void.

Mahakaala and Bajrayogini are Vajrayana Buddhist deities worshipped by Hindus as well.

Hindu Nepalis worship the ancient Vedic gods. Bramha the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver and Shiva the Destroyer, are worshiped as the Supreme Hindu Trinity.

People pray to the Shiva Linga or the phallic symbol of Lord Shiva in most Shiva temples. Shakti, the dynamic element in the female counterpart of Shiva, is highly revered and feared. Mahadevi, Mahakali, Bhagabati, Ishwari are some of the names given.

Kumari, the Virgin Goddess, also represents Shakti.

Other popular deities are Ganesh for luck, Saraswati

8.5-Nepal boasts a rich cultural heritage and numerous customs and tradition. Among many such traditions, there exists one in which a young and living goddess is worshipped; Kumari.

The word ‘Kumari’, originally, comes from the Sanskrit word ‘Kaumarya’, which means a princess. Kumari is a pre-pubescent girl chosen from the Shakya or Bajracharya caste of Newari community of Nepal. https://www.losviajesdenovios.com/nepal-kumari-diosa-viviente/

for knowledge, Lakshmi for wealth and Hanuman for protection. Krishna, believed to be the human incarnation of Lord Vishnu is also worshiped widely. Hindu holy scripts Bhagawat Gita, Ramayan and Mahabharat are widely read in Nepal. Vedas, Upanishads and other holy scriptures are read by well learned Brahmin Pundits during special occasions. As 27

a country of peace (natural, social and political) Nepal has been serving as a permanent resort as asylum for numerous batches of people facing trouble in their homes in neighboring countries since thousand of years. They are welcomed here, after localization such new socio- cultural elements have been contributing in numerous ways by injecting new socio cultural ideas and practices to the country’s civilization. In this way Nepal is serving as an archives of the diminished traditions of its great neighbors in north and south.

One would easily ask an important question that the Nepal now presents a picture of decadence and dilapidation particularly in economic and material sphere. This is a reality one cannot deny but this is only a later development starting since about the 19 century when the English power swayed all over the world, Asia in particular and India in the point. This age synchronizes the beginning of subjugation of India by british ad the blockade of Nepal by these. The continuation of silent age in China also contributed to the material decadence in this area. In this background the sound conditions of trade and commerce of natives were shattered by the new wave of the English economic thought, practices and objectives.

The diversity in Nepal in terms of ethnicity again makes room for various sets of customs. Most of these customs go back to the Hindu, Buddhist or other religious traditions. Among them, the rules of marriage are particularly interesting. Traditional marriages call for deals arranged by parents after the boy or girl come of age.

According to the traditional practices during menstruation women are considered impure and hence, are kept in seclusion until their fourth day purification bath. Nepal is a patriarchal society. Men usually go out to work while women are homemakers. However, in cities, roles can differ. Most Nepalis abide by the caste system in living habits and marriage. Rural Nepal is mostly agrarian, while some aspects of urban life carry glitz and glamour of the ultra-modern world.

Diversity in Food: Nepal does not have a distinct cooking style. However, food habits differ depending on the region. Nepali food has been influenced by Indian and Tibetan styles of cooking. Authentic Nepali taste is found in Newari and Thakai cuisines. Most Nepalis do not use cutlery but eat with their right hand.

The regular Nepali meal is dal (lentil soup), bhat (boiled rice) and tarkari (curried vegetables), often accompanied by achar (pickle). Curried meat is very popular, but is saved for special occasions, as it is relatively more expensive. Momos (steamed or fried dumplings) deserve a mention as one of the most popular snack among Nepalis. Rotis (flat bread) and dhedo (boiled flour) also make meals in some homes. The Brahmans of course live in the same way as their breatherens in the plains of India, but the bulk of population consumes a great deal of flesh than in customary in Hindustan. Nepalis

Nepalese. The Gorkhas eat chiefly the flesh of Khassis or the gelding goat. The Newars are great consumers of buffaloes, goat, sheep, ducks and fowls. For the poorer caste the greater part of their food consist of rice and vegetables, which are generally plentiful throughout the year.

The Newars and most of the lower castes, consume a considerable quantity of a coarse spirit called Rakshi, which is distilled from rice and wheat. It is prepared by the families in their home, there is no fix tax on it if the household is preparing it for self consumption however selling Rakshi commercially is illegal.

Festivals and Celebrations: Several of the festivals of Nepal last from one to several days. Dashain is the longest and the most important festival of Nepal. Generally Dashain falls in late September to mid-October, right after the end of the monsoon season. It is “a day of Victory over Demons”.

The Newars celebrate the festival as Mohani. Tihar or

8.6-Traditional Newari Thaali.

do not eat beef. There are several reasons for this, one being that the Hindus worship cow. Cow is also the national animal of Nepal. Another interesting concept among Nepalis is division of pure and impure. “Jutho” referring to food or material touched by another’s mouth directly or indirectly, is considered impure by

8.7-A ceremony for the election of a new head person of the Rudra Varna Mahavira Monastery.

These ceremonies last for at least 4-5 days which consists of various activities like havan, pooja, a grand feast for the community. The males and females dress up in traditional attires and celebrate the whole process.

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Swanti and Chhath are another important festivals of Nepal. New Year’s Day of the lunar calendar Nepal Sambat occurs at this time. Other important festivals include Buddha Jayanti (the celebration of the birth of Buddha)Maha Shivaratri (a festival of Lord Shiva) and during Maha Shivaratri festivities, some people consume excessive drinks and smoke charas. Sherpas, mostly located at higher altitudes and in the Mount Everest region, celebrate Mani Rimdu, for the good of the world. Evidences of tantric practices can be seen in these festivals. Most festivals include dancing and music, and a variety of foods are consumed during festivals and on special occasions. In our short visit to Nepal we got the opportunity to be a part of a coronation ceremony of a Vajrayana Buddhist priest at a historic Buddhist monastery Rudra Barna Mahavihar in Patan.

The oldest Newari document of Kathmandu valley was found in the treasury of this monastery; the palm-leaf document dates back to early 12th century.

The full-body statue of Shiva Dev, a Lichchhavi king of ancient Nepal, now appears as a Rana military general providing a keen insight into how ruling classes appropriate norms and public works to serve their interest. This monastery is also a living heritage of rituals which take place in several occasions throughout the year. The monastery complex has stunning brass artwork throughout its premises. The ceremonial practice that we observed was very similar to that of India where all the rituals were performed around fire.

Dressed in white skirt and jacket the new Vajrayana Buddhist who coronated was blessed by other elderly Vajrayana Buddhist and women wearing red traditional saree. A three day ceremony where people from Vajrayana Buddhist community comes together to celebrate the ceremony and prepares feast at the end of the celebration.

8.8-Women dancing and celebrating in Teej festival. Photo courtesy of Kapil Thapa.Teej is a festival celebrated by Nepali women, for the long life of her husband and a long and firm relationship between them until the death this life and all the lives to come. Teej is observed for marital happiness, the well-being of spouse and children and purification of own body and soul. Teej is the most famous festival among Nepali women. https://www.insidehimalayas.com/upcoming-festivals-of-nepal-with-dates/

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Architecture

9.1- The view of the Patan Darbar Square which shows the diversified language of architecture in Nepal.

Nepal architecture can roughly be divided into three groups– the Pagoda style, the Stupa style and the Shikhara style – together with indigenous elements from the Newari people.

Pagoda Style is basically seen in temple architecture as well as residential architecture but it is more prominent in temple architecture. The basic characteristic of Pagoda Style is multi-tiered tower with multiple eaves.

Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most commonly Buddhist. The pagoda’s original 30

9.2-Peace Pagoda,Pokhara- is a Buddhist stupa; a monument to inspire peace, designed to provide a focus for people of all races and creeds, and to help unite them in their search for world peace.

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purpose was to house relics and sacred writings. This purpose was popularized due to the efforts of Buddhist missionaries, pilgrims, rulers, and ordinary devotees to seek out, distribute, and extol Buddhist relics. The image of Gautama Buddha in the Abhaya Mudra is also noticeable in some Pagodas. Buddhist iconography can be observed throughout the pagoda symbolism.

Pagodas attract lightning strikes because of their height. The very beautiful versions of these Pagoda Style structures can be seen in the Patan Darbar Square and Bhaktapur Darbar Square. Buddhist iconography can be observed throughout the pagoda symbolism.

Pagodas attract lightning strikes because of their height.

The very beautiful versions of these Pagoda Style structures can be seen in the Patan Darbar Square and Bhaktapur Darbar Square. They have square entablature of bricks rising in diminishing proportions to a great height, sometimes to sixth storey, with a roof on four sides of the wall at each storey, which are sloping and conforming in regularly diminishing proportions to the size of entablature. Many monasteries have the Pagoda style architecture and often ornamented with a brass belt hanging from the topmost level of pagoda to the above of the lintel level of the main gate of the temple.

Pagoda’s are considered to be derived from the Stupas style only. It can be traced back to stupas from 3rd century BCE. The stupa, a dome shaped monument, was used as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics. The most famous stupas are Boudhanath Stupa and Swayambhunath Stupa. Visually it is mound like structure having a path way all around.

That pathway is for the ritual of circumambulation.

In Buddhism, circumambulation or Pradakshina has been an important ritual and devotional practice since the earliest times, and stupas always have a Pradakshina path around them. Although not described in any Tibetan text on stupa symbolism, the stupa may represent the five purified elements: The square base represents earth, the hemispherical dome/vase represents water, the conical spire represents fire, the upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon represent air,

9.3-The top part of the Swayambhunath Stupa.

The shape of Stupa represents Buddh`a itself crowned with multi-tiered gold spire sitting on a lion. His head is the square at the spire’s base; his body is the vase shape; his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace; and the base is his throne.

the sun and the dissolving point represent the element of space.

If we talk about local architecture of Nepal, it has evolved through time. From traditional architecture to the modern architecture the transition is very much visible. Old Nepali houses have very traditional motifs on the exterior of the buildings. Wood work was very prominent and very elaborately carved with religious 32

and fictitious motifs which the considered as the good luck charm. There were measures taken to control the temperature of the house using locally available material like husk and the zoning was also done in a way so that they can control the temperature of the space.

When these stupas are contained in a miniature version of itself in a prayer hall than this structure are called Chaityas. Basically, the chaitya is the stupa itself, and the Indian buildings are chaitya halls, but this distinction is often not observed. A Nepalese chaitya is not a building but a shrine monument consisting of a stupa-like shape on top a plinth, often very elaborately ornamented.

They are typically placed in the open air, often in religious compounds, averaging some four to eight feet in height. Chaityas are symmetrical in planning.

The Newar people of the Kathmandu Valley started adding images of the four Tathagatas on the chaitya four directions mainly after the twelfth century. They are constructed with beautifully carved stone and mud mortar. They are said to consist of the Mahabhuta — earth, air, fire, water and space.

9.5-Chaitya at the entrance foyer of a monastery in Patan.

9.4-Basantapur Square is large open plaza at the south-eastern entrance to Kathmandu Darbar Square. The white columned building on the right is the Gaddi Baithak, part of the Royal Palace complex built in the 1908 after King Jung Bahadur Rana returned from a trip to England, where he developed a taste for western neoclassical architecture. https://www.digitalarchaeologyfoundation.com/historicalphotographs-of-kathmandu-durbar-square/

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We can also see shikhara style architecture in temples made of stone. Mostly in Darbar Square these kinds of temples are made out of one big rock in dry masonry.

These temples were constructed when Nepal was the part of India and have very prominent characteristics of Indian Hindu Temple. Nepali people start developing their own style of architecture in 1980’s at a time when the autocratic panchayat system of king Birendra came

with the modern style of Nepalese architecture. In Kathmandu many buildings are were much influenced by the Neo-classicism Architecture of Europe. Visitors form Europe regarded the buildings in Kathmandu as imitations that lacked the principles of their structural elements.Kathmandu Valley has been subjected to the major and minor earthquakes in modern times.

The most devastating one was in April 2015 Nepal earthquake (also known as the Gorkha earthquake) killed nearly 9,000 people and injured nearly 22,000.

Thousands of houses were destroyed across many districts of the country, with entire villages flattened, especially those near the epicentre. Several temples on Kathmandu Durbar Square, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, collapsed, as did the Dharahara tower, built in 1832; the collapse of the latter structure killed at least 180 people. Due to these natural disasters the Nepalese architecture have moved themselves from traditional style of architecture to modern and earthquake resistant architecture which can survive these earthquakes.

9.6-Tejesh Shakya’s ancestral house in Patan built in traditional Nepali architectural style.

The kind of energy and workmanship goes in making these traditional buildings is extensive and they need a lot of time to do that. Coming predictions of earthquake have also influenced these buildings are people are taking measures at the time of construction which can help holding these buildings intact and there can less loss in coming future. Even the restoration of the temples in Darbar Square is being in done in a way that the structure can resists these earthquakes.

under pressure. Talking about the official building their architecture had to neither modern, nor Indian, but Nepalese. An example of that is the Royal Nepal Academy in Kathmandu. The prominent feature of the building is arcaded roofed entrance and a gate flanked by pavilions roofed with gilded copper sheet. In the traditional style the cornices are decorated with the motifs and often made of wood or veneered bricks.

Heavily ornamented pillars are still very prominent feature of Nepalese architecture and are being merged 34

Art

10.1-Streets of Patan famous for Thangka Paintings and Souvenirs.

More than 1000 yrs. old Nepalese art has a very significant impact on the lifestyle of the people. It is not only the inspiration for the locals of the Nepal but also inspires the people around the globe. It can be said that is one of the reasons of the societal division but also serves as the source of livelihood for the Nepalese people. Buddhism and Hinduism acts as the soulful influence on the Nepalese art. One can find a wide variety of art. Nepalese people since the ancient times, are deeply attached to the teachings of the Buddhism.

Profound regard of the Nepalese people towards the trinity Buddha, Dharma and Sangha has been well displayed by the creation of the works of art in various 35

forms, paintings, sculptures, carving and idol making.

We can see the whole journey of development of Nepal through its art and architecture. The art of Nepal from 5th to 9th Century may be termed as Lichchhavi sculpture owes much to the Gupta school for the ingenuity and refinement of it modeling. Lichchhavi period is the golden age of Nepalese art. There is no comparison to the stone art of this period but, most of these works have either been damaged or taken out of the country or preserved in foreign museums.

Art flourished a great deal in the medieval period. Malla kings of the Kathmandu valley were great lovers of art.

Music, drama, paintings, handicrafts found a pride of place in the palaces of these Malla kings. At the same time art grew in diversity in this period due to external influences. The influx of Indian Buddhist scholars from various parts of India after the destruction of Nalanda and Vikramshila Universities due to Muslim attack resulted in the import of various arts, introduced in vigorous manner. On the other side the Nepalese art was also influencing other states of India and nearby countries. The influence of the Nepalese art extended to Kashmir, Garhwal, Shimla, Ladakh, Sikkim, Tibet, Bhutan and China.

Buddhism being the prominent religion in Nepal has developed its own section of art. The development of Buddhist art is very old. Though Buddha was against his idol worship but as his teachings were spreading, stupas, chaityas and other Buddhist monuments were created after the passing away of Buddha to keep alive the memory of the great deliverer without installing the idol. As the time passed and as the teachings of Buddha spreaded around the world, people could not resist the temptation of making the idols of Buddha.

The idols of various sizes can be found in most parts of Asia including Pakistan, Afghanistan, Indonesia etc.

The early form of Buddhism believed in worshiping the Buddha through symbols and regarded chaitya and stupa as an important cult object symbolizing the Tathagata – the purest Buddhas. From utensils to idols everything has a Buddhist influence. Cult objects like

10.2-Nepal by artist Rupesh Suresh Sonar –Impressionism.

Beautiful watercolor landscape painting by artist Rupesh,Sonar. https://www.mojarto.com/artworks/rupesh-suresh-sonar/nepal-144428

singing bowls, prayer wheels etc. are very prominent in the Buddhist culture. Paintings on the other hand has been a very big inspiration for the idol makers of Nepal. The Paintings are the documentation of the narratives of the Buddha. These paintings are inspired from the Tibetan paintings (Paubhas) and have developed their own style. These paintings are called Thangka paintings. These are painted on cotton, silk fabric and represents the Buddha and mandalas on them. Thangkas are traditionally kept unframed and rolled up when not on display, mounted on a textile backing somewhat in the style of Chinese scroll paintings, with a further silk cover on the front. Tibetan painting incorporated many elements from Chinese painting, especially from the 14th century onwards, reaching a peak in the 18th century. One aspect of this was allowing more space and emphasis to the landscape background. In general, the style of figures in Thangka remains derived from the Indo-Nepalese tradition. These variations of Buddhas and other deities has been translated into idols. Nepalese sculpture is a conservative tradition, with slight changes in proportion or decorative details appearing over hundreds of years.

Nepalese artists created a distinctive style of their own, which can be recognized even on early bronzes such as a Standing Vajrapani, dated to the sixth to seventh 36

10.3-An artist making Thangka Painting.

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Iconography define various forms of Buddha and the significance of each and every symbol, mudras, asanas, mandalas. To understand Buddhist iconography, one has to understand the very simple yet complex nature of Buddhism.The whole concept of Buddhism revolves around the concept of letting go of the ‘me’ and the ego inside a human.

10.4-Thangka Depicting Vajrabhairava, c. 1740. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thangka

century. Nepalese artists later developed a distinctive physiognomy for their deities, with long, languid eyes and wider faces than those in eastern Indian models.

A tendency toward ornamental flourishes, exaggerated postures, and a repertoire of unique jewelry styles is also symptomatic of the Nepalese sculptural traditionIn Buddhism, the very nature of a sculptural image is complex. Not only have the conception and function of images varied over the course of Buddhist history, but also according to the particular ritual, devotional, and decorative context in which they are situated. Buddhist

10.5-Translation of Vajrabhairava painting into the sculpture.

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Introduction to Buddhism

11.1-A sculpture of Buddha in a shop in Lalitpur. The face is usually kept covered to prevent the face of the Buddha which is gold plated so that it doesn’t fade in the sun.

Buddhism is a path of practice and spiritual development leading to Insight into the true nature of reality. The Buddha’s overriding concern was with freedom from suffering. The teachings cover a wide range of topics, including ethics, meditation, family life, renunciation, the nature of wisdom and true understanding, and the path to peace. The teachings show how to live well so as to be free of suffering. They teach non-violence and compassion, and emphasize the value of the spiritual over the material. Many discourses discuss meditation, while others are concerned with ethics, or with a rational and clear understanding of the world as perceived. They show the Buddha engaging with people from all walks of life and discussing a 39

diverse range of topics. But he said that all of his words have one taste, the taste of freedom.

About 2500 years. ago Gautama Siddhartha, a man who had renounced his princely title to lead a life of meditation, was sitting under a tree realized what was the cause of suffering in the world. From that moment he was Buddha, and his teachings have become a “world religion”, although Buddhism is not essentially concerned with the questions of the existence of an omnipotent god. In Buddhism, man and everything that takes place in man is central. The insight into suffering which Gautama achieved in his condition of supreme enlightenment under the ‘bodhi tree’ (bodhi means enlightenment) is called the Four Noble Truths. These truths are: -Suffering, as synonym for the bonds of earthly existence and not being freed from the chain of rebirth; -The origin of suffering, i.e., the desire of joy, lust and possession; -The elimination of suffering, i.e., the destruction of desires, hatred and ignorance; -The road to the elimination of suffering in the form of the “Noble Eightfold Path”. The path entails: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

The right understanding The right attitude The right speech The right action The right conduct The right effort The right attention The right meditation

Everyone can release himself from the inner bonds of matter and suffering, and thus from suffering itself, and be enlightened, by following this Path and by seeking refuge with “The three jewels” viz, Buddha – as an historical figure and principle of enlightenment; Dharma – the teaching and also the cosmic law; and of those who have achieved the cosmic law. The times

11.2-Rotating Bells at Swyambhunath Stupa.

the historical Buddha turned the “Wheel of Law”, i.e., made a speech in which he explained his teachings, successively appealing to three different levels of understanding. This resulted in Three different levels of understanding which are known as the ‘The Three Vehicles’:

Hinayana-

The small vehicle, also known as Theravada. This ‘basic doctrine’ assumes that every person can attain enlightenment for himself alone by means of selfdiscipline, through many lives. To do this, he must aim to follow the Four Truths and the Eightfold Path. His goal is to reach Nirvana, the place where all suffering is resolved.

Mahayana-

The ‘Large Vehicle’, also known as Bodhistvayana.

The ‘middle doctrine’ assumes that enlightenment can only be attained with help from outside. Training and teaching by an enlightened teacher, as well as faith and devotion, and the help of the timeless, transcendental Bodhisattvas, lead to Buddhahood. It is selfless path because it is aimed at enlightenment for all living creatures together and total enlightenment is deferred until that moment has come. The goal is Tathagata, non-dualism, the absolute void.

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Vajrayana-

The ‘Diamond Vehicle’, also known as Tantrayana. The final doctrine is based on the idea that every being is a potential Buddha. However, he is not aware of this because of the thick mist of ignorance and confusion which obscures his spirit. This is the cause of suffering.

It is possible to dispel this mist with proper insights and right actions, and attain a state of great salvation (Mahasubbha). The specific tantric path is based on the idea that enlightenment can be achieved in a single lifetime, and views every element in existence as a means to this goal.

The body and the mind, passions and desires, are no more than forms of energy which can be used by directing them towards the goal of enlightenment.

Both the language and iconography of Mahayana and Vajrayana are rich in imagery and symbolism. Every aspect of enlightenment is represented in one of the transcendental Buddha and Bodhisattvas, and in the divine figures often taken over from the old religions.

In the country like Nepal, magnificent work of art is produced especially for this purpose. Contemplating these figures is an exercise in meditation to establish inner contact with the respect that is represented. Each gesture, each position and each individual attribute has a symbolic significance.

Mandala-

A ritual diagram which shows the structure as well as the unity of both the microcosm and macrocosm of the inner and outer world. The basic shape is that of a temple or palace, with doors at the four points of the compass. All the components, such as symbols, attributes, deities and lesser gods are shown on the mandala in accordance with the strict ritual; the making of the mandala is the meditation exercise.

Yantra-

An abstract mandala shape, a diagram of the inner connected lines used in meditation for concentrating the visualized energy. There are different sorts of 41

11.3-The Sri Yantra or Sri Chakra is a form of mystical diagram (yantra) used in the Shri Vidya school of Hindu tantra. It consists of nine interlocking triangles that surround a central point known as a bindu. These triangles represent the cosmos and the human body. Because of its nine triangles, Sri Yantra is also known as the Navayoni Chakra. When the two-dimensional Sri Yantra is represented in three dimensions, it is called a Maha Meru. Mount Meru derives its name from this shape. In addition to Mount Meru, all other yantras derive from the Sri Yantra. https://i.pinimg.com/736x/1c/85/5e/1c855e2bb4e64e0c6c6584b96610ac33--tibetan-mandala-tibetan-art.jpg

yantras which can be made from different materials, e.g. rock crystals. Depicted here is the Sri Yantra, or “Great Yantra”.

Mantra-

A sound or word symbol that is spoken aloud or silently in meditation. The mantra helps to achieve a connection

with the deeper layers of consciousness. The mantra shown here is the Tibetan mantra ‘OM MANI PADME HUM’, the devotional formula for ‘the Jewel in the lotus’, Avalokitesvara.

Mudra:

A symbolic position of the hand. The mudra is a physical expression of a particular energy. Mudras are used in illustrations, but also as an aid in meditation to release the relevant energies in the person practising these gestures. There are around 13 Mudras which are seen in the visuals or sculptures of Buddha.

11.6-Varda

3-Varda: Fulfilment of all the wishes; the gesture of charity.

11.4-Dharmachakra

1-Dharmachakra: The gesture of teaching, usually interpreted as: turning the Wheel of Law. The hands are held level with the heart, the thumbs and the index fingers form circles.

11.5-Bhumisparsa

2-Bhumisparsa: Touching the earth as Gautama did, to invoke the earth as a witness to the truth of his words.

11.7-Dhyana

4-Dhyana: The gesture of absolute balance, of meditation. The hands are relaxed in the lap, and the tips of the thumbs and fingers touch each other. When depicted with the begging bowl, this is a sign of the Head of an Order.

11.8-Abhaya

5-Abhaya: Gesture of reassurance, blessing and protection- ‘Do not Fear’.

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11.9-Namaskara

6-Namaskara: Gesture of greeting, prayer and adoration.

Buddhas no longer make this gesture because the do not have to show devotion for anything.

11.10-Vitarka

7-Vitarka: Intellectual argument, discussion. The circle formed by the thumb and index finger is the sign of the ‘Wheel of Law’.

11.11-Tarjani

8-Tarjani: Threat, warning. The extended index finger is pointed at the opponent.

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11.12-Vajrahumkara

9-Vajrahumkara: This gesture, with ghanta and vajra, shows the symbolic significance of these two attributes: path and purpose are one.

11.13-Jnana

10-Jnana: Teaching. The hand is held at the chest level and the thumb and index finger again form the Wheel of Law.

11.14-Karana

11-Karana: Gesture with which demons are expelled.

Asana:

A ritual position of the body with the same purpose as the mudra. The word asana is also used to indicate the pedestal on which the represented figure is seated or standing. There are around 9 asna’s which are seen in the visuals or sculptures of Buddha.

11.15-Ksepana

12-Ksepana: Two hands together in the gesture of ‘sprinkling’, i.e., the nectar of immortality.

11.17-Padmasana

11.16-Uttarabhodhi

13-Uttarabodhi: Two hands placed together above the head with the index finger together and other fingers intertwined; the gesture of supreme enlightenment.

1-Padmasana: Also known as Vajras asana or Dhyana asana. The well- known lotus position. There are number of variations of this attitude in which the feet are placed in different positions.

11.18-Lila Asana

2-Lila Asana: Sitting at ease. The right knee is pointing upwards and the right arm usually hangs loosely over the knee.

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11.19-Rajalila Asana

3-Raja Lila Asana: The king’s posture. In this position it is quite clear that figure is sitting on the throne: the left leg hangs down the throne.

11.20-Bhadra Asana

4-Bhadra Asana: The ‘Western’ position. The feet are placed next to each other on the ground below. The position shows that the throne is not (yet) assured.

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11.21-Sampada

5-Samapada: The first of the standing asanas with equal weight on both the feet, which are placed together.

11.22-Tribhanga

6-Tribhanga: The weight is on one leg; the other leg is placed slightly forward or to the other side. The body is bent at the hips and the neck in three separate parts.

11.25-Padmasana

11.23-Chapastana

7-Chapastana: The arched position associated with flying. The leg carrying the weight with bended knee symbolizes the bow; the other leg, pulled up against the body, symbolizes the arrow.

11.26-Visvapadmasana

9-Padmasana: The lotus throne. When there is double row of lotus leaves. It is known as ‘Visvapadmasna’.

Sometimes this pedestal is also carried, e.g. by lions (Singh asana), elephant’s, (hatiasna), a tortoise(kurmasana), or a mythical sea monster (makarasana).

11.24-Alidha/Pratyalidha

8-Alidha/ Pratyalidha: This position expresses the angry aspect of the deity. The left leg (alida) or the right leg (Pratyalidha) is forcefully thrust to the side.

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Thirty-Two Marks and Eighty Exemplifications of the Sambhogakaya: The following explanation is based on the Abhisamayalankara, a text written by Maitreya’s disciple Asanga, who received this teaching from Maitreya in Tushita. This text was first translated into Tibetan by K’aba Pal, direct disciple who lived during the reign of King Tri Song De’u Tsen (755-804 A.D). The Indian pandit Hari Bhadra wrote a commentary to this text which was translated into Tibetan and included in the Tan. Gyur with the name Abhisamayalamkara-a loka.

A short commentary can be found in the Ratnavali of Nagarjuna and in the Uttaratantra Shastra of Maitreya.

A Tibetan commentary was written by Chokyi Gyaltsen, a manifestation of Manjushri who lived in times of the second Dalai Lama. There is also some explanation in the Dhadrakalpika Sutra.

Generalities: The accumulation of ten times the merits of the sravakas, pratyekabuddhas and ordinary sentient beings, creates the cause for one hair of the Buddha. The accumulation of hundred times these merits creates the cause for one Exemplification. The accumulation of eighty times these merits creates the cause for the eighty Exemplification. Accumulating the merits for the eighty Exemplification creates the cause for one of the Mark. The accumulation of thousand times these merits creates the cause for the curl in Buddha’s forehead.

The accumulation of hundred thousand times these merits creates the cause for the protuberance on top of Buddha’s head. The accumulation of these merits for ten countless aeons creates the cause for Buddha’s Holy speech, which is called the conch of Dharma and has sixty two qualities. This represented by the three lines in Buddha’s neck. According to Sutra there should b three lines., Symbolizing the three training (conduct, concentration and wisdom). According to tantra there should be two lines, symbolizing the paths of Sutra and Tantra.

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11.27-Wooden Sculpture of Lord Buddha in Sampada Asana standing on Visvapadmasana. https://www.lotussculpture.com/Large-Standing-Buddha-OnBlooming-Lotus-Base.html

Thirty-Two Marks: 1) The hands and feet of lord Buddha are marked by thousand spoked wheels.

Cause: Inviting and accompanying the Gurus back to their places. Also serving the guru and his disciples and practicing charity.

2) Lord Buddha’s feet look like a tortoise. They are soft, flat and round like the stomach of the tortoise.

Cause: Keeping firmly one’s vows and making strong decision to keep them.

3) Lord Buddha’s fingers and trees are connected by a web. Which reaches to their middle. They look like duck’s feet.

Cause: Practicing the four sutra practice - Charity, which includes to make offerings to Buddha Statues, - Sweetly talking, - Encouraging other people to practice Dharma, - Forcing oneself to practice Dharma.

4) The flesh of Lord Buddha’s hands and feet looks soft and young.

Cause: Making extensive offerings of food easy to chew and food hard to chew, (such as fruits). Also offering drinks.

5) Buddha’s Holy body has seven elevations. The seven hollow parts two at the ankles, two at the shoulders and one at the back of the head, are covered by flesh.

Cause: Offering soft foods, such as porridge.

6) Lord Buddha’s fingers are long Cause: Releasing beings, which are in danger of being killed.

7) Lord Buddha’s heels are wide, about one quarter of a foot.

Cause: Preventing sentient beings from beings killed, taking care of their lives and protecting them from life dangers.

8) Lord Buddha’s Holy body is great and straight. It m easures seven cubits and is not crooked.

Cause: Making vow not to kill any being, avoiding killing and preventing others from killing.

9) The protuberances on Lord Buddha’s feet are not visible. They are covered by flesh. That refers to the outer bone.

Cause: Practicing virtue in general and specifically the six paramitas.

10) Each hair of Lord Buddha’s Holy body goes upwards.

Cause: Instructing people to practice virtue.

11) Lord Buddha’s are like those of the antelope, smooth and straight.

Cause: Teaching the five divisions of knowledge with a happy mind. these are: Dharma, handicrafts, medicine, logic, sound.

12) Lord Buddha’s arms are long and beautiful. When he is standing, they reach to his knees.

Cause: Giving away his wealth when asked by a beggar, instead of hiding it and saying: “I have nothing to give to you.”

13) Lord Buddha’s male organ is hidden, like that of a horse, it can’t be seen.

Cause: Keeping secret those teachings and things that cannot be explained.

14) Lord Buddha’s skin has a golden colour. It is called golden not because of the colour but because of it’s being very clean clear.

Cause: Offering cushions.

15) Lord Buddha’s skin is thin and smooth Cause: Offering holy places, palaces and rooms which are very pleasant.

16) Each pore of Buddha’s Holy body has only one hair 48

growing towards the right Cause: Avoiding gossiping and the wandering mind.

17) Lord Buddha’s forehead is adorned with a curled hair, Which has six characteristics: smooth, whit, flexible, can extend three cubits, is curled from right to left and its tip is turned upwards. It looks like silver and is shaped like kyurura or ambala fruit.

Cause: The six characteristics depend on practicing the six paramitas but the most important cause is respecting and pleasing those who are higher than us, such as lamas. Parents and people of higher social status.

18) The upper part of Lord Buddha’s Holy body looks like a lion Cause: Giving help to those who ask for instead of ignoring them.

19) The upper part of Lord Buddha’s shoulders is round, Like the neck of a golden vase.

Cause: Practicing according to the virtuous advice of teachers.

20) Lord Buddha’s chest is wide. Between the two shoulders the chest is flat, covered with flesh and not rough.

Cause: Offering medicines and requesting doctors to give medicines.

21) Lord Buddha always experiences sweet and best taste because his tongue is not afflicted by the three diseases of wind, phlegm and bile, once a benefactor offered horse meat to Lord Buddha. The meat was very unpleasant and Ananda, Lord Buddha’s disciple, was very upset about it. But Lord Buddha put a piece on his tongue and then gave it to Ananda the meat tasted as the most delicious food he ever had in his life.

Cause: Taking care of sick people and doing whatever needs to be done for them.

22) The length and width of Lord Buddha’s Holy body are like those of the nardrota tree whose roots, stem and branches have the same size.

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Cause: Building bridges and digging wells. Also giving away or letting people use fenced forests, parks and gardens.

23) Lord Buddha has a protuberance on his head, round shaped and directed clockwise.

Cause: Building places for teachings. libraries, temples and good houses.

24) Lord Buddha’s tongue is long and nice. It can reach his hairline and ears is red like an utpala flower.

Cause: Speaking pleasantly for three countless aeons.

25) Lord Buddha’s speech is like Brahma’s. It has five qualities: - All beings can understand it.

- All his words have the same intonation.

- It is very profound and benefits all beings.

- It is pleasant and deeply attractive.

- The words are in the proper order, clear and without mistakes.

Cause: When teaching sentient beings, finding a way to make them understand the teachings in their own language.

26) Lord Buddha’s cheeks are round like those of a lion.

Their contour is similar to the ritual mirror.

Cause: Not gossiping.

27) Lord Buddha’s teeth are very white.

Cause: Respecting and praising all sentient beings.

28) The length of Lord Buddha’s teeth is even Cause: Avoiding the five wrong livelihoods: -Pretending, -Flattery, -Without explicitly asking for something saying: “last year you gave me such and such thing, it was so nice”, -Saying: “somebody gave me before this and that”, expecting to receive it, -Giving away small things in order to get a big one.

29) There is no gap between Lord Buddha’s teeth

Cause: Telling the truth for three countless great aeons.

30) Lord Buddha has forty teeth. Twenty up and twenty down.

Cause: Avoiding slander for three countless aeons.

31) Lord Buddha’s eyes are deep blue colour, like sapphire Also the white and black parts are not mixed.

Cause: Having great kindness towards all sentient beings, like a mother for her only son.

32) Lord Buddha’s eyelashes are like those of the wishfulfilling cow very straight and clear.

Cause: Looking for a long time without anger, attachment, ignorance or any other delusion.

In the root text only seven of the causes appear. The others are implicit.

power of blessings Cause: Practicing gradually the three vehicles in the proper order.

7) The veins of Lord Buddha’s body are not visible Cause: Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and the five wrong livelihoods.

8) Lord Buddha’s veins do not have knots. That refers to all the bodily channels.

Cause: Being free from the knots of delusion.

9) Lord Buddha’s inner ankle bone is not visible Cause: Understanding and realizing the secret meaning of all dharmas and secretly teachings some students.

Eighty Exemplifications:

10) Lord Buddha’s feet are equal. They are both of the same size and the toes are levelled.

Cause: Taking sentient beings out of the samsaric realms.

1) The nails of Lord Buddha are copper-coloured Cause: Not having attachment to any compounded phenomena.

11) Lord Buddha walks like a lion, very proudly.

Cause: Overwhelming all sentient beings with magnificence.

2) The nails of Lord Buddha have oily appearance.

They are shiny and smooth.

Cause: Having a pure wish to help others

12) Lord Buddha walks like and elephant Cause: controlling the harmful nagas by his magnificence.

3) The nails of Lord Buddha are high, not crooked Cause: Having been of high caste in many lifetimes.

13) Lord Buddha flies like the wild goose.

Cause: Being able to fly in space to help sentient beings.

4) Lord Buddha’s fingers have a perfectly round shape.

Cause: Performing good actions of body, speech and mind; keeping good behaviour.

14) Lord Buddha is the leader of all groups, Like the elephant of Indra.

Cause: Helping to fulfil sentient beings wishes.

5) Lord Buddha’s fingers are wide Cause: Keeping the root if virtue, which is always to thinks about future lives happiness: avoiding nonvirtuous actions: practicing virtuous action of body, speech and mind without mixing them with non-Virtus.

15) Lord Buddha walks towards the right, like circumambulation, and keeping others to his right.

6) Lord Buddha’s fingers are finely pointed due to the

16) Lord Buddha walks beautifully. To everybody he appears beautiful and cheerful.

Cause: Walking and wearing his robes skilfully.

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17) Lord Buddha walks straight, on the path.

Cause: Not following the Hinayana or pratyekabuddha’s path, but always keeping on the Mahayana path.

18) Lord Buddha’s bodily actions are gentle not rough Cause: Praising other people’s qualities.

28) Lord Buddha’s flesh has a nature without wrinkles Cause: Giving teachings with examples which are easy to understand.

19) Lord Buddha’s Holy body looks very clean, without any fault.

Cause: His actions of body, speech and mind are not mixed with pollutions.

29) Lord Buddha’s body doesn’t become thin or week.

Cause: Practicing the Dharma, such as the six paramitas, without being discouraged and doing whatever needs to be done for the benefit of others.

20) All the parts of Lord Buddha’s Holy body are in good proportion.

Cause: Giving teachings to sentient beings according to their level of mind.

30) Lord Buddha’s Holy body is well built up.

Cause: The root of his virtue surpasses all worldly beings.

21) Lord Buddha’s Holy body is completely pure.

Cause: Keeping pure behaviour of body, speech and mind.

22) Lord Buddha’s whole body is smooth and soft.

Cause: Due to his great human compassion having always peaceful thoughts.

23) Lord Buddha’s Holy body is stainless. Completely free from bad smells and their imprints.

Cause: His mind being free from delusions.

24) Lord Buddha’s Holy body is stainless.

Cause: Lord Buddha has eliminated all delusions and wrong conceptions by realizing the whole vinaya.

25) The limbs of Lord Buddha’s Holy body are supple and noble.

Cause: Expressing extensively the good qualities of others.

26) Lord Buddha’s steps are equal.

Cause: Having equal, impartial mind.

27) Lord Buddha’s eyes are completely clean. The white part doesn’t have red, yellow or black; not like the moon 51

which has some black shadows.

Cause: Giving teaching which always benefit others.

31) Lord Buddha’s Holy body is very harmonious. His flesh is not too loose and not too tight.

Cause: Having exhausted the cause of taking rebirth in samsara.

32) Lord Buddha’s limbs have perfect shape, as well as his fingers and hails.

Cause: Explaining the origination and the cessation of the twelve links, in order to take beings mind.

33) Lord Buddha’s inner vision is clear, without any obscuration.

Cause: Teaching how to be reborn in the upper realms or how to attain nirvana and omniscient mind.

34) Lord Buddha’s stomach is round in shape.

Cause: Teaching and leading the disciples into the perfect morality of keeping all types of vows.

35) Lord Buddha’s waist is proportionate to his Holy body. Not too thin and not too wide.

Cause: Having eliminated the propensities of pride.

36) Lord Buddha’s waist is not stretched.

Cause: Having eliminated the propensities of pride.

37) Lord Buddha’s stomach and belly are levelled.

Cause: Teaching Dharma endlessly.

38) Lord Buddha’s navel is deep.

Cause: Realizing the meaning of profound voidness.

39) Lord Buddha’s nevel is coiled towards the right.

Cause: Leading the disciples according to their capability.

40) Lord Buddha’s Holy body is beautiful from every side Cause: Causing the disciples around him to perform beautiful actions of body, speech and mind.

41) The action of Lord Buddha’s Holy body, speech and mind are pure.

Cause: Having a pure heart.

42) Lord Buddha’s Holy body doesn’t have moles or scars Cause: Not showing the wrong path and if the time is not appropriate, not showing the right path either.

43) The palms of lord Buddha’s hands are soft like the cotton from a special tree Cause: Making the body, speech and mind of all sentient beings happy by his teachings.

44) The lines in Lord Buddha’s hands are very clear, like peacock feathers Cause: Giving teachings with impartial mind to those who are and those who are not his disciples and through that, realizing the state of Buddhahood.

45) The lines in Lord Buddha’s hands are deep.

Cause: Having completed the profound Dharma and having complete understanding of the profound voidness.

46) The lines in Lord Buddha’s hands are long.

Cause: Giving teachings which are beneficial for both temporal and ultimate happiness.

47) Lord Buddha’s mouth is not too long.

Cause: Showing many teachings according to the three levels of disciples (lower, middle and high).

48) Lord Buddha’s lips are like cherries.

Cause: Realizing all living and nonliving phenomena as reflections in a mirror.

49) Lord Buddha’s tongue is flexible.

Cause: Subduing living beings by soft words.

50) Lord Buddha’s tongue is thin.

Cause: Having knowledge of the different skills for teaching, like the different logical reasons to explain sunyata.

51) Lord Buddha’s tongue is red.

Cause: Explaining the vinaya teachings which are the antidote to delusions and which are difficult to understand by those with childish mind and by those who are attached to him.

52) Lord Buddha’s tongue makes sounds like thunder.

Cause: Being free from all fears, such as the eight fears.

53) Lord Buddha’s speech is soft and sweet.

Cause: Speaking pleasantly.

54) Lord Buddha’s fangs are round.

Cause: Having eliminated the root of all delusion and specifically the root of attachment.

55) Lord Buddha’s fangs are sharp.

Cause: Having subdued those difficult to subdue because of their strong ignorance, hatred and attachment.

56) Lord Buddha’s fangs are white.

Cause: Having eliminated delusions by practicing very white actions, like keeping the vinaya.

57) Lord Buddha’s fangs equal.

Cause: Realizing the non-self-existence of both samsara 52

and nirvana.

58) The root of Lord Buddha’s fangs is wide and the points are thin.

Cause: Explaining gradually the path of the three vehicles.

59) Lord Buddha’s nose is high (big).

Cause: Having the method of the five paramitas and the wisdom of sunyata.

60) Lord Buddha’s nose is perfectly clean.

Cause: Due to his actions, having caused his disciples to perceive his as practicing clean, pure moral conduct.

69) Lord Buddha’s ears have equal size and shape.

Cause: Having conquered attachment, which is very difficult to conquer.

70) Lord Buddha’s ears are completely free from defects.

Cause: Establishing sentient beings into the state of peace with impartial thought.

61) Lord Buddha’s eyes are wide.

Cause: Teaching the Mahayana path extensively for many aeons.

71) Lord Buddha’s forehead is clear and open. There is a clear distinction between the forehead and the hairline.

Cause: Not following wrong views since beginning less times.

62) Lord Buddha’s eyelashes are thick.

Cause: Releasing countless being from samsara.

72) Lord Buddha’s forehead is wide and big.

Cause: Destroying all bad speech.

63) Lord Buddha’s eyes are shaped like lotus petals. The white and black parts are not mixed and are very clear.

Cause: Beings the object of praise for young Gods.

Goddesses and human beings.

73)Lord Buddha’s head is wide, Like the sun or the full moot.

Cause: Having accomplished all the prayers to benefit others.

64) Lord Buddha’s eyebrows are long.

Cause: Perceiving and understanding the future.

74) Lord Buddha’s hair is black, like a very black particular stone Cause: Having eliminated completely the attachment to form and so on.

65) Lord Buddha’s eyebrows are soft.

Cause: Subduing living beings by giving them gentle teachings, such as the vinaya, instead of rough ones such as jumping into the fire and standing on a trident, like the non-Buddhists do.

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68) Lord Buddha’s hands are long and white.

Cause: Having conquered attachment, which is very difficult to conquer.

75) Lord Buddha’s hair is very thick.

Cause: Having completely avoided that which has to be avoided.

66) Lord Buddha’s eyebrows are oily.

Cause: His holy mind being permeated by the water of virtue and not dry.

76) Lord Buddha’s hair is soft.

Cause: Having a very peaceful and gentle mind, free from the wrathful thoughts arise from delusions.

67) The hairs of Lord Buddha’s eyebrows have equal length Cause: Seeing the shortcomings of delusions.

77) Lord Buddha’s hair is untangled.

Cause: His Holy mind is not confused by attachment.

78) Lord Buddha’s hair is not rough and hard Cause: Having eliminated harsh speech from its roots.

79) Lord Buddha’s hair is scented.

Cause: Offering flowers to the Three Jewels, which is the cause to attain Buddhahood and one of the thirty seven practices of the bodhisattvas.

80) Lord Buddha has designs is his Holy body, like the pal. gyi peu and the square tashi. The “pal. gyi peu” (sanskrit: pata) is what we call the endless knot. The design is formed by two “endless knots” and in between them a square called “tashi”, so that the whole figure looks like a vajra. This figure appears in Lord Buddha’s thumbs and big toes. The Other fingers and toes each of them have swastikas and seven circles forming a spiral towards the right. Some texts say that the pa.l. gyi peu is at the Lord Buddha’s heart and they don’t mention the thumbs and toes. for instance, in the practice of “Ga. dhen 1ha gyama”, Lama Je Twong Khapa comes out of the “pal. gyi peu” at Maitreya’s heart.

Cause: Lord Buddha’s holy body is very beautiful to be seen.

In the Bhadrakalpika Sutra it is explained that each mark is related to practice, of the six paramitas and from the practice of the six paramitas any of the marls can arise.

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Ritual Attributes and Symbols: Daija: Ying-Yang. Original Chinese symbol of the two in one, especially of samsara (Cycle of rebirth) and Nirvana.

Vajra: Thunderbolt or (diamond) sceptre. Originally the symbol of the Vedic god Indra. Buddhist symbol of the imperturbable male principle that represents the path or the method. The five points on each side symbolise the five Jinasujju. Tib: dorje.

11.28-Daiji

11.29-Vajra

11.30-Ghanta

11.31-Visvavajra

11.32-Vajrakila

11.33-Kartika

11.34-Parasu

11.35-Ankusha

Ghanta: Symbolizes transience, the female principle that represents wisdom, the purpose. Together with vajra the symbol that leads to enlightenment, ‘path and purpose are one’.

Visvavajra: Double Vajra. Symbol of the conclusion of all actions, of the Absolute which is present in every direction.

Vajrakila: Thunder nail; magical dagger. Serves to subordinate demonic counter-forces to the doctrine, and literally ‘nail them to ground’. Symbol of insight breaking through. Tib: phurbhu.

Kartika: Hatchet. Symbolises the disintegration of all the matter and all the worldly bonds and their transformation into a positive force. Used in the Tibetan ‘air burial’.

Parasu: Battle axe. Symbolizes the severance of all worldly attachments.

Ankusha: Stick for prodding elephants on their way.

The hook with which those who doubt the doctrine of Buddha can be symbolically ‘pulled’.

Khadga: Flaming sword. Destroyer of all the ignorance and therefore a symbol of enlightenment.

Khatvanga: Magical staff; symbol of supernatural gifts (siddhi). There is always arrow of skulls between the 55

staff, which is made of wood.

Trisula: Trident; weapons and symbol of Shiva. In Buddhism it is symbol of Triratna- the three-fold jewel: Buddha, Dharma and Sangha.

Gada: A staff with a tapering end used as a weapon in close combat. Also a symbol of office.

Danda: Sceptre staff; symbol of dominance. Similar to Gada, but has a vajra or skull, possibly with Ratna, as the knob.

11.36-Khadga

11.37-Khatvanga

11.38-Trisula

11.39-Gada

11.40-Danda

11.41-Shara

11.42-Chapa

11.43-Pasha

Shara: Arrow; The symbol of alertness and consciousness.

Chapa: Bow; together with the arrow this is the symbol of the path and purpose, method and wisdom, also of accurate determination.

Pasha: Rope; this is used for catching demons and pulling those who have been removed from Dharma closer.

Khetaka: Shield; symbol of Dharma, the doctrine which protects like a shield.

Akshamala: Rosary consisting of 108 beads. An invocation or mantra is said for every bead. Two separate strings of beads serve as a way of counting the number of ‘rounds’.

Prayer Wheel: Devotional instrument. It contains the mantra OM MANI PADME HUM, written many times on a scroll of paper. The mantra becomes active every time the instrument is rotated.

Khakkhara: rattle staff; used by travelling monks to announce their arrival.

Damaru: small drum; two half skulls with an animal’s skin stretched over them. The sand-glass shape is made with a leather thong with wooden beads at the end of the thong to make a rattling sound.

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Sankha: Conch; the sound announces the glory of the holy name. The Tibetan conch trumpet has a richly carved metal setting with a mouthpiece.

Kangling: Trumpet made from a human thigh bone.

The sound drives off the evil spirits.

Pustaka: Book; the symbol of transcendental wisdom and in particular, of the texts on the ‘Perfection of Insight’, the Prajnaparamita.

11.44-Khetka

11.45-Akshamala

11.46-Prayer Wheel

11.47-Khakkhara

11.48-Damaru

11.49-Sankha

11.50-Kangling

11.51-Pustaka

Stupa: Symbolic grave monuments; originally the place where the ashes of a holy monk were kept. Now, especially the symbol of the Buddhist universe. The shape symbolizes the structure of the cosmos. Tib: Chorten.

Chandra: Moon sickle or disc. Symbol of the unity of opposites.

Surya: Sun: together with the moon symbol of the unity in the apparent opposition between relative and absolute truth.

Adarsha: Mirror; symbol of the emptiness and the lack of substance of the world.

Agni: Flame, fire; weapon of war and a common component in the sacrifices.

Adarsha: Mirror; symbol of the emptiness and lack of substance of the world.

Agni: Flame, fire; weapon of war and a common component in sacrifices.

Ratna and Mani: Jewel, the representation of an oval stone, with or without a nimbus, symbolizes the ‘Jewel of the Doctrine’. If the stone is a (small) round pearl with nimbus, it is the magic jewel Chintamani, which fulfils every wish.

Triratna: The ‘Three Jewels’; Buddha, Dharma and Sangha.

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Padma: Open Lotus flower, day lotus; can be any colour, except blue. Symbol of Purity.

Utpala: Half- closed lotus flower, night lotus; in addition to purity, it represents the self-procreative and female principle. Nilotpala is the blue Utpala.

Chamara: Fly whisk made of yak hair; sign of dignity.

Patra: Begging bowl, especially of monks. When a seated figure holds a begging bowl on his lap, it means that he is the head of the monastic order.

11.52-Stupa

11.53-Chandra

11.54-Surya

11.55-Adarsha

11.56-Agni

11.57-Ratna or Mani

11.58-Triratna

11.59-Padma

Dipa: Butter lamp; clarified butter (ghee) is burned in this as sacrifice.

Kapala: Skull bowl; used in Tantric rituals for offering sacrificial meat or blood to protective deities to ensure their devotion.

Sukunda: Oil lamp with its own oil reservoir, also used as a sacrificial lamp.

Bhumba: Sacrificial jug without a handle, intended for pouring water or nectar (in the hands of the one to whom the sacrifice is made), also known as kamandalu.

Gau: Portable shrine in which statue of the owner’s personal deity (Ishtadeva) is kept wrapped in silk.

Mayurapattra: Peacock feathers; indicate an immunity to all poisons, i.e., all worldly temptations.

Naga: Snake; vestige of pre-Buddhist fertility rituals.

Naga is still considered the god of the rain, but also the protector of Buddha’s law.

Swastika: Symbol of the law; sign of good fortune. It is one of the 65 signs of the Buddhahood which can be seen in Buddhas footprint. Tib: yung-drung.

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11.60-Utpala

11.61-Chamara 11.68-Naga

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11.62-Patra

11.63-Kapala

11.64-Dipa

11.65-Sukunda

11.66-Mayurpatra

11.67-Gau

11.69-Swastika

The Ashatamangalas: (8 signs of fortune)

The Ashatamangalas are often depicted either individually or together; together they are often shown as ‘purna kalasha’, a vase filled with all the characteristics of goodness. The Ashatamangalas are the attributes of Ashatamangala-Devi; the goddess of good fortune.

1.Chattra: Parasol; protection against all evil; high rank.

11.70-Chattra

11.71-Dhvaja

11.72Sankha

11.73-Shrivasta

11.74-Dharmachakra

11-75-Kalasha

11.76-Matsyayugma

11.77-Padma

2.Dhvaja: Banner; the victory of Buddha’s teachings.

3.Sankha: Conch; absence of all evil, the glory of holy men.

4.Shrivasta: An infinite knot; long life and never-ending love.

5.Dharmachakra: The wheel of law; the eight spokes represent the eightfold path. Completion and Salvation through Buddha’s teachings.

6.Kalasha: The vase of abundance; contains water of immortality. Spiritual wealth.

7.Matsyayugma: Golden Fish; salvation, suffering, fertility.

8.Padma: The perfect lotus; purity.

These Ashtamangalas are often found on the carvings of the main entrance door of a house as they are considered as the good luck charm in their culture.

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The Buddhas

12.1-The row of statues of Buddha in a monastery. http://www.hiclasssociety.com/?cat=234

The historical Buddha Gautama was born in the 6th Century BC as Prince Siddhartha, from the right side of his mother, Mayadevi. He was protected from the world by his father, King Suddhodana of the Shakya clan, who was afraid of what was to happen anyway. Siddhartha discovered the suffering in the world and decided to live a life of meditation. Fasting for long periods of time and self-castigation did not bring him enlightenment; finally, Gautama sat down under a tree and decided to stay there until he found the cause of suffering in the world. He eventually attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree and died at the age of 80.

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Manushi Buddhas: The term ‘Buddha’ refers to a being who has attained enlightenment and has been freed from the cycle of rebirth through his own insight. Thus, there is many versions of Buddha. Most appear as manifestations of Eternal Absolute, which is beyond time. These “Transcendental Buddhas” are also lords over the various intermediary paradises. There, beings which have attained a particular level of enlightenment can be reborn to continue their development in complete tranquillity.

But there are also manifestations which appear in the temporal world, which have been incarnated or will be incarnated to show others the way to deliverance (Manushi Buddhas). These Buddhas merely act as teachers who lay down the Law (Dharma), show the way, and serve as an example for anyone who is prepared to follow the path.

Dipankara:

12.2-Dipankara

Buddha Gautama himself declared that before him there had been other ‘Human Buddhas’. He mentioned six by name. These Buddhas have the same external features as Gautama Buddha: a top knot (ushnisa), a mark on the forehead (urna), and log earlobes. They can be identified from the different position of their hands.

Dipankara shown here, is considered to be the one who first brought the light (the Teachings) to the world. The six names mentioned by Gautama are: Vipasyin, Sikhin, Visvabhuja, Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni and Kasyapa.

Maitreya: This the future version of Buddha. It is said that he will reveal his teachings to world again after five thousand years after Gautama. Thus, he is still a vision of the future, and that is why he is seated in the Bhadrasana.

Maitreya will spend the time until he appears on earth as the Bodhisattva natha in the heaven of the gods.

12.3-Maitreya

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12.4-The life of Buddha narrated in traditional Thangka paintings. https://silkroadtreasuresblog.weebly.com/articles---en/previous/2

Transcendental Buddhas: Beyond time and natural laws, there are five transcendental Buddha’s, which represents the five different aspect of Buddhahood. They are also called Jinas (conquerors), Tathagatas (The perfect ones) or Dhyani Buddhas (Meditation Buddhas). These five incarnated forms of mystical wisdom have been placed in a detailed system over the course of the centuries each represent a family with related aspects and directions. In this way 63

they demonstrate how the five aspects of the personality: the Skanda’s - body, experience, perception, spiritual stimulation, and consciousness) can be transformed.

The five Buddhas are Aksobhya, Amitabha, Amoghasiddhi, Ratnasabhava, and Vairocana. Each represents a different aspect of enlightened consciousness to aid in spiritual transformation.

Often in Vajrayana art, they are arranged in a mandala, with Vairocana in the center. The other Buddhas are

depicted in each of the four directions (north, south, east, and west).

Each Buddha has a specific color and symbol which represent his meanings and the purpose for meditating on him. Mudras, or hand gestures, are also used in Buddhist art to distinguish one Buddha from another and convey the appropriate teaching. It’s important to note that the directional ‘paradises’ are understood to be a state of mind, not physical places.

His hand gesture is known as the Dharmachakra mudra and is often reserved for the iconography of either Vairocana or the historical Buddha, Shakyamuni. The mudra represents the turning of the wheel and places the hands so that the thumbs and index fingers touch at the tips to form a wheel. He is also illustrated wearing a Dharmachakra Pendant and having his hand in the meditation mudra.

12.6-Akshobhaya

Vairocana:

12.5-Vairocana

He is the lord of the centre and is considered to be the combination of all other Jinas-the fathers. He is often illustrated having four faces in all the four directions which signifies that he can see in all the direction, and is omniscient. He is also considered to be the incarnation of the Dharma, which signifies the universal truth.

When the Dhyani Buddhas are pictured together in a mandala, Vairocana is at the centre. Vairocana is white, representing all colours of light and all the Buddhas.

His symbol is the Dharma wheel, which, at its most basic, represents the study of the dharma, practice through meditation, and moral discipline.

Akshobhya: He is the lord of the east and is considered to be eternally imperturbable. In his illustration he is wearing the five-pointed crown which is often seen on the Jinas, which signifies that they stand above all the laws of nature and transience. Akshobhya was a monk who vowed never to feel anger or disgust toward another being. He was immovable in keeping this vow. After striving for a long period, he became a Buddha. In Buddhist iconography, Akshobhya is usually blue though sometimes gold. He is most often pictured touching the earth with his right hand. This is the earth-touching mudra, which is the gesture used by the historical Buddha when he asked the earth to bear witness to his enlightenment.

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12.8-Amitabha

12.7-Ratnasambhava

Ratnasambhava: He is the lord of south and, is the personification of generosity. He is illustrated holding Chintamani, the jewel which fulfils every wish. But he does not only fulfil material needs but also, he bestows love on all that is living in this world. This Buddha has a yellow color which symbolizes earth and fertility in Buddhist iconography. He often holds a wish-fulfilling jewel. He holds his hands in the wish-fulfilling mudra: his right hand facing down and the palm outward and his left in the mudra of meditation. This symbolizes generosity.

Amitabha: He is called the lord of the west and is considered to 65

the oldest of all the Jinas form the historical point of view. He is called the incarnation of the intuitive consciousness and is illustrated without any jewels. Amitabha’s hands are most often in a meditation mudra: fingers barely touching and gently folded over the lap with palms facing upward. His red color symbolizes love and compassion and his symbol is the lotus, representing gentleness and purity.

Amogasiddhi: He is the lord of the north and is the incarnation of Buddhas practical wisdom which completes all the workmanship in the world. In his left hand he is sometimes holding a visvajra or a sword. He is most often depicted as radiating a green light, which is the light of accomplishing wisdom and promoting peace. His hand

12.9-Amogasiddhi

12.10Amitayus

gesture is the mudra of fearlessness: his right hand in front of his chest and palm facing outward as if to say ‘stop.’ Amitayus: As the lord over the intermediary paradise, Sukhavati, Amitabha, is sometimes also known as Amitayus. Thus, although they are actually the same entity, Amitayus is also depicted differently. Instead of holding a begging bowl, he has a vase with the nectar of immortality in his lap. The dark red colour is of Amitabha and light red colour is associated with Amitayus.

12.11-Buddha on the Lion Throne.

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Adibuddha:

Samantabhadra:

In Mahayana Buddhism, the idea evolved probably inspired by the monotheism of Islam which says that ultimately there is only one absolute power which creates itself, with no beginning and no end (Swayambhu). Originally this one absolute manifests itself in the form of a flame springing from the heart of a lotus, but over the course of the time this symbol was also personified in the form of the Adibuddha or the primordial buddha.Vairocana is sometimes seen as Adibuddha but there are other names and manifestations in which this supreme essence of Buddhahood is presented.

His names means Complete God. This manifestation of Adibuddha (not to be confused with the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra) is shown without any garmanets or attributes to demonstrate the fact that he is totally himself. He is almost always accompanied by his prajnaSamantabhadri.

Vajradhara: The Vajrahumkara mudra (the position of the hand with the vajra and the ghanta) is symbolic for the beatitude of the One, which results from the unity of opposites: the Unio Mystica.

12.13-Samantabhadra

Vajrasattva: The Adibuddha vajrasattva is sometimes considered as the sixth Dhayani Buddha and as the high priest of the other five (particularly in Nepal).

The Buddhas of Medicine:

12.12-Vajradhara

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The historical Gautama Buddha was often considered the healer of the suffering in the world, and explained that Dharma was the medicine. This led to the idea that Gautama can be invoked in case of a disease to reveal the correct healing method to both to both the doctor and the sick person. In this function he is surrounded by seven healing aspects, of which Bhaisajyaguru (the master of Healing with the medicinal herb myrobalan, bearing fruit with five lobes) is the only one who is sometimes depicted separately.

12.14-Vajrasattva

The 35 Buddhas of Purification:

12.15-The Buddhas of Medicine

According to the Indian Traditions, there are 35 important violations of Buddhist ethics. There is Buddha for each violation and will offer the solution of dealing with each obstacle on the path to enlightenment.

The Buddhas are supposed to guide the person, not practically give the solution.

12.16-The 35 Buddhas of Purification

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12.17-THE MAALA OF THE FIVE DHYANĪ BUDDHAS Then the Lord discoursed upon the Five Skandhas.

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The Bodhisattvas: The word “bodhisattva” is a compound word formed from bodhi (spiritual awakening, enlightenment) and sattva (a being, essence, spirit).

The word can then be translated as “A being set upon enlightenment,” “One whose essence is perfect knowledge,” or “A being whose essence is enlightenment.” In early Buddhism, bodhisattva meant “the previous lives of a (or the) Buddha.” In Mahayana Buddhism, Bodhisattva is state where one has partly or completed attained the state of enlightenment. Before attaining Buddhahood, Gautama Buddha called himself searcher of enlightenment which is called Bodhisattva.

It is important for the person who is in this state to not only pursue enlightenment for himself but also help all other living creature to do same.

There are ten stages (bhumi) for the spiritual development. Bodhisattvas are common figures in Buddhist literature and art. In numerous stories ordinary or even distinctly humble individuals are revealed to be great bodhisattvas who have assumed common forms to save others. The Bodhisattvas are considered to be the spiritual children of abstract, and in that sense, unattainable, Dhyani Buddhas. They fulfil the role of intermediaries between Samsara (the existing world of illusion and suffering) and Nirvana (the state of calm, emotion-free bliss); and are at the same time the ideal of identification and object of veneration.

The Mahasattva, who is probably the most proper and certainly the one of whom there are the most representations is Avalokitesvara (the lord who looks down). In Nepal there are 108 manifestations known of him. In Tibet, every rotation of the prayer wheel, every murmured mantra is devoted to Avalokitesvara. When he appears as Lokesavara, he is sometimes compared with Lords Shiva- the Hindu God. After Avalokitesvara the most famous Bodhisattva is Manjushri.

12.18-Avalokitesvara

Padampani: Padampani is considered to be the oldest manifestation of Avalokitesvara. He is the helper in case of dire need, and the one who can shorten the path to deliverance from suffering. He can be recognized in standing position (Tribhanga). He is depicted red in colour. He holds a lotus flower in his left hand and shows Varda mudra with his right hand. He wears an Antilope skin on the shoulders. He wears all the ornaments typical of a bodhisattva symbolizing his enlightened experiences.

He wears a five-pointed crown and his hair is bound to form a top knot. Sometimes it is eclipsed by an effigy of Amitabha Buddha. When there is no effigy of Amitabha Buddha in the crown of Padmapani, he is then white in colour.

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Simhanada- Lokesavara: He is known as the healer of all the illness. His name and the animal on which he is mounted indicate this; there is a legend about a lion (simha) which brings back a stillborn cub to life with his roaring. Simhanada means “ the one with the lion’s voice”. He is the healer who brings life back to the sick. His appearance is clearly similar to Lord Shiva: the top knot, sometimes with crescent moon on it, the third eye, the trident and the snake.

Sadaksari- Lokesvara: Also known as Kharchheri, is the “Lord of the Six Syllables”. These six syllables belong to the mantra Om Mani Padme Hum, the expression of the deepest essence of Avalokitesvara. Sadaksari has four arms. In one hand he holds Akshamala, which serves to count the number of times that the mantra is spoken; in the other hand, he holds the lotus of absolute purity. He holds the magic jewel Chinatmani in front of his chest.

His spiritual father Amitabha is seated above his head.

12.19-Simhanda-Lokesavara

Amoghapasha- Lokesvara: He is known as the Lokesvara with the infallible robe.

He is the manifestation of Avalokitesvara as the bringer of truth and deliverance who has eight arms. All his gestures and attributes relate to the proclamation of the redeeming widom and the deterring of opponents.

Amoghapasa Lokesvara has three divine eyes looking on the triple world. His first right hand in Abhaya Mudra symbolizes that one who practices Astami Brata sincerely protects them from falling into lower realms.

The second right hand displaying Varada Mudra shows that those who practice and generate compassion and Bodhichitta receive all desirable objects. The third hand holding Amoghapasa or infallible noose symbolizes that he has infallible skill in means to convert ignorant sentient beings into the path of liberation. The fourth right hand holding a rosary signifies that by the recitation of the six syllable mantras of Avalokitesvara, 71

12.20-Sadaksari-Lokesavara

one frees oneself from the bondage of samsara.

Again among four left hands, one holding a water pot signifies that he has the capacity of empowering all the sentient beings into Buddhahood. The second left hand holding a lotus signifies that he frees the sentient beings residing in hell realms from the suffering of intense heat and cold just like a lotus emerges from muddy water.

The third left hand holding a trident signifies that he purifies three poisons of sentient beings i.e. lust, ill will and stupidity. The fourth left hand holding a scripture signifies that he imparts wisdom to the devotees and thereby they attain liberation from cyclic existence.

Samanthamukha- Lokesvara: He is also known as Ekadasha-MahakarunikaLokesvara-the all sided. According to the legend, Ekadasha descended from all-embracing compassion (mahakarunika) into hell and took a number of inhabitants to the intermediate paradise, Sukhavati, only to discover that for every soul that was saved, a new soul was damned in the hell. His head broke into ten pieces with sorrow and dismay about the evil in the world. His spiritual father, Amitabha, made a new head from every piece and placed it on his sons trunk: nine faces full of love, one demonic face to help ward

off the evil away and at the top, Amitabha’s own face. Each layer of three heads indicates the he is looking at all the three worlds: the world of desires, the world of living forms. Along with this version of Lokesvara there is one more version which is known as Saharsrabhuja- Lokesvara (the one with the thousand hands), like Ekadasha, has eleven heads, but in order to ensure that no creature goes without his all embracing compassion, he has a thousand hands with an eye in the palm of every hand. Like this he is perfectly equipped to see all the and intervene in everything. The thousand arms are depicted as a nimbus around him.

12.21-Amoghapasha-Lokesavara

12.22-Samanthamukha-Lokesavara

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Manjusri: He is a bodhisattva associated with prajna (insight) in Mahayana Buddhism.There are various legends about him. In Nepal, he is considered to be the founder of Buddhist culture. According to the Chinese legends it is said that Gautama Buddha himself created Manjusri in order to spread his teachings and sent him to China; in Tibet he is prayed every morning to kill the darkness in the life. He is portrayed as the eternal crowned prince. In his right hand (the male side) he holds the flaming sword that destroys ignorance; in his left hand (the female side) he holds the book of transcendental wisdom, usually on the lotus flower.

12.23-From left to right: Manjusri, Avalokitesvara, Vajrapani.

He is depicted in two versions: Caturbhuja- He has four arms and is holding a bow and arrow as the symbol of the accuracy of speech and philosophy.

Namasangiti- He has twelve arms, Manjusri makes the rather rare gesture of supreme enlightenment (uttarabodhimudra) with his hands joined together above his head.

According to Swayambhu Purana, the Kathmandu Valley was once a lake. It is believed that Manjusri came on a pilgrimage from his earthly abode-Wutaishan(fivepeaked mountain) in China. He saw a lotus flower in the center of the lake, which emitted brilliant radiance.

He cut a gorge at Chovar with his flaming sword to allow the lake to drain. The place where the lotus flower settled became the great Swayambhunath Stupa and the valley thus became habitable.

Vajrapani: He is depicted as the companion of the Buddha. On these occasions he is illustrated on the left side of Padampani. His origin lies in the Vedic age God Indra (preceding Hinduism). Vajrapani, also called Vajra sattva in Mahayana Buddhism, is extensively represented 73

12.24-Vajrapani

in Buddhist iconography as one of the earliest three protective deities or bodhisattvas surrounding the Buddha. Some old representations show him as a muscular man with a beard. Vajrapani’s body is blue in colour and his hair has yellow ochre. He wears a tiger skin around his waist. He is usually depicted in two arms aspect but can be seen in four arms aspect as well.

He is a major Bodhisattva easily recognized as holding a vajra with his right hand and left hand displaying threatening Vitarka mudra. His body seems to be massive and in a pose of warrior. Under his feet he controls two live snakes. He wears all sorts of bodhisattva ornaments and also a garland of snakes.

He has a wide and wild roaring mouth rimmed with lacquered red lips. His eyebrows are like the flame, with his moustache and beard being curled.

Samantbhadra: In Mahayana Buddhism Samantbhadra is associated practice and meditation. He is often illustrated along with Manjusri. His name means- the one who is blessed.

He can be easily distinguished from the Adibuddha Samantbhadra, because, in contrast with this Primordial Buddha, he is dressed and crowned. He is also depicted mounted on white elephants in some of the illustrations.

12.25-Samantabhadra

Tara: In addition to the male Bodhisattvas there are also a number of female ones. Tara is the most important of all the one and represents the maternal aspect of the compassion. Her name is related to the term ‘crossover’; she protects people as they are crossing the ‘Ocean of Existence’. According to the legends she was created form the tear of Avalokitesvara. There are 21 different forms of the Tara depicted in different colours. Out of all the White Tara and the Green Tara are the most important. The White and Green Tara’s, with their contrasting symbols of the full-blown and closed lotus, are said to symbolize between them the

12.26-White Tara

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unending compassion of the deity who labours both day and night to relieve suffering. These two Tara’s are historically connected to the King Srongtsen Gampo, who brought Buddhism to Tibet from China and Nepal. In her ferocious, blue form, invoked to destroy enemies, she is known as Ugra-Tara, or Ekajata; as a red goddess of love, Kurukulla; and as a protectress against snakebite, Janguli. The yellow Bhrikuti is an angry Tara, with frowning brows.

White Tara (Sitatara or Svetatara) can easily be recognized by the seven eyes in her head, the palms of her head and the soles of her feet. This helps her in perceiving anyone who needs her help in any direction.

She is usually holding up an open white lotus as symbol of her purity.

Green Tara (Syamatara or Harit Tara) is seen as the protector against all the dangers. The lotus in her hand is blue and half-open (Nilotpala). Sometimes there are two lotuses. She does not have any extra eye.

12.27-Green Tara

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Sculptures: Stone work in Nepal has closely followed developments in India. The earliest stone work, the sculptured image of Lingam in the Pasupati temple, is a prototype of the Bharasiva Linga in Nachna though in detail the Nepalese sculpture has shown an ingenuity of individual expression. The Lichhavis under the Gupta influence popularised the conception of an all prevalent Deity, Shiva or Vishnu, who in the abstract stood for anything reat and large, and was reduced in concrete to a beautifully shaped massive monolith or image.

Predominantly Buddhist, Newari artists became renowned throughout Asia for the high quality of their work. At times, Nepalese style had tremendous influence on the art of China and Tibet, as both countries imported art and artists from Nepal to adorn their temples and monasteries.

The majority of these sculptures were created in the service of religion, and although most of the artists were Buddhist, neither a Hindu nor a Buddhist style is discernible. As in medieval India, the same artists probably produced art for both religions. Nepal is one of the few places in the world where Buddhism and Hinduism have coexisted peacefully for almost 2,000 years. Although Hinduism is the state religion, the two religions are not only historically entwined but also share many similar aspirations that make them far less distinguishable than in theory. At the popular level in Nepal, it makes little or no difference whether one receives blessings from a Hindu or Buddhist deity as long as that deity is efficacious.

Nepalese sculptors worked in many media, including stone, metal, wood, and terracotta. Their metal sculptures are either heavily gilded or, if the gold has worn off, have a slightly reddish patina that derives from their high copper content. Many of these, especially later ones, are decorated with inlaid semiprecious stones. Wooden sculptures were generally architectural, many serving as struts to support roofs, as door surrounds, or as decorations. Works in

12.28-Terracotta Sculpture of Akshobhya, the Buddha of the Eastern Pure Land. (16th–17th century) https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/62.207/

terracotta are comparatively rare. Nepalese sculpture is a conservative tradition, with slight changes in proportion or decorative details appearing over hundreds of years.

Stylistically, Nepalese sculpture grew out of the art of Gupta India, and later was influenced by that of Pala India. However, Nepalese artists created a distinctive style of their own, which can be recognized even on early bronzes such as a Standing Vajrapani, dated to the sixth to seventh century. Nepalese artists later developed a distinctive physiognomy for their deities, with long, languid eyes and wider faces than those in eastern Indian models. A tendency toward ornamental flourishes, exaggerated postures, and a repertoire of unique jewelry styles is also symptomatic of the Nepalese sculptural tradition.

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The Metallurgical Arts in Nepal

13.1-A sculpture of Samanthamukha-Lokesvara in a shop in Lalitpur

In Kathmandu Valley a well developed stone sculpture tradition was already in place by the 2nd century but if paralleled by metal sculptures, as seems probable, none this early has been found. The oldest now known is a superb image of Buddha cast in this very city in A.D. 591 but such perfection must rest on far older antecedents. The technique of embossing sheet metal with relief design (repousse) is at least equally old in Nepal as attested by repousse image made in A.D. 607 to replace one “ Which had become dilapidated with passage of time.�

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In the thirteenth century at the request of Kubilai khan, the renowned Mongol warlord, a deputation of some eighty newar artist went to Tibet and their leader, Aniko ,went on to fame as head of the imperial workshops in what is now Beijing. In succeeding centuries Tibetan Buddhists turned particularly to Nepalese metallurgists for cult objects, fashioned either in Nepal or in Tibet by domiciled Newars. The reduced patronage and curtailed Tibet trade that followed Nepal’s dynastic change in 1768/69 resulted in diminished production. Today even though the metallurgical arts largely sub-serve the tourist industry, skilled artist - craftsman continue to fulfill many commissions as of old, especially for foreign patrons who are practitioners of Buddhism.

13.2-Bodhisattva- Padmapani Lokeshvara Period: Licchavi–Thakuri periods Date: 10th–11th century Culture: Nepal (Kathmandu Valley) Medium: Gilt copper alloy Dimensions: H. 11 7/8 in. (30.2 cm) https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1981.59/

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Casting: Casting, one of the least expensive and most expressive method of forming metal sculptures, is an ancient process and among the first to have been developed in many cultures. Casting seems to have started shortly after man realized that metal had the property of being able to melted into a mass, it’s fluid characteristic lead to the idea to be able to control the shape of this mass as it solidifies, and from this interest the making of the mold was invented. Metal with different properties and composition can be heated till it becomes liquid, after which it can be made to flow freely and evenly into a mold which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold in order to obtain the desired form.

Interestingly metal do not adhere to mold surface, because they do not “wet” them that is the surface tension of the metal and the formation of the gases between metal and mold wall prevent adhesion. Many materials have been used for the making of the mold as per the requirement of the casting where the mold needs to withstand the thermal sock of the molten metal without damage. The material chosen depends on the method of using the mold, the temperature of the molten metal, complexity of the pattern, the number of casting to be made from the same mold and degree of accuracy desired.

Sand casting Centrifugal investment casting Lost wax casting

Lost wax casting consist of constructing a model in wax or wax-resin combination of suitable thickness and forming a mold over the outside of the work to be cast. The wax is then drained or ‘lost’ by heating the entire mold, which is left with a hollow space formerly occupied by wax. Into this space the molten metal is poured until it fills the void completely. After cooling, the mold is removed (usually destroyed) and casting is finished with tools, if required. In this process technically speaking several methods for the construction of the model, the investment of the casting mold and the introduction of the metal. The method employed depends greatly on the size of the object and on the metal. Techniques also vary with availability of materials, the level of technical skills, and the presence of mechanical aids.

Lost wax Casting :

Process as followed by the craftsmen of Nepal

Creating metal objects by the process called lost-wax casting is also known as cire perdue (French for “lost” or “waste” wax). It is practiced all over the world by various names in different places. The oldest known example of this technique is a 6,000-year old amulet

Casting Wax:

Types of metal casting :

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from Indus valley civilization. Other examples from a similar period are the objects discovered in the cave of the Treasure (Nahal Mishmar) hoard in southern Israel, and which belong to the Chalcolithic period (4500–3500 BC). Conservative estimates of age from carbon - 14 dating date the items to c. 3700 BC, making them more than 5,700 years old. Lost-wax casting was widespread in Europe until the 18th century, when a piece - molding process came to predominate.

Craftsmen in ancient India and Egypt were probably the earliest practitioners, the Shang, Chou, and Han Dynasties of China, the makers of the great bronzes of Nara and Kamakura in Japan, Greece’s Golden age, Imperial rome, Renaissance Italy, the cast gold workers of central and South America, the creator of the bronzes of Ife and Benin in Africa, and the deities cast in Nepal and Tibet, all these have certainly been among man’s outstanding aesthetic and technical procedure.

Natural wax exist in a variety of texture and consistencies hard, soft, flexible, plastic, elastic, and brittle. Its various surface qualities are sticky,

tacky, dry, oily, fatty, and slippery depending on the source, temperature, environment and the process which human undertook for obtaining the wax.

Depending on the need, the wax is desired to fulfill special combinations are designed to obtain desired characteristics. (Metal techniques for craftsmen). For thajya Newari uses two kind of wax beeswax and paraffin wax.

The waxes employed for creation of the models for casting are derived from three main sources:

fatty acids and various long - chain alcohols. When beekeepers extract the honey, they cut off the wax caps from each honeycomb cell with an uncapping knife or machine. Its color varies from nearly white to brownish, but most often a shade of yellow, depending on purity, the region, and the type of flowers gathered by the bees.

Wax from the brood comb of the honey bee hive tends to be darker than wax from the honeycomb. Impurities accumulate more quickly in the brood comb. Due to the impurities, the wax must be rendered before further use. The leftovers are called slumgum.

1-Animal and Insects, 2-Mineral and Petroleum, 3-Vegetables.

Synthetic waxes are also manufactured but natural waxes have superior work quality as told to us by the Craftsman. Melting point and flash points (the temperature at which a given wax will burst into flame) are factors that must be considered in the combining of waxes. The flash point is a criterion in testing wax quality. Specific gravity is useful in measuring the weight of the metal equivalents needed for casting.

Beeswax : Melting point : 142 - 149 degree Fahrenheit ( 61 - 65 degree Celsius) Flash point : 468 - 482 degree Fahrenheit Specific gravity : ( all given at 25 degree Celsius ), 0.950 - 0.960 Beeswax (cera alba) is an insect wax excreted by the honeybee of the genus Apis to construct the honeycomb. Color of the wax depends on the flower upon which the bee feeds and on the age of the hive.

The wax is formed into scales by eight wax-producing glands in the abdominal segments of worker bees, which discard it in or at the hive. The hive workers collect and use it to form cells for honey storage and larval and pupal protection within the beehives.

Chemically, beeswax consists mainly of esters of

13.3-Beeswax and resin mix for wax modeling.

Paraffin wax: Melting point : 118 - 165 degree Fahrenheit ( 48 - 47 degree Celsius) Flash point : 400 - 470 degree Fahrenheit Specific gravity : 0.880 - 0.920 Paraffin wax a type of petroleum wax, which is a petroleum industry by products, derived from crude oil, coal or oil shale by distillation. Mostly found as a white, odorless, tasteless, waxy solid, that consists of a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules containing between 80

twenty and forty carbon atoms. Common applications for paraffin wax include lubrications, electrical insulations and candles, dyed paraffin wax can be made into crayons. It is distinct from kerosene and other petroleum products that are sometimes called paraffin.

Natural Resin: The Newari craftsman uses two kinds of natural resin depending on the availability of the resin which is either derived from Sal tree (botanical name : Shorea robusta) or from lac bug , locally produced or imported from India.

Resin from Plant: In polymer chemistry and materials science, resin is a solid or highly viscous substance of plant or synthetic origin that is typically convertible into polymers. Resins are usually mixtures of organic compounds. Resins and gums are metabolic by-products of plant tissues either in normal course or often as a result of disease or injury to the bark or wood of certain plants. Most plant resins are composed of terpenes.

There are a large number of trees in India which exude gums and resins. Some of these are of local or limited interest, while a few are used extensively all over India and also entered the export trade of the country.

Thousands of forest dwellers particularly in the central and western Indian states depend on gums and resins as a viable source of income. The gums and gum-resins of commercial importance collected from the forest are gum karaya, gum ghatti, salai gum, guggul, and gums from various species of Acacia, including Indian gum arabic from Acacia nilotica and true gum arabic from senegal.

The uses of natural gums and resins in food, medicines and in varnishes or as protective coatings go back to very early times. The present day uses of natural gums and resins are numerous and they are employed by a large number of manufacturing industries including food and pharmaceutical industries. Some of the plant based gums and resins of commercial 81

importance are presented here. Sal tree resin, Sal is a large sub deciduous tree., Scientific name Shorea robusta belonging to the Dipterocarpaceae family. It is up to 30 meter high. Sal tree is seldom completely leafless. It has large leathery leaves and yellowish flowers. They have tough texture. Young trees have a linear crown, which becomes rounder and flatter with aging. The sapwood is whitish in color, thick and is less durable.

The heartwood becomes dark brown to black in color on exposure. The wood pores are filled with resin. Sal tree are found in Assam, Nepal, Bengal and on the bank of the Yamuna river. In Haryana Sal can be found in the Morni Hills and the Kalesar forests. Sal tree grows in North East and Central India up to 1700 meter elevation. It is widely grown in the foothills of the Himalayas.

13.4-Gum Resin from trees. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resin

Resin from Animal: Shellac is a resin secreted by the female lac bug, on trees in the forests of India and Thailand. It is processed and sold as dry flakes (pictured) and dissolved in alcohol to make liquid shellac, which is used as a brush-on colorant, food glaze and wood finish. Shellac functions

as a tough natural primer, sanding sealant, tanninblocker, odour-blocker, stain, and high-gloss varnish.

Shellac is scraped from the bark of the trees where the female lac bug, Kerria lacca (order) Hemiptera, family Kerriidae, also known as Laccifer lacca), secretes it to form a tunnel-like tube as it traverses the branches of the tree. The number of lac bugs required to produce 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of shellac has variously been estimated as 50,000.

because of its non-drying property giving the sculpture artist an opportunity to work on the sculpture for longer duration without any difficulty.

The raw shellac, which contains bark shavings and lac bugs removed during scraping, is placed in canvas tubes (much like long socks) and heated over a fire.

This causes the shellac to liquefy, and it seeps out of the canvas, leaving the bark and bugs behind. The thick, sticky shellac is then dried into a flat sheet and broken into flakes, or dried into “buttons” (pucks/cakes), then bagged and sold. The end-user then crushes it into a fine powder and mixes it with ethyl alcohol before use, to dissolve the flakes and make liquid shellac.

13.6-Sculpture being created with plasticine clay by Tejesh ji at his studio.

Wax working Tools: 13.5-Raw Shellac https://smartmommyhealthybaby.com/2016/07/shellac-it-mightnot-be-harmful-but-do-you-want-to-eat-this-nail-polish-ingredient/

Plasticine clay: Plasticine, a brand of modeling clay, is a putty-like modeling material made from calcium salts, petroleum jelly and aliphatic acids. Plasticine is used extensively for children’s play, but also as a modeling medium for more formal or permanent small as well as bigger structures

Buffalo horn spatula called silayku in Newari, this is handcrafted tool made by the worker to suit his preference. Wild buffalo horns are used for the shaping and smoothening of the wax surface for their favorable texture and shape. Only the female horns are used, because male buffalo horns are hollow. they are dark, almost black in color, and the ends are sanded to a flat curve, thinner or more pointed depending on the aim of the tool. The wax model is slightly warmed before manipulating it with this tool. The tool is moistened with saliva so that it doesn’t stick to the wax. This is done frequently throughout modeling. For those 82

sculptors disinclined to use saliva, soapy water can be used. The thin edge pushes and shapes the wax, and the flat smooth surface is used to smooth the wax through tapping and rolling actions.

13.7-Market available clay modeling tools

Sculpting the wax model: Traditionally the first step in making a cast metal model in the lost wax process, called Thajya in Newari, is sculpting the image in the wax that will hence be “lost”.

The wax mixture is prepared by mixing beeswax (kaustiha in Newari where kausti means “honey” and ha means “bee” as told by craftsman) and natural resin to form a mixture called “Maina” in Nepali. The composition of this mixture is as follows, in summers for every 10 kg of beeswax 2.5 kg of resin is mixed, while in winters for every 10 kg of beeswax 1kg of resin is mixed to get the desired consistency of maina which can be comfortably molded by the craftsman.

Since wax is soft and starts to soften at 30 degree Celsius, makes it difficult for the craftsman to work with pure wax for sculpting, thus resin is mixed in desired 83

13.8- Different types of Silayku.

quantity to enhance the properties of the wax increasing it’s melting point thus making it suitable for sculpting.

The wax thus obtained is taken in small quantity, is repeatedly heated over hot coals and continuously kneaded, until it is soft and pliable.

While working with the wax, craftsman continuously applies oil on his hands to prevent it from sticking to his fingers. Once softened, the wax is then fashioned into rough, hand made thin sheet of wax of appropriate thickness which depends on the price and availability of the final metal in which the craftsman wish to produce the idol, this wax sheet will act as the building blocks for the desired object. The artisan first begins to gently mold the image with the tips of his finger shaping the

13.9-Wax being melted to reuse for modeling

rough contours of the idol and then further aims at detailing out the sharp feature of the idol with the help of buffalo horn spatula. Using different shaped ends of this versatile tool the artist articulates the features of the idol. While working with the horn spatula the craftsman uses his saliva where he repeatedly spits on that portion of the wax sculpture which he wishes to detail out.

13.11-Handmade iron knifes to softening and cutting the extra wax on the edges.

In bigger sculpture heated knife is also sometimes used to soften the wax before sculpting the details of the desired form. Most items taller than twenty centimeters are made in two halves known as “Ankhora�, since it is more difficult to maintain the integrity of the wax models that exceed this height, multiple separate pieces can be prepared that are later joined following the casting step.

13.10-Handmade iron tools to melt the wax on the model for joineries or finishing.

To join these pieces together the edges of parts to be joined together are heated over a brazier, called Milayea in Newari and are then pressed together upon each other in-order to obtain a unified form. A long thin bamboo stick with one end wrapped in cloth, called Sikathica in Newari, is dipped into a small pot of liquid wax. This liquid wax is dropped onto the unfinished edges which is smoothened with the Silayku tool. Final adjustments 84

to the image are made by adding and shaping thin layers of molten wax or scraping it off with various sized and shaped knives thin steel blades.

In 1986, the Small and Cottage Industry of the Nepalese government implemented a program of learning for Nepalese craftsmen, during which they gained the knowledge of using silicon rubber and resin to create durable molds. This allows numerous copies of the original sculpture to be produced. Resin or plaster can be used as a supportive case for the silicon rubber mold.

Steps involved in creating multiple identical sculptures from silicon rubber mold at Tejesh Ji’s studio:

13.12-Wax slip made by continuously heating the wax.

Multiple Identical Sculptures from Mold: There are several methods and materials by which a mold can be made which depends on the size of the idol and the availability of the material for the making of such molds. The planning and construction of the mold alone can take months, depending on the size of the idol, Craftsman would take from 3 weeks to 6 months for the construction of the mould alone. For the purpose of mold the idol is crafted in paraffin clay first as observed at Tejesh ji’s studio from which “mother mold” is made. Though traditionally Craftsman used to make idols in wax and once lost the craftsman would repeat the whole process again however with the advent of industrialization and increase in demand, also the reduced craftsmanship lead to the requirement of molds for multiple production of the idols. Initially the Craftsman were using Plaster of Paris for making such molds, recently with advancement of technology and increase in affordability of materials such as metal, silicon, polyester resin, depending on the availability and affordability Craftsman may choose the most convenient material to work.

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The Craftsman creates the master mold by first creating the desired form in plasticine clay or paraffin wax and then creates a negative and positive die for the silicon mold. The process is desirable for alternatively producing solid wax versions of the original sculpture from smaller molds of up to 20 cm, if the sculpture is any larger than 1 foot craftsman may create multiple molds for each parts which will be welded together after the metal casting Molten Maina (wax) is poured into the silicon rubber mold as shown in above pictures.

Depending on the design, Craftsman is required to pour number of thin layers of wax into the mold which depends on the craftsman requirement of either a hollow or solid sculpture.

Extra wax may be removed from the mold specially when the craftsman desires to achieve hollow structures.

Approximately after 20 to 30 minutes the wax model is removed from the silicon mold and the rough edge thus obtained is cleaned by hot knife and smoothened by silayku.

13.13-Wax poured into silicon mold.

13.14-Extra wax removed to form hollow model.

13.15-Hollow mold from inside.

13.16-Retouching wax at places with less wax.

13.17-Wax model taken out from mold.

13.18-Final wax model.

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Steps Involved in creating large model from molds as observed at Prabin Ji’s workshop: In case of large model molds of different parts of the bigger sculpture are made from the master wax sculpture produced by the master Craftman. Desired quantity of wax is softened and kneaded on a slab of black sandstone for approximately 2 minutes till the dough becomes soft and pliable, the craftsman then sprinkles some water on the slab and fattens the wax cake first by pinching and then pressing it with a smaller stone to achieve a wax sheet of uniform thickness. The thickness of the wax sheet varies depending on the size of the statue to be cast and the metal to be used.

13.19-Kneading of the wax

Craftsman holds the wax sheet near the heater to soften wax before placing it inside the mold. The inside of the mold is moistened with water for easy removal of the wax later, the softened wax sheet is then pressed against the surface of the mold, it takes 20-40 minutes for the wax to cool and harden, after which the craftsman takes the molded wax out from the mold with a knife. Since the wax pieces are created in parts they are step by step assembled together, with molten wax slip applied on the edges of the parts to be stuck together.

Once stuck the craftsman heats the extra wax with the help of steam from burning coal from a distance and is then smoothened with silayku (wax modeling tool) to get a finished surface. Craftsman cuts a patch from a suitable place in the wax model, keeping in mind it will need to be welded back on after casting. Ensuring that the cut is made at a tapered angle so that the patch comes out without warping. The hollow cut on the wax model acts as a gate for coring the inside of the wax model in later stage.

13.20-Wax kneaded on stone to make thin sheet.

13.21-Wax sheet being casted in the mold.

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13.22-Patch of clay model cut for easy accessibilty to the inside parts.

13.25-Joints heated with coal to merge different parts.

13.23-Cut part of the patch which will be casted separately.

13.26-Use of Silayku to merge joints.

13.24-Spitting on Silayku for smooth surface.

13.27-Joint pieces kept aside for assembly.

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Attaching Sprue and Runners: Once the model is completed, it is ready to be “sprued�, the wax model is inspected for debris and imperfect areas if any to be fixed first before moving ahead with spruing. The wax sprue after the wax melts from de-waxing, acts as a cavity through which the molten metal travels into the cast. Craftsman is required to contemplate as to where it would be most suitable to attach the sprue, taking into consideration thicker areas of wax and later the conscious decision taken by the craftsman becomes the practice in all the similar statues mass produced.

Additional runners are added to help bring the metal to heavier parts of the model. All runner wires should converge from the model upon one point above it, which will become the sprue opening for pouring the molten metal. These runners are made with 12 or 14 gauge wax wire, or thinner if the piece being cast is delicate or small, placed in most natural direction the metal could flow throughout the form of the model, and keeping in mind that the detail will be ruined at the points where you attach the runners. These runners needs to be as short as possible and not closer to each other than a half inch.

The number of these runner depends on the size and design of the piece. Craftsman also sometimes incorporates the core patch in the sprue frame so that it is cast with its model. Join each sprue to your sculpture by heating both contact points, pushing them together and then carefully pouring liquid wax around the join. It needs to be extremely strong, because it is very inconvenient if the sprue joints break during the mold covering process. It is possible to make a repair if this happens, however it can be very complicated and lead to other casting faults if not repaired effectively.

For example, if you attempt to re-weld a sprue onto a model with the low visibility of having a mold covering the wax, you may melt a hole through the wall of your wax model, creating a hole in the casting and therefore losing detail, plus causing it to require welding.

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13.28-Sprue is cut to the required size and placed at the required point on the model.

13.29-Heated rod is used to joint the sprues to the model.

13.30-A preformed wax sprue is measured.

Coring with Clay and Husk Mixture: The stage of covering the wax model with a layer of clay and husk mixture is dominantly executed by female members of the house. Once the wax model is prepared with all the required details, the next stage in the process is to cover the wax model with clay mixture thus preparing it for casting. A paste made up of fine clay Mashincha ( mashin means fine, cha means clay) called in Newari, is rich in silica thereby enhancing the thermal resistance characteristic of the mold. Locally sourced from Kathmandu river valley. It is found 9-15 feet under the surface of the ground, one can test to help identify if the clay collected is suitable by dropping a small piece of clay into some water, and watch if it begins to dissolve straight away, if it does it is suitable for the purpose. Further, cow dung and water is added to the clay in equal proportion to obtain a slurry liquid, here cow dung acts as a binder. It is necessary to collect the dung of cows that eat grass rather than grain, the grains can cause imperfections in the casting. Craftsman aims for a flowing consistency for which s/he needs to sieve this mixture through a coarse sieve to obtain a slurry liquid with no lumps. This consistency is evenly poured on the wax model and is left out for drying. If the mix is too thick, you can add more water to it, otherwise the layer will become weak.

This layer must be left out to dry though not in direct sunlight which may cause uneven drying and develop large cracks or may even break in the mold. Though small hairline cracks may occur in the drying process which is bound to happen. It takes around 2 days for the paste to dry out completely depending on the temperature and season. Following the first layer a second layer of slightly thicker consistency is used for covering the statue and left for drying. The statue might require a third layer depending on the size and thickness of the wax model.

Once the multiple thin layer coated on the model completely dries out the next step is to cover this layer and all consecutive layers with a thicker, coarser,

13.31-Sieving and preparing clay and cow dung mixture.

13.32-Applying the mixture with a paint brush.

13.33-The model is kept aside to dry to add more layers later.

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composition of clay called Coring. For the purpose yellow clay known as Mhasucha ( Mhasu - yellow , Cha clay) in Newari, it is rich in iron and phosphorous cow dung, rice husk and water is mixed together.

Once the slurry liquid layer on wax model dries out completely it is ready to core . The core mixture made from rice husks, cow dung and yellow ceramic clay with high temperature resistant properties needs to be a fairly stiff mixture, where rice husk and yellow clay is added in equal proportions to which 1/4th cow dung and 1/4th water of the total mixture is mixed to get a thicker consistency. If the mix feels too sticky, dry clay may be added to the mixture for achieving the desired consistency. Excess of rice husks could create casting faults from an excess of ash falling inside the mold, so add plenty, but without the mix appearing saturated with husks. This mixture needs to be mixed together for longer duration, patiently taking time until it is perfect, even and stiff with no air bubbles. This mix can be stored for long in cool dry storage, also the mixture become a little better over time.

13.34-Mixing clay, rice husk, cow dung and water.

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This mixture is evenly spread on the wax model from the outside first, with thickness of approximately 1 inch and is left for drying in direct sunlight so that the mixtures dries up quickly. The statues are preferred to be layered from the outside first and then from the insides, as visa versa might cause the model to break.

In the process of putting the mixture from inside first, while doing so into more complex area which might require twisting of the statue, may result in probable breakage. Inside of the statue is difficult to reach thus the Craftsman removes a small window from the wax model in the previous stage which enables the craftsman to reach the more complex inner areas with ease, also for this purpose they uses tools such as shikatti ( shi - wood katti - rod) or a strong brass rod with a small lump of wax molded around each end. We observed that at various stages the craftsman preferred to create his own tool according to the convenience and availability of material in and around the spaces in which s/he is working. After drying the craftsman looks for significant cracks, fills them with the mixture and repeat the process. At this stage the craftsman carefully covers the sprue with the husk mixture making it prominently identifiable for the metal cast and at places may add extra gates if the sculpture is too huge.

13.35-The final mixture.

13.36-Gate to be attached which will act as an entrace for metal while casting.

13.37-Gate covered before de-waxing.

13.38-Opening to put the mix inside of the model.

Sensitivity and precision is required for coring, not only to avoid causing gaps, but also to avoid the spiky rice husks breaking a hole through the fine, thin layers of the wax model. Craftsman is required to be careful in putting and pushing the mixture in the right quantity into the edges avoiding air traps if any. When the entire hollow is filled with core mix, small thin pins or nails are pushed through the wax model into the core. These nails are placed at about 1 or 2 inches apart. Larger nails may also be used for the purpose however Larger pins will leave larger holes which will require welding (or ignore) after casting. As the core dries, it shrinks and tightens around the pins helping to hold them in place, however any pins that feel particularly loose can be fixed in place with a drop of molten wax. These pins increases the strength of the core. This layer and the following thick layers are left to dry in direct sunlight.

Ideally, the model is turned every few hours, to dry as evenly as possible.

When weather does not provide warm sunlight, place the models in a warm, airy room. A moderate blow heater in the room would be useful, as air movement is important to take away the evaporating moisture.

If colossal cracks appear, or even worse lumps of the thick clay come away from the mold, re-application of the layers is undertaken by the craftsman. Sometimes if the statue is bigger than 1 feet reinforcement of wire is used between the two layers and in case of bigger pieces thicker iron rods are used for reinforcement.

The reinforcement is essential for keeping the core from breaking during the casting process which may happen due to the thermal heat which the mold may experience from hot molten metal. Once the final layer of the mixture dries up the craftsman looks for any larger than a hairline cracks, scrape away the area directly around the crack with a very sharp tool, just slightly revealing the layer below. Over the scraped away gaps, s/he pushes a putty made from the slip mix of the first two layers- fine clay plus cow dung, of a thicker consistency onto the gaps, and also onto any air pockets if any otherwise the molten metal would leak from such cracks.

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De-Waxing:

13.39-Wire frame on the second layer of mold to support the structure.

13.40-Shikatti tool.

13.41-Using shikatti to smoothen the mixture in the inside parts.

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The process of heating the mold from outside to melt the wax structure inside in order to create a network of cavity for the molten metal is known as de-waxing.

On the day of casting, all the mold undergo the process of de-waxing, where the clay molds are fired in the kiln depending on their quantity and size , fired either through wood-fired or electric or gas. In case of larger molds the Craftsman adds a metallic rode to the pouring gate which channels the hot molten wax from the mold onto the tray. Multiple pouring gates may be created depending on the size of the mold. While in case of smaller molds sprue acts as the pouring gate during this process. Laborers makes the temporary kiln from bricks and a mixture of clay and rice husks for reinforcement. On the day of casting almost everyone from the foundry comes together to execute the process and also external expertise a caster is called upon for the task of casting.

In Nepal, craftsmen learns how to measure the temperature of the kiln by the color of the heated bricks and the amount of coal they are using for the kiln. This is an ancient technique also still used in other parts of the world, such as in Japan, where it is particularly important during the Katana Samurai swordforging process; ‘Only when the color of the blade turns to the red of the rising sun is the Katana is ready.’

It is a skill that must be learned through observation and practice.

As a guide: when one peeks into the kiln at the molds, the gateway should be a reddish/purple glow. The molds take about 3/5 hours to de-wax depending on their size, and even longer if they are of large scale. During the process the temperature of the kiln shouldn’t exceed over 550/600˚C for 12 inch high pieces, while push the heat up to 600- 700˚C for larger pieces. This can be done by placing the molds in a kiln and burning the wax to oblivion. In the industrial sized foundries in Nepal, this is the usual technique and there

13.42-Applying final layer of mix.

13.43-Attaching pouring gate for wax to come out when fired.

are lot of in-house small foundries which are usually the extended courtyard of the house where Dewaxing is executed, as in the case of Prabin Ji’s workshop which was actually a in-house foundry. When a model made from paraffin wax is de-waxed, only about 5% of the wax can be saved, therefore it is actually more fuel efficient to burn away the wax in the kiln, rather than outlay the cost of the gas used to dewax the molds. However, in case of beeswax, a larger amount is salvageable. It is also a lot more time-consuming to individually dewax each mold by hand using a blowtorch which is the usual practice in case if only a few molds are there to be dewaxed, whereas in the huge scale kilns, at least 200 molds were placed in at once and dewaxed and baked all in one process. For the purpose they used cooking gas for baking the mold, heating the kiln up-to 450-500 degree Celsius. The mold where placed upside down with the pouring gates facing downward over a strong metallic grid with a high melting temperature, such as iron. Once the kiln reaches its desired temperature molten wax flows down from the sprue and gets collected in a pan.

In case of bigger mold with more than one gates all the gates are covered except for the one through which the wax flows out during the process . The direction of the flame is positioned little above the edge, to avoid setting the wax on fire. If the wax does catch fire, it’s blown out. These clay mold has enough plasticity to absorb a slight expansion from the wax. In case of large mold of approximately 4-5 ft huge temporary kiln with bricks and insulation panels are created as per the requirement of the mold. Wax obtained after dewaxing is sieved and is cleaned before being reused. Depending on the size of the mold the dewaxing process can take about 15 minutes to 2 hours to complete the whole process.

13.44-Covering all the gates before de-waxing.

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13.45-Building temporary kiln for bigger structures.

13.46-Firing molds in a temporary kiln for de-waxing.

13.47-Wax flowing out of pouring gate.

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13.48-Small molds fired individually with the burner.

13.49-De-waxed molds ready for further firing before casting.

Metal Casting:

metals.

In Nepal, fairly good amount of different types of minerals have been reported. More than 85 minerals and their varieties have been known to be available in large concentration in Nepal. It is believed that there are areas in Nepal which contain plenty of tantalum, niobium, molybdenum, and rare earth metal ores. Nepal may become a major supplier of these metals if their proper execution is made. Alluvial plains of Nepal are known to have ores of gold while the middle region contains copper, iron, zinc, nickel, cobalt etc. A few deposits of lead, zinc and iron have been reported in the snow-capped areas. Economic deposits of iron ore are noticed in phulchoki, near Kathmandu valley. Thus due to it’s richness in metal , the craft of Thajya is widely celebrated and thus apparently is the main source of income for Nepales, following are the metals used for casting the Buddha idol Traditionally.

Common copper ores found in Nepal include chalcopyrite, malachite, azurite, covellite, cuprite, bornite, and chalcocite. Main Copper Ore Deposits in Nepal can be found in Darchula, Bajhang, Bajura, Parbat, Baglung, Myagdi, Gulmi, Tanahun, Gorkha, Makwanpur, Kavre, Ramechhap, Okhaldhunga, Dhankuta, Solukhumbu, Ilam, Taplejung, Gyazi (Gorkha), Okharbot (Myagdi), Wapsa (Solukhumbu),Mines in Gyazi (Gorkha), Okharbot (Myagdi) and Wapsa (Solukhumbu), are able to produce 20 to 50 mt finished copper every year.

COPPER: Chemical element CU 29 Melting point- 1083°C, 1981.4°F Boiling point- 2595°C, 4703°F Copper with high ductility and tensile strength and high thermal conductivity makes it easily fabricate. It can be electroplated and has good polishing quality. It is soluble in oxidizing acids such as nitric and sulphuric.

Copper is manufactured by electrolytic and furnace fire refining methods in many forms, each having inclusions of small amounts of various other metals which changes its character and make it suitable for special applications or methods of working. It contains varying amounts of oxygen, which increases its tensile strength and reduces its ductility in direct relation to the increase of oxygen content. De-oxidized copper, a tougher copper containing high residual phosphorus, is used in processes requiring hot working, annealing,brazing and welding. Oxygen free copper retains its high residual ductility in hard temper form. Copper has been widely used in arts, both in its pure form and in alloys. As copper has the natural ability to combine with other

ZINC: Chemical element Zn30 Melting point 419.527°C, 787.149°F, 692.677 Boiling point 907°C, 1665°F, 1180 K Identified as an element in 1746, but known to the Greeks and Romans before 20BC. A silvery-white metal with a blue tinge. It tarnishes in air. Zinc oxide is widely used in the manufacture of many products such as paints, rubber, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, plastics, inks, soaps, batteries, textiles and electrical equipment. Zinc sulfide is used in making luminous paints, fluorescent lights and x-ray screens. Zinc is essential for all living things, forming the active site in over 20 metalloenzymes. The average human body contains about 2.5 grams and takes in about 15 milligrams per day. Some foods have above average levels of zinc, including herring, beef, lamb, sunflower seeds and cheese. Zinc can be carcinogenic in excess. If freshly formed zinc(II) oxide is inhaled, a disorder called the ‘oxide shakes’ or ‘zinc chills’ can occur.

Zinc is found in several ores, the principal ones being zinc blende (zinc sulfide) and calamine (zinc silicate). the occurrences/ prospects/ deposits are reported from more than 54 localities in different parts of Nepal.

In most cases their ore minerals e.g. Sphalerite and Galena are associated like in Ganesh Himal area (Rasuwa), Phakuwa (Sankhuwasabha), Labang- Khairang (Makwanpur), 96

Pangum (Solukhumbu), Salimar valley (Mugu/ Humla), DahaGulzar (Darchula), Phulchoki (Lalitpur), SishaKhani and Kandebas (Baglung), Dhuwakot (Parbat), Barghare (Makwanpur), KholaKhani (Taplejung) etc.

Brass Cu3Zn2 Zinc 40.69 % Zn Copper 59.31 % Cu Molecular Weight = 321.42 gm

Furnace crucibles come in a variety of metal constructions, such as clay-graphite, silicon-carbide, and more. These materials can resist the extreme temperatures in typical foundry operations. Silicon carbide has the additional benefit of being a highly durable material. Some common shapes for crucibles include “A� shape and bilge shape.

Casting :

Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, in proportions which can be varied to achieve varying mechanical and electrical properties. It is a substitutionary alloy : atoms of the two constituents may replace each other within the same crystal structure. In contrast, bronze is an alloy of copper and tin.

Graphite Crucible (specifically used for the craft) Capacity : 50 ltr.

Import : Delhi & Kolkata (India) Cost : 1000 nepali

13.51-Tools used in the Metal Casting Process.

13.50-Graphite Crucible

A crucible is a pot that is used to keep metals for melting in a furnace. Furnace crucibles are designed to withstand the highest temperatures encountered in the metal casting works. The crucible should essentially be made of materials with a much higher melting point than that of the materials to be melted. The crucible materials should also have good strength even when extremely hot.

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After the de-waxing process is complete the molds are further heated for 4 to 5 hours before the casting process actually begins. Once the kiln reaches its desired temperature and the mistri feels that the molds have been baked enough, the fire can then be put off and the kiln is left for around 30 minutes to 2 hours to cool down which again depends on the size and structure of the kiln. Some times to accelerate the process of cooling the karigar removes the accumulated coal which

got collected from the wood at the base of the kiln.

When the molds look ready, they are taken out and placed in a stable position for example against a low wall of bricks, or placed in sand. They had a mix of thick clay and rice husk mix kept on standby in case any mold come out of the kiln with cracks.

Alongside the process a large graphite crucible is placed onto the furnace and is been prepared for the process ahead. Traditional crucibles were hand-made by women of the casting families. However now they are being sourced from either China or Indian market. In case of new crucible, which prabin ji was using on the day of metal casting during our visit, we saw that the crucible was first fired at low temperature for approximately 30 minutes with the gas hand torch , as told by Prabin Ji heating the crucibles evaporates the moisture locked in the fresh crucible.

13.52-Firing New crucible, preparing for casting.

Once ready, the crucible is kept inside the ceramic furnace burnt throughout the pour, a thick layer of husk mixture is placed at the bottom of the furnace and at the mouth of the furnace so as that would help in maintaining the high temperature of the furnace and at the same time would protect the karigars from getting in contact with direct heat. From a opening at the bottom, an external pipe of kerosene coming from through the pipe from a tank which was kept at a height of approximately 7 feet at a distance of around 20 meters from the furnace, is attached to a blower which supports flames and at the same time enables the karigar to control the pressure. Once the furnace starts to heat approximately after 20 minutes the karigars starts to feed the crucible with desired metal wires.

Zinc is first to undergo the process of melting in the crucible, coppers wires were later added to the molten zinc as the melting point of copper is higher than zinc, if zinc is added to the copper later it might catch fire and produce hazardous smoke.

Though this method of adding zinc in the copper will save the wastage however due to the hazardous effect of the smoke on the human health the Newaris

13.53-Preparing the ceramic furnace.

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practice the former method of heating the zinc before copper. There is no specific way to measure the temperature however the experience and practice aids to the process. Metal of desired quantity is fed to the crucible at various interval. The metal takes around 20-30 minutes to melt. Using a thick iron or steel rod the metal is checked for heat and correct temperature.

If the metallic rod comes out clean from the crucible, it is assumed that the crucible is running at correct temperature however if it has sticky metal attached to the rod, the metal have not reached it’s desired molten stage. We observed that the throughout the process. craftsman and the metal caster both depends on age old practices and experience for every decision they make during the process. Before pouring the molten metal into the mold, the karigar closes all other multiple gates if there are any, with the husk mixture and a single apex gate is used for pouring the molten metal into the mold, the molten metal travels through the runners to reach every corner of the mold.

Once the karigar is satisfied with the temperature of the molten metal, it is then scooped out of the large crucible with a small crucible gripped by long-handled pincers. It is poured straight into the mold through sprue which was earlier used for de-waxing. Rather than bronze, a lot of Nepalese sculpture is cast in a mix of copper and zinc. Zinc is inexpensive, and gives strength to the copper, as well as helping it pour more smoothly than pure copper. The alloy is softer than bronze and therefore easier for carving intricate patterns. A traditional tip from the Newari casting technique is to throw some wax or natural tree resin into the molten metal while it is being poured into the mold as it enables a smooth flow of the metal and maintains the high temperature of the molten metal. Also the addition of this flux creates flame, which improves the flow and helps burn off impurities. Another tip is to swirl a piece of glass around the surface of the metal to gather the impurities. The newer industrial foundries have started adding borax powder into their crucible to help the impurities gather together as slag also it acts as a flux enabling a smooth flow of the molten metal. The 99

13.54-Insersion of the crucible in ceramic furnace.

13.55-Covering the mouth of the furnace with husk and clay mixture.

13.56-Installing the blower fan in the furnace.

knowledge of natural tree resin and wax is being lost, which is unfortunate because if you drop borax into the flow of metal whilst pouring, it can create pock-marks on the surface of your casting. The mold are left to cool down for 15 to 20 minutes and are then immediately immersed in water to increase the cooling of the molten metal. Once cool these molds are taken out from the water and the burnt husk molds are broken off the metallic piece with the tools such as hammer or kuttu to get the casted metal idol ready for further finishing

13.58-Karigar feeding the furnace with Copper Wires.

13.57-Karigar feeding the furnace with Zinc bar.

13.59-Molten metal checked for temperature by iron rod.

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13.62-Molten metal poured into the small molds from a small crucible.

13.60-Meanwhile external gates other than the main gate meant for pouring metal been covered with husk and clay.

13.63-Molds being quenched in water for increasing the process of cooling and are taken out after some time.

13.61-Molten metal poured into the larger molds from a small crucible.

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13.64-Breaking the burnt husk with kuttu .

13.65-Larger Molds are broken with the help of large rods, hammer and chisel.

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Finishing: Once the casting of the metal in the desired form is achieved it is further moved ahead in the chain for finishing, however before that the individual parts which were joined together through runners are seperated and are re-welded together to achieve the desired form. At this stage the surface of the sculpture is hammered repeatedly with an engraving punch and hammer, tiny dots all over the form is created, for condensing the particles of the metal and pushing over any small holes. The now dappled surface is then filed and sanded and polished until it is perfectly, flawlessly

13.68-Filing and sanding of the final pieces of the sculpture.

13.66-Runners being cut from the pieces of sculpture after taking them out from the molds.

smooth. Next, skilled metal engravers start to add decorative details to the idol, which is practiced either in-house or may be sent out to the engravers workshop.

We met a student of university of Nepal studying arts, who was working towards developing new patterns in his small extended workshop in his room. Using a small hammer and iron engraving tools, of which every kind imaginable exist he was creating beautiful patterns on the metal. The engraver first creates the desired pattern on a butter paper which is traced on to the metal with

13.67Final pieces of the sculpture after cutting the main runners.

13.69-Seperated parts of idol been welded together.

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a pen or black thin marker. Craftsman usually prefer to create their own tools for different patterns and details, these tools must be made from a good quality iron. In Nepal these tools most frequently consist of reused motorcycle springs. The iron is ground and filled , which is then finally quenched to give it the desired strength. Tool shapes range from circular, (for example to add beading to the jewelry of a deity), to slightly curved, to completely straight. The tools are held at 45 degrees to the surface, so that the end is flat on and hammered in fast, frequent taps, moving continuously forward. Lines on the idol’s face are also engraved in this manner, a job only entrusted to the most senior engraver in the family or the business.

After engraving the sculpture is then sent ahead into assembly line for further plating and painting if intended by the craftsman. The process of gold plating as we saw at Prabin ji’s place was undertaken in open space. At the terrace there was a small workshop with five employees. The process starts with mixing mercury and gold foil in equal ratio. In a bowl according to the desired quantity the gold foil is dipped in mercury and is heated for sometime till they obtain a fine paste of this mixture. The mixture is then painted on top of the surface with a brush (color of mercury predominates the mixture), these brushes are of special kind wooden stick with metal wires of about one inch on the head.

These brushes are available in different grades they generally procured from India. Craftsmen sometimes resort to make their own brushes depending on the requirement. Once painted with the mercury-gold mixture, the applied surface is washed with nitric acid and is then heated at a very high temperature till one can see the surface start to change its color to deep gold, for which they use a gas nozzle attached with a cooking gas cylinder for producing direct flames on the desired surface. Cleaned with thick cotton and washed with water, the surface is repainted for errors if there is any, otherwise the craftsman repeats the process of pouring nitric acid and heating the surface about two to three times till the plating is achieved. This process was majorly carried out by the men of the community.

13.70-Patterns are done on the paper first.

13.71-Patterns is traced on the sculpture and engraved by using different chisels.

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13.73-Craftsman plating the metal surface with a mixture of mercury and gold.

13.72-Engraving tools (Chisels) of different grades.

Once the desired results are achieved which only a craftsman can understand through experience, shikakai fruit (botanical name : Acacia concinna) is broken in half and is rubbed against a wire brush for froth, the ergonomics of this brush is different from the earlier brush, this brush looked like a toothbrush, with the only difference that it’s body was made of flatten wood.

Shikakai scientific name Acacia concinna a climbing shrub native to Asia, common in the warm plains of central and south India. This simulated friction between the shikakai and wire enables the fruit to produce fizz in huge amount which is rubbed against the surface and with the help of different tools called Lohsa in Newari and Aaiket in Nepali a special tool they import from India used by the craftsman which gives final finish to the surface and the shiny yellowish gold surface starts to emerge.

In certain sculptures usually meant for Tibetan market, the face of the idol is again painted to highlight the aesthetic of the face. The process of gold painting was undertaken by the women of the house, on third floor at Prabin Ji’s workshop in a small dedicated space. The process starts with the application of the 105

13.74-Mercury and Gold sheet.

13.75-Craftsman heating the mixture applied area of the metal with hand held torch.

primer on the surface and is left of drying for a day.

The paints are traditionally made at home and for the purpose they were using cold gold (liquid) commercially sourced and a mixture of flaxseed and water as binder.

Equal quantity of flaxseed and water is boiled together till a thick consistency of that of a gum is achieved, the mixture is then kept aside for cooling. Once the flaxseeds settles at the bottom the remaining gum from the top is poured out in a different container. This mixture becomes the medium for cold gold which is applied on top the primer with a brush. Traditionally Nepali craftsmen were using mineral colours, a fine powder of a special white stone from Himalayas were used which produces three colours yellow, green and blue. This powder is mixed with water to obtain the desired colour which further depends on the ratio of water to the powder. However at the workshop Craftsman was using poster colors for highlighting the details of the face, due to the cost and rareness of the mineral colours craftsman have resort to using poster colours.

13.77-Cleaning the surface with cotton.

13.78-Tool : Lohsa

13.76-Cooling the surface with water.

13.79Tool : Brush with metallic hair

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13.80-Shikakai fruit (Acacia concinna).

13.83-Using Lohsa to get final finish on the surface.

13.81-Craftsman brushes the Shikakai fruit to create fizz.

13.84-Finished gold platted surface.

13.82-Craftsman brushes the metalic platted surface with shikakai fizz.

13.85-Binder in bowl and flaxseed.

13.86-Gold which used to paint the face of Buddha.

13.88-Craftsman painting the face of the idol.

13.87-Acrylic paint.

13.89-Final Painted face of Buddha.

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Market for the Sculptures

14.1-A shop in Lalitpur market selling various kind of metal goods.

The handicraft market for these statues is greatly dependent on the demand from monasteries. Demand of these sculpture are largely from Tibetan and European monasteries. Where the international market share of this demand is 25 percent from European and 75 percent from Tibetan markets. The size of these sculpture vary from as huge as 30 feet to as small as 12 feet depending on the need of the customers and thus the market price offered for these idols differ with size and material being used. The price of these idol also 109

vary depending on the skills of the craftsman involved, kind of finishes and level of intricacy. Also the kind of statue manufactured, cost price of custom made statues are more than that which is mass produced.

From market inquiry we learned that the sale price of a 4 feet custom made brass idol is 29,00,000 which was meant for sale in Sikkim. As per the information provided by Prabin Ji his profit share from the sale of these idol vary from 30 to 40 percent. At the heart of Lalitpur lies the brass sculpture market where shops for these idols stood on both the side of the street with various different finishes and size. Walking down on the streets we were baffled by the intricacies and beauty of these idols standing behind these glass windows. Statues of different kinds and dazzling finishes left us stumped.

At lot of places the face of these idols were covered with a cloth attached with some superstitious belief imbibed in religion, also to protect the gold painted face from any kind of scratch and exposure to sun before it reaches to its final destination.

The sculptrist are producing idols of not only Buddha but that of all the god and goddesses of Buddhist cult and Hindu which they are largely selling to different parts of the world. Every time a new monastery is established at any part of the world, Nepal sells these statues to them and this foreign inflow constitute the major part of its economy.

14.2-Sculptures loaded in a mini truck for the transfer.

despite being a low GDP country the happiness index of Nepal is high.

From the economist point of view the country’s major revenue now largely depends on the spread of Buddhism in the world, thus a product or a form which is a manifestation of practice makes the economy generative with the increase in demand of the sculptures along with the evolution of a religion, again whose evolution depends on lot of stimulating factors namely the belief system and customary practices of the current generation. Where largely modernism have directed the system towards atheist practices thus the demand for these idols in future poses threats and thus the handicraft of Nepal upon which the whole economy is dependent requires attention. However 110

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Insights and Perspectives Due to her late start in the process of deliberate developmental transformations, Nepal faces deep complex problems in each aspect of her development effort. In this mountain-cleft and jungle-barred country, whose natural cleavages are only marginally qualified by man-made transport and communications network, the barriers to an effective mobilization drive are indeed formidable. However the parallel school of thought would appreciate such barrier as advantage which prevent material invasion reaching and destroying the well preserved culture of human value system and beliefs.

From the craft point of view the aspiration of the younger generation is greatly influenced by the exposure to the technology and development of the neighboring countries, thus the pedagogy of modernism poses considerable threat to the development of the traditional technology of this country which once was celebrated through all the walks of life. However from our conversation with Tejesh ji we came to know about his efforts in exploring the some interesting possibilities with the engineering department of the Nepal University, where he was working towards development of water turbines through metal cast which as of now they are importing from India. Thus one can assume that efforts are being made towards utilizing the untapped potential of the craft.

they live. The number of people who are now mobile and more of a nature than the regional, tribal, religious or ethnic identification are increasing. Influence of Indian, European, Korean and South Asian culture can be evidently seen on the streets of Kathmandu however the major part of rural Nepal is still untouched by the invasion of foreign culture. The practices of these communities were more liberated as that of India, where we witnessed to a greater extend equal participation of women in all the walks of life.

Economically speaking Nepal has committed an error common to most developing countries by following the development models of the west, originating from a view of economics which saw this science as ‘ neutral between ends’ as coined by British economist Lionel Robbins. This prime emphasis on growth regardless of distributive justice had lead to situation full of imbalance. Disproportionately large part of the total investment in the last two decades has gone to Kathmandu and its surrounding areas and to a lesser extend to the eastern Tarai. This has gone so far that the gulf between Kathmandu valley and the subsistence economies of the hill areas of Nepal is growing similar to the gulf between the developed countries and the underdeveloped. The most primary prerequisite for the emergence of a truly independent intellectual class is, not just the growth of cities with universities, colleges, libraries, journals, theatre, cinemas, radio, etc. But also a sufficient degree of economic independence.

Yet, if there is much ground for despair, there is also sound basis of hope. If Nepal’s problems are infinite complex, they are also, in comparison with those of India and China, of a small enough size to encourage aspirations to overcome them. If her capital resources are few, her manpower and natural resources, such as hydro potential, are plentiful, though so far hardly taped. The great majority of people are subsistence level farmers living in the rural setting. They have evolved different ecological adaptation according to the altitude, climate, and topography of the area in which 112

Contact Details: Tejesh Man Shakya (Sculptor/Visual Artist) www.myartspace.com/tejesh Email- sculpt.tejesh@gmail.com Mobile- +977 981-3659353

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Image of our team with the owner of the factory.

From left to right: Gautam Kumar, Priya Yadav, Prabin Shakya, Nabin R. Shakya, Shweta Yadav.

Contact Details: Dhanraj Handicrafts Factory,Lalitpur,Prayag Pokhari-6,Nepal.

Nabin R. Shakya (Mobile: +977 9851044629) Prabin R. Shakya (Mobile: +977 9851053756)

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References

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https://www.lotussculpture.com/bronze_sculpture_ bronze_casting.html

https://www.welcomenepal.com/

https://cantorfoundation.org/resources/the-lost-waxcasting-process/

http://cbs.gov.np/catalog/atlas/general.html?page=geography_of_nepal http://dataforall.org/dashboard/nepalcensus/ https://moe.gov.np/article/188/report-of-the-nepal-national-education-planning-commission-2011-bs-1.html https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/neps/hd_neps. htm ) Sanford, M.T.; Dietz, A. (1976). “The fine structure of the wax gland of the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.)”.

Apidologie. 7: 197–207. doi:10.1051/apido:19760301 “LIPID MAPS Databases : LIPID MAPS Lipidomics Gateway”. Lipidmaps.org. Archived from the original on 2014-06-05. Retrieved 2013-07-05.

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Rishikesh Shah, Ancient and Medieval Nepal, ISBN 8173044023,9788173044021 Rishikesh Shah, Introduction to Nepal, ISBN : 999993301697 D.R. Regmi, Ancient Nepal, ISBN : 954.96/R337A Deepak Shumkhada, Nepal Nostalgia and Modernity ISBN : 93-808581-08-4 Eva Rudy Jansen, The Book of Buddhas Ritutals Symbolism Used on Buddist Statuary and Ritual Objects, ISBN : 81-7811-055-5 C.L. Gajurel, K.K. Vaidya, Traditional Arts and Crafts of Nepal, ISBN:0895636344 9780895636348 Coggshall and Morse, Beeswax Production, Harvesting, Processing and Products, Wicwas Press 1984-06-01, ISBN 1878075063.

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