Reclaiming Mumbai’s Wastelands: Using remedial measures to restore the dumping grounds of the city

Reclaiming Mumbai’s Wastelands: Using remedial measures to restore the dumping grounds of the city

Priyanka Menon Guided by Ar. Akshay Bhargava

Masters of Landscape Architecture Faculty of Architecture

April, 2019

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This thesis is dedicated to: My parents, Ramesh and Sangita Menon who have been my emotional, spiritual, and financial support system. Their love and encouragement has helped me always do my best.

My grandparents, Anil and Vasundhara Mehta whose blessings and prayers will always look after me.

And Sumedh Lalge, who believes in me even when I don’t believe in myself.

Love you all

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UNDERTAKING I, Priyanka Menon, the author of the thesis titled Reclaiming Mumbai’s Wastelands: Using remedial measures to restore the dumping grounds of the city, hereby declare that this is an independent work of mine, carried out towards partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Masters of Landscape Architecture degree at the Faculty of Architecture, CEPT University, Ahmedabad.

This work has not been

submitted to any other institution for the award of any degree/diploma.

Priyanka Menon PA201117 Date: 30th April 2019 Place: Mumbai

Disclaimer This document describes work undertaken as part of the MLA degree at the Faculty of Architecture, CEPT University. All views and opinions expressed therein remain the sole responsibility of the author, and do not necessarily represent those of CEPT University, the Thesis Guide(s), or the Thesis Committee.

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis titled Reclaiming Mumbai’s Wastelands: Using remedial measures to restore the dumping grounds of the city has been submitted

by Priyanka Menon towards partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Masters of Landscape Architecture degree, in accordance with the undertaking signed by the student on the previous page.

Akshay Bhargava Guide: Date:

Prof. Rajiv Kadam Thesis Chair, 2019 Date:

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Abstract The city of Mumbai has a sprawling coastline famous for the historical architecture merging with the majestic colonial architecture with the vibrant art deco buildings.

The coastline is abuzz with recreational, residential, commercial and industrial spaces. Several future plans of expanding the city’s transport corridors have been put in place as the city bursts with people. However, A forgotten yet a strong member of the city’s coastal systems are the large stretch of mangroves that comprise of nearly 36% of the city's edge. These natural systems act as buffers from tidal waves, storms and cyclones taking up the role of a sponge that seeps in any harm that may befall the city in the form of natural disasters. Yet due to the marshy soils and low-lying characteristics of these edges, the people of Mumbai city consider these stretches to be nothing more than a wasteland to the city's functioning. These sites are viewed as opportunities for land reclamation to increase space in the city.

One of the major land-uses given to these reclaimed lands is waste disposal. Today the city of Mumbai has three major functioning waste disposal sites: two open dumps and one ISWM landfill, And one closed dumping ground (at city level). All these located along the rich coastal forests. These sites take in all the city’s waste The intent of the thesis is to understand these 2 important aspects of the city’s metabolism that overlap each other. It will focus on finding solutions that would remediate the MSW sites and resolve the damage done by them to the city’s natural systems through a design demonstration It will also find new ways to look at SWM for the city’s future through various lenses so that waste disposal may be followed in a systematic, sensitive and inclusive manner.

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Acknowledgements At first, I would like to thank CEPT University for the opportunity to pursue my Master’s degree in Lanndscape Architecture and be guided by such wonderful professors who excel so well in their fields. With the course subjects and the wide variety of electives that CEPT University provides, I was given a chance to learn subjects that directly impact my learnings as a future Landscape architect as well as subjects that made me think about the world at large, it’s people and it’s functioning’s.

I am grateful to the Landscape programme Head of Department Dr. Deepa Maheshwari, whose insights and knowledge in the field has helped me understand and appreciate the importance and value of my career choice.

My sincerest gratitude to my thesis guide, Ar. Akshay Bhargaava whose worldly knowledge, positive approach and unparalleled encouragement has not only helped me do the best work I can, but has also made me a more aware and sensitive professional in my field.

A very special thank you to Ar. Heena Gajjar whose guidance and conviction to perfect every aspect of my work , from its quality to my knowledge on the subject and my presentation has inspired me and given me new life skills.

I would like to thank my family and friends who have stood by me and given me the confidence and strength to achieve more in life.

My colleagues for helping me view the world through their various perspectives for the field of design, landscape and architecture.

Thank you all!! I am forever grateful.

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Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. iii Contents ................................................................................................................ v List of tables ........................................................................................................ ix List of figures ....................................................................................................... xi List of abbreviations............................................................................................xv 1

Introduction................................................................................................... 1 1.1

2

Background and Premise ........................................................................ 1

1.1.1

The City’s Wasteland .......................................................................... 1

1.1.2

Importance of the Mangroves .............................................................. 2

1.1.3

Today’s Scenario ................................................................................ 3

1.2

Hypothesis .............................................................................................. 5

1.3

Aims and Objectives ............................................................................... 5

1.4

Methodology .......................................................................................... 6

1.5

Scope and Limitation .............................................................................. 6

1.6

Expected Outcome .................................................................................. 7

Larger System ............................................................................................... 9 2.1

Overview ................................................................................................ 9

2.2

Site Selection for Waste Disposal ........................................................... 9

2.2.1

Low Lying Areas of the City ............................................................... 9

2.2.2

Impact on the Mangroves ...................................................................10

2.2.3

Land Reclamation ..............................................................................11

2.3

Waste Disposal Network ........................................................................12

2.3.1

Sources of Waste ...............................................................................12

2.3.2

Transport System ...............................................................................13

2.3.3

Transfer Station .................................................................................13

2.3.4

Waste Processing Systems .................................................................13

2.3.5

Waste Disposal Sites ..........................................................................14

2.3.6

Market ...............................................................................................14

2.3.7

Bhangaar System ...............................................................................15

2.3.8

Rag Pickers ........................................................................................15

2.3.9

Scrap Dealers .....................................................................................15

2.3.10 2.4

Wholesale Market ..........................................................................16

Closing a dumpinng ground ...................................................................17

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2.4.1

Landfill Gas Collection ...................................................................... 18

2.4.2

Leachate Collection ........................................................................... 18

2.4.3

Outcome of existing systems of waste disposal .................................. 20

Case Studies ................................................................................................. 21 3.1

Selection of Case Studies ...................................................................... 21

3.2

Gorai Dumping Ground ......................................................................... 22

3.2.2

Leachate Collection ........................................................................... 23

3.2.3

Impact ............................................................................................... 23

3.2.4

Site Evaluation .................................................................................. 25

3.3 3.3.1

Programme ........................................................................................ 26

3.3.2

Phase Plan ......................................................................................... 27

3.3.3

Site Evaluation .................................................................................. 29

3.4 3.4.1 3.5 4

Site Evaluation .................................................................................. 30 Learnings from case studies ................................................................... 32 City Level Guideline ............................................................................. 33

4.1.1

Ecological Guidelines ........................................................................ 33

4.1.2

Management Guidelines .................................................................... 34

4.1.3

Social Guidelines ............................................................................... 34

4.2

Community Level Guideline................................................................. 35

4.2.1

Ecological Guidelines ........................................................................ 35

4.2.2

Management Guidelines .................................................................... 36

4.2.3

Social Guidelines ............................................................................... 36

4.3

Site Level Guidelines............................................................................. 37

4.3.1

Immediate Surroundings .................................................................... 37

4.3.2

Site Buffer ......................................................................................... 38

4.3.3

Bio-reactor Cells ................................................................................ 39

4.3.4

Water Systems ................................................................................... 40

4.3.5

Liner System ..................................................................................... 41

Site Analysis ................................................................................................. 43 5.1

Overview ............................................................................................... 43

5.2

Site Usage ............................................................................................. 44

5.3

Evolution of Site.................................................................................... 45

5.4

Climate .................................................................................................. 45

5.4.1

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Skymound ............................................................................................. 29

Guidelines..................................................................................................... 33 4.1

5

Freshkills Park....................................................................................... 26

Precipitation and Cloud Cover ........................................................... 45

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Temperature and Wind.......................................................................46

5.5

Infrastructure .........................................................................................48

5.6

Regulatory Lines....................................................................................49

5.7

Site Drainage .........................................................................................50

5.8

Flooding ................................................................................................51

5.9

Land-use ................................................................................................52

5.10

Vegetation .............................................................................................53

5.11

Fauna .....................................................................................................55

5.12

Air and Water Quality Index .................................................................56

5.13

Site specific systems .............................................................................58

5.14

Contaminants .........................................................................................60

5.15

Site Images ............................................................................................61

5.16

Rapid Risk assessment of site ................................................................63

5.17

Inferences ..............................................................................................64

Design ...........................................................................................................65 6.1

Design Philosophy .................................................................................65

6.2

Design Programme ................................................................................66

6.3

Process ..................................................................................................67

6.3.1

Engineering........................................................................................67

6.3.2

Ecology .............................................................................................76

6.3.3

Social .................................................................................................88

Conclusion ....................................................................................................95

Reference .............................................................................................................97 Appendix..............................................................................................................99 A1.

Plant list.................................................................................................99 .

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List of tables Table 1 Methodology ............................................................................................. 6 Table 2 Output and Outcome.................................................................................. 7 Table 3 Categorisation of Waste ............................................................................12 Table 4 Site Selection............................................................................................21 Table 5 Site Evaluation of Gorai ...........................................................................25 Table 6 Site Evaluation of Freshkills .....................................................................29 Table 7 The amount of waste that is disposed off at ...............................................44 Table 8 Rapid Risk assessment calculation ............................................................63 Table 9 Criteria for Rapid Risk Assessment ..........................................................63 Table 10 Inferences and Suggestions .....................................................................64 Table 11Plant list ................................................................................................ 100

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List of figures Figure 1: General Land-use map od Mumbai-1996 ................................................. 2 Figure 2 Importance of Mumbai’s Mangrove Forest ............................................... 3 Figure 3 Mumbai’s Dumping Grounds (1) Deonar Dumping Grounnd, (2) Kanjurmargh Landfill, (3)Mulund Dumping Ground, (4) Malad Dumping Ground [Closed], (5) Gorai Dumping Ground [Closed] ....................................................... 4 Figure 4 Larger System of Waste Disposal ............................................................. 8 Figure 5 Creeks of Mumbai ...................................................................................10 Figure 6 [Above] Schematic section through Mangroves; [Below]Schematic Section of Landfill .............................................................................................................11 Figure 7 Waste transport vehicles and support .......................................................13 Figure 8 Mumbai Waste Network..........................................................................16 Figure 9 Capping a dumping Ground.....................................................................18 Figure 10 Closing process .....................................................................................18 Figure 11 Landfill gas and Leachate collection System .........................................19 Figure 12 Steps taken to render the site harmless ...................................................23 Figure 13 Gorai Dumping Ground post closure .....................................................24 Figure 14 Site drainage systems ............................................................................24 Figure 15 Conceptual view of Freshkills ...............................................................27 Figure 16 Phase Plan .............................................................................................28 Figure 17 Ecological restoration of the estuaries....................................................28 Figure 18 Different park zone[Left]; Layers needed for rehabilitation [Right] .......28 Figure 19 Site Evaluation of Skymound ................................................................30 Figure 20 Skymound Land art created in the 80.....................................................31 Figure 21 Skymound today....................................................................................31 Figure 22 City level guidelines ..............................................................................33 Figure 23 Community Level Guidelines ................................................................35 Figure 24 Requirements for site immidiate surrondings .........................................37 Figure 25 Requirements for Site Buffers ...............................................................38 Figure 26 Bio-reactor cells ....................................................................................39 Figure 27 Water systems .......................................................................................40 Figure 28 Liner layers ...........................................................................................41 Figure 29 Capping layers.......................................................................................41 Figure 30 LFG and Leachate collection .................................................................42 Figure 31 Portion of Mumbai city that uses Mulund Dump....................................44 Figure 32 Evolution Year 2000[Left],Year 2009[Middle}, Year2019[Right] .........45 Figure 33 Precipitation of Mumbai ........................................................................46 Figure 34 Mumbai's Cloud cover...........................................................................46 Figure 35 Mumbai's Temperature ..........................................................................47 Figure 36 Mumbai's wind speed ............................................................................47 Figure 37Map: Site Infrastructure .........................................................................48 Figure 38 Map: Regulatory lines passing through the site ......................................49 Figure 39 Map: Site Drainage................................................................................50 Figure 40 Map: Site Floods ...................................................................................51 Figure 41Map: Landuse.........................................................................................52 Figure 42 Map:Vegetation .....................................................................................53

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Figure 43: Sonneratia apetala [top left],Avicennia marina [top right];Open scrub[middle left];Holoptelia integrifolia[middle right];Azadira indica[bottom left]; Cassia Siamea[bottom right] ................................................................................. 54 Figure 44 Site Fauna ............................................................................................. 55 Figure 45 Air Quality Index of Mumbai ................................................................ 56 Figure 46:Water Quality Index- Thane creek at source[Above] and Thane creek after the dumping grounds stretch[Below] ............................................................. 57 Figure 47: Detailed plan showing all the textures on site ....................................... 58 Figure 48 Site Sections - A-A[Above]; B-B[Below].............................................. 59 Figure 49 Contaminants and disturbances found within the site's natural layers ..... 60 Figure 50 Squatter settlement on the foot of the mound ......................................... 61 Figure 51 View of Mound from Thane side ........................................................... 61 Figure 52 Site Surrounding ................................................................................... 62 Figure 53 Mudflats near mangroves ...................................................................... 62 Figure 54 Detailed Section thought MSW Mound ................................................. 67 Figure 55 Site Contours (existing) ......................................................................... 68 Figure 56 Exissting:Detail plan of mound[Above] Sections through Mound[Below] ............................................................................................................................. 69 Figure 57 Proposed contours ................................................................................. 70 Figure 58 Slope stabilisation of MSW mound ....................................................... 71 Figure 59 Site Drainage ........................................................................................ 72 Figure 60 Wetland treatment system ..................................................................... 73 Figure 61Leachate and LFG treatment .................................................................. 74 Figure 62 Engineering Phase Plan ......................................................................... 75 Figure 63: Masterplan ........................................................................................... 76 Figure 64: Zone 1.................................................................................................. 77 Figure 65 Existing conditions: leachate seepage and toxic gas emissions [left] Slope and capping system prevent seepage into garbage mound [Right]......................... 78 Figure 66 Grass is ploughed back into the soil layer seasonally[Left]; High evapotranspiration rate and dense leaf area index [Right] ...................................... 78 Figure 67 Existing conditions: runoff from the dump spreads over the site and seeps through the earth [left]; Storm water trench to direct the water to treatment pond[right]............................................................................................................ 79 Figure 68 : Additional dry swale alongside trench to allow overflow during heavy rainfall [Left]; Since the swales run through the site they can act as ecological corridors[right]...................................................................................................... 79 Figure 69 Zone 2................................................................................................... 80 Figure 70 Existing conditions: Barren compacted saltpan[left] Permeable structures made of bamboo and leaves [right]........................................................................ 81 Figure 71Mangroves will slowly overtake the area [left]; Slowly the lost habitats will move inwards[right] ....................................................................................... 81 Figure 72 Existing conditions: Open saltpans with high salt levels[left] Transforming the saltpans into a wetland system[right] ......................................... 82 Figure 73 Once the ground and water quality begins to improve, nesting trees can grow in the area[left]; Bringing back the depleting bird and aquatic habitat [right] 82 Figure 74 Zone 3................................................................................................... 83 Figure 75 Contaminated nalah with city’s waste [left]; Physical barrier to collect litter [right] ........................................................................................................... 84 Figure 76 Direct the water towards the edges where it undergoes surface flow filteration[left]; Collected waste can be sent for recycling/ segregation[right]........ 84

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Figure 77 Existing conditions: Surrounding areas used for squatter settlements and waste segregation [left]; Rhizodegradation for breaking down contaminants from the soil[right] ........................................................................................................85 Figure 78 Ground water mitigation trees with deep roots [left] Opening the space for public [right]....................................................................................................85 Figure 79 Runoff from the dump spreads over surrounding area[left]; Physical barrier initial stages [right] ....................................................................................86 Figure 80 Multi-mechanism buffer to reduce spread of contamination [left], Over time the site will not require a boundary wall due to the dense buffer[right] ..........86 Figure 81 Ecological Phase Plan............................................................................87 Figure 82 Giving the spaces an Identity .................................................................88 Figure 83 Zone 1: Trail .........................................................................................89 Figure 84 Zone2: Sanctuary ..................................................................................90 Figure 85 Zone 3: Public Park ...............................................................................91 Figure 86 Social Phase plan...................................................................................93 Figure 87 Future Outcome.....................................................................................95

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List of abbreviations BMC: Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation MCGM- Municipal Corporation of Mumbai ISWM- Integrated Solid Waste Management SWM- Solid Waste Management MSW- Mixed Solid Waste LFG- Land fill gas MOEF- Ministry of Environment and Forestry MPCB- Maharashtra Pollution Control Board STP- Sewage Treatment Plant PPP- Public Private Partnerships CES- Centre for Environmental Studies AIT- Asian Institute of Technology COD- Chemical Oxygen Demand BOD- Biochemical Oxygen Demand

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1 Introduction 1.1 1.1.1

Background and Premise The City’s Wasteland

Before the year 2001, the land-use maps labelled the dense marshlands along the coastal creeks of Mumbai as ‘wastelands’ due to its inadequacy in providing land for human uses such as infrastructure, real estate, farming or any other commercial activity. For decades, the city has adopted these wastelands as an excess space that can be cleared and reclaimed as ‘usable land’ to dispose the city’s waste. It wasn’t until the city of Mumbai suffered from massive floods during the monsoons especially in the central suburban zones that the government realised the value of its natural mangrove buffers that protected the city from the sea level rise in monsoon flooding the city. Over time, surveys were carried out to understand the importance of these ‘wastelands’ where not only does it act as a sponge buffer for the island, but it is also an ecologically rich forest for a variety of animals, birds, crustaceans, fish and many more species. The mangroves hold more ecosystems of native and migratory species than the rest of the city. The dumping grounds that have thrived for decades within these mangroves growing into monstrous hillocks with time have caused excessive damage to the natural systems around it. They have become a nuisance to the city’s functioning becoming breeding grounds for diseases, spreading foul odour, destroying the air, soil and water quality, and ruining the aesthetics of the place. However, it is undeniable that waste is a constant. From the first day of our existence, we generate waste through the processes of living, eating, consuming and even dying.

We may not intend to do so, but our complex and fast-paced lifestyles have made it inevitable. Almost every product we buy comes with a bag, box or other kinds of cover that ends up in the trash. Most things we own and use eventually become waste. Therefore, in the past 4 years, Mumbai has adopted the method of systematic landfills over the haphazard dumping it has followed in the past. The newer system carefully compacts the waste daily followed by covering it with soil allowing it to go through aerobic degradation initially followed by anaerobic

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degradation, and they extract all toxic gases and leachate through a pipe system which is then used for producing electricity and compost respectively. As the city is directing towards using this new, less destructive and more sustainable method of degrading waste, the old dumping mounds which have surpassed their capacity of holding waste several years ago are due for closure

Figure 1: General Land-use map od Mumbai-1996

(Government of India, Department of Science and Technology, 1996)

1.1.2

Importance of the Mangroves

For centuries, the city of Mumbai has been reclaiming land from the low-lying creeks and coastal areas to dispose of the waste. However, the coast of Mumbai city has a massive protective belt of mangrove forests that grow along the coast and creeks of the city. These mangroves act as a defensive buffer from natural disasters such as flooding, storms or cyclones. Mangrove species by nature are designed to thrive in coastal edges with their buttress-like prop knee roots with pneumatophores, sclerophyllous leaves, viviparous reproduction, and high salt tolerance. These systems also carry out the process of rhizofiltration, protecting the aquatic ecosystems from the toxins disposed off from the shore. The mangrove provides breeding spaces and food for several species of fish, prawns, crabs and insects which then add on to the food chain with predatory species birds, amphibians and reptiles. Currently, with the reclamation of mangrove forests for the purpose of haphazard waste disposal has resulted in the depletion and

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contamination of soil, water and air quality leading to slow deterioration in the mangrove ecosystems. If the trend of selecting waste disposal sites along these eco-rich belts continue, it will lead to a mass extinction of several coastal habitats.

Figure 2 Importance of Mumbai’s Mangrove Forest

1.1.3

Today’s Scenario

Today Even with the awareness about the importance of the Mangrove belts of the city, the MCGM is not taking measures to make sure that these dumping grounds are restored to their natural order. In contrary, they are making requests to increase the size of the Kanjurmargh landfill. Also, the fact that the new methods of shutting down the Gorai dumping grounds have scored the city Energy credits, Converting these landfills into biogas plants is the ultimate goal for the city’s dumping grounds.

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Figure 3 Mumbai’s Dumping Grounds (1) Deonar Dumping Grounnd, (2) Kanjurmargh Landfill, (3)Mulund Dumping Ground, (4) Malad Dumping Ground [Closed], (5) Gorai Dumping Ground [Closed]

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1.2

Hypothesis

No matter how much we take from nature, it finds a way back over time.

However it’s our responsibility as the sole cause of its depletion, to help nature reclaim what once belonged to it.

1.3

Aims and Objectives

Creating a zero waste society today would be an ideal scenario however, with the society we live in this idea may not be implemented citywide for the next few decades. So as we continue living the life we do, garbage disposal is a requirement. But to dispose garbage off, even systematically engineered landfills made today such as the Kanjurmarg ISWM Unit invades low-lying areas of cities with marshlands and mangroves with a rich biota, and after capping, these sites do not contribute to the surroundings like they once used to: They do not hold the ecological value that it once held in the past, Even if it can give back to the community after a few years of rest, it can be used as a public open space such a lawn or a park which in a city like Mumbai is appreciated due to lack of space but is that really enough? The thesis will aim at creating a closed loop programme for garbage disposal sites for the city of Mumbai from the perspective of the surrounding landscape, habitat and communities. Demonstrating the results on one dumping ground yard within the city and create a complete phase plan for it along with a design proposal for each stage. The programme will involve 2 major aspects: 1. Ecological restoration of the dumping ground back into its old character reclaiming the lost habitats that once thrived in this space. And finding ways to protect and maintain it as an ecologically sensitive zone.

2. Educating the community making them aware of the importance of restoring these spaces as well as finding ways to get them more involved in the process so that they realise it’s their responsibility too as residents of the city.

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1.4

Methodology

Detailed

Requirement Method study of city’s dumping Reports, Research papers, maps, site

grounds and landfills: day to day visits, Interviews, observations of the functioning,

garbage

composition, surrounding landscapes as well as

precautionary methods, overview of people’s responses to the dumping surrounding areas

grounds

Methods our city has adopted to close Site visit to closed dumping ground the dumping grounds as well as sites, reports, articles and research landfills:

Remedial

layers, papers. Observation of the surrounding

precautionary measures, timelines

flora and faunas relation to the closed sites as well as people’s awareness of the site.

Methods adopted in other cities and Case Studies countries for closing and managing waste disposal sites Norms/Regulations set by the MCGM, Gazetteers, Government Reports and SWMA and MOEF for waste disposal Inquiries sites Site specific research

Reports, Research papers, maps, site visits, Interviews, observations

Table 1 Methodology

1.5

Scope and Limitation

The thesis will focus on the functioning and systems of the garbage disposing site and not the waste management systems of the city.

The impact of the garbage disposal sites on the health and lifestyle of the surrounding areas as well as the impact on the natural habitat of the city will be considered. However the open dumps have a huge economic impact on a large chain of illegal activities that are carried out on the site, closing the dumps will shut down this business- the impact on these illegal businesses will not be taken in account.

The detailed engineering of the leachate and gas collection systems will not be detailed out. However an overall executable systems plan will be laid out.

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1.6

Expected Outcome

Output Phases with Guidelines

Outcome Faster method of closing down the sites as the remedial measures will have started while the site is in use.

Giving the site a chance to restore its ecological value to the maximum.

Awareness for the city: Understanding the waste system- where does the waste go? How is it treated? How can the citizens contribute to reduce the impact of waste on the city? Make them understand the value of a Zero waste society.

Design

Ecological restoration to the Mulund site A better open space for surrounding communities.

Spreading awareness

Table 2 Output and Outcome

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Figure 4 Larger System of Waste Disposal

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2 Larger System 2.1

Overview

At present Mumbai is standing at a pivot where it comes to its waste disposal systems. The city is trying to evolve from its age-old and linear disposal methods into a sustainable and circular disposal system. Where the old dumping grounds are currently still being utilised, however, newer Integrated waste disposal landfills are being constructed to replace these unsanitary dumps. The city is pushing towards a segregation at source method however it is at its budding stage and hasn’t been adopted by all the wards in the city. The garbage disposal network is vast and intertwined (Fig.4) with the public and private sector involved in all the processes of disposal and recycling. Even the older methods of closing dumpsites where a simple capping of the dump was adopted, has been changed and evolved into a more sensitive and planned closing strategy converting the open dump into a sustainable landfill.

2.2

Site Selection for Waste Disposal

2.2.1

Low Lying Areas of the City

Utilising the low-lying areas of cities for waste disposal was a common practice carried out in the past as it was easy to bring that area up to the level of the surrounding area and cap it with soil. This method was adopted in Mumbai in the mid 1800s when the city began to grow and only burning non-biodegradable waste was not feasible anymore. The British government began to adopt their own methods of dumping waste in low lying areas in India. The only low lying and unused areas of the city was the marshlands and mangroves. Mumbai continued to follow these methods of waste disposal through time. Even today the new integrated landfill system at Kanjur is located at these low lying areas. The MCGM justifies using these stretches as they have already been taken up as saltpans which they are replacing with a dumping site. However it is ignored that the saltpans if left as they are, over a period of 10 years or more the mangroves will take over the site, however if converted into a large dumping ground, these areas will be left permanently cut off from the forest.

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2.2.2

Impact on the Mangroves

The Mumbai Creeks are prime locations for the Marshland bed comprising of dense mangrove forests. Before the 7 islands were one city, the mangroves would cover almost 75% of the coast of the city. Today the mangroves are even less than 50% of the coast. These mangroves comprise of 54-75 species of mangroves.

These forests protect the internal lands from excessive flooding making them a crucial part of the city’s system. The city of Mumbai has 4 major creeks: Vasai Creek, Gorai Creek, Malad Creek and Thane Creek which comprise of these mangrove forests.

Apart from the encroachment of human activity in these mangrove belts, another major issue faced by these mangroves is the pollutants and contaminants from these waste disposal sites leach into their habitat poisoning the ground water and soil. This doesn’t just impact the vegetative cover, but a plethora of faunal habitat that is dependent on this system for survival.

Vasai Creek

Gorai Creek Malad Creek

Thane Creek

Figure 5 Creeks of Mumbai

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2.2.3

Land Reclamation

The method adopted by the city to use these stretches is called land reclamation where acres of marshlands are cleared and excavated. After which a stone retaining wall is built along the periphery of the site. This wall is made from boulders and rocks. After which heaps of sand is filled into the land and compacted. Apart from dumping grounds, these stretches have also reclaimed for residential, commercial and industrial purposes.

Figure 6 [Above] Schematic section through Mangroves; [Below]Schematic Section of Landfill

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2.3

Waste Disposal Network

2.3.1

Sources of Waste Categories

Domestic Waste

Source • • • • • • • •

Institutional Waste

• • • • • • • •

Categories

Source

Kitchen waste House cleaning Old papers Packing Bottles Crockery Furnishing material Lawn trimming

Commercial • Waste •

•

Departmental Stores Grocery stores Offices Markets Business parks/premises (paper, packing material, spoiled/discarded goods, organic, inorganic, chemically reactive hazardous waste)

Schools Colleges Hospitals Hotels Restaurants Community Halls Religious Place Open Grounds

Street sweeping

• • • •

Pedestrian littering Stray animal waste Tree leaves Drain Cleaning

• • •

Industrial/ Trade Waste

Manufacturing and material processing

Construction Debris/Construction Sites rejects such as brickbats, stones, wooden logs

Biomedical waste

Human and Hazardous Animal waste: waste tissues, organs, body parts, carcasses, blood/fluids etc.

Lab wastes: syringes, scalpels, blades, glass tubes

• • •

Radioactive wastes eg. Batteries Flammable eg. cleaning equipment Poisonous wastes eg. pesticides

Table 3 Categorisation of Waste

(Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai, 2005)

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2.3.2

Transport System

The MCGM has provided the city with 983 Municipal and Private vehicles for collection of waste making 1396 number of trips each day. This Comprises of Compactors both big and small,, Dumper places, Large Tippers, stationary compactors.

The city carries out garbage disposal in 2 shifts- Morning from 6am-2pm and from 2pm-10pm. Where garbage is transported to the dumping grounds.

For street sweeps and community areas, the city is also provided with 6000 wheeled bins, 20,000 pole mounted bins and a staff of more than 35000 employees comprising of sweepers, motor loaders, drivers, supervisors and administration.

(Solid Waste Management Project MCGM Innitiative, n.d.)

Figure 7 Waste transport vehicles and support

2.3.3

Transfer Station

Since large vehicles are not suitable for waste collection within the city, waste has to be transferred from smaller collection vehicles to bulk transport vehicles to be taken to the disposal site. The city has 2 major transfer stations one at Mahalakshmi for all the waste from South Mumbai and one at Kurla for the waste from Greater Mumbai. where the smaller waste collection vehicles collect and transfer the waste to larger compactors and tippers which are then taken to the dumping ground. Several Rag pickers also come to collect items that can be sold from the waste at these transfer stations 2.3.4

Waste Processing Systems

The dumping grounds of the city have areas specially kept for waste segregation areas on the site for the recyclable waste to be removed and sold and the organic waste to be dumped, However with the quantity of waste that the dumping grounds receive it is close to impossible to segregate it all every day. There are several privately owned segregation units which the government pays to segregate

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the waste especially when closing down a site. The Kanjur landfill system has a highly functional segregation system which is presently being used to segregate the newly generated waste in the city. However on functional dumping sites almost all the waste is just directly dumped onto the site as it is.

2.3.5

Waste Disposal Sites

Today the city has 1 functional landfill system at Kanjur, 2 closing dumping grounds at Mulund and Deonar and 1 dumping ground that has been closed and has been converted into a sustainable landfill at Gorai. At present the MCGM is working on expanding the Kanjur Integrated landfill so that it may be used to dispose the waste of the entire city. However that would mean that it eats further into the sea which goes against the state’s environmental laws and Coastal Regulations. Therefore till

then, the waste is being dumped at Deonar and

Mulund as well.

Dumping grounds: The waste is taken up the ‘hill’ along a road called the Kachra Road, the trucks empty their dump on the hills and Large JCBs are used to compact the waste and place them so as to not hinder the roads.

Integrated Landfill: 2 methods of waste disposal are being followed here, one is the bio-reactor cell method, where mixed waste is compacted into cells covered daily with soil and is systematically placed on the site. Once the height of the all the cells reach 35m, the site is capped and the trapped gasses are used for electricity whereas the leachate is sent for treatment before disposing it or some of it is used to circulate through the site to increase the speed of decomposition. Over time, these cells will be useful as compost. The second method adopted is the windrow system where the waste is segregated and the wet waste is filled in cells for converting to compost. All the compost formed on site will be sold for making fertilizers.

2.3.6

Market

The waste market is on a rise globally. Recycling or extracting from waste products has become a large industry today closing the loop of the linear disposal systems that dominated in the past. In Mumbai the waste industry is divided into the formal sector and informal sector. From the Transfer points and segregation points, most of the recyclable waste such as paper, plastic, glass, metals are

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separated and sold to companies that deal with these materials. Whereas from the closed dumping sites such as Gorai, the compost collected is being sold to Rashtriya Chemicals (R. A. Rajeev, Municipal Commissioner of MCGM, 2009) 2.3.7

Bhangaar System

The Bhangaar Wala or scrap collectors are people who go from door to door collecting old waste papers (especially newspapers and magazines), plastic, electronic items and in return they pay you based on the waste collected. The Bhangaar Wala sell these items to scrap dealers or recycling factories after that.

There is also the Bhaandi walis who collect old clothes from door to door and in return sell utensils. Bhaandi walis do not sell it to scrap dealers but they sort out the clothes into types of wear and sell it in a large secondhand market.

Chor Bazaar is one of Mumbai’s largest secondhand market where a variety of old goods such as old electronics, vintage commodities, furniture pieces, toys and much more. This is a large flea market of sorts. Many a time, stolen goods are found here as well which gives it the name.

2.3.8

Rag Pickers

Rag pickers collect recyclable waste from the garbage, it is not sold to them, they rummage through garbage at source or at the transfer points and even at the dumping grounds. Thousands of ragpickers live in slums abutting the site, making their living from picking through the rubbish for recyclables including steel and plastic, which they sell for small sums of money. The conditions of the rag picking community comprising of more than 300,000 people half of which are children, is abysmal. Many of these rag pickers get involved in illegal activities instigated by the garbage mafia for a little extra money.

(Baruah, 2009) 2.3.9

Scrap Dealers

Scrap dealers are the middle men who collect waste from the Recycling units, Rag pickers, Bhangar walas and Sell them to specialised wholesalers of different types of waste. Today scrap dealers also have online websites where people can directly go and sell their old commodities to them online.

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2.3.10

Wholesale Market

These Markets specialise in one commodity each, either paper or plastic or metal etc. These markets stand at a global level importing waste from other countries as well to sell for a price. Many of the waste trading activities are done by bending the law which attempts to restrain the amount of e-waste seeping into our country.

Figure 8 Mumbai Waste Network

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2.4

Closing a dumpinng ground

Initially the method adopted to shut down a dumping ground was to transport the top layers of waste to another dumping site, followed by evening out the mound and covering it with soil. This method was carried out on an old dumping ground in Malad in 2002 where after capping was converted into an IT park. This method of capping without taking precautionary measures is harmful as the lower layers of garbage are still decomposing giving out various toxic gasses. Also in a city like Mumbai, which receives heavy rainfall in the monsoon season, water percolating through an untreated dump mixes with the waste creating a harmful liquid called leachate which gets into the underground aquifers and mixing into the earth and water systems in surrounding areas. The Malad IT park faced a large amount of electrical problems, employee health issues etc. due to the decomposing waste below. Therefore in 2009 when

the Gorai dumping site

reached its full capacity, the BMC deducted a well-engineered way of closing the site that would prevent any harm to nearby areas and the creek nearby. The site slope was reformed, a leachate and gas collection system was put in place, impenetrable sheets covered the site to prevent percolation (special care taken on the creek side), a layer of soil capping the sheet and lastly a storm water drainage system was laid out to prevent the runoff from entering nearby residential spaces or the creek adjoining the ground. This technique adopted covers the site from every side allowing it to heal yet doesn't have any impact on its surrounding natural systems.

The adopted method although a huge leap from the previous techniques followed, does not do much to bring back the original character of the site that it used to be.

It does not bring back the lost habitat in that area losing out on thousands of organisms that maybe a small piece but an important one that links the entire coastal ecosystem together. This leaves large punctures in the city’s depleting natural buffer system and not giving it a chance to be recovered.

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Figure 9 Capping a dumping Ground

Figure 10 Closing process

2.4.1

Landfill Gas Collection

Vertical wells are dug into the mound which allows the LFG at lower levels to rise to the top. The gas is then transferred via a pipe system to a storage tank. This gas undergoes several processes so that methane gas can be collected and used as biogas The remaining gas is then flared. This system is present in Gorai as well as the Kanjur landfill.

2.4.2

Leachate Collection

In the Kanjurmargh landfill, the leachate collection piping system is laid out at the bottom level as every planned Landfill would have. However in the Dumping

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grounds these is no leachate collection systems in place, therefore post closure, leachate pipes are drilled horizontally in the lower parts of the mounds, allowing it to be drained into a piping system or a drain taking it to an STP.

Figure 11 Landfill gas and Leachate collection System

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2.4.3

Outcome of existing systems of waste disposal

The Mumbai waste management system is on the verge of change, however it does have several loose ends whether its the sites selection for disposal or if its the extended procedure to segregate waste. The system needs to be viewed as a whole to strategies any further changes keeping in mind factors such as the environment, ecology and the society. The current system and procedures followed look at expense as a primary factor which eventually ends up taking a toll on the systems such as the procedures of waste disposal maybe cheaper in the beginning to only dump it, however closing such sites lead to large amounts of money being wasted.

The city is attempting at moving towards a more sustainable system as seen in the landfills of Kanjurmarg and the Closure of the Gorai Dump. It has initiated a ban on plastic and has set new rules for waste segregation in the city. These steps have quickened and improved the process of waste disposal in the city. However a programme is needed to bring this divided system into one process to cut off all the loose ends and create a circular system of sustainable procedures at every level of the system.

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3 Case Studies 3.1

Selection of Case Studies Site Study

Gorai Dumping

Selection Criteria •

Rehabilitation

Located in Mumbai hence follows the same protocol and regulations that will be required by Mukund Dumping ground

•

Methods and systems used to clean the site are up to date as it was completed within the last decade

•

Type of waste, area and nature of site is similar to that of Mulund

Freshkills Park

•

Ecological revival of waste disposal site

•

Involving the community in the step by step phase to remediate the park.

•

Integrating a large variety of facilities for the communities around.

•

Understanding the methods used to create a phased out plan for 30 odd years

Skymound

•

Education through design elements

•

Acknowledgement of the history of the site

•

Display of the site in its truest form as a dumping ground going through a healing process

•

Garbage mound becomes a piece of art

Table 4 Site Selection

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3.2

Gorai Dumping Ground

Location: Mumbai, Maharashtra, India Area: 19.6Ha Operational: 1972-2007 Waste collected 2.5 Million tonnes 3.2.1 Steps taken for shutting down •

Relocation of waste to other dumping grounds/landfills and reforming the slope of the landfill to a minimum of 1:3

•

Laying of construction and demolition waste.

•

Laying a liner system : i.

300mm drain layer

ii.

400GSSM geotextile

iii.

1.5m geomembrane

iv.

300mm topsoil

v.

Vegetative cover

•

Installation of Landfill gas recovery systems to extract methane from the soil. The system comprises of a network of pipes and collection wells for gas as well as leachate. The gas is brought to a power plant that generates 2MW of electricity. Unused gas is Flared at 1200°C.

•

Installation of Leachate collection system comprises of collection wells and Collection ducts. The collection ducts are filled with the liquid from perforated pipes located along the site periphery. The leachate collection tank sends the residue to the nearest sewage treatment plant.

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•

Sheet Piling on creek-ward side

•

Storm water drainage channels

•

Construction of bunds, access roads and compound walls

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•

Peripheral and Internal Landscaping

The dumping ground has earned Carbon credits worth Rs.250 million which will be used to finance the next steps of the site as well as other MSW projects.

Figure 12 Steps taken to render the site harmless

3.2.2

Leachate Collection

•

Selling of compost to Nearby Nurseries

•

Waste conversion to electricity

•

Construction debris on site reused for constructing paver blocks

•

Earned carbon credits used for future MSW projects

3.2.3

Impact

•

Reduced disturbance to nearby residences

•

Improved air and soil quality

•

Improve Health of the people in the ward due to reduction of pests, pollution and hazardous gases

•

Increased avian fauna improvement in the quality of the creek water.

(R. A. Rajeev, Municipal Commissioner of MCGM, 2009)

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Figure 13 Gorai Dumping Ground post closure

(Solid Waste Management Project MCGM Innitiative, n.d.)

Figure 14 Site drainage systems

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3.2.4

Site Evaluation Criteria

Programmatic Elements

Successful Elements • • •

Ecological Value

•

•

Identity

•

•

Awareness/Education •

Methane Gas Collection Leachate Collection and treatment Future plans for energy generation through a PPP scheme.

Unsuccessful elements •

No programmatic elements to invite the people to it in the future.

Through the steps taken • the site will not cause further harm to surrounding mangrove ecosystems, creek water quality, and residents nearby Waste is contained and will decompose within the landfill without impacting the surrounding areas

Prior to being a dumping ground the site was part of the marshy mangrove belt along the Gorai creek.

With the current slope and soil fill, the site will never be able to compensate for the lost ecology. It will only be able to grow a layer of wild grasses and scrubs

Gorai is known to be one • of the first dumping grounds in India to be registered at the UNFCCC. The workings of the site are known to most people in the Clean-tech, Sustainability Industries

For the people unaware of the sustainable stand taken by the MCGM for Gorai, it is still viewed as a closed dump site even 10 years after its shut.

The people living at close • proximity to the site are aware of the change due to visible differences in the environment and surroundings

It does not add value in developing an awareness to Waste management or even a basic idea of the transformation of the site from what it was.

Table 5 Site Evaluation of Gorai

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3.3

Freshkills Park

Location: Staten Island Area: 890Ha Operational: 1948-2001 Waste collected 150 Million tonnes Freshkills was originally a Temporary dumping ground created during World War 2.

In 1960 the Dump was expanded and converted into a landfill which was given a life of 20 years The Expansion of the Dump was directed towards the swampland which was considered worthless.

After its closure in 2001 it was remediated and converted into a park. (Still under process) 3.3.1 •

Programme Environmental safety: The first step taken was to render the site Harmless, through gas and leachate collection systems. Also a Solid waste management programme was set up to recycle or treat the waste

•

Masterplan Created: A plan was made to create a large scaled park which restores the ecology of the site and engages the community. It also Honours the 9/11 attacks as the debris and remains is buried below the mounds

•

Access: Creating Vehicular, Cycle and Walking Access around and within the site Inviting the community to pass by it or enter it

•

Recreational Value: Creating spaces for the people of the city to visit and use the amenities by making several small parks within the site

•

Habitat Restoration: An extensive programme to bring back the wetland ecosystem

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Figure 15 Conceptual view of Freshkills

3.3.2

Phase Plan

3.3.2.1 First 10 years • Along the peripheral areas of the landfill.

•

As many amenities as possible to attract the community

•

Bring as much branding and investment as possible

•

Access roads to be made to bring the people to the park

•

Begin ecological remediation of smaller mounds (Visible to public but not accessible)

•

Signage in place

3.3.2.2 Next 10 years • Ecological restoration of larger mounds •

Creating a programme calendar and website for the park

•

Introduce green technology from the collected gas, added solar and wind power projects for providing electricity for the park

•

Providing amenities in the restored mounds

•

Increasing the length of the nature trails

•

Constructing required architectural elements- park office and meeting halls

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3.3.2.3 Next 10 years • Ecological restoration of larger mounds •

Creating a programme calendar and website for the park

•

Introduce green technology from the collected gas, added solar and wind power projects for providing electricity for the park

•

Providing amenities in the restored mounds

•

Increasing the length of the nature trails

•

Constructing required architectural elements- park office and meeting halls

Figure 16 Phase Plan

Figure 17 Ecological restoration of the estuaries

Figure 18 Different park zone[Left]; Layers needed for rehabilitation [Right]

(Amanda M. Burden, Director, New York City Department of City Planning, 2006)

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3.3.3

Site Evaluation Criteria

Successful Elements

Unsuccessful elements

Programmatic Elements

Ecological Restoration Programme Amenities for a city level park Self-sustainable energy generation programme

Little to no representation of the history of the site.

Does not concentrate on the Waste management aspect of a landfill

Ecological Value

30 year plan to restore wetland ecology Creating sanctuaries for the ecosystems to thrive

Identity

Freshkills is one of the most famous Landfill Rehabilitation projects in the world Current and future identity is that of a city level park with plenty of amenities and a high ecological value WTC memorial due to underlying remains

Awareness/Education Education and awareness through community outreach programmes about wetland ecology and the ecosystems

The park is the top layer of the site which camouflages the processes and systems happening below the ground which is a degrading landfill

Does not give a better understanding of waste processes and landfills

Table 6 Site Evaluation of Freshkills

3.4

Skymound

Location: New Jersey Area: 57acres Closed Dump in 1980 The open dump was converted into a land art mound by Nancy Holt. It was the nation’s first large scaled land art project. This changed the attitude towards waste disposal sites Programme The initial phase of the projects comprises of elements necessary for the closure of Landfill sites. These systems include methane collection pipes which protrude out

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of the mounds. The intent of the project is not to hide the enormity of the mound and the systems but to use it as a display. The artist says “seeing the landfill makes one strongly aware of our role in changing the natural environment, and will increase awareness of the complicated problem of what we do with our garbage�

Yet the site did not receive the popularity as other rehabilitated dumping grounds.

The sheer size and emptiness of the mound Presently the site, although open for access has been converted into a solar power generating.

3.4.1

Site Evaluation Criteria

Successful Elements

Unsuccessful elements

Programmatic

Methane Collection

Not known to many people

Elements

Solar Power Generation

Has no amenities to attract

Displayed as a piece of land

the public to it

art Ecological Value

Remediation of the soil

The slope of the mound is

Constructed pond attract birds not feasible to grow other species other than various types of grasses Identity

The site was designed to

The site is unknown to

reveal the identity of a healing most of the people who landfill.

pass by it. It does not have a strong connect with the people

Awareness/Education The site has a large number of It does not invite the solar cells providing electricity people towards it, through to surrounding areas which It

any approach road or

also displays how a

signage hence the site

dumpsite heals with time

remains a mystery to most

Figure 19 Site Evaluation of Skymound

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Figure 20 Skymound Land art created in the 80

Figure 21 Skymound today

(Allen, n.d.)

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3.5

Learnings from case studies

Programmatic Elements: Designs that involve bringing the communities to the site through amenities and attractions give a direct value and land use to the space.

Also programmatic elements impact people’s awareness about these sort of spaces that have such a drastic impact on the environment.

Ecological Value: One common aspect of all the case studies is to render the site harmless from all its toxins. However taking the next step and reviving the lost ecology of the site allows the site to once again be a part of the systems Identity: Having an identity for such spaces in the city is important for its future.

The identity of the spaces not only determines the value of the space but also determines the future of it.

Awareness: These spaces are a harsh reality for people to understand the impact they have on the environment and is also a sign of hope that if the correct measures are taken, these spaces can provide value to the systems. These spaces can be portrayed to the people to build a consciousness about their role as model citizens to protect their city.

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4 Guidelines Mumbai’s waste disposal systems are linear in nature transforming mangroves into saltpans into dumping grounds and lastly into Biogas plants. To create a more circular and holistic system, we cannot only look at the site, but also the surrounding impact radius as well as the city. The city stands at a point where its waste systems are looking at a better future, but have the baggage of a disastrous past. At this curial time it is important that the methods used, sites selected and plans made for past, present and future waste disposal sites are all oriented in one direction.

4.1

City Level Guideline

Figure 22 City level guidelines

4.1.1

Ecological Guidelines

Annual Environmental Impact assessment reports : A detailed study of connected natural systems such as hydrogeological systems, groundwater systems, vegetative and faunal patterns, wind directions and intensities or any other systems connected to existing sites, as well as proposed future sites is required to

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be carried out annually. This report should help the authorities understand if there are any pattern changes or depletion in species or added contamination and control or prevent any kind of harm done or foresighted.

Setting environmental policies: It is the responsibility of the city to restore the waste disposal site back to its original ecological condition after use. Hence, for existing sites, it is important that the city attempts to engulf it back into the mangrove forest systems. For any new site selected, a study of the site’s ecological past would help determine the final outcome of the site post closure.

Taking the example of Kanjurmargh: The site has been given permission to increase in area only because prior to a ISWM unit, the site was a saltpan.

However policies must be put in place that the site should be looked at as an old mangrove pocket and hence must be returned back to it.

4.1.2

Management Guidelines

Utilising the city’s resources: The city has several private and public domains that overlook segregation of waste, leachate management, and biogas production.

These systems should be included as a part of the working of existing and future sites to create a co-dependent management of the public and private sector. This will help speed up processes and reduce the footfall of these units within the city.

Involvement of specialists: Waste disposal sites require specialists from all fields of the spectrum, from chemical and civil engineers, geologists, hydrologists, horticulturists, landscape architects, planners to sociologists. Their speciality in their field would help add a new layer of perspective on the subject of waste disposal and management from the initial stages of any project. Their sensitivity towards their subjects would improve the outcome of the process.

4.1.3

Social Guidelines

Segregation at source: The city of Mumbai has attempted to encourage its people to segregate their waste before disposal. And have been successful in a few wards of the city. However, stricter policies must be put in place to ensure the following of this system.

Formalise the informal disposal systems: Mumbai depends on a large network of rag pickers, bhangaar walas and raddi walas to recycle the waste. Their contribution to reducing waste disposed on the landfills is tremendous. Hence a

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more formal system should be adopted to create more structure in their services giving them better job conditions as well as formalise their industry. This would reduce the number of illegal activities that are seen in the city’s dumping grounds.

And also give the underdogs a better lifestyle.

Transparency: The municipal authorities of the city adopt a technique of hiding these waste systems from the people of the city, especially the ‘higher class’.

These systems and their disturbances should be made known to the people so that they understand their responsibilities as citizens and put in suggestions and help in working with the systems.

Awareness: The city’s educational systems should take it upon them to educate future generations about waste at a more serious level. Only then will the attitude of the people change and take impactful steps to improve the future of the city.

4.2

Community Level Guideline

Figure 23 Community Level Guidelines

4.2.1

Ecological Guidelines

Quarterly Environmental Impact Assessment: Apart from a city level assessment, a detailed assessment report should be carried out at the site level and

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a 1km radius from newly selected sites as well as existing ones. These reports must be made seasonally to observe the changes in any of the natural systems.

Also a survey of the species of flora and fauna and their behavioural patterns with respect to the site must be done.

Remedial systems: For existing sites that already have a negative impact on the Air, soil and water quality of the area, A remedial Action must be put in place where plants that can tap into these systems and degrade contaminants, should be planted within a 1km radius.

Surrounding ecosystems: Interventions should be carried out by the city as well as involving the communities to save species of fauna and flora whose microclimate is impacted by existing dumping sites. For example native tree planting drives in depleted areas.

4.2.2

Management Guidelines

Site Selection: The MOEF has set criteria for site selection for industrial, mining or waste disposal. These include buffers of various distances from types of natural systems However the loophole is that if the land is required for government or municipal purposes, this can be overridden. The regulations should be more rigid where no body of authority can overrule such environmental laws.

4.2.3

Social Guidelines

Consulting the community: These sites, whether planned or unplanned so impact the surrounding communities. Their involvement in making major decisions should be considered as they are facing the direct brunt of the problem.

Signage strategies: Signage in the neighbouring areas that keep the community informed about the processes and precautions that they need to take, keeping them up to date on the sites functioning.

Giving back to the communities: Existing disposal sites have had a harsh impact on the people living in close vicinities. These sites, post closure should be directed towards benefitting the communities around it to make up for the years of nuisance it has caused them

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4.3

Site Level Guidelines

4.3.1

Immediate Surroundings

Figure 24 Requirements for site immediate surroundings

Multi mechanism plant buffers should be put in place to hold the contamination within the site boundary and also using their remedial qualities to degrade these toxinsThe roads for the access of garbage trucks should be well engineered and designed to prevent collection of leachate and allow proper site drainage. The roads and drains must be regularly cleaned to avoid accumulation of waste

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4.3.2

Site Buffer

Figure 25 Requirements for Site Buffers

Temporary or permanent berms must be constructed on site to avoid spreading of waste through agents like wind. Also if required air flow buffer systems such as tall trees with dense canopies should be planted in the initial stages of the site preparation so that the contaminants may be trapped in the foliage.

Methods of remedial action: Phyto accumulation: where plants physically trap contaminants floating in the air.

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4.3.3

Bio-reactor Cells

Figure 26 Bio-reactor cells

Creating bio-reactor cells that allow the waste to aerobically and anaerobically decompose with reactor chemicals added to speed the process is more effective in degenerating the waste to create compost. These cells will be made daily by compacting waste and covering it with a soil cover of 0.15m to prevent loose waste from escaping the site.

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4.3.4

Water Systems

Figure 27 Water systems

The site drainage can be carried out through a series of natural wetland streams, swales and ponds. This open system will allow the contaminants in the runoff to be filtered through a more natural method and can help create several micro ecosystems within it.

Methods of remedial action: Phytohydraulics: where the plant pulls the contaminants towards it from its root systems.

Rhizofilteration: Where the plant traps floating contaminants within its body

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4.3.5

Liner System

Figure 28 Liner layers

For all new sites, a liner system is mandatory to prevent leachate from seeping through the mound and contaminating the ground water systems.

4.3.6 Capping Systems

Figure 29 Capping layers

Creating site specific capping systems that would allow the native vegetation to grow back onto the site

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4.3.7 LFG and Leachate collection System

Figure 30 LFG and Leachate collection

Following the new systems of leachate and LFG collections that are being put in place since 2009. But at the same time, not making that the focus of the site, rather only a technique to clean the systems around it.

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5 Site Analysis 5.1

Overview

The city of Mumbai presently has 3 working waste disposal units, 2 dumping grounds and one Landfill. Due to the Introduction of the landfill at Kanjurmargh, the Mumbai High Court has given orders to shut down the dumping grounds as they have both crossed their lifespan years ago. The Mulund Dumping Ground was due for closure in 2018, however the MCGM has taken permission to extend its usage till they extend the area of the Kannjurmargh landfill to accommodate the waste from the Mulund Dumping ground. When the dump closes, it will follow the similar procedures that was followed in the Gorai Dumping Ground.

Being a similar size to that of the Gorai Dumping ground and it’s due time for closure makes it a suitable site to carry out a step by step process to remediate the site and rehabilitate the functions of the site for future use and compare it to the outcome of the Gorai Dumping Ground’s closure. The Dumping Ground spans over an Area of 25Ha. It is located In T Ward, Mulund East. The site was part of the large Eastern coast’s mangrove belt before land was reclaimed converting it into a dumping ground in 1968.The site receives a daily amount of 2000 Tonnes and currently holds 7000 Million tonnes of garbage piled up to 30 meters in height.. The dumping ground lies in the northern part of the site which has a peripheral road around it. Another road called the Kachra Road designated for garbage trucks is made along the middle of the dump. To the south of the dumping ground an old salt-pan has been reclaimed in the later years for the purpose of creating a systematic landfill with biomining facilities for the dump. The BMC had proposed a Biomining project for the site in 2008 for electricity generation from the Methane Gas collected, however this project has not commenced yet.

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5.2

Site Usage

The dumping site receives2000 tonnes of waste daily from 6 wards: K/W, K/E, P/S, P/N, S & T Ward

Waste (T/day)

K/E

42

K/W

464

P/S

381

P/N

423

S

373

T

217

TOTAL

2000

Table 7 The amount of waste that is disposed off at

Figure 31 Portion of Mumbai city that uses Mulund Dump

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5.3

Evolution of Site

Figure 32 Evolution Year 2000[Left],Year 2009[Middle}, Year2019[Right]

2000: Previously the dumping ground spanned over 21Ha. Earlier there were a few low income housing societies to the south. Other than that there were no residential buildings within a 500 m radius 2009: The dumping ground extended to 25 Ha. And several Residential Buildings, schools and government buildings have been developed around the site.

2019: The salt-pan to the south has been reclaimed for the purpose of constructing biomining and waste recycling plants. Also to the south of the site, the low income housing has been converted into residential towers.

5.4

Climate

5.4.1

Precipitation and Cloud Cover

The site receives heavy rainfall from June to September. In these months the leachate seeps through the soil adding toxic wastes to the soil and ground water systems.

Also the number of pests increase in these months spreading diseases in the nearby areas (dengue, malaria, flu etc.).

Also due to clearer skies there is a drop in humidity from December to February, the moisture content decreases allowing the waste material to loosen up causing it to blow away through the site and nearby areas Priyanka Menon

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Figure 33 Precipitation of Mumbai

Figure 34 Mumbai's Cloud cover

(www.metobule.com, n.d.)

5.4.2

Temperature and Wind

There is a rise in temperature between the months of March to May and also in October. With the rise in temperature there is a faster decomposition of waste giving out a lot of bad odour to the nearby sites. The wind direction between May

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to August is directed from South West to the North East therefore the smell is diverted towards the creek However in October when the heat is high and the decomposition rates are high the wind blows from North East to South West spreading the odours through the nearby areas

Figure 35 Mumbai's Temperature

Figure 36 Mumbai's wind speed

(www.metobule.com, n.d.)

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5.5

Infrastructure

Figure 37Map: Site Infrastructure

The Eastern Express Highway (NH-3) passes the outer boundary of the site. Site access through service road.Mumbai Thane toll Naka is located right outside the site The site has 2 Roads-1 peripheral Road and 1 Kachra Road for the Trucks.

A compound wall is constructed to the North of the site as a barrier between the residential and the dump.

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5.6

Regulatory Lines

Figure 38 Map: Regulatory lines passing through the site

The CRZ-1 line passes the edge of the site, preventing further expansion.

The 200m HTL passes through the site along the periphery of the southern extent of the site. A Kachcha road has been constructed along the line The 500m HTL also passes the site dividing the extended southern part of the garbage Mound

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5.7

Site Drainage

Figure 39 Map: Site Drainage

The garbage mound does not have planned drainage causing maximum drainage to occur towards the east side where the slope is steeper.

On the South and West the site drains into the adjoining Nalah which exits into the creek.

The site has a pond on its north boundary To avoid the runoff from entering it, a buffer wall is constructed around it.

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5.8

Flooding

Figure 40 Map: Site Floods

The sea level rise on monsoon ranges between 2-5m allowing the elongated extended portion to be submerged under water during those months

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5.9

Land-use

Figure 41Map: Land use

To the East is the Thane Creek after a large mangrove belt Bordering the Southern edge of the site is a large Nallah.Along the Nallah edges a few slum settlements have propped up.The site has several open Playgrounds and Maidans to its North and West. To the North and West of the site is the city, These areas primarily comprise of residential buildings. Also in the vicinity is a private school and a few medical facilities such as hospitals and clinics.

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5.10

Vegetation

Figure 42 Map: Vegetation

The site is surrounded by a dense mangrove forest.

The vegetation on site is primarily scrublands Along the site periphery there are several hardy trees.

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Species found in and around site:

Figure 43: Sonneratia apetala [top left],Avicennia marina [top right];Open scrub[middle left];Holoptelia integrifolia[middle right];Azadira indica[bottom left]; Cassia Siamea[bottom right]

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5.11

Fauna

Figure 44 Site Fauna

As the site was once a part of the dense mangrove belt, it had a variety of bird and aquatic species within its boundary, however these faunal belts have shifted a few 100 meters east due to reclamation actions ( S Chaudhari-Pachpande, 2016)

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5.12

Air and Water Quality Index

Figure 45 Air Quality Index of Mumbai

(National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, 2010)

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Figure 46:Water Quality Index- Thane creek at source[Above] and Thane creek after the dumping grounds stretch[Below]

(TERI (The Energy and Resources Institute), 2017)

The quality of air and water although near the coast is extremely poor due to the toxins released by the waste disposal systems.

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5.13

Site specific systems A

B

B

A Figure 47: Detailed plan showing all the textures on site

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Figure 48 Site Sections - A-A[Above]; B-B[Below]

Understanding the site characteristics through its physical attributes, such as its natural habitat, hydrological systems, soil systems, terrain and geological systems.

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5.14

Contaminants

Figure 49 Contaminants and disturbances found within the site's natural layers

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5.15

Site Images

Figure 50 Squatter settlement on the foot of the mound

Figure 51 View of Mound from Thane side

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Figure 52 Site Surrounding

Figure 53 Mudflats near mangroves

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5.16

Rapid Risk assessment of site SENSITIVITY INDEX OF MULUND DUMPING GROUND

Attributes

Value

Distance from nearest water supply source( m)

Sensitivity Index

Attribute weightage

2500 0.25-0.5

17.25

Depth of filling (m)

30 0.75-1.0

64

Area (ha)

25 0.75-1.0

61

Groundwater depth (m)

2 0.75-1.0

54

Permiability of Soil (1 x 10-6 cm/s)

8 0.5-0.75

40.5

Distance from critical habitats:wetlands/forests reserves(km)

1 0.75-1.0

46

Non-potable 0.75-1.0

50

Ground water quality Distance to the nearest airport (km)

14.5 0.25-0.5

23

Distance from surface waterbody (m)

860 0.5-0.75

30.75

43 0.5-0.75

24.6

Type of underlying soil (% clay) Life of Site

58 0.75-1.0

36

75%MSW 25%HW 0.25-0.5

15

70â ¸ 0.75-1.0

30

Quantity of wastes disposed (t/day)

2000 0.75-1.0

24

Distance to the nearest villagein the predominant wind (m)

200 0.75-1.0

21

Annual rainfall at site (cm/y)

242 0.5-0.75

12

Distance from the city (km)

1km 0.75-1.0

7

0.75-1.0

7

3 0.75-1.0

3

Hazardous contents in waste (%)

27 0.5-0.75

53.25

Biodegradable fraction of waste at site (%)

58 0.5-0.75

49.5

Age of filling (years)

51 0.0-0.25

14.5

Type of waste (MSW/HW) Total quantity of waste at site (t)

Public acceptance Ambient air quality -CH4 (%)

73 0.75-1.0

26

BOD of leachate (mg/L)

119 0.75-1.0

36

COD of leachate (mg/L)

1264 0.75-1.0

19

TDS of leachate (mg/L)

6942 0.75-1.0

13

Moisture of waste at site (%)

777.35

Total on 1000

Table 8 Rapid Risk assessment calculation

1

Table 9 Criteria for Rapid Risk Assessment

(CES and AIT, 2017)

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5.17

Inferences

Table 10 Inferences and Suggestions

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6 Design 6.1

Design Philosophy

Autophagy is the natural, regulated mechanism of the cell that disassembles unnecessary or dysfunctional components. It allows the orderly degradation and recycling of cellular components (Dr. Mizushima N, 2011)

Waste disposal sites whether in the form of dumping grounds or landfills are a part of our city’s metabolism

These systems are presently viewed as a nuisance to the city’s environment, functioning and aesthetics

The programme created should allow the sites to be viewed as a process within the city’s functioning

Allowing it to be absorbed back into the natural systems of the city after its served its purpose

And bringing the communities to accept its requirement and understand its transformation

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6.2

Design Programme

Restoring the Mulund dumping ground back into the mangrove forest that it once used to be using remedial and regenerative methods that allow the site to gradually heal, and over time allow the natural processes to take over the reclaimed dumpsite. The following factors are key elements that the design must administer: •

Environmental Health and Safety: Using remedial measures to treat the contaminated ground water, soil and air of the site and the surrounding areas ensuring the health and safety of the people as well as the floral and faunal diversity in the surrounding vicinity.

These remedial actions take a few

decades to cure a site which has been highly contaminated for so many years, hence the design programme will not incorporate public access activities until the first or second phase of design has to be complete •

Rehabilitation of natural habitats: The natural mangrove system has deteriorated due to the reclamation of the forests for the purpose of the dump and the continuous leaching of toxic substances into the groundwater and drainage systems. The programme involves building back the mangrove cover that was once lost

•

Bridging the gap between the city and its coastal ecology: The eastern coast of the city has been for years viewed as a secondary coastline purely for industrial or waste zones. The habit of considering marshlands as wastelands haven’t changed in the attitudes of the city dwellers. The programme will concentrate on changing this attitude making the forgotten forest a reserve or a sanctuary visited for the purpose of nature and not as a piece of cheap real estate or wastelands

•

Demonstrate Renewable energy systems: Using the underlying layers of decomposing waste to harnessing energy. Not only will it reduce the strain of power generation on the dams but will also be able to make the space selfsustainable where the site can generate power and collect water for irrigation

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6.3

Process Engineering

6.3.1

Ecological

Social

Engineering

Figure 54 Detailed Section thought MSW Mound

The Engineering Layer comprises of 4 major systems: •

Slope Stabilization

•

Water Systems

•

Leachate Treatment

•

Landfill Gas Collection

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6.3.1.1

Slope Stabilisation

Figure 55 Site Contours (existing)

Existing: 30m high MSW mound Uneven low-lying saltpans making several pools of water

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Figure 56 Exissting:Detail plan of mound[Above] Sections through Mound[Below]

Existing: Steep slopes in the North and East ( almost 1:1.5) Gradual Slope to the West (1:50)

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Figure 57 Proposed contours

Proposed: 3 even mounds with a distinct ridge system to direct runoff.

Creating a gradual slope with ponds in the low-lying area for runoff treatment

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Figure 58 Slope stabilisation of MSW mound

Proposed: Even slopes ranging from 1:4 gradient to 1:25 Soil capping depth 1m to 1.5m

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6.3.1.2

Drainage System

Swales

Mound Drainage Water Treatment Plant Wetland Treatment System

Figure 59 Site Drainage

Runoff is sent through bio swales to the wetland ponds for treatment

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6.3.1.3

Wetland treatment system

1. Sedimentation pond

2. Surface Flow

3. Vertical SubSurface Flow

4. Heavy Metal Removal Pond

5. Oxidation Pond

6. Polishing pond

7. Storage Pond Figure 60 Wetland treatment system

Sedimentation pond: Large particles settle down Surface flow: Smaller particles get stuck in plant matter Vertical Sub Surface flow: Water trickles down 2-3 layers of gravel filtering small particles Heavy Metal removal pond: Metal is removed from water through phytoextraction Oxidation pond: Nutrients are removed with algae and sunlight Polishing pond: Water goes through a bed of fine gravel filtering it

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6.3.1.4

Leachate and Landfill Gas Collection

Figure 61Leachate and LFG treatment

Leachate is sent to Water treatment plant for primary treatment and then the wetland ponds Landfill Gas is sent for recovery to a biogas plant which is sent to generate power to the site

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6.3.1.5

Phase Plan

Figure 62 Engineering Phase Plan

Phase 1: Creating systems to collect all toxic gases and transform it into biogas Collecting and treating contaminated wastewater on site from leachate as well as drainage Phase 2: Using the supply of biogas to provide electricity to the site Using treated water for site irrigation and other utilitarian purposes Phase 3: Creating a network between the closed landfills/ dumping grounds of the city to provide biogas supply for the city’s usage Integrate nalahs of the city as a part of the wetland system

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6.3.2

Ecology

Zone 3

Zone 1

Zone 2

Figure 63: Masterplan

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6.3.2.1

Zone 1

5

2

1

3 4

2

6

Figure 64: Zone 1

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

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Strip cropping of grasses and shrubs Open grassland Bio swales Flower Corridor Buffer Trees Mangroves overtaking the site

77

Mounds:

Figure 65 Existing conditions: leachate seepage and toxic gas emissions [left] Slope and capping system prevent seepage into garbage mound [Right]

Figure 66 Grass is ploughed back into the soil layer seasonally[Left]; High evapotranspiration rate and dense leaf area index [Right]

Extract or degrade contaminants Remediations: Phytoextraction and Phytodegradation Method: Strip cropping of Seasonal Grasses and shrubs Adding Nutritional value Remediations: Crop Rotation and Phytometabolism Method: Seasonal species grown and ploughed into the ground to add nutritional value and biomass (increasing soil depth) Precautions: Shallow root system; High evapotranspiration rate; High leaf area index (canopy minimises excess seepage of water);Salt tolerant

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Swales:

Figure 67 Existing conditions: runoff from the dump spreads over the site and seeps through the earth [left]; Storm water trench to direct the water to treatment pond[right]

Figure 68 : Additional dry swale alongside trench to allow overflow during heavy rainfall [Left]; Since the swales run through the site they can act as ecological corridors[right]

Storm water Drainage Open swales used to direct the storm water from the site to a wetland for removing contaminants Filtration of preliminary contaminants Remediations: Rhizofiltration Method: Plantings and soil remove and trap contaminants from storm water Precautions Due to heavy monsoons in the city, the swale may overflow, hence an overspill dry swale alongside the main swale is necessary. A check can be kept on the water by observing any excess algae growth which can explain any contamination to the water. Selecting plants that have a scrubbing effect on water which may help with removing inorganic materials from the storm water. Flood tolerant plants

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6.3.2.2

Zone 2

1

2

4

3

Figure 69 Zone 2

1.

2.

3.

4.

80

Wetland Treatment Water treatment plant Restored Mangroves Dense tree cover (bird corridor)

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Mangroves

Figure 70 Existing conditions: Barren compacted saltpan[left] Permeable structures made of bamboo and leaves [right]

Figure 71Mangroves will slowly overtake the area [left]; Slowly the lost habitats will move inwards[right]

Permeable structures To reclaim the mud from the shore, Permeable structures made of local materials such as bamboo, twigs or other brushwood can be placed in rows along the coast.

This will allow the sea water that enters with the tidal waves to fall back leaving the mud behind. Over time, the mangroves themselves grow back and will attenuate waves and trap sediment again thus preventing erosion.

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Wetland Ponds:

Figure 72 Existing conditions: Open saltpans with high salt levels[left] Transforming the saltpans into a wetland system[right]

Figure 73 Once the ground and water quality begins to improve, nesting trees can grow in the area[left]; Bringing back the depleting bird and aquatic habitat [right]

Storm water treatment Transforming the salt-pans with their existing depressions into a wetland for treating the runoff water from the site Over time, a dense tree cover can surround the ponds to increase faunal interaction with the site The species of shrubs and grasses should be salt tolerant They should be able to endure tidal floods during the monsoon

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6.3.2.3

Zone 3

5 1 3 2

4

Figure 74 Zone 3

1. Tree grove- deep-rooted for soil and ground water 2. Flowering plants -Butterfly corridor 3. Site Edge Buffer 4. Nalah Abutting site 5. Bio-swales

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Nalah

Figure 75 Contaminated nalah with city’s waste [left]; Physical barrier to collect litter [right]

Figure 76 Direct the water towards the edges where it undergoes surface flow filteration[left]; Collected waste can be sent for recycling/ segregation[right]

Reducing Contaminants from entering the creek The nalah has high levels of contamination as it collects waste from the city emptying it into the creeks.

Although measures need to be taken by the city to avoid littering and polluting the nalahs, Preventive measures can be adopted at site level to. Reduce the contamination towards its mouth.

For a portion of the stretch, the water can be directed through constructed wetlands where the water undergoes a root-zone phytoremediation system Also a filter system of a series of fences can be placed at regular intervals which will trap any floating litter in the water.

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Tree Grove

Figure 77 Existing conditions: Surrounding areas used for squatter settlements and waste segregation [left]; Rhizodegradation for breaking down contaminants from the soil[right]

Figure 78 Ground water mitigation trees with deep roots [left] Opening the space for public [right]

Soil Condition Remediation: Rhizodegradation Method: Deep-rooted tree and shrub species degrade contamination areas within the soil profile.

Ground Water Condition Remediations: Phytohydraulics, Phytodegradation Method: Planting trees in rows with long roots that tap into the ground water level. Trees with high evapotranspiration rates act like a vacuum pulling the underground water towards the introduced planting. This technique can be utilised to divert groundwater away from an impacted area. Once the water is drawn towards this stretch of land, another species of trees will degrade the contaminants which the can be used for the trees as well as surrounding plants

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Buffer

Figure 79 Runoff from the dump spreads over surrounding area[left]; Physical barrier initial stages [right]

Figure 80 Multi-mechanism buffer to reduce spread of contamination [left], Over time the site will not require a boundary wall due to the dense buffer[right]

Multimechanism buffers Remediation: (Various) Method: A mixed planting targeted to utilise all of the phytotechnology mechanisms. The objective is to target air, water and soil pollution and prevent it’s spreading Air: Trapping particulate pollution in the air by filtering the air through a dense leaf cover Soil: Deep-rooted, drought-tolerant grass species used to degrade contaminants in the soil. Whereas hyper accumulator species planted will utilise the degraded nutrients Groundwater: Deep rooted shrubs and trees used to trap the contaminants in the ground water preventing it from leaving the site boundary.

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6.3.2.4

Phases

Figure 81 Ecological Phase Plan

Phase 1: Remedial measures to render the site harmless Set up preventive measures for any further damage to the site Phase 2: Measures to recover the lost ecosystems Phase 3: Continued enhancement of habitat growth and protection Connect ecological corridors with nearby restored dumping grounds

Zone 3: Public park

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Zone 1: Trail

6.3.3

Social

Zone 3: Public park

Zone 1: Trail

Zone 2: Sanctuary Figure 82 Giving the spaces an Identity

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6.3.3.1

Zone 1

Figure 83 Zone 1: Trail

Programmatic Elements: Open mounds grasslands Trails for cycling and walking Viewing decks and picnic spots Underlying biogas production

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6.3.3.2

Zone 2:

Figure 84 Zone2: Sanctuary

Programmatic Elements: Bird sanctuary (protected bird corridor) Signage to educate people about mangrove ecosystems Nature trail through canopies

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6.3.3.3

Zone 3:

Figure 85 Zone 3: Public Park

Programmatic Elements: Public space Recreation for all age groups Open play areas walking tracks

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6.3.3.4

Identity and Awareness Signage strategies: Incorporating interactive signage in the design as a form of communication.

Signages to explain species of flora and fauna

along

with

waste

management

suggestions

Educational programmes: Since the nearby vicinity has several schools, educational outreach programmes can be put forth using this space for field trips regarding waste,

ecology, power

generation, sustainability and more.

Closer to nature: In a city as concretised as Mumbai, there is little to no opportunity to experience nature.

Spaces such as this will not only attract nature lovers, but will also give a new appreciation of the mangrove belt to the others Open spaces in the city: Nobody appreciates open space more than Mumbaikars. With every square foot of the city used up for roads and buildings, an open space to run freely is always appreciated and also will gain the popularity of the surrounding communities.

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6.3.3.5

Phase Plan

Figure 86 Social Phase plan

Phase 1: Public access to the park area Spread awareness about waste systems Phase 2: Once the mangroves overtake the salt-pans the sanctuary can be opened Phase 3: After the mound is completely safe for accessibility, it can be used for trekking, jogging, cycling etc.

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7 Conclusion

Figure 87 Future Outcome

Today, the waste disposal sites are taken up as projects by engineering teams and their approach towards redesigning the space is to focus on it’s technical systems alone. However if these projects have landscape architects and designers it will add a layer of sensitivity towards the people and the environment. It is our role as present and future professionals in this field to put our learnings into bringing about a change, not only in design but in policy making, and management of such lands.

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Reference Government of India, Department of Science and Technology. (1996). District Planning Map Series. Hyderabad: Lieutenant General Sunar Prakash Mehta, Survey of India.

Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai. (2005). Development of 600 TPD Waste to Energy Project at Deonar, Mumbai on DBO basis, Volume 5 – Annexure and Drawings. Mumbai: Kulkarni && Associates.

Solid Waste Management Project MCGM Innitiative. (n.d.). Retrieved from Municipal Corporation of Greaer Mumbai: portal.mcgm.gov.in R. A. Rajeev, Municipal Commissioner of MCGM. (2009). Gorai Dumpsite Closure: A success Story. Mumbai: MCGM. Retrieved from porta.

Baruah, P. (2009, November 10th). Saving Waste: The lives of Indian Ragpickers.

Retrieved from Allianz: www.allianz.com Amanda M. Burden, Director, New York City Department of City Planning.

(2006). Freshkills Park: Lifescapes. Staten Island, New York.

Allen, I. (n.d.). Retrieved from Atlas Obscure: www.atlasobscura.com Mumbai's Climatic conditions. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.metobule.com.

S Chaudhari-Pachpande. (2016). A preliminary study on the birds of Thane Creek, Maharashtra, India. Thane: Department of Zoology,VPM’s B N Bandodkar College of Science .

National Environmental Engineering Research Institute. (2010). Air Quality Assessment,Emissions Inventory &Source Apportionment Sudies: Mumbai.

Mumbai: Central Pollution Control Board.

TERI (The Energy and Resources Institute). (2017). Water Quality Status of Maharashtra. Nashik: Maharashtra Pollution Control Board.

CES and AIT. (2017). Dumpsite Rehabilitation Manual. Chennai: MOEF. Dr. Mizushima N, D. K. (2011). Autophagy: renovation of cells and tissues.

Dr. M.N.V. Prasad, Dept. of Plant Sciences, University of Hyderabad. (2011).

Bioremediation, its Applications to Contaminated Sites in India.

Hyderabad: MOEF. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.metobule.com.

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Appendix A1. Plant list Plant name

Image

Remedial Method

Usage

Agropyron smithii

Rhizodegradation of

Zone 1 and Zone 3:

Wheat grass

hydrocarbons

Mounds Along paths

Agrostis castellana

Metal Accumulation

Brent Grass

Zone1: Mounds Bioswale

Alyssum bertolonii

Hyper Accumulation

Zone 3: Part of multi mechanism buffer

Athyrium

Metal Accumulation

Zone 2 and Zone 3:

yokoscense

Segregation Belt

Fern

Buffer

Azalia pinnata

Phytoextraction of

Zone 2:

Water velvet

metals

Wetland ponds

Azolla filiculoides

Metal Accumulation

Zone 2:

Water fern

Bacopa monnieri

Wetland ponds

Metal Accumulation

Water hyssop

Zone 2: Wetland ponds

Buchloe dactyloides

Rhizodegradation of

Zone 1 and Zone 3:

Buffalo Grass

hydrocarbons

Mounds Along paths

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Ceratophyllum

Rhizodegradationn

demersum

Zone 2: Wetland ponds

Coontail

Haumaniastrum

Hyper Accumulation

robertii

Linum usitatissimum

Mounds

Phytometabolism

Flax

Macadamia

Zone1: Mounds

Hyper Accumulationn

neurophylla

Scirpus spp

Zone1:

Zone 3 Tree grove

Rhizofilteration

Zone 2: Wetland

Table 11Plant list

(Dr. M.N.V. Prasad, Dept. of Plant Sciences, University of Hyderabad, 2011)

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